Emerging adulthood

Self-Doubt During Emerging Adulthood: The Conditional Mediating Influence of Mindfulness

Justin W. Peer 1

and Pamela McAuslan 1

Abstract Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for identity exploration and making decisions regarding the future. Although most thrive, some emerging adults struggle with the prominent developmental features of this time. Little is known about factors that may positively influence development during EA. This study examined the mediating impact of mindfulness on the relationship between normative emerging adult processes (identity exploration, experimentation/possibilities, negativity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between) and self-doubt, while simultaneously considering the moderating effect of age and gender. Using data from the EA Measured at Multiple Institutions project, reports from 1,293 participants were utilized. Mindfulness mediated the relationship between various aspects of development (negativity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between) and self-doubt with age and gender moderating aspects of these relationships. The findings highlight the importance of mindfulness during this important developmental period.

Keywords emerging adulthood, self-doubt, mindfulness, mental health, well-being

Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for exploring vari-

ous life directions (Arnett, 2000; Reifman & Grahe, 2015) and

forming a coherent sense of identity (Schwartz et al., 2010).

During this time, the ability to consider life’s possibilities is

greater than it will be at any other point (Arnett, 2000), making

this a unique and important point in life span development. EA

is a time that has been reflected upon by adults ‘‘as the most

impactful and impressionable of their lives’’ (Gottlieb, Still, &

Newby-Clark, 2007, p. 132). Arnett (2007) stresses that EA is

a distinct period of development and not merely a transitional

period in life.

Various features related to the developmental challenges

associated with EA exist (Arnett, 2004). These features, includ-

ing identity exploration and possessing feelings of instability,

distinguish this period of life from others. Although these fea-

tures are prominent during EA, Arnett (2004, 2006) suggests

that they are not necessarily universal due to the heterogeneity

of individuals within this group. However, he believes that

these features are what makes EA a distinct period within

the life span and are critical components of this time period

(Arnett, 2006, 2007). Empirical evidence derived through the

use of a measurement instrument that validly and reliably mea-

sures these developmental processes supports this theoretical

model (Reifman, Arnett, & Colwell, 2007).

Individuals vary in their ability to successfully engage these

EA processes. Most thrive during this time of life (Arnett,

2007); however, many may experience ambivalence and anxiety

as they contend with identity issues and explore possibilities for

their future (Arnett, 2004). Perhaps the sheer number of possibi-

lities available for emerging adults triggers a sense of apprehen-

sion and/or skepticism about one’s identity and one’s future.

This may lead to self-doubt among some emerging adults, and

in turn disrupt their ability to effectively navigate the develop-

mental dimensions associated with this time of life. Oleson,

Poehlmann, Yost, Lynch, and Arkin (2000) describe self-doubt

as a sense of uncertainty about one’s abilities and competence.

Individuals who experience self-doubt may overly focus on

perceived imperfections and their fear of failure. Experiencing

self-doubt could lead emerging adults to question their ability

to successfully negotiate the normative features of development.

This, in turn, could impede emerging adults’ development while

raising doubt and other concerns. Carroll, Arkin, and Shade

(2011) found self-doubt to be related to low self-confidence asso-

ciated with identity development among college students. Fur-

ther, Oleson et al. (2000) suggest that self-doubt is associated with

negative affectivity, impaired well-being, and low self-esteem.

1 Department of Psychology, University of Michigan–Dearborn, Dearborn,

MI, USA

Corresponding Author:

Justin W. Peer, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan–

Dearborn, 4012 CASL, 4901 Evergreen Rd., Dearborn, MI 48128, USA.

Email: [email protected]

Emerging Adulthood 1-10 ª 2015 Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood and SAGE Publications Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/2167696815579828 ea.sagepub.com

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Despite EA being a period of the life span where many

flourish, an increased prevalence of mental health disorders

like major depression and substance abuse is also noted dur-

ing this time (Arnett, 2006; Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013;

Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006). Given the relationship of self-

doubt to negative emotion and impaired self-esteem, it may

play a contributing role in the development and maintenance

of mental health disorders (Hermann, Leonardelli, & Arkin,

2002).

Mindfulness and Emerging Adult Developmental Processes

Mindfulness is a factor that may alleviate struggles with the tran-

sition to adulthood, as well as negative health consequences

related to self-doubt. Born from Buddhist tradition, mindful-

ness is a component of human consciousness (Brown & Ryan,

2003; Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007) in which individuals

‘‘pay attention, without judgment, to one’s present-moment

experience’’ (Greeson, Juberg, Maytan, James, & Rogers, 2014,

p. 222). Brown and Ryan (2004) state that mindfulness is an

‘‘inherent, natural capacity of the human organism’’ (p. 246)

and people differ in their ability to be mindful. Further, Brown

and Ryan (2003) argue that mindfulness manifests itself with

or without associated training; however, mindfulness training

may enhance dispositional mindfulness, leading to positive

outcomes for people (Brown et al., 2007).

