HST

Introduction

There seems to be a common misnomer that Egypt was the only real civilization of Africa. The argument at least implies that the other African Kingdoms arose in the shadow of Egypt adopting Egyptian culture, religion, administration, and values. This module explores a few of the African Kingdoms from Eastern and Northern Africa demonstrating their interaction and contributions to world history.

Nubia: Egypt's Rival

 Ancient Nubia, also referred to as Kush, was roughly the region of modern Sudan. Geographers refer to northern Nubia as "Lower Nubia" and to southern Nubia as "Upper Nubia." The reason for this is because the Nile River in Nubia, unlike other rivers of the world, flows from the south to the north. So up the Nile is actually going south.

The Nubian section of the Nile contains six rock filled rapids called cataracts. It was from the south that the original ancestors of the Egyptians settled the land of Egypt. They recorded in their writings that their ancestors came from the south. The Edfu is an inscription still found in the Temple of Horus at Edfu. It tells us that the origin of Egyptian civilization was taken from the south by a band of invaders led by King Horus (Source: Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty & Ancient Nubia).

A rich and powerful nation, which was at periods the center of culture and military might in Africa, ancient Nubia had a wealth of natural resources such as gold, ivory, copper, frankincense, and ebony but they also produced and traded a variety of goods such as pottery (Source: MACLEOD, 1997). Though south of Egypt, they were neither a carbon copy of Egypt or dependent on Egypt for culture and progress.

Throughout the Old Kingdom, Egypt documented the presence of Nubia referencing them as trading partner and imperial rivals. Archaeological evidence uncovered over the last few decades supports the belief that the Nubians were not just vassals and trading partners of the Egyptian Pharaohs but also the creators of an ancient and impressive civilization of their own, with a homegrown culture that may have been the most complex and cosmopolitan in all Africa (Source: MACLEOD, 1997).

The number of pyramids in ancient Nubia total 223, double those of its neighbor Egypt. The underground graves of the Nubian pyramids were richly decorated. Because of the sheer number of pyramids, these were not monuments for kings only, but also for priests and other high ranking officials (Source: Ancient Nubian Pyramids).

The Other Kingdoms of Nubia

 Kerma

The Kerma kingdom evolved around 2500 BCE and was noted for its state-level, or political system that unified the various peoples of Nubia. Fortified cities, magnificent courts and gardens, and its massive architectural sites, are distinguishing characteristics of the emergence of this kingdom (Source: Karenga, 2002).  What's clear is that Kerma's civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7000 BCE when the first settlements were established. Archaeologist uncovered the oldest evidence of cattle domestication ever found in Sudan and even within the Egyptian Nile Valley, which formed the foundation of their economic system. Kerma was an extremely prosperous empire. It was an advanced Black African state which established itself very successfully as a middle-man between sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt. It therefore supplied ancient Egypt with everything from tropical animals and slaves to gold and precious hardwoods (Source: Keys).

Napata

From the capital city of Napata, Nubian kings emerged dedicated to uniting Nubia and begin the extension of power into Egypt. Pankhi, also known as Piye, is the ruler who conquered Egypt during its Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. Though he did not rule Egypt, leaving that to his successor, he is noted for leaving Victory Text, a detailed account of his conquest. The text reveals that Pankhi was a generous king who preferred diplomacy to warfare and who rejected the Assyrian model of vicious warfare.  Pankhi was a deeply religious man who acknowledged an omnipotent and omnipresent deity, Atum. He insisted that his troops pray before going into battle, writing For there is no strength without Amon Re. He makes the weak armed into the strong armed so that the multitudes flee from the feeble and one aloe take a thousand captive. He continues, Anoint yourself with the waters of his altars and bown down to the earth before Him and say make us a way that we might fight in the shadow of your strong arm (Source: Karenga, 2002).  Another Nubian ruler of the Egyptian Twenty-fifth Dynasty was Shabaka who is noted for copying and preserving The Memphite Theology which is the earliest recorded account of creation described as an active thought and speech and prefigures the doctrine of Judaic tradition (Source: Karenga, 2002). Ptah, the Creator, conceives creation in his heart/mind (ib), as an expression of wisdom (Sia) and through authoritative utterance (Hu) bring the world into being (Source: Memphite Theology).  After a century, Nubians rule (both male and female) ended. The Nubian dynasty had offered local rulers in Palestine military aid as they struggled against the Assyrians. The Assyrians retaliated by invading Egypt and driving the Nubian monarchs southward, however they took with them a strong sense of Egyptian culture, specifically in the process of mummification and hieroglyphics.

