Second Article Analysis

Embracing Luther’s Theology of Tentatio as Key to Reaching the Millennial Generation

Ryan T. Fouts

Abstract: Over the last decade, much has been written about the emergence of a “therapeutic” approach to Christian faith, particularly among America’s youth (See Christian Smith’s Soul Searching ox Philip R ieff s The Triumph o f the Therapeutic). Some, attempting to meet this felt need, have made a concerted effort to add a therapeutic dimension to their method and their message. Others have taken a more adversarial approach to the “therapeutic” impetus of the Millennials in a way that has often been more conflictual than constructive. In contrast to either approach, a recovery of Luther’s concept of tentatio, Anfechtung, or struggle, may be called for if the church wishes to seriously engage American youth while, at the same time, remaining faithful to our core convictions. Too often, in therapeutic efforts to spare our young people from godly struggle, a very vital component of Christian maturity has been lost in the process. How might a re-embracing of tentatio in the life of the Church better equip Christians today to reach the millennial generation?

It is no secret that the contemporary church has struggled to connect to young people. What is commonly referred to as the “Millennial” generation has seemingly disappeared from church, exacerbating the trend modeled by their Generation-X predecessors. If the church has struggled to retain Millennials who were raised within the faith, reaching Millennials without any previous connection to church seems to many as no more than a pipe-dream. Often the response to this exodus of America’s youth from the church is lamented. Many are quick to point accusatory fingers at culture at large, imagining that the quickly evolving milieu of the American context is on an irretrievable crash course toward apostasy. What is left, some might suppose, but to “hunker down” and protect the theological and institutional vestiges left us from our forefathers?

This author vehemently disagrees with such sentiments. Having been bom in 1980,1 fall somewhere in the “bubble” between what some social scientists would call “Generation-X” and the Millennial generation. In some respects, falling within the transitionary period between generations, I resonate with the attitudes and concerns of both. I was raised in an LCMS congregation, but was not a product of the “system.” I attended public schools and pursued undergraduate studies at a public university prior to attending seminary. As a young college student, as the millennium turned, I often felt as though I had a foot firmly planted in two rowboats, each following a different current, at times straining my flexibility to hold the two worlds

Ryan T. Fouts is a PhD. candidate at Concordia Seminary—Saint Louis in Systematic Theology. He has served as pastor o f Holy Cross Lutheran Church, East Carondelet, IL, for seven years and currently works as a mission-planter in urban Saint Louis.

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together. The temptation, in such a predicament, is to simply choose one boat over the other and follow a single current. It certainly would have been more comfortable than attempting the splits! I always felt, though, that the tension, or struggle, between these two “worlds” was a struggle worth having.

All the above being said, both my experience and sociological research is consistent in one fact: Millennials attach an experiential value to their spirituality.1 It is widely acknowledged that culture is evolving and changing more quickly than at any other time in history.2 Over a single decade, culture can undergo more change than would happen in a century in ages past. As such, Millennials increasingly see their experience of the world as very different from the experience of their parents when they were their age. For those who are raised in the church, many find that the church experience they were raised with was tailored more directly to deal with their parents’ world than their own.

As institutions often resist change, or change at a sluggish pace, the church’s ability to adapt and evolve in the ever-changing landscape of the American experience is often slow going. Imagine a large ship, with a relatively small rudder, attempting to navigate through the rapids of a quickly moving river. The issues and challenges that the faith o f young Christians must face today is different than it was a generation ago. Millennials look at the “rapids” of their culture and find it incapable of adequately dealing with their experience of the world. In order to reach Millennials today, the church must find a way to help them navigate through the struggle. The struggle has to be respected, even valued as a part of the Christian experience, rather than dismissed, ignored, or even resolved.

The good news is that Lutheran theology is a theology that embraces struggle. In many respects, the Millennial generation is ripe for Lutheran insights. There are core principles at the heart of Lutheran theology that allow the church to engage Millennials in a profound and relevant way. If Lutherans hope to engage the Millennial generation effectively and faithfully, we simply have to recover our theology of struggle and experience as the avenue through which God makes mature disciples.