As a construct, mindfulness encompasses both awareness

and attention. Awareness is the conscious ability to monitor

both the internal and the external environment, while attention

is the process of focusing awareness within a limited range of

experience (Brown & Ryan, 2003). A nonjudgmental attitude

whereby individuals experience the present moment without

evaluation and judgment is also necessary. It is suggested that

one’s ability to maintain awareness of, and attention to, the

present moment without judgment promotes clarity of thought

and limits irrational decisions based on faulty cognitive models

and/or bad mental habits. This allows for more psychological

flexibility and effective responses. Further, present awareness

and attention prevent stress and anxiety associated with rumi-

nation about past mistakes and worries about an unknown

future (Siegel, 2010).

A person’s ability to cultivate and sustain mindful aware-

ness in their lives is related to positive health and well-being

(see Brown et al., 2007, for a comprehensive review). Increased

mindful awareness and attention have been found to positively

impact a multitude of mental and physical health problems

including depression, anxiety, chronic pain, and other stress-

influenced medical disorders (Siegel, 2010). Mindfulness is

also associated with wide-reaching benefits for emerging

adults. Previous research has found mindfulness to benefit

many emerging adult-related issues including stress (Oman,

Shapiro, Thoresen, Plante, & Flinders, 2008; Weinstein, Brown, &

Ryan, 2009), mood (Shapiro, Oman, Thoresen, Plante, & Flinders,

2008), and academic performance (Mrazek, Franklin, Phillips,

Baird, & Schooler, 2013). Also, Greeson, Juberg, Maytan,

James, and Rogers (2014) found that a brief form of mindful-

ness training utilized with emerging adult college students led

to enhanced psychological well-being.

The Relationship Between Mindfulness, Self-Doubt, and EA Processes

Although research has examined mindfulness and various

aspects of mental and physical health, there are no known stud-

ies that have examined the relationship between mindfulness,

the various dimensions of EA, and self-doubt. This is an impor-

tant area for inquiry because mindfulness could impact how

emerging adults navigate the various developmental features

through the cultivation of increased focus, experiential aware-

ness, and nonjudgment. Moving mindfulness research into this

novel area of exploration is important for better understanding

adjustment during this critical developmental period.

The Potential Moderating Effects of Age and Gender

There is a modest literature base that reveals both gender and

age differences in levels of various EA features, mindfulness,

and self-doubt. For example, Arnett (2015), as part of his

2012 Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults, found that the

sense of ‘‘feeling in-between’’ differed greatly based upon the

participant’s age, with younger emerging adults (18- to 25-year-

olds) also reporting greater identity exploration, instability, and

self-focus in comparison to older emerging adults (26- to

29-year-olds). The Clark Poll, however, found little evidence

of gender differences (Arnett, 2015).

In terms of dispositional mindfulness, research suggests few

age or gender differences. For example, some studies have

found no age differences in total mindfulness among emerging

adults (Bowlin & Baer, 2012; Lavender, Jardin, & Anderson,

2009), while others report a positive relationship between age

and trait mindfulness (Weinstein et al., 2009) and studies of a

wider age range of adults assessing various aspects of mindful-

ness provide support for a tendency for mindfulness to develop

with age (Baer et al., 2008; Josefsson, Larsman, Broberg, &

Lundh, 2011). Similarly, some research finds no gender differ-

ences in dispositional mindfulness (Bowlin & Baer, 2012;

Weinstein et al., 2009), yet Fogarty and colleagues (2015) sug-

gest that gender differences related to various aspects of mind-

fulness could potentially alter how men and women experience

distress. Finally, past research suggests that women tend to

express more self-doubt than men (Braslow, Guerrettaz, Arkin,

& Oleson 2012; McCrea, Hirt, & Milner, 2008). No known

studies have found age differences in self-doubt. Furthermore,

we are aware of no research that has investigated age and gen-

der differences associated with the relationship between the

developmental features of EA, mindfulness, and self-doubt.

Aim for the Present Study

The aim of the present study was to explore the influence that

mindfulness has on the relationship between the developmental

dimensions of EA and self-doubt. Specifically, this study

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sought to analyze the potential mediating influence of mindful-

ness on these variables while taking into account the moderat-

ing influence of both age and gender; this is sometimes known

as moderated mediation. We anticipate that individuals who are

progressing through the dimensions of EA will be developing

more mature levels of mindfulness which in turn will relate

to lower levels of self-doubt. Furthermore, we anticipate that

the mediating effect of mindfulness may be influenced by other

factors including age and gender. However, given the limited

nature of past research, we view the hypotheses related to mod-

eration to be more exploratory in nature. More specifically, we

hypothesized as follows:

Hypothesis 1: Mindfulness will mediate the relationship

between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt (i.e., lower

levels of instability and feeling in-between and higher levels

of identity exploration, possibilities, and self-focus will

relate to higher levels of mindfulness that will relate to lower

levels of self-doubt).

Hypothesis 2: Age may moderate the relationships between

the dimensions of EA, mindfulness, and self-doubt, such that

the relationships between (a) the dimensions of EA and

mindfulness, (b) the dimensions of EA and self-doubt, and

(c) mindfulness and self-doubt may be stronger for older

emerging adults.

Hypothesis 3: Gender may moderate the relationships

between the dimensions of EA, mindfulness, and self-doubt,

such that the relationships between (a) the dimensions of

EA and mindfulness, (b) the dimensions of EA and self-

doubt, and (c) mindfulness and self-doubt may be stronger for

women than for men.