Meroë

By the end of the fourth century BCE, the center of Nubian culture moved further southward to Meroë, perhaps because Meroë was better situated for agriculture and trade, the economic lifeblood of Nubia. Meroë was a great city with exquisite palaces and temples, arts and crafts and a large industrial complex built aound a large iron industry. The hieroglyphs Nubians had borrowed from the Egyptians was replaced by a 23 letter alphabet, still essentially untranslated.  Women of the royal family played an important role in Meroitic politics. A matrilineal line of succession was implemented in which the king was succeeded by the son of his sister. Greek, Roman and Biblical sources refer to a queen of Nubia named Candace. At least seven queens ruled between 284 BCE and 115 CE (Source: Bulliet, 2009).  People of Meroë were noted Ironworkers, knowledge that is believed to have spread from Western Asia. As is common in history, production of iron proved to be both a blessing and a curse to Meroë. Iron weapons made the military powerful and was turned into a major industry. The powerful military was able to keep the Greeks and Romans at bay. On the other hand, deforestations caused by the demand for trees to smelt ore, led to an inability to sustain agriculture leading to a gradual decline of Meroë.

Winning the Battles Doesn't Mean Winning the War

Carthage represent the Northern African kingdom near modern Tunisia. In 275 BC, the Romans defeated Pyrrhus, king of Epirus in western Greece that gave it control over the island of Sicily and in direct contact with the Carthaginian in North Africa. The Phoenician city of Carthage had for centuries dominated the western Mediterranean and had conquest of Sicily on their minds. Carthage also had a naval fleet that made them masters of the Sea. Since Sicily was perceived by the Romans as a stepping-stone to Italy, the Romans could not tolerate the possibly.  In 264 BC, Carthage and Rome came to blows over the city of Messana. This conflict, The First Punic War, lasted 23 years. Carthage proved to be a formidable opponent to the Romans, wining most of the battles, which were fought at sea. Able to reinforce its navy with supplies, Roman was quickly taught that the control of the island of Sicily required an effective fleet, which they did not initially have. After adapting its navy to the realities of a maritime war, the Romans fought and defeated Carthage. Carthage gave up territory and agreed to pay for the war, which was not a problem for an African kingdom with tremendous access to the vast resources of Africa.  The First Punic War though was just the beginning, not the end. Carthage was a formidable enemy that too adapted quickly. Forced to conscript its soldiers to Rome, Carthage simply looked elsewhere to reinforce its army. After the war, Carthage expanded its power to Spain and turned the Iberian Peninsula into a base and ally. By 219 BC, Carthage had Hannibal, who was a brilliant general. By 218 BC, Carthage had built an empire in Spain and grown wealthier and powerful as a result. Saguntum, a small city in Spain, approached the Romans and requested friendship and an alliance. Rome complied because it gave them an ally in the heart of the Carthaginian Empire, which had built a mighty military.

In 218 BC Hannibal marched his army across Europe, crossed the Alps and entered Italy. Although the army was tired, they crushed the Roman armies they encountered in northern Italy. The decisive victories brought at least 50,000 Gauls from the north to assist in the battle against Rome. Carthage will ultimately bring Rome its greatest defeat at Cannae, when their weaken force decimated the Roman army of 80,000, which brought Roman enemies to the side of Carthage.  The Romans decided to fight the war through the back door. They recruited Scipio Africanus to lead the Roman army. He was successful in conquering Spain, which cut off Carthage s supply line and took the war to Northern Africa. This forced Hannibal to retreat in order to defend his homeland. Despite winning every major battle in the 2nd Punic War, Hannibal ultimately lost the war. Rome reduced Carthage to a dependent state and now controlled the entire western Mediterranean, including northern Africa (Source: Hooker, 1999).  The Third Punic War was an act of revenge by the Romans. Cato, a Roman statesman made it his life s mission to destroy Carthage. Rome demanded that the people abandon the city and move into the interior of Africa. The Carthaginians who were dependent on the Sea for trade, refused. Rome declared war, ordering its army to burn the city to the ground and slaughtering the inhabitants. The select few not slaughtered, were enslaved. After burning the city to the ground and destroying the harbors, all the surrounding countryside was sown with salt in order to render it uninhabitable. Robert Hooker, called it the greatest systematic execution of a people until World War II (Source: Hooker, 1999).