Martin Luther on Tentatio In his later years, Martin Luther faced a considerable amount of pressure to

publish an authorized edition of his German writings. Publishers were eager for the chance, now that the fires of his opponents had simmered down, to release a version of his writings that could be more widely enjoyed and preserved for posterity. Luther hesitated to authorize any such publication. He feared, as he had already seen some evidence of the same in his own day, that his writings would simply become a new sort of canon law to replace the genuine study of Holy Scripture. He recognized that many of his works, particularly his earlier writings, reflected remnants of Romanism that he had later rejected. In the end, however, Luther was persuaded to allow the presses to proceed. He was convinced, albeit to his dismay, that the release of such an edition was inevitable. Were it to happen after his death, he knew that his works would be taken and twisted beyond his own intentions. Thus, Luther agreed to release a Wittenberg edition of his German works in 1539. He offered a preface to these works, articulating his concern, yet also giving guidance that those who would

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read it would learn the proper method to read and study theology from Holy Scripture.

One could argue that the “method” presented herein is Luther’s suggested hermeneutic for how a Christian should approach theology-particularly through the study of Holy Scripture. Being a “preface” to his other works, these comments in a sense orient his reader toward all of his writings with a suggested discipline, or approach, modeling how all study o f God’s Word ought to be pursued.

I want to point out to you a correct way of studying theology, for I have had practice in that. If you keep to it, you will become so learned that you yourself could (if it were necessary) write books just as good as those of the fathers and councils... This is the way taught by King David (and doubtlessly used also by all the patriarchs and prophets) in the one hundred nineteenth Psalm. They are Oratio, Meditatio, Tentatio.3 Oratio, Meditatio, Tentatio. Prayer, meditation (upon Holy Scripture), and

struggle. Luther’s assertion that these three are the making of a theologian should not be used to limit them to professional theologians. For Luther, all Christians become theologians when they become students of God’s Word in the right manner. One could argue, in common parlance, that this is Luther’s paradigm for Christian discipleship. This is not a pattern reserved for the ivory tower academics. Luther was not the first to propose oratio!prayer or meditatio!meditation in Christian discipline, but his insight of tentatio/stmggle was unique.4

To properly understand the full impact of Luther’s three-fold insight, one must consider the heritage from which Luther derived and modified his insight. Guigo II, a twelfth century Carthusian monk, had first used similar Latin terminology in his book The Ladder o f Monks.5 Guigo II’s proposed four-step ladder through which one might reach communion with God is often regarded as the first description of methodological prayer in the Western mystical tradition. Guigo named these steps lectio, meditatio, oratio, contemplatio. One first reads a text, which leads one then to meditate upon its meaning. Prayer follows in response to these meditations. The fourth stage, contemplation, leads one to draw nearer to God in quiet stillness. It is hard to imagine that Luther, from his own monastic background, would not have been familiar Guigo’s ladder.

Luther also encountered this distinction, though, from his Scholastic education. Luther’s Occamist teacher, Gabriel Biel had urged that Scripture should be approached through the three-fold lectio, meditatio, oratio. For Biel, this sequence of reading, meditation, and prayer sufficed as man’s best efforts, an act of love toward God that God Himself would complete or perfect. This was possible through a concept Biel called prudentia, m i innate wisdom within man that allowed man to do what was within him .6

It could be argued that Luther simply turned Biel’s three-fold pattern on its head, replacing lectio with tentatio. If one understands, however, that Luther’s very concern in his preface to the Wittenberg edition is that one would continue to read Holy Scripture and appropriate it with this pattern, it is probably better to argue that Luther removed lectio from the sequence because lectio, or the reading and hearing of Scripture, is never abandoned in his process. One becomes a theologian as he prays, meditates, and struggles precisely with Scripture as the sole source of

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theological insight. Prayer must come before meditation on the Word precisely because the Christian has no innate wisdom, or prudentia, but has his meditations guided only by the Holy Spirit, who must first come to the Christian through prayer. Nonetheless, prayer and meditation alone fail to apply fully the Word of God to real life experience. Meditation cannot be considered a good work before God, nor before neighbor. Guigo II’s contemplatio, however, is equally troublesome for Luther and cannot complete the process. One does not become a disciple, or a theologian, merely through the mystical contemplation of God. One does not ascend upward into the heavens, whereby he gains communion with God; but he proceeds outward into the world, where he finds Christ in his neighbor. Whereas a monastic life of contemplation removes the Christian from the real world and its struggles, the Christian who follows Christ’s bidding to be in the world according to God’s calling (vocation) will face temptation and struggle.