Hypothesis 4: We expect to find evidence of moderated

mediation with age (Hypothesis 2) and gender (Hypothesis

3) moderating the mediation relationship described in

Hypothesis 1.

Method

Participants and Measures

The present study is a secondary analysis of data that was orig-

inally collected as part of a collaborative, multi-institution proj-

ect investigating psychosocial variables and political attitudes

during the 2004 presidential election. A total of 1,353 parti-

cipants at 11 different universities/colleges from across the

United States took part in the original study. Readers are

referred to the Open Science Framework EA Measured at

Multiple Institutions (EAMMI) webpage for a listing of parti-

cipating academic institutions, sample demographics, and data

collection procedures (Grahe, Walker, Reifman, & Oleson,

2015). Each participating researcher obtained internal review

board approval prior to data collection.

For the analyses presented in this article, we used a sample

of 1,293 emerging adults (aged 18–29, M ¼ 20.95, SD ¼ 2.14) who completed the Inventory of the Dimensions of EA (IDEA;

Reifman et al., 2007), the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale

(Brown & Ryan, 2003), and the Subjective Overachievement

Scale (Oleson, Poehlmann, Yost, Lynch, & Arkin, 2000). 1

Descriptions and psychometric properties of the materials used

are located on the EAMMI webpage (Grahe, Walker, et al.,

2015). The ‘‘other focus’’ subscale of the IDEA was not used

in this analysis, as it is not an EA developmental process iden-

tified by Arnett (2000). The participants in the final sample

were 62.1% female (n ¼ 806) and predominantly Caucasian (n ¼ 1,091, 84.4%).

Data Analysis

Although it is possible for moderated mediation to occur in the

absence of simple mediation and simple moderation (Hayes,

2013), we proceeded with the analyses for this article by build-

ing the model from simple to more complex, beginning with an

examination of the possible mediating effect of mindfulness on

the relationship between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt

(Hypothesis 1). We next examined whether age and gender

moderated the relationships between the dimensions of EA,

mindfulness, and self-doubt. It is possible for moderation to

occur at several points in the model. For example, age and/or

gender could moderate the relationship between EA and mind-

fulness, the relationship between EA and self-doubt, or the rela-

tionship between mindfulness and self-doubt. Based on past

research, we hypothesized that both age and gender could

impact any of these three paths (Hypotheses 2 and 3). Once

obtained, the results of these preliminary analyses (i.e., evi-

dence of mindfulness as a mediator, evidence of age and gender

as moderators of the three potential paths) were then used to

determine the final moderated mediation model (Hypothesis 4).

Hayes (2013) recommends the estimation of conditional

direct and indirect effects, as well as testing using bootstrapped

confidence intervals (CIs), to determine whether these effects

differ from zero at different levels of the moderators. These

analyses were completed using the PROCESS macro with

10,000 bootstrap estimates of 95% CIs to assess the conditional direct and indirect effects. Mean centering was used to create

the interaction terms for all continuous variables. Finally, in

order to account for the related nature of the EA scales, the

models were assessed for the effects of each dimension of

EA relative to the effects of the remaining dimensions.

Results

Bivariate Correlations and Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics including zero-order correlations are

presented separately for males and females in Table 1. Table

1 also reports the results of tests of gender differences on the

key variables. Males were older than females, t(872.54) ¼ 4.71, p < .001; therefore, age was included as a covariate for the anal-

yses comparing males and females on the remaining variables.

Females reported significantly higher levels of each dimension

of EA, as well as higher levels of self-doubt. There were no

gender differences in mindfulness. As can be seen in the table,

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the five dimensions of EA were related for both males and

females with intercorrelations ranging from r ¼ .17 to r ¼ .62 for males (Mr ¼ .37, SDr ¼ .15) and from r ¼ .31 to r ¼ .68 for females (Mr ¼ .48, SDr ¼ .13), suggesting that while the scales are related, they are measuring unique aspects of EA. Age

related to four of the five dimensions of EA for males such that

older males reported less identity exploration, possibilities,

negativity, and feeling in-between; for females, older age

was associated with lower levels of possibilities and feeling

in-between. Age was positively related to mindfulness for

males but was unrelated to mindfulness for females. Finally,

age was unrelated to self-doubt for both genders.

For each gender, three of the five dimensions of EA were

related to self-doubt, that is, for females, higher levels of

instability and feeling in-between and lower levels of self-

focus predicted higher levels of self-doubt and for males,

higher levels of identity exploration, instability, and feeling

in-between predicted higher levels of self-doubt. Mindfulness

also demonstrated relationships with the dimensions of EA

such that for both males and females, lower levels of instability

and feeling in-between and higher levels of self-focus predicted

higher levels of mindfulness; for females only, higher levels

of possibilities also predicted higher levels of mindfulness.

Finally, higher levels of mindfulness were related to lower lev-

els of self-doubt for both males and females. These findings

strongly suggest that age and gender should be included as

moderators in the analyses that follow.

Does Mindfulness Mediate the Relationship Between the Developmental Features of EA and Self-Doubt?

