Concept Map 3

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A Theoretical Basis for Adult Learning Facilitation: Review of

Selected Articles

Mussa S. Muneja

School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Arusha, PO Box 7, Usa-River, Tanzania

Abstract

The aim of this paper is synthesize a theoretical basis for adult learning facilitation in order to provide a valuable

systematic resource in the field of adult education. The paper has reviewed 6 journal articles with topics ranging

from theory of andragogy; the effect of globalization on adult learning; the contribution of Malcom Knowles;

Constructivism as a theoretical Model for Adult Learning and the Relevance of Piaget and Neo-Piagetian theories

on adult education. Each article was first summarized and then it was critically reviewed to reflect the current

Africa realities on Adult Education. The overall finding is that African scholars have not been in the forefront in

contributing towards theories of adult learning facilitation. The key theorists like Malcom Knowles, John Dewey,

and Piaget are among many others who were born and trained in the west. So they theorized according to their

own contexts. In the end a call is given to African academics in adult learning to push boundaries further in the

field of andragogy in order to be applicable in the current socio-political and economic realities.

Lifelong Education Learning has re-emerged in the past few years as one of the ‘hottest’ topics in the public

discussion…in the 21st century--- (Hake, 1999)

1 Introduction

Since adult education is among the hottest topics in the public discussion in the 21st century, this makes the paper

to venture in order to make a valuable contribution. The aim of this paper is synthesize a theoretical basis for adult

learning facilitation in order to provide a systematic resource in the field of adult education. The paper will review

6 journal articles with topics ranging from theory of andragogy; the effect of globalization on adult learning; the

contribution of Malcom Knowles; Constructivism as a theoretical Model for Adult Learning and the Relevance of

Piaget and Neo-Piagetian theories on adult education. The analysis procedure has two parts, first each article is

summarized and then it is critically reviewed to reflect the current Africa realities on Adult Education. The topics

are discussed in the order of appearing.

1.1 The Theory of Andragogy.

Article Review on Andragogy: Origins, Development and Trends by Serguey I Zmeyov

Zmeyov (1998), a Russian educator who works at Institute of General Education in Moscow has attempted to add

a contribution. It is about solving the problem of low efficiency of using andragogy theory among adult learners.

The author has a valid assumption that in training adult learners the principles at work are those which were

developed to work among children. Furthermore the author acknowledges that although adult education has spread

worldwide due to changes in socio-economic situation, communication avenues as well as the science of education.

However, this spread is ‘misdirected’ by not employing andragogy theory. Due to this Zmeyov has ventured to

systematize andragogy theory by drawing from key philosophers and educators from the western world.

The article has been divided into four sections beginning with introduction; the concept of education as

a service; the theory of andragogy; and further development of andragogy. So these sections are going to be

summarized by the order of appearing. The review highlights the key concepts and then at the end an evaluation

is given.

The author begins the article by defining education as conservative institution with the specific aim of

transmitting social experience to new generations. However, he challenges this institution that it cannot afford to

remain unchangeable as in each day there are new educational needs which need new approaches. The author

contends that the 21st century with its principle of free market has brought unexpected shifts in educational practice.

Whereby in this era adults require to be trained not merely to have knowledge but also have skills to solve the ever

complex problems. The author further defines the characteristics of the 21st century adult learner which includes:

a need for secondary education; needs to be associated with social roles; and a need for a constant desire for

personal development.

Furthermore Zmeyov discusses the concept of education as service. This aspect is important because

education as a service is committed to satisfying the educational needs of the clients by creating a ‘commodity’

which will help the them to solve the 21st century ever changing problems and challenges. The author uses this

section to state the aim of the article which is to systematize andragogy in order to be of service to all learners

throughout the world. The section closes with the assertion that “the practice of adult education and research which

is conducted in different countries appear to demonstrate that adult education requires its own principles and

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technology.”

After that smooth background, the author now shifts to the core aspect of his paper, where he discusses

the origins, development and the trends of andragogy. This section receives a wide chunk in terms of space and

coverage.

