Week 7 Discussion- Sustainability

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Framework for Sustainable Tourism Development

on Coastal and Marine Zone Environment

Lawal M. Marafa

K. C. Chau Department of Geography and Resource Management

The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Sha Tin, N.T, Hong Kong

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Tourism in marine and coastal areas is a complex phenomenon. Tourism in coastal

areas brings along both positive and negative effects on the environment as a result of

activities exerted upon such areas by proponents and tourists. While tourism

development results in the modification of coastal environments, it can also flourish

where such environments are left unmodified as the pristine nature of the

environments attract visitors. Alternatively, in order for marine and coastal tourism to

develop and continue to attract tourists, there is the need for an integrated approach

that can be translated into a sustainable coastal tourism development. The aim of this

paper therefore, is to postulate and develop a framework and guideline to be

addressed by decision-makers for coastal areas. Frameworks for sustainable coastal

tourism development and coastal zone management (CZM) are suggested taking into

account the multifaceted nature of the coastal environment.

Keywords: Coastal Zone Management; Frameworks; Hong Kong; Marine Tourism;

Sustainable Coastal Tourism Development

INTRODUCTION

For long, tourism has been associated with sea, sand and sun, often referred to as the

3S. The 3S’s are attributable to the coastal and marine environment. As a result of

this, tourism is also significantly associated with the coastal environment. It has been

established that tourism is environmentally dependent (Wong, 1993). Indeed, the

unique character of coastal environment gives to various types of tourism

development. While tourism is a component of integrated approaches towards coastal

and marine management, the natural environment and tourism are inextricably linked

(Mason, 2003).

Although the rise in travel and the trend of tourism development particularly the

notion of the 3S has given rise to mass tourism, the growing dissatisfaction with this

trend has resulted in tourists seeking for alternative tourism. It was the recognition of

the problems caused by conventional mass tourism activities that increased the

interest of researchers, planners and decision makers in alternative forms of tourism.

However, the concept of alternative tourism is broad and vague. But alternative

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tourism pays special attention to the environment and the needs of people coming to

enjoy such environments. Furthermore, alternative tourism is said to be considerate,

value conscious, qualitative, defensive, planned, locally controlled etc. (Jarviluoma,

1992).

The onset and promotion of alternative tourism has increasingly made the coastal

environment attractive. The coastal area, particularly the interface of land and water is

endowed with numerous aspects and opportunities for alternative tourism, specifically

adventure, marine and ecotourism. Given the significance of coastal areas and the

opportunities that they provide, their continuous use will hinge upon sustainable use

as many coastal communities depend on healthy coastal ecosystems for sustenance,

livelihood and quality of life. For this environment to be continuously maintained,

researchers and decision makers should ensure that there is no over exploitation, no

excessive pollution and that there is no irreversible damage resulting from over

exploitation, overdevelopment as well as tourism activities.

Globally, coastal areas are densely populated making the environment (both core and

peripheral) increasingly vulnerable. The vulnerability of such environments is a result

of many sources of activities of which tourism is a key player. For these areas to

continue to be useful and support such numerous activities, sustainable tourism and its

derivatives need to be encouraged and promoted. Sustainable coastal tourism

development and indeed numerous measures that will seek to integrate and manage

the coastal areas may help resolve the imminent conflict of societal demands.

Sustainable development and particularly sustainable tourism development when

properly implemented can help create long-term opportunities for coastal tourism to

prosper while enacting effective environmental protection policies. Indeed for tourism

and livelihood to continue to flourish in the coastal areas, there has to be a continuous

provision of good quality coastal ecosystems particularly coastal waters. Although as

in sustainable development there is also a number of views on sustainable tourism

(Mason, 2003), Swarbrooke (1999) suggested a number of perspectives in which it is

clear that the environment is more, or less central in the concept of sustainable

tourism.

In Hong Kong as in other coastal cities, tourism constitutes a significant factor in the

transformation of the coastal environment. In fact, the transformation experienced by

coastal cities of Asia (of which Hong Kong plays a leading role) centres in the coastal

environmental areas themselves (Yeung, 2001). Top on the list of coastal resource is

that they harbour beaches and backshore areas which provide amenity for recreation

and tourism (Beatly et al., 1994). Others include coastal scenery, habitats for flora and

fauna, geological exposures and coastal landforms. Furthermore, the coastal

environment provides a multifold of resources for water sports and a plethora of

coastal habitats some of which are important components for the viable promotion of

alternative tourism.

As most coastal areas are home to over 50% of the world population, the additional

millions of tourists visiting these areas add to the growing environmental concern.

The rapidly growing population in coastal areas and the increasing number of visitors

deserves further attention than it currently receives. Coastal environments are under

increasing pressure and their problems can no longer be avoided or deferred. For long,

coastal tourism represents the interaction of human systems (tourism and relevant

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infrastructure development) and environmental systems (coastal and other processes)

whose interactions result in a wide array of human and environmental aspects often

resulting in many repercussions.

While there is increasing recognition of the (coastal) environment as a tourism

resource, there is also the need to consider the sustainability of that environment as it

continues to open up to the full gamut of tourism activities. This paper intends to

focus attention on sustainable tourism development in coastal areas with Hong Kong

as an example. The objective is to highlight the increasing vulnerability of coastal

environment to tourism and attempt to recommend regulatory frameworks akin to the

integrated coastal planning and management (ICPM) and integrated coastal zone

planning (ICZP) models for possible adaptation as tools for sustainable coastal zone

management with tourism as a backbone. The paper will categorize coastal resources

and identify prospects for adopting them for ecotourism, alternative tourism and

marine tourism.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND COASTAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Although there are many studies on coastal tourism, they tend to emphasize on the

tourism system rather than on the interaction of the tourism and environmental

systems (Wong, 1993). As tourism is growing and diversifying into various forms of

alternative tourism, there is the need to incorporate the concept of sustainable tourism

in order to allow the tourist to enjoy the coastal environments that attracted them in

the first place.

However, the coastal environment is complex and where tourism (in any form)

constitutes a key player of the economy it fosters uncertain interactions between

environmental and socio-economic processes. The complexity in interactions and the

need for sustainability have increasingly become significant elements in the

formulation and development frameworks all over the world (Gheorghe, 2001).

Indeed complexity and uncertainty play important roles in the development of coastal

tourism and its management. The integration of environmental and socio-economic

processes where tourism flourishes will help “develop and maintain an area in such a

manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an indefinite period, and does

not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a

degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities

and processes” (Butler, 1993, p. 29). It is thus clear that like sustainable development,

sustainable tourism indeed evolved specifically as a result of concern for the

environment.

Earlier, Timmerman and White (1997) had indicated that coastal cities consists of two

separate and co-evolving ecosystems, one artificial and built centred on the part lived

by people and the other natural that comes with its elements and resources. While

tourism generates considerable socio-economic benefits, it can also be a source of

irreversible damage to the environment. For tourism to continue to flourish in a

coastal area, environment and tourism research need to be integrated in order to

maintain environmental integrity leading to continuous benefits as a result of from

tourism development.

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Already, a framework for sustainable tourism development is seen as leading to the

management of all resources in such a way that it can fulfill economic, social and

aesthetic, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems

(Swarbrooke, 1999; Ross and Wall, 2001). But sustainable tourism and its other

derivatives need to be understood in the context of conceptualization, promotion and

implementation especially in coastal areas.

Sustainable coastal development implies new respect for environmental and

ecological limits, a goal of living off the ecological interest while protecting the

principal, a new orientation toward the future and toward adopting a long-term

planning and management timeframe. Indeed, sustainable coastal development

implies an attempt to promote greater livability and an equitable and just distribution

of resources and opportunities in the coastal zone (Beatley, et al., 1994). As tourism

plays an important role in most communities, it needs to be refocused. Current trends

need to be revisited, potentials need to be unraveled and alternatives need to be

created and promoted. The onus is on academics, researchers, policy and decision

makers as well as participants to make sustainable coastal tourism development

adaptable and implementable.

Furthermore, for the successful implementation of tourism in the coastal and marine

environment, the challenges are cross-sectoral and indeed multifaceted. For a prudent

resource management, approaches have to be multidisciplinary. The bottom line of

the policy that can enhance sustainability of coastal and marine resources for tourism

activities is the need to ensure socio-economic values to the people, preservation of

rich marine biodiversity and the enhancement of quality of life.

COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT IN HONG KONG: PARKS AND

RESERVES

Hong Kong is situated between latitudes 22o 09’ and 22o 37’N, and longitudes 113o

52’ and 114o 30’E, on the southern coast of China. The total area of Hong Kong is

about 1100 sq Km and it accommodates over 260 Islands adding up to more than 800

km of coastline with its territorial waters extending over 1827 sq Km (Liu and Hills,

1997). Some of the islands found within Hong Kong waters, particularly where there

is evidence of human habitation, can provide a wide array of attractions that can be

based on their characteristic history which is tied to the coastal area or seaward

activities and scenic coastal environments.

In addition to the numerous structures that provide convenience for tourism, Hong

Kong is endowed with natural coastal and marine resources that could be used for

provision and development of alternative tourism including marine tourism and

ecotourism. In addition to the availability of natural resources, the government had

designed and developed marine parks and created reserves for the purposes of

protection and conservation. Generally, protected coastal areas and by analogy marine

protected areas are continuously used as mechanisms for conservation of habitats and

ecosystems, research and education and increasingly for tourism and recreation.

(Orams, 1999) While all these are applicable to the context of the Hong Kong coastal

environment, in-depth studies on these resources and their contribution for sustainable

tourism has not been adequately documented.

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Sustainable tourism in its purest sense is an industry which attempts to exert low

impact on the environment and culture of the hosting community, while helping them

to generate income, employment, and conserve the local ecosystems and cultural

heritage (Wall, 1997; Swarbrooke, 1999; UNEP, 2003) that constitutes attractions to

visitors. While Hong Kong stands out as a modern megalopolis, it similarly has the

necessary resource upon which alternative tourism can be developed that will function

on the aegis of sustainable tourism. In addition, there are about four marine parks and

one marine reserve. Although these resources are now open to the public and attract

ecotourists, nature adventurists and those seeking different experiences, it is clear that

a growing number of visitors are environmentally and ecologically conscious

(Marafa, 2003).

More and more people are now able to access more and more of the marine world

(Orams, 1997). As Orams indicated, increasing access mean increasing use which in

turn implies increasing pressure on the quality of marine resources. Although this is

the case, where marine environment falls within the ambit of protected area system, it

might provoke curiosity and generate interest in visitation making such areas similarly

vulnerable to degradation. Indeed it is this issue of deterioration of coastal and marine

ecosystem that called for the designation of such areas as natural, protected and

resource areas in Hong Kong. While bucolic rural marine environments are receiving

attention, areas that are within the built environment are subjected to development of

infrastructure for coastal and marine tourism. Projects that specifically target the

occupied coastal areas include revitalization of water fronts (Figures 1a and b),

seasonal festivals and the concentration of water based activities leading to the

enhancement of quality of life and increase in visitor numbers.

The Marine Parks Ordinance in Hong Kong was enacted in 1995 paving the way for

the establishment of the marine protected areas. It was meant to protect and manage

ecologically important parts of the marine environment for the purposes of

conservation, education and recreation (Figure 2). Up till now, four marine parks and

one marine reserve have been designated, covering areas ranging from 20 to over

1200 ha. The first batch of the marine parks and marine reserve were designated in

July 1996 and include Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park, Yan Chau Tong Marine Park, Sha

Chau and Lung Kwu Chau Marine Park and the Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve

(Table 1). In addition, 32 coastal SSSIs have since been identified (Liu and Hills

1997).

Although the primary reason for the creation of marine parks and reserves in Hong

Kong was to enhance protection and conservation of biodiversity, growing interest

and visitation has exposed them to marine and ecotourism activities. Indeed the

establishment of the marine parks was needed to enhance the protection of marine

habitats, maintain biodiversity and help increase the population of endangered plants

and animals. In order for the marine parks to be sustainably managed and to continue

to provide the various functions that they were designated to serve, a framework for

multiple use approach can be adopted.