As described previously, the initial step was to examine the

possible mediating effect of mindfulness on the relationship

between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt (Hypothesis 1).

In order to account for the related nature of the EA scales, the

initial model estimated the effects of each dimension of

EA relative to the effects of the remaining dimensions. This

required running a series of analyses with each EA subscale

as the primary predictor with the remaining subscales included

as covariates (Hayes, 2013). This allowed for a determination

of the unique effect of each EA dimension, as well as the over-

all effect of EA with mindfulness as a mediator.

Specifically, Hayes’ Model 4 was used within the PROCESS

macro to assess whether mindfulness mediated the relationship

between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt. Table 2 shows

estimates and 95% CIs (based on bootstrapping of 10,000 sam- ples) for the predicted mediated effects of the five dimensions

of EA and self-doubt via mindfulness. 2

For three of the five EA

subscales, there was a significant indirect effect with mindful-

ness mediating the relationship between dimensions of EA

and self-doubt, while taking into account the effects of the

remaining dimensions of EA. For the identity exploration and

possibilities subscales, there was no evidence for a mediating

relationship.

Negativity/instability and feeling in-between negatively

related to mindfulness and positively related to self-doubt.

Self-focus positively related to mindfulness and negatively

related to self-doubt. Mediation analyses indicated that the

effects of each of these dimensions of EA were significantly

reduced when mindfulness was accounted for, while control-

ling for the effects of the remaining four dimensions of EA.

This suggests that level of mindfulness partially mediates the

relationships between these three dimensions of EA and self-

doubt accounting for 6.19% (negativity/instability), 7.03% (self-focus), and 3.74% (feeling in-between) of the variance in self-doubt. Comparison of the total effects model, which

Table 1. Cronbach’s as, Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Measures by Gender.

Variable a Ma SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Age 21.33*** 2.38 — �.13** �.17*** �.10* �.02 �.25*** .14** �.08 20.72 1.95

2. EA—identity .83 3.17*** .57 �.06 — .52*** .30*** .48*** .52*** .00 .14** 3.43 .50

3. EA—possibilities .79 3.26*** .55 �.20*** .62*** — .24*** .62*** .31*** .03 �.02 3.41 .52

4. EA—instability .79 2.79*** .58 �.06 .43*** .42*** — .17*** .33*** �.11* .26*** 3.04 .51

5. EA—self-focus .71 3.18*** .49 �.03 .63*** .68*** .31*** — .24*** .17*** �.07 3.32 .46

6. EA—in-between .76 2.94*** .70 �.24*** .53*** .46*** .41*** .34*** — �.15** .21*** 3.34 .66

7. Mindfulness .84 3.91 .77 �.04 .04 .08* �.18*** .11** �.08* — �.27* 3.83 .73

8. Self-doubt .78 3.06*** .81 �.04 �.04 �.03 .25*** �.11** .09* �.30*** — 3.25 .86

Note. EA ¼ emerging adulthood. Males: n ¼ 487; females: n ¼ 806; 806. M, SD, and correlations for males are presented in bold (on top diagonal). M, SD, and correlations for females are presented in italics (on bottom diagonal). aAnalyses of covariance, controlling for age, comparing males and females. ***p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05.

4 Emerging Adulthood

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examined the overall effect of EA on self-doubt, F(5,1254) ¼ 30.82, p < .001; R ¼ .3308, R2 ¼ .1094, to the mediation model, which considered the mediating effect of mindfulness on this

relationship, F(6,1253) ¼ 39.58, p < .001; R ¼ .3992, R2 ¼ .1593, indicated that mindfulness partially mediated the overall

relationship between EA and self-doubt accounting for approx-

imately 5% of the variance in self-doubt.

Do Age and Gender Moderate the Relationships Between EA, Mindfulness, and Self-Doubt?

In order to determine whether moderated mediation analyses

should be conducted, the next step examined whether age and

gender moderated the relationships between the dimensions of

EA, mindfulness, and self-doubt. Initial simple linear modera-

tion analyses were conducted using Hayes’ Model 1 within the

PROCESS macro to consider age and gender as possible mod-

erators of each path. Again, to account for the related nature of

the EA scales, a series of analyses were run with each EA sub-

scale as the primary predictor with the remaining subscales

included as covariates, allowing for an evaluation of the mod-

erating effect of age/gender for each dimension of EA while

accounting for the effect of the remaining EA dimensions. Due

to space constraints, only a brief description of these findings

are provided here; readers are directed to the supplemental

files component on EAMMI project webpage (Grahe, Nario-

Redmond, et al., 2015) for a more complete description of the

results of the moderation analyses.

The second hypothesis focused on age as a moderator.

Results of the simple linear moderation analyses provided evi-

dence of age as a moderator of the relationship between EA and

mindfulness for negativity/instability (b ¼ �.03, 95% CI [�.07, .00]) and feeling in-between (b ¼ �.03, 95% CI [�.06, �.01]; Hypothesis 2a), and the relationship between EA and self-doubt for identity exploration (b ¼ .03, 95% CI [.00, .07]) and negativity/instability (b ¼ .04, 95% CI [.00, .08]; Hypothesis 2b). However, age did not appear to moderate the

relationship between mindfulness and self-doubt (Hypothesis 2c).

The third hypothesis focused on gender as a moderator. Results

of the simple moderation analyses provided some evidence that

gender moderated the relationship between EA and mindful-

ness for negativity/instability (b ¼ �.14, 95% CI [�.29, .01]; Hypothesis 3a), and the relationship between EA and self-doubt

for identity exploration (b ¼ �.29, 95% CI [�.46, �.12]), self-focus (b ¼ �.17, 95% CI [�.36, .02]), and feeling in- between (b ¼�.12, 95% CI [�.26, .01]; Hypothesis 3b). Gen- der did not moderate the relationship between mindfulness and

self-doubt (Hypothesis 3c).

Moderated Mediation

To assess whether mindfulness mediated the relationship

between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt, with the condi-

tional effects of age and gender on these relationships being

simultaneously considered, we utilized conditional process

analysis (also referred to as moderated mediation) using the

PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2013). Based on the

results described previously, three dimensions of EA (negativ-

ity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between), mindfulness,

and self-doubt were included, along with age and gender as

potential moderators of the relationship between (a) the dimen-

sions of EA and mindfulness, as well as (b) the relationship

between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt. The analyses

were conducted with Model 10 of the PROCESS macro that

utilized bootstrapping from 10,000 samples created from the

original data using random sampling with replacement to cal-

culate estimates and 95% CIs for the estimates of the indirect effects of the dimensions of EA on self-doubt, through the med-

iation of mindfulness as well as the conditional indirect effects

related to the moderation of age and gender. As was the case

previously, the analyses were run separately with each of the

three EA subscales as the primary predictor and the remaining

EA subscales as covariates.

Table 3 provides the results of the analyses for the three EA

subscales. The top panel shows the model coefficients related

to the conditional effects of EA on mindfulness. These analyses

Table 2. Mediation Results From Bootstrapping Analyses.

Dimension of EA Correlation With

Mindfulness Direct Effect

of Mindfulnessa Total Effect

of EAb Direct Effect

of EAc

Indirect Effect of EAd

Coefficient 95% CI

EA—identity exploration .05 �.26*** �.02 .00 �.01 �.04 to .01 EA—possibilities .03 �.26*** �.10 �.09 �.01 �.04 to .02 EA—instabilitye �.24*** �.26*** .44*** .38*** .06 .03 to .09 EA—self-focuse .27*** �.26*** �.27*** �.20** �.07 �.11 to �.04 EA—feeling in-betweene �.14*** �.26*** .15*** .11** .04 .02 to .06

Note. EA ¼ emerging adulthood. N ¼ 1,260. aDirect effect of mindfulness is calculated adjusting for the five dimensions of emerging adulthood. bTotal effect of each dimension of emerging adulthood is cal- culated without adjustment for mindfulness, while accounting for the other dimensions of emerging adulthood. cDirect effect of each dimension of emerging adult- hood is calculated with adjustment for mindfulness, while accounting for the other dimensions of emerging adulthood. dBias corrected 95% confidence interval (CI) for indirect effects of each dimension of emerging adulthood through mindfulness, while accounting for the other dimensions of emerging adulthood.

e 95% CIs

do not contain zero, suggesting significant indirect effect (p < .05) with mindfulness mediating the relationship between dimensions of emerging adulthood and self- doubt. ***p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05.

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supported the results of the simple moderation analyses

described previously with age being a significant moderator

of the relationships between negativity/instability and feeling

in-between and mindfulness. For negativity/instability, the

conditional effect of age was significant for each level of the

moderator with lower levels of negativity associated with

higher levels of mindfulness for older emerging adults more

so than for average aged and younger emerging adults. A sim-

ilar pattern surfaced for feeling in-between with the conditional

effect of age significant for average aged and older emerging

adults; again for older emerging adults, lower levels of feeling

in-between was associated with higher levels of mindfulness

more so than for average aged and younger emerging adults.

Gender significantly moderated the relationship between nega-

tivity/instability and mindfulness. The conditional effect of

gender was significant for both males and females with lower

levels of negativity associated with higher levels of mindful-

ness for both groups. However, this effect was more pro-

nounced for women (i.e., women with the lowest levels of

negativity reported the highest levels of mindfulness and

those with the highest levels of negativity reported the low-

est levels of mindfulness).

The bottom panel of Table 3 shows model coefficients

related to the conditional indirect effects of EA, through

mindfulness, on self-doubt. Table 4 reports the conditional

direct and indirect effects of the three EA dimensions across

levels of the two moderators, allowing us to identify the nature

of significant conditional indirect effects that were noted in the

bottom panel of Table 3. Recall that use of bootstrapped 95% CIs allow for inferences to be made regarding statistical signif-

icance (see Note 2).

Higher levels of negativity/instability related to higher lev-

els of self-doubt across ages and gender (i.e., all of the condi-

tional direct effects had bias corrected 95% CIs that did not include zero). When mindfulness was included as a mediator,

the effect of negativity/instability on self-doubt was signifi-

cantly reduced and was related to age. For younger emerging

adult men, mindfulness mediated the relationship between

negativity/instability and self-doubt such that lower levels of

negativity/instability related to higher levels of mindfulness

which predicted lower levels of self-doubt. For average aged

and older emerging adult men and women of all ages, mindful-

ness partially mediated the relationship between negativity/

instability and self-doubt; while the conditional effects remained

significant, the coefficients were substantially reduced.