The author makes it clear by several inferences that the context of the study is from the country of Russia.

This aspect gives credibility to the author because he discusses issues not from a vacuum but from an informed

local context.

The author gives the meaning of Andragogy by drawing from Greek terms: andros (adult man), ago (I

guide). So andragogy is a new field of human sciences which deals with principles which can make adults learn

effectively in their own terms and not as children. The discussion advances by endorsing that humanity is moving

towards liberation which will bring about the complete human potential. So this trend according to Zymeyov needs

the adult learner not to be passive, but active in the learning process alongside his teacher. At this section the author

does not elaborate further how can the teacher stoop low to reach the level of the adult learner and also how can

the adult learner find confidence to rise high to the level of the teacher who is more informed in the subject matter.

Nevertheless, the article progress by synthesizing ideas from western philosophers and scholars who had

already put a contribution in the theory of andragogy. The author prefers to begin with local scholars in Russia

which can be justified. Since it credible to honor local professionals before advancing beyond the country borders.

He mentions these scholars with their unique contributions. These includes but not limited to: K. D Ushinksy who

formulated a number of characteristics features in adult education which happened in Sunday Schools during the

second half of 19th century. The author also highlights the contribution of N.I Bokariev who lived in the Soviet

era. His contribution was to describe the fundamental assumptions which deal with pedagogy of adults.

Furthermore the author shifts to USA where he highlights the work of J. Dewey. This philosopher put

forward the concepts of experimental and pragmatic learning which heavily influenced the system of education in

that country and abroad. The author also includes the contribution of E. Lindeman who formulated the essential

philosophical assumptions of adult education in 1926. After highlighting several American philosophers, the

author shifts to Germany. Here the author F. Poggeler, B. Samolovcez and Dutchman T. However it is not clear

why he does not mention specifically their contribution apart from a mere mention. Whether this was intentional

omission or a sloppy oversight is unclear, but it weakens the development of the argument.

After survey of theorists from Russia, USA and Germany, the author turns to discuss a person who is

known as the “Father of Andragogy.” This is Malcom S. Knowles, his work was prominent in the 1970s and 80s.

He was an American by origin. The author quotes a short version of Knowles on andragogy which is “the art and

the science of helping the adults learn.” Zmeyov also posits his own definition on Andragogy which is “the theory

of adult learning that sets out the scientific fundamentals of the activities of learners and teachers in planning,

realizing, evaluating and correcting adult learning. After that the author makes a unique contribution by outlining

the fundamentals of adult education. These includes self-directed learning; co-operative activities in learning;

experiential learning; individualization of learning; systemic learning; contextual learning; actualization of the

results of learning; elective learning; development of educational needs and consciousness of learning.

The final aspect in Zmeyov article is dealing with further development of andragogy. Here he re-states

the implied thesis. That adult learners need to be trained in the ‘fundamentals of adult learning,” in order to be

effective in their work. The author gives an example that in Russia, they have begun andragogical training in in a

more large scale. Here theory, technology and psychology of adult learning are blended together in form of

programmes and teaching materials. The author concludes the article by giving an invitation of interested

researchers whether local or international to participate in the development of andragogical theory and practice.

In a nutshell, Zmeyov article appear to have a meticulous analysis on the origins, development and trends

of andragogy. However few aspects could have been improved if he ever publishes the article again. The author

has discussed philosophers mainly from developed countries of Russia, USA and Germany, but he has not dealt

with either middle income or low income countries. We would expect that the author would include at least the

work of Paulo Freire in Brazil or Mwl. Julius Kambarage Nyerere in Tanzania ( (Freire, 2005). These philosophers

had also had a unique experience in terms of adult learning. Moreover, the author has highlighted the work of more

than 20 philosophers, but some of them especially from Germany were simply mentioned their names. In addition

such philosophers are so many to be clustered in a single page! It would be wise to deal with at least 3 and go

deeper, than dealing with 20 be superficial. We may not blame so much the writer but at least if he would have

changed his title to be “ Andragogy: A highlight of Philosophers based on Origins, Developments and Trends.”