Thirdly, there is tentatio, Anfechtung. This is the touchstone which teaches you not only to know and understand, but also to experience how right, how true, how sweet, how lovely, how mighty, how comforting God’s Word is, wisdom beyond all wisdom.7 Luther emphasizes an experiential faith. That experience often involves

struggle as the Word of God kills and makes alive. This experience is initiated by God’s Word and the profound effect the Word has on the disciple. It is the Holy Spirit, through the Word, who serves to safeguard the Christian throughout his struggles and temptations, so that tentatio is no threat, but a genuine part of God’s work in the life of the disciple. This struggle is not a mere “idea” that can be learned and intellectually appropriated. This Christ-patterned death and rebirth is an experience that involves pain, turmoil, tentatio. The Holy Spirit accompanies the Word of God, conforming us to the image of Jesus Christ.8

Another matter of importance, applicable to the subject of this article, ought to be pointed out. Luther, reflecting on his own development as a theologian, recognized that his tentatio was not a one-time event. “I didn’t learn my theology all at once. I had to ponder over it ever more deeply, and my spiritual trials9 were of help to me in this, for one does not learn anything without practice.” 10 The struggle one endures when coming to faith, or while maturing in the faith, cannot be forced into an artificial timetable. One cannot expect it to come to fruition in the course of a six-week discipleship course. While Luther affirms that “the devil” is an active subject in such tentatio, this is no cause for concern.11 Luther’s simple faith in the efficacy and power of the Word of God over and against Satan assures him that the Word will prevail. Tentatio is not something one should fear.

Tentatio and the Struggle of Millennials One need only spend a few hours at a coffee shop or local hangout to find

Millennials discussing and wrestling with spiritual questions. Millennials have frequently been described as a very “god-conscious” generation, but the identity of “god” is up for grabs.12 Struggle has become the modus operandi of Millennial spirituality. Many Millennials feel that the church fails to resonate with their experience in the world. When they have come to the church with genuine tentatio, the church has too frequently responded with mere refutatio. They’ve become all too

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accustomed to the things the church protests against and opposes, but they struggle to identify what the church actually values and embraces. Rather than nurturing the struggle, the church has often robbed them of the struggle God would give them by demanding a sort of intellectual conformity to doctrinal standards. It is as though because such matters have already been “resolved” for the church, their struggle has been dealt with vicariously by the church already. If the demand to conform is not made explicitly, the pressure to conceal their struggle from the church is felt implicitly. Thus, increasing numbers have turned to any other number of sources outside of the church to guide them through their spiritual struggle.

All the above are common perspectives that many Millennials share concerning the institutional church. Many within the church may hear these things and become defensive. Has the church been judged unfairly for being judgmental? Perhaps. Are these perspectives fair or accurate? In many respects they are irrelevant. If we intend to reach Millennials with the Gospel, their perceptions function as reality. It does the church no good, if the church is to value this generation as Christ does, to complain about the anti-institutional sentiments of Millennials. Their concerns cannot be simply dismissed, but must be heard. The struggle must be nurtured and embraced.

Embracing Tentado as the Church Tendencies in Christian catechesis within Lutheran churches over the last

several decades are revealing.13 While it is not the only focus, a great deal of emphasis is often placed on how well the catechumen has memorized and absorbed, intellectually, the doctrinal content of the Catechism. This is an important task, but often the cognitive “mastery” of church doctrine becomes the main thing. The process for making disciples often resembles the paradigm of Gabriel Biel—lectio, meditatio, ora/7'o-emphasizing the initial import of the right “information” that then must be intellectually understood or memorized, under the false assumption that it will result in a life rich in prayer and discipleship. Catechesis, though, is not confined to the classroom.14 When “classroom catechesis” has prevailed, Luthers profound concept of tentatio has not only been forgotten but, in many respects, undermined.

It is this author’s opinion that the mass exodus of Millennials from the organized church is a wake-up call that ought to call us in the church at large to repent and reorient ourselves toward the Word of God. The Millennials are, in many respects, ideally situated to reinvigorate Christianity with a profound character that has long since been forgotten in the American context, that is, the concept of tentatio, or struggle, as a necessary component of discipleship. While experience is not the foundation of faith, experience that emerges from a profound relationship with God’s Word-oratio, meditatio, tentatio-is an essential component of Christian identity. It is one thing to suggest that this pattern be re-embraced, though, and another to actually put it into practice in a way that remains faithful to our doctrine and core convictions as God’s people. What would it look like to fully embrace tentatio in the life of disciples or sojourners in the Millennial generation? What follows are a few suggestions, derived largely from an interplay among this author’s experience with Millennials, of what resonates with their generation and Lutheran theological insight.

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Be patient As Luther,s Table Talk affirms, already cited, tentatio in the life of

discipleship takes time. A seed must sow and come to maturity before the harvest. Reaping too soon not only kills the seed, but leaves the grain either immature or prematurely dead. Many churches are quite welcoming to visitors their first few visits, but often the visitor feels the pressure to conform to the standard expectations of the group, or even to join the group, before they are ready. The church needs a larger proverbial “narthex” where sojourners can explore, struggle, and build relationships with committed Christians who can help guide them through their struggles. An attempt to “reap” the harvest too soon can happen for a number of reasons. Perhaps there is an unsettled fear that if someone does not join quickly enough they will soon leave and go elsewhere. Sometimes it is a matter of discomfort—the visitor or sojourner does not quite fit in with the rest of the group and his lifestyle is seen as a threat to the believers already committed to the fold. Here one must recognize that the presence of such a sojourner may actually provide valuable tentatio to the believers already gathered. The possibility of a visitor creating struggle for other disciples need not be feared; it should be embraced. It may just be, quite simply, that there is a pattern in a church’s history that has typically “always done it that way.”

Create “safe space” for Tentatio If an unbelieving Millennial enters a church and feels immediately judged,

as if his sin is worse than those of the members of the church, he will most likely head for the hills. Not only that, he will probably spread the word about his experience. A “safe space” does not necessarily have to be a “safe place,” though. The “safe space” can happen within the corporate gathering of the church service, but it often happens through interpersonal relationships between Christians and inquirers. A “safe space” can occur in small groups or in missional communities. Regardless, if one ever gets the impression that he is in an “unsafe space,” tentatio never gets a chance to develop. As noted earlier, Millennials will struggle with spiritual matters. If the church will not provide the “safe space” and guidance to foster that struggle, they will find guidance elsewhere.

Focus on affirmative “Natural Law” rather than on negative “Revealed Law”

Lutherans rightly embrace the proper distinction between law and gospel. That said, the law has its proper “killing” function even when the word of law spoken is not explicitly condemnatory. The law of God is written on our hearts in creation.15 It was wrong for Cain to kill Abel even before God had ever written the law, “thou shall not kill,” on tablets of stone. While it is true that the Commandments are law, the law is not always explicitly commandment. The law is, essentially speaking, the blueprint of God’s architectural design in creation. The law is, more properly, positive than negative. The law tells us how God designed everything in creation; it reveals the beauty and genius of His original plan. Commandments are given later because sinful man was unable to perceive God’s order clearly. From the

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perspective of natural law, sin is more fundamentally understood as “brokenness” or “disorder5’ than mere transgression of a commandment. When commandments are

given, though, they are typically given to God’s people who already understand the authority of God’s voice, either spoken through prophets or inspired through Scripture. The “second use” of the law, while it is the primary function of the law over and against sinful man, is not the essential use of the law. There is nothing essentially condemnatory in the law itself; rather, it is man’s fallen disparity from God’s original righteous design that makes the law condemnatory. In many respects, the second use, or function, of the law doesn’t reside in the law at all, but in sinful man.

I have a friend who is an accomplished artist. He tells me that one of the most effective ways to teach young, budding artists to discern good art from bad art is to simply immerse them in really good art. They spend a lot of time appreciating the beauty, the detail, and the masterful work of fine artists. They become so accustomed to really good art that when they are presented with bad art they can recognize it immediately. They may or may not be able to articulate what makes it bad, but they can tell it is so from the outset. While the beginning artist may be able to take his teacher’s word that something is bad or good, it is only when he begins to fully appreciate the beauty of the good that he can discern for himself. The same is true of learning to distinguish the goodness of God’s masterpiece, his created order, from the broken, fallen, and sinful perversions of God’s design. For those who already have a commitment to biblical authority, a word of Scripture that says, “x is

is, in fact, sinfiil. On the other ג: wrong,” may be sufficient to convince them that hand, even that leaves one with an incomplete picture regarding God’s original plan. If, rather, one learns to appreciate the positive side of God’s order in creation, one can more readily perceive what’s wrong and sinful in the world.

Consider a few examples of how this might play out regarding particular issues of tension or struggle that biblical Christianity often has with the Millennial generation. Consider how one might address the topic of homosexuality, a hot topic among current social issues. Typically, when asked, “what is your church’s view of homosexuality,” one might turn to verses that explicitly condemn homosexuality: Leviticus 18:22, 1 Corinthians 6:9, Romans 1:26, etc. At that point, conversation often breaks down. These verses, all spoken to people who already accept the authority of God’s Word, will not likely speak to one who has no such commitment. Why not, rather, turn to Genesis 2? Here, one can begin to construct a picture of God’s design for human sexuality that embraces the beauty and wonder of God’s original plan. Many works have explored this topic.16 The beauty of God’s design for human sexuality is far more palatable to one who may be sympathetic to homosexual inclinations, as Millennials increasingly are, than a proof-text approach that emphasizes the sin of homosexuality. It will also provide a firmer foundation upon which a genuine, Godly, marital union of persons can be pursued. Perceiving the beauty of God’s design, Millennials may have to wrestle with the tension between God’s design and cultural perspectives on homosexuality. While a quick condemnatory proof text might immediately cause an inquirer to dismiss the Christian as judgmental, reflecting on the order of God’s design for man and woman will at least cause some further reflection and, ideally, some fruitful tentatio. Many

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in the gay and lesbian community have already struggled with their sexuality for their entire lives. It is absurd to expect that they would simply change their orientation or choose an abstinent lifestyle without enduring at least as much struggle to embrace God’s design. Some may be willing to engage the struggle immediately; others may come to the struggle over time as they further embrace the Christian life. Regardless, there is no paradigmatic timetable for the struggle.

Millennials, not unlike many other Americans, often indicate that they struggle with the exclusive claims of Christianity. They feel very much at home in an increasingly pluralistic culture. St. Paul actually provides a powerful example of evangelism through the use of natural law in Acts 17:16-33. Much like today’s Millennials, the people of Athens embraced tolerance and a plurality of religions. Paul engaged the Athenian people from the position of an outsider. He recognized that his apostleship carried no favored status. He could not use his apostolic authority simply to rebuke or condemn the false gods invoked there. Instead, he praised their religious devotion. He spoke a message that is, in its substance, an exclusive and universal message identifying the true God as the one who “made the world and everything in it, being Lord of heaven and earth” (Acts 17:24). He spoke a clear proclamation of the Gospel, a message that is by its very nature particular, without going out of his way to explicitly condemn the false gods represented there. He spoke the Word of God. He trusted that the Word, accompanied by the Holy Spirit in truth and power, would be sufficient to perform what God intended without worry or fear that it would simply blend in to the pantheon of gods represented on the Areopagus. Nonetheless, he spoke a word that would cause tentatio. Paul’s message to the Athenians was an exclusive message, but he did not prematurely attempt to rob the Athenians of the struggle by explicitly condemning their pluralistic worldview. When Paul spoke of the resurrection, “some mocked,” but others said, “We will hear you again about this.” In other words, his approach nurtured the struggle for those who wished to hear more. Some of the men joined him.

Paul’s example demonstrates how Christians today can remain faithful to the Gospel, upholding the scandal of particularity, while still engaging the world at large in a way that nurtures, rather than robs, our hearers of the struggle that is necessary for one to truly mature as a disciple. It is sometimes suggested that because the American culture is pluralistic, one must clearly point out the exclusive nature of the Gospel when engaging the public square in the company of false spiritualities. One must ask, though, if the purpose of engaging the culture is to refute pluralism or to actually bring people to a saving knowledge in Jesus Christ. Can one come to embrace the Gospel through the Holy Spirit working through the word in faith, while still wrestling with sympathies toward pluralism? Absolutely— tentatio takes time.