The pattern of results suggests that the relationship between

EA self-focus, mindfulness, and self-doubt was somewhat

weaker. There was some evidence that lower levels of self-

focus was related to higher levels of self-doubt for emerging

adult women but not men. Further, these conditional effects

appear to be partially mediated by mindfulness with higher lev-

els of self-focus related to higher levels of mindfulness, which

in turn related to lower levels of self-doubt.

Finally, higher levels of feeling in-between related to higher

levels of self-doubt for men of all ages. When mindfulness was

included as a mediator, the effect of feeling in-between on self-

doubt was significantly reduced and was marginally moderated

by gender. For men of all ages, mindfulness mediated the rela-

tionship between feeling in-between and self-doubt such that

lower levels of feeling in-between related to higher levels of

mindfulness which predicted lower levels of self-doubt. For

women, the relationship between feeling in-between and self-

doubt was generally weaker.

Discussion

The present study investigated the mediating influence of

mindfulness on the relationship between dimensions of EA and

self-doubt, while considering the conditional effects of age and

gender on this process. We found mindfulness to be a reliable

mediator in the relationship between several developmental

features of EA and self-doubt, but to a certain extent this med-

iation relationship is conditional on the age and gender of emer-

ging adults. Women in our sample were slightly younger and

reported higher levels of each dimension of EA, as well as

greater self-doubt. Our finding that age was positively related

to levels of mindfulness is consistent with past research (Baer

et al., 2008; Josefsson et al., 2011; Weinstein et al., 2009), how-

ever, this relationship held only for men in our sample. Gender

was not related to levels of dispositional mindfulness.

Table 3. Moderated Mediation Analysis Regression Coefficients.

Dimension of EA as Primary Predictor

EA—Instability EA—Self-Focus EA—Feeling in-Between

Predictor Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient

Outcome ¼ mindfulness Intercept .03 (.04) .03 (.04) .01 (.04) EA scale �.14 (.06)* .31 (.08)*** �.15 (.05)** Age .00 (.01) .00 (.01) �.01 (.01) Age � EA �.04 (.02)* .00 (.02) �.03 (.01)** Gender �.02 (.04) �.02 (.04) �.01 (.04) Gender � EA �.16 (.08)* �.08 (.09) .06 (.06) Overall F 10.62*** 9.65*** 10.58*** Overall R .27 .26 .26 Overall R2 .07 .06 .07

Outcome ¼ self-doubt Intercept �.06 (.04)y �.05 (.04) �.05 (.04) Mindfulness �.26 (.03)*** �.26 (.03)*** �.26 (.03)*** EA Scale .34 (.06)*** �.10 (.09) .15 (.06)** Age �.01 (.01) �.01 (.01) �.01 (.01) Age � EA .03 (.02) .01 (.02) .00 (.01) Gender .09 (.05)y .07 (.05) .08 (.05)y

Gender � EA .03 (.02) �.18 (.10)y �.10 (.07) Overall F 24.56*** 24.73*** 24.50*** Overall R .40 .41 .40 Overall R2 .16 .16 .16

Note. EA ¼ emerging adulthood. Standard errors are in parentheses. N ¼ 1,260. ***p < .001. **p < .01. *p< .05. yp < .10; for each of the analyses, the remaining dimensions of emerging adulthood were included as covariates.

6 Emerging Adulthood

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The findings provide support that, although most thrive dur-

ing this time of life (Arnett, 2006; Gottlieb et al., 2007), this

time can also be marked by ambivalence and struggle for some

(Arnett, 2004; Oleson et al., 2000). Specifically, this study pro-

vides evidence that a mindful disposition may partially explain

the relationship between the developmental challenges that

emerging adults experience and potential self-doubt that may

result. This is important for better understanding which factors

may facilitate efficacy as individuals move through various

age-specific concerns. Further, this study demonstrates that age

and gender interact with and impact the strength of this mediat-

ing relationship.

EA and Self-Doubt: Mindfulness as a Mediator

Self-doubt was associated with various developmental features

of EA. Specifically, experiencing higher levels of instability

and feeling ‘‘in-between’’ and lower levels of self-focus during

this time related to higher levels of self-doubt. This suggests

that emerging adults may experience self-doubt in connection

to developmental features that are salient on a regular basis ver-

sus those features (identity explorations and experimentation/

possibilities) that are more undetermined and distal in the con-

text of everyday life. In other words, emerging adults may

experience apprehension, skepticism, and doubt if they struggle

with stability, autonomy, and feeling ‘‘stuck in the middle’’

during this time of life.

Interestingly, mindfulness was related to the same develop-

mental features as self-doubt, but in an opposing manner.

Higher levels of mindfulness related to lower levels of instabil-

ity and feeling in-between and higher levels of self-focus. A

mindful disposition may allow emerging adults to maintain

attention and focus on the present, limiting cognitions that may

give rise to feelings of instability and feeling in-between. Fur-

ther, mindfulness may promote concentration and focus for

emerging adults, providing them the ability to maintain self-

focus during this time of life. Beyond this, higher levels of

mindfulness also related to lower levels of self-doubt. These

findings expand upon previous work (Brown et al., 2007;

Greeson et al., 2014; Mrazek et al., 2013; Oman et al., 2008;

Shapiro et al., 2008; Weinstein et al., 2009) by extending the

support for the efficacy of mindfulness beyond mental and

physical health and into the area of normative developmental

adjustment during EA.

Mindfulness mediated the relationship between three of the

five developmental features of EA and self-doubt. Specifically,

mindfulness mediated the relationship between instability,

feeling in-between, self-focus, and self-doubt. These findings

highlight the buffering impact that mindfulness has in relation

to self-doubt. The present moment awareness and attentive

focus associated with being mindful may allow emerging

adults to counter the self-doubt that is associated with the feel-

ings of instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between that are

part of this developmental phase. The ability to remain present

may limit one’s attention from being diverted, thus limiting the

impact that self-doubt may have.

EA, Mindfulness, and Self-doubt: Age and Gender as Moderators

In order to assess whether mindfulness mediated the relation-

ship between the dimensions of EA and self-doubt, while

Table 4. Conditional Direct and Indirect Effects of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood on Self-Doubt Through Mindfulness at Different Levels of Age and Gender.

Males Females

Younger (18.79 years)

Average (20.94 years)

Older (23.08 years)

Younger (18.79 years)

Average (20.94 years)

Older (23.08 years)

Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI

Direct effects EA— instability

.27 (.08)*** .33 (.06)*** .40 (.07)*** .33 (.07)*** .39 (.06)*** .46 (.07)***

.11 to .43 .21 to .46 .26 to .54 .19 to .47 .28 to .51 .32 to .61 EA—self- focus

�.12 (.10) �.10 (.09) �.07 (.09) �.31 (.09)*** �.28 (.08)*** �.25 (.09)** �.32 to .07 �.27 to .07 �.25 to .11 �.48 to �.13 �.43 to �.12 �.43 to �.07

EA—feeling in-between

.16 (.07)* .15 (.06)** .15 (.06)* .05 (.06) .05 (.05) .04 (.05)

.02 to .29 .04 to .27 .03 to .26 �.06 to .17 �.05 to .15 �.06 to .18 Indirect effectsa

EA— instability

.01 (.02) .04 (.02) .06 (.02) .05 (.02) .08 (.02) .10 (.02) �.03 to .06 .00 to .08 .02 to .10 .02 to .10 .05 to .12 .06 to .15

EA—self- focus

�.08 (.03) �.08 (.03) �.08 (.03) �.06 (.02) �.06 (.02) �.06 (.03) �.15 to �.03 �.14 to �.04 �.14 to �.03 �.11 to �.02 �.11 to �.02 �.12 to �.01

EA—feeling in-between

.02 (.02) .04 (.02) .06 (.02) .01 (.01) .02 (.01) .04 (.01) �.01 to .06 .01 to .08 .03 to .10 �.02 to .04 .00 to .05 .01 to .07

Note. N ¼ 1,260. Coefficient with standard errors in parentheses followed by bias corrected 95% confidence interval. a When the 95% CI does not include zero, it can be interpreted as a statistically significant indirect effect at p < .05.

***p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05. y p < .10; for each of the analyses, the remaining dimensions of emerging adulthood were included as covariates.

Peer and McAuslan 7

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simultaneously considering the conditional effects of age and

gender on these relationships, we utilized conditional process

analysis (also referred to as moderated mediation). Based on

preliminary results, we focused on the three dimensions of

EA (negativity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between)

with age and gender as potential moderators of the relation-

ship between (a) the dimensions of EA and mindfulness and

(b) the relationship between the dimensions of EA and self-

doubt (identified in the simple moderation analyses). The

results suggest that it is important to consider both the age and

the gender as moderators of the relationship between EA and

self-doubt, via mindfulness.

The relationship between negativity/instability and self-

doubt was mediated by mindfulness most strongly for younger

men in this sample (i.e., 18- and 19-year-olds), with higher lev-

els of instability relating to lower levels of mindfulness and

ultimately more self-doubt. Although this pattern also emerged

for the other emerging adult men (i.e., 20- to 29-year-olds) and

women of all ages, the mediating effect of mindfulness was less

pronounced for these groups. There seems to be a stronger rela-

tionship between feelings of negativity/instability and self-

doubt for older men and women of all ages, so perhaps level

of mindfulness mediates more strongly for younger men

because they are experiencing lower levels of instability and

self-doubt.

The relationship between self-focus and self-doubt was

mediated by mindfulness for emerging adult women in this

sample with lower levels of self-focus related to lower levels

of mindfulness and ultimately higher levels of self-doubt.

Mindfulness did not mediate the relationship between self-

focus and self-doubt for men. These differences might relate

to gender role expectations that become particularly evident

during the transition through EA. The age of self-focus relates

to developing responsibilities and autonomy. These same char-

acteristics are related to the male gender role (Eagly, 1987;

Kite, Deaux, & Haines, 2007), thus perhaps for the men in our

sample being self-focused is a more established part of their

identities and its’ relationship to self-doubt is not related to

level of mindfulness.