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Table 1: The protected marine environment in Hong Kong

Name Designation Effective

date

Location Area

(ha)

Remarks

Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park July 1996 Northeast 260 Mangrove;

Coral

communities;

Yan Chau Tong Marine Park July 1996 Northeast 680 Seagrass bed;

Mangrove;

Coral

communities;

bays; rock

cliffs; sand

pits; beaches

Sha Chau and

Lung Kwu

Chau

Marine Park November

1996

Western 1200 Rich fisheries

resources;

Chinese

White

Dolphins

Tung Ping

Chau

Marine Park November

2001

Northeast 270 Hard corals;

Reef-

associated

fishes;

Marine

invertebrates;

Brown, red

and green

algae;

geological

landforms

Cape D’Aguilar Marine

Reserve

July 1996 Southeast 20 Tuffs with

volcanic

bombs;

granodiorites;

porphyritic

rhyolites;

basaltic

dykes;

Hard and soft

corals;

gorgonian

and marine

invertebrates

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The marine parks are located in various areas of the territory with different geological

structures. They cover areas that harbour marine life made up of coral communities

that are distinct from tropical reef species. The coastal habitats in Hong Kong range

from rocky shores, sandy beaches, mangrove-covered coastlines, coral-fringed islands

and Chinese white dolphins among others. Indeed, more than 150 commercially

important species of fish, crustaceans and mollusks, and some 50 species of corals

have been recorded in Hong Kong territorial waters.

The variations and differences in hydrography, extensive and deeply incised coastline

and a subtropical climate have all acted together and created an environment in which

there exists a great diversity of marine flora and fauna (Liu and Hills, 1999). This is

what is making these destinations attractive to visitors.

INTEGRATED FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPMENT AND

MANAGEMENT

Although there is no universally accepted model for sustainable coastal tourism

development, it is clear that there is the need for adaptable frameworks to be put in

place. While the coastal area is spatially variable and complex, it is these traits that

signify the importance of designing and adopting a coastal zone management (CZM)

framework. As most tourism development initiatives are economic in nature, they

may push the coastal system beyond its resilience threshold as a result of interactions

between environmental and socio-economic processes resulting from tourism

activities. In fact where tourism has been a major issue in coastal areas and despite

differences in locale and levels of economic development, there are strikingly similar

evidences of environmental changes, mostly negative (Johnston et. al., 1991).

For tourism to continue to prosper in the context of coastal environments there has to

be a framework for symbiosis between tourism and conservation that will basically

help strike a balance between conservation and economic development both of which

can be promoted by sustainable tourism development.

Framework for sustainable coastal tourism development

The concept of sustainable tourism came out as a result of debates surrounding issues

on sustainable development. Since the debate on sustainable development became a

global issue after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, it has gradually

infiltrated the policy framework of many governments, organizations and agencies.

While governments and agencies are seeking alternative frameworks for the

maximum protection and utilization of coastal environment for tourism, it might have

to be based on a framework that could embrace the concept of the 4C's first postulated

by Owen et al., (1993).

When slightly modified and suggested for implementation as is presented here, the

four Cs will reflect the extent to which a government can 1) compromise (by striking

a balance between tourism development and environmental conservation); 2)

commitment (by recognizing that sustainable development and indeed sustainable

tourism development requires action and less rhetoric); 3) control (by establishing a

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framework or plan for effective regulation of the scale and pattern of development),

and 4) cooperation (by recognizing the need for partnership with both local and

international dimension).

Along the same vein, sustainable tourism borrows heavily from the theme of

sustainable development. Sustainable tourism if accepted and implemented should be

along the premise that:

 Tourism is firstly an economic activity which is desirable to most economies;

 Whether tourism is implemented or not, the physical and cultural

environments have intrinsic values which outweigh their values as tourism

assets particularly where such environments support a population on coastal

areas;

 The scale and character of tourism development should respect the character

of the area;

 Tourism development should be sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the

host community, etc.

Framework for Coastal Zone Management (CZM)

Accepting the notion of sustainable tourism and with a growing need for success,

researchers have been suggesting the need for further applying the integrated coastal

planning and management (ICPM) and integrated coastal zone planning (ICZP)

frameworks as ways of planning and managing coastal environments (Sorensen,

1993; Capobianco and Otter, 2000). As tourism is an environmental phenomenon, it

stands to be boosted and sustained by adhering to the tenets of ICPM and ICZP,

which together are referred to as coastal zone management (CZM) initiative in this

paper.

Indeed, coastal management is highly complex straddling human and environmental

systems resulting into conflicts in development as indicated earlier. The concept of

CZM has developed from the struggle to find a mechanism to balance the demands on

coastal resources, promote their sustainable use and manage individual activities

including those associated with tourism. CZM is an embracing concept which

encompasses aspects of resource management and the management of user enterprises

and services especially when tourism plays an important aspect of the area. As there is

increasing awareness of the wide range of issues facing the environment of the coastal

areas, the elements of CZM are rooted in environmental concerns and have grown in

parallel to calls for sustainable development.

As sustainable development is currently seen as a dynamic process and not a

destination, management practices under the CZM are especially important for

ensuing sustainable tourism development. They have the potential to succeed as they

are based on a multifaceted integration of numerous frameworks capable of

addressing various spheres of concern. Integrative practices and sustainable coastal

tourism will include 1) provisions for the management of coastal development; 2)

provisions to improve public access to the shoreline; and 3) provisions to protect (and

where necessary, to restore/recreate) coastal environments. The need to work in

harmony with the numerous agencies involved with the coast is therefore an important

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element of the task of coastal tourism managers which this framework explicitly

unravels.

In order to resolve the growing conflicts in this zone, an integrated approach to

coastal and marine management is needed to consider both current and future

interests. Although many people have formulated and adapted various versions of

CZM (Wong, 1998; Kohn and Gowdy, 1999; Shi et al., 2001), an adoptable

framework could be courted as follows:

a) All levels of government must be involved in coastal management plan

(although the Hong Kong government has maintained a policy that recognizes

the importance of the coastal environment, the Civic Exchange, a non

governmental organization has recommended the formulation of an ICPM

(Willmott, 2000).

b) The nature-synchronous approach to development is especially appropriate for

the coastal environment (the recognition of protected areas along the wetland

areas and indeed the construction of the wetland park in Hong Kong are good

examples of this approach).

c) Conservation for sustainable use is a major goal of coastal resources

management

d) Multiple-use management is appropriate for most coastal resource systems

e) Multi-sector involvement is essential to sustainable use of coastal resources

where civil societies, NGOs, academics and government could all work as

partners.

CONCLUSION

This paper has highlighted the importance of the coastal area in developing

sustainable tourism. Although these coastal and marine resources clearly provide

amenities for tourism activities, there is the need to focus on practical concerns of

environmental protection if the area will continue to serve as a viable resource for

alternative tourism. Locally, although efforts have been made in designating pristine

coastal areas as parks, reserves and sites of specific scientific interests (SSSIs), there

has to be an enhanced framework for monitoring and management as suggested by

highlighting the need for sustainable tourism development and CZM plan (Wong,

1998; Liu and Hills, 1999; Willmott, 2000).

The frameworks for sustainable coastal tourism development and CZM articulated

and presented in this paper can be a starting point. Where this is not effective,

negative environmental consequences could occur as a result of uncontrolled

visitation and activities reminiscent of mass tourism. It is pertinent to note that simply

getting "protected" status for an environmentally sensitive area without proper

management offers little assurance of success (Johnston, et. al., 1991).

As many countries saw tourism as a panacea for development, many governments

embraces tourism plans based simply on economic logic. Where this was done, it

quickly produced negative long-term environmental impacts, destroying the resources

that have attracted tourists. Although tourism is undeniably on of the pillars of Hong

Kong economy, recent strategies have identified the environment as a core factor in

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strategic plans. As a component of alternative tourism, it is indeed the diversity of

habitats and life forms especially endemic species that make Hong Kong coastal area

unique. But the ecological richness is under threat from a combination of factors of

which marine tourism and ecotourism are part of.

In Hong Kong, the designation of protected areas under the aegis of marine parks,

country parks and reserves reflected a political clout with governments backing.

Consequently conservation themes and management responses have similarly been

initiated, albeit on site specific areas. But there is need for further research as

enumerated by the integration of coastal zone management plans and sustainable

development themes. While this trend is set to continue to grow, people are now

focusing more and more on ecotourism with sustainable development and sustainable

tourism as ideal frameworks. But there is difficulty in finding a formula for

sustainable tourism. The framework suggested here, when implemented and adhered

to, could be a starting example.

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