Have Faith in God’s Word Even as Luther recognized that the devil was often the agent that God used

in his personal tentatio, he never seemed to articulate any fear that this process would put his salvation in jeopardy. Struggle and discomfort, though, do not tend to resonate well with the American psyche. When one begins to experience struggle, or pain of any sort, the habitual response is to try to alleviate the struggle at nearly any

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cost. In the church, this can happen either by dismissing the validity of one’s struggle, as though it’s insignificant, or by trying to resolve it with propositional claims or through condemnatory proof-texts. Out of discomfort, or fear, one may be tempted to put more credence in the power o f the devil’s working through struggle to dissuade the elect from God’s grace than they do in the power of the Holy Spirit in the Word to both create and sustain faith in those whom the Lord would call to Himself. At the root of this matter, ultimately, is unbelief.

Luther’s theology of tentatio in the Christian life is closely related to his theology of the cross. It is precisely through suffering and the cross that God reveals Himself fo r us most clearly. The importance of re-embracing this insight in our churches, if we are to reach the Millennial generation, cannot be overstated. This must first begin, though, with self-application. As essential as it is to embrace tentatio for the Millennials, whom the church is called to reach, it will seem disingenuous if Christians already within the church do not embrace tentatio in their own lives. That may very well mean embracing the struggle and challenge that the Millennial generation has presented the church at large. Merely assigning blame or fault, either to the church or the Millennial generation itself, is only another way of trying to avoid the necessary struggle that Christ has called the church to embrace in the world. As the Body of Christ, the church is called to pursue those for whom Jesus died just as stubbornly and persistently as He pursued them on the road toward Calvary. This might mean sacrificing our own temporary comforts for the sake of the lost. It certainly means entering into the struggle and suffering of young people who need the Gospel, It means being a people of suffering and the cross—embracing tentatio.

Endnotes 1 The Bama Group “Six Reasons Young Christians Leave Church,” The Bama Group, http://www.bama.org/teens-next-gen-articles/teens-next-gen-articles/528-six-reasons-young-christians- leave-church, (accessed February 20,2013) 2 C. Perreault, “The Pace o f Cultural Evolution” PL0S ONE 7:9 (2012) 3 Martin Luther, L uther’s Works 34:285 (Saint Louis/Philadelphia: Concordia/Fortress, 1958-1986). (Henceforth LW) 4 “Tentatio is testing, temptation, and trial which occurs when God and his word intersect with us and our world.” Andrew Pfeiffer, “The Place o f Tentatio in the Formation o f Church Servants” Lutheran Theological Journal (December, 1996) 111-119. 5 Guigo II, The Ladder o f Monks: A Letter on the Contemplative Life and Twelve M editations (Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1978). 6 Heiko A. Oberman. The Dawn o f the Reformation: Essays in Late M edieval and Early Reformation Thought, Kindle Edition (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), loc. 1229. 7¿fF34:286-287. 8 As John Kleinig put it, “We do not internalize it and assimilate it into our way o f being; no, it assimilates us and makes us godly. We do not use it to make something o f ourselves; it makes us theologians.” John Kleinig, “Oratio, Meditatio, Tentatio: What Makes a Theologian? ” Concordia Theological Quarterly 66:3 (2002): 264. 9 Latin: tentât iones 10 L W 54:50. ״ Ibid. 12 For example, Dawson McCallister, Saving the M illennial Generation (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc., 1999), 5. 13 See, for example, John M. Palka, “The Impact o f Societal and Education Trends on Theological Education in The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod” Concordia Journal 30, no. 3 (July 2004) 217-241.

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14 For a full exposition o f how Luther’s Catechism was designed less to be a “textbook” and more to be a handbook for daily Christian living, see Charles P. Arand, That I M ay Be His Own: An Overview o f Luther’s Catechisms (Saint Louis: Concordia Academic Press, 2000) and also John Pless, “Catechesis for the Life o f the Royal Priesthood” Logia 3, no. 4 (1994) 3-10. 15 See, for example, Jeremiah 31:33, Romans 2:14-15, Hebrews 10:16. 16 While not frequently engaged in evangelical or Lutheran circles, John Paul II’s work on the theology o f the body is predominantly a work that engages the identity o f the human creature within spousal relationship and demonstrates the sort o f “positive” theology emerging from natural law that this article suggests is necessary to engage Millennials. His treatment o f the topic is worth considering. See John Paul II, Man and Woman He C reated Them: A Theology o f the Body (Boston, MA: Pauline Books & Media, 2006).

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