Finally, the relationship between feeling in-between and

self-doubt was also mediated by mindfulness for men of all

ages with higher levels of feeling in-between related to lower

levels of mindfulness and higher levels of self-doubt. Mind-

fulness did not mediate the relationship between feeling in-

between and self-doubt for women in this sample. Compared

to men in this sample, women reported higher levels of feel-

ing in-between and self-doubt. Perhaps mindfulness serves

as a mediator of this relationship for men more so than

women because there is greater pressure for men to attain

full adulthood (Pollack, 2006). Young men may have less

sense of feeling in-between because they are granted greater

independence earlier with level of mindfulness seemingly

assisting in resolution of these issues. For young women,

level of mindfulness may be less relevant as situational

factors (i.e., parents’ control) and cultural norms (i.e., full

adulthood is defined by marriage and having children) might

be key contributors to the sense of feeling in-between and

self-doubt.

Implications of the Present Study

This study extends previous research (Greeson et al., 2014;

Mrazek et al., 2013; Oman et al., 2008; Shapiro et al., 2008)

into a novel area by considering the impact of mindfulness

on normative development during EA. There are significant

implications for both developmental theory and the provision

of clinical services based upon these findings.

This work supports and extends Arnett’s theory (2000,

2004, 2007) as it appears that some emerging adults experience

skepticism, apprehension, and doubt during this time. Although

well-being is enhanced for many during this time of life

(Arnett, 2007; Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006), the findings sug-

gest many experience self-doubt that may contribute to various

issues associated with stress, self-esteem, and mental health

(Arnett, 2004; Oleson et al., 2000). This is significant consid-

ering that EA is when people make choices related to love,

work, and worldviews (Arnett, 2000) that could potentially

impact the rest of their lives. If self-doubt is experienced

in relation to the normative features of this time, impaired

decision-making ability may lead to deeper struggles as indi-

viduals progress toward adulthood. Of equal importance is that

mindfulness at least partially buffers individuals from the self-

doubt they experience as they transition through the challenges

associated with this stage of life. What remains unknown is

specifically how mindfulness protects emerging adults from

self-doubt and the potential deleterious effects stemming from

it. Future research should endeavor to both further understand

the relationship between various aspects of mindfulness and

development during this time and determine what possible rela-

tionship self-doubt may have with the risk behaviors and men-

tal health issues associated with EA.

This study also provides broad implications for college edu-

cators and clinical practice. Prior research supports mindfulness-

based activities to address mental health concerns during EA.

The current research suggests that, given that developmental

challenges during this time may be associated with self-

doubt, college administrators and mental health clinicians

should support the use of mindfulness for managing the nor-

mative aspects of development. Mindfulness appears to be

useful for addressing both normal and abnormal develop-

ment during this time.

Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research

Although the findings provide insight into the relationship

between mindfulness and development during EA, there are

limitations to this study that should be considered. First,

although the sample was drawn from multiple institutions

across the United States, the sample consisted primarily of col-

lege attending Caucasians, limiting the ability to generalize to

the more general population of emerging adults. Second, future

studies could consider whether mindfulness mediates the

8 Emerging Adulthood

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relationship between the challenges associated with EA and

self-doubt among noncollege students. Third, the present anal-

yses did not consider the nested nature of the data. Multilevel

moderated mediation analyses could be utilized in future

research with these data to explore school effects. Next, the

cross-sectional nature of this study does not allow an exam-

ination of how these developmental processes may change

over time. A longitudinal research design would provide stron-

ger evidence of a mediation effect by assessing whether

changes in young peoples’ views of the challenges faced during

this life stage are related to changes in mindfulness and self-

doubt. Finally, future research exploring how proactive mind-

fulness activities may influence emerging adults’ navigation

through the normative areas of development is warranted.

Conclusion

The current study highlights the importance of mindfulness

during EA. This study suggests that mindfulness may help indi-

viduals effectively contend with self-doubt as they navigate

through this critical period of life. Doing so may also help

emerging adults avoid further problems that may stem from

self-doubt. Developing and/or maintaining a mindful disposi-

tion may allow individuals to feel secure during this transi-

tional time of life, thus allowing them to make thoughtful,

effective decisions about their future.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship,

and/or publication of this article.

Notes

1. Thirty-seven cases outside this age range or missing age were

excluded; 23 cases that were missing the Inventory of the Dimen-

sions of Emerging Adulthood measure were also excluded.

2. According to Shrout and Bolger (2002) and Hayes (2013), the 95%

confidence interval (CI) for estimates of the indirect effects based

on the 10,000 bootstrapped indirect effect estimates should not

include zero. When the 95% CI does not include zero, it can be

interpreted as a statistically significant indirect effect at p < .05.

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Author Biographies

Justin W. Peer is a Psychology lecturer in the Department of

Behavioral Sciences at The University of Michigan–Dearborn.

His research focuses on the relationship between stress, coping,

and resilience among emerging adults.

Pamela McAuslan is a professor of Psychology in the

Department of Behavioral Sciences at The University of

Michigan–Dearborn. Her research focuses on gender, media,

and interpersonal relationships.

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