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Short Notes on the Elements of Fiction (the building blocks of all types of fiction)

1 Plot

plot = “the organization of incidents in a narrative. . . .The governing word in this definition is organization” (Beckson & Ganz 203)

Elements of plot structure/organization:  exposition, or introductory information  complication(s), series of events caused by the central conflict  climax, the moment of crisis in the story--point of no return  denouement/resolution, the untangling of the complications  foreshadowing, clues of events to follow  flashback, shift back to the past  juxtaposition

The most important key aspect of plot, however, is conflict whether it be an actual physical battle between good and evil, or inner psychological turmoil.

A mere string of events does not constitute a plot, that is simply a narrative sequence. (See the definition of narration in any writer’s handbook.)

The king died and the queen died. Simple narrative sequence. The king died and the queen died of grief. A plot.

Plots may be comic – move from disorder to order – the resolution of the conflict affirms that the world we live in is orderly, and the roles we play in it effectual and meaningful

Plots may be tragic – move from order to disorder – the resolution of the conflict suggests that the world we live in is chaotic, hostile and the roles we play in it meaningless, or ineffectual

2 Characterization

characterization = the technique(s) used to create a character.

Texts can TELL us about characters (intervene to describe & evaluate characters) or SHOW us characters (present dialogue & action without overt judgement).

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Texts can TYPIFY OR INDIVIDUALIZE

‘Flat’ characters: representative, generic, static (incapable of growth & change)

‘Round’ characters: unique, distinctive, capable of growth and change

Few characteristics (often physical) Many characteristics (physical & emotional)

Representative (stock) Individual

Stereotype (reflects shallow prejudices--facile judgement ) or archetype (full of symbolic resonance)

Unique: depiction of human being as a social being with a distinct personality (social & psychological depth)

We come to understand a character through the following:  what the text tells us (physical descriptions, moral judgements, etc)  what the character does (plot)  what the character says & thinks (dialogue)  what other characters say about him/her (dialogue)

Important categories of character:  hero or protagonist  villain or antagonist  heroine

3 Setting

setting = the natural and artificial scenery or environment in which the characters in literature live and move, together with the things they use. It establishes the time, place & social reality within which the story takes place.

Setting = all physical and temporal objects and artifacts found in the story:  times of day  weather  hills & valleys  trees & animals  sounds outside & in  smells  walking sticks, necklaces, clothing

Types of setting  natural: nature as a shaping force in the characters’ lives , e.g., a moral testing

ground  manufactured: manufactured things reveal the personalities of makers and

buyers/owners

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Uses of setting  credibility of detail – verisimilitude  metaphor and symbolism  provides context for characters’ behaviour – motivation & choices

4 Point of View

Point of view = the perspective from which details in narrative are perceived and related to the us--the voice, speaker, centralizing intelligence, narrative personality. Synonyms: viewpoint, perspective, angle of vision, mask, centre of attention, focus. (NB: Do not confuse this term with ‘point of view’ meaning “opinion.”)

4.1 First person point of view

perspective = I (rarely we)

always consider what the writer tells us/implies about the speaker(s)’  social & educational background  age and gender  bias

speaker(s) may be • a major participant in the story • a minor participant • reporting a story (hearsay)

speaker(s) may be given  complete understanding  partial or incorrect understanding (the fallible or unreliable narrator)  no understanding at all

4.2 Third person point of view

Perspective = he, she, it, they

4.2.1 Third person omniscient point of view

Techniques: writer creates an intrusive narrator who knows all about the characters and tells us what to think of them. All narrator’s reports and comments are taken as authoritative. (NB NO USE OF ‘I,’ ‘ME,’etc.)

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4.2.2 Limited omniscient point of view

Techniques: focuses on thoughts, feelings and actions of a very limited number of characters, usually just one.

4.3 Dramatic point of view

Techniques: resembles a tracking cine camera or video, reporting actions and conversations (not thoughts). Shows us the characters, does not tell us what to make of them.

5 Tone

Tone = techniques and methods of presentation that reveal or create attitudes (e.g., joy, rage, sadness), not the attitudes themselves. An analysis of tone should focus on (1) how the text establishes a given effect, not the effect itself, (2) the ways in which tone shapes or influences the meaning (themes) of the work. For example, irony may be used to call attention to, even criticize, individual, social, political flaws.

VAST range of tones: admiring--strident--forceful--ironic--bitter--jubilant--violent--serious-- comic

5.1 Laughter, comedy, farce

Methods/techniques:  creating an object of laughter, e.g., person, place, thing, situation, custom, habit

of speech, arrangement of words, e.g., Mr. Bean  blending incongruous elements, e.g., Americans bringing skis to the Chateau

Laurier in July  suspending natural consequences in favour of safety and/or goodwill, e.g., the

indestructible coyote in the Road Runner cartoons.

5.2 Irony

Irony = “a device by which an author expresses a meaning contradictory to the stated or ostensible [apparent] one” (Beckson & Ganz 132) Irony involves a discrepancy between appearance (“stated or ostensible meaning”) and reality (‘true’ meaning); forces us to read between the lines, to question who is blind to the contradiction and who sees it.

Sarcasm = the crudest form of irony = “bitter, derisive expression. . .whereby what is

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stated is the opposite of what is stated” (Beckson & Ganz 247). (Does not require any real reading between the lines--frequently referred to as the ‘lowest form of wit.’)

5.2.1 Verbal irony

Manipulation of language so that the writing initially appears to mean one thing but actually means another (demands a very sophisticated reader who understands that what the writer is ‘pretending’ to say is not actually what is being said). Speaker/authorial voice and reader share the ‘joke.’

Possible techniques:  understatement  overstatement  double entendre

Example: “It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife” (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice).

5.2.2 Situational irony

Invokes the idea of forces (psychological, social, political, or environmental) that transcend and overpower human capacities

5.2.2.1 Cosmic irony

God(s) manipulate(s) the fates of the characters

5.2.3 Structural irony

Complete work is ironic; meaning is double from beginning to end.

5.2.4 Dramatic irony

Technique: juxtaposition of two perspectives. Character(s) perceive events in a limited way– but the text strongly implies the bigger picture.

6. Imagery, Figurative Language

6.1 Imagery

Concrete and specific words have the power to create pictures in the mind’s eye; they also have the ability to conjure up smells, tastes, sounds, even tactile sensations. Writers are therefore able to capture in language written descriptions of literal sensory experiences

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familiar to us all – images. Precisely because images are so immediately accessible to us, human beings have long since used them as analogies, i.e., used them figuratively, rather than literally.

Example: “How did you do in the exam?” “It was a train smash.”

In the example, the image of a commonplace literal disaster, involving extensive physical damage and suffering, is used figuratively to convey a personal “disaster.”

If the analogy is implied, as in the example, the image is used as a metaphor. If the analogy is explicitly stated, usually by using “like” or “as” the image is used as a simile.

Example: “How was the exam?” “Dreadful. The questions were as clear as mud.”

As the example above indicates, similes may be original or much-used (cliched?) Much- used similes are often idiomatic,

Example: “How was the exam?” “Great! I am feeling happy as a clam about it.”

6.2 Symbolism

Similes are the most overt form of figurative language, and therefore usually require less thoughtful analysis than other types of figurative language. Those which are idiomatic in particular should probably be taken at face value. It is possible, but highly unlikely, that deep meaning has been buried in expressions such as “happy as a clam.”

Metaphors, unlike similes, often lurk unseen in literature and usually require a fair amount of thoughtful analysis. Unpacking the implications of the implied comparison (analogy) embedded in a metaphor can be important in reading between the lines to discover and make sense of themes.

The most thought-provoking and challenging form of figurative language, however, is the symbol.

A symbol = an object, action, or situation which stands for some experience/belief/emotion so complex that it would be difficult to express directly.

A symbol = any of the following:  a single word  action(s)  setting  character  situation

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but it is always concrete (something we can conjure up a sensory impression of, e.g., a mental picture), representative, and highly connotative (has many connotations).

The more ideas/meanings a given word or object in a story evokes, the more likely it is a symbol.

Most cultures develop their own vocabulary of symbols. In Western literature much is use is made of symbols drawn from Judaism and Christianity (Judaeo-Christian symbols). Writers assume that readers will be familiar with and therefore understand the significance of symbols such as the dove, the cross, the number 3, etc.

Analysing symbolism is frequently an essential – and challenging – part of reading between the lines in fiction.

7. Style and diction

Style consists of selecting the right words and placing them in the right order — easier said than done. Choice of words is known as diction. Appropriate use of diction involves understanding not just the ‘denotation,’ or literal meaning of a word, but also the ‘connotations,’ or subjective associations a word has gathered through use.

• Denotation = what a word means. • Connotation = what a word suggests.

8. Theme

Theme = both thematic concept and thematic statement

• thematic concept = subject (topic) covered by a work • thematic statement = the central idea or thesis explored by a work (Beckson &

Ganz 281).

The term “theme” therefore requires reaching an informed opinion about what precisely the text has to say (thematic statement) about a subject/topic (thematic concept) – simple identification of the topic is not enough.

Important: all other elements of fiction – plot, characterization, setting, figures of speech develop, shape and communicate the themes(s) in any given work.

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Reading between the lines for meaning is reading to find and understand thematic concepts and statements

Many works (arguably most works) contain more than one thematic concept and thematic statement.

Finally

Plot, characterization, setting, etc. can be considered the basic building blocks of fiction, but there are many types of fiction: novels, novellas, short stories, ghost stories, fantastic stories, science fiction, horror fiction, and so on.

When reading between the lines for implied meaning, each type of fiction requires to be approached on its own terms. No type of fiction can simply be taken at face value, and read for information the way one reads an encyclopedia, but some types of fiction require to be read more figuratively than others.

It is helpful to think of fiction in terms of a spectrum which ranges from “realism” – to “romance.”

• “Realism” = fiction which depicts the world as it is to some extent, i.e., describes an actual time and place with some degree of verisimilitude. Most importantly, characters in realistic fiction are “round” characters (see notes on Characterization above). Realistic fiction can be read at least partly literally.

• Romance = fiction which depicts the world as it should be to some extent, i.e., describes a fictional, even fantastic, place. Most importantly, characters in Romance are types (see notes on Characterization above). Romance must be read at least partly figuratively (see notes on Imagery and Figurative Language above).

Works Cited

Beckson, Karl and Arthur Ganz. Literary Terms: A Dictionary. 3rd ed. New York: Noonday Press, 1989.