The other problem with article is that it seriously lacks adequate references. With the huge of information

condensed therein, there are only 4 sources! Nevertheless Zmeyov’s work still provided the impetus for an ongoing

evolution about the theory and the practice of andragogy in the 21st century.

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1.2 Globalization, Lifelong Learning and Postmodernity

a. Article Review on Lifelong Learning in Late Modernity: The Challenges to Society, Organizations

and Individuals by Hake B J.

Hake (1999) who works at Centre for Learning and Communication at Leiden University, attempts to examine

current theories of late modern societies in terms of their implications for understanding pre-eminence of lifelong

learning. The argument is posited in the late modernity (the late 1990s) where social development made lifelong

learning as a necessary condition for survival. The paper generally deals with lifelong learning in peaceful existing

western economies.

The paper has five sections which are going to be summarized and finally evaluated in the order of

appearing. The sections are introduction; lifelong learning and the learning society: the Emerging research agenda;

lifelong learning and the learning organization; Individual survival: From Identity to Biographical Competences

and Conclusions.

Hake is commended by beginning his article by giving a succinct abstract which shows the aim of the

paper as stated above. The abstract also summarizes the three major sections of the article which are learning as a

society; learning in organizations and learning as an individual. Immediately after the abstract, there follows a

quote by Comenius which says, “every age is destined for learning, nor is any person given other goals in learning

than in life itself.” This quote is placed strategically in order to strengthen the forthcoming arguments. Moreover

right in the first page, the author sets an audacious claim that lifelong learning had become a “hottest” topic in the

public discussion about training adults in the 21st century.

The claim that lifelong learning is among of the hottest topics, is defended fairly by citing key example.

For the purpose of space, few will be referred here. Lifelong learning was a key agenda in Japan as early as 1990s.

Another example is that lifelong learning was featured in the Naples Communique where top seven industrial

nations called for the development of human potential through creation of a culture of lifelong learning. The last

example to be referred here is UNESCO’s medium-term plan for 1995-1997 which focused on “sustainable

development, lifelong learning and peace. These cited examples are among many others which are set to prepare

the reader to enter a very important discussion on lifelong learning which has become a commodity for survival in

developed countries.

After that, the author lands the readers into the main corpus of the work. Hake begins discussing

theoretical perspectives under the subtopic: “lifelong learning and the learning society: the emerging research

agenda. The author evaluates works of three scholars namely Ulrich Beck of Germany; Pierre Bourdieu of France

and Anthony Giddens of United Kingdom. However as the discussion advances it is not clear as to why the author

begins treating the work of Anthony Giddens and not of Ulrich Beck. This reality disturbs the flow of ideas

temporarily.

The author after reviewing Giddens ideas he concludes that, the scholar believes that globalization brings

about detriditionalization because people get new ideas without regard to national borders. Furthermore

globalization confronts societies as they struggle to survive and cope with rapidly changing environment. It is not

clear why Hake did not critique the work of Giddens who did not explain how globalization affects lifelong

learning in a rural sub-Saharan Africa. This region clearly represents third world economies. The author does not

also confess that globalization benefits more of the north part of the globe than the south part. Because in the south,

if you want to estimate how many people in the total population can access internet, you may be surprised. Or how

many people in the south part of the globe could learn while their environments are marked with civil unrest, terror

and poverty.

Later Hake discusses the work of Ulrich Beck. This scholar discusses the importance of social allocation

in lifelong learning sector. The author indicates in the article, that social allocation has often been directed to

traditional formal education. As this section draws to a close, the work of Pierre Bourdieu of France is not discussed

either intentionally or as oversight. This flaw may disturb any keen reader who want to follow the arguments

clearly.

After that Hake devotes another part of the article to address how lifelong learning can occur in

organizations. The author discusses the seminal works of Schon. Schon’s work has been developed to bring about

concepts such as ‘learning business,’ ‘thinking organization,’ ‘learning enterprise’ etc. The author makes it clear

that in many organizations, lifelong learners are seen as threat to organizations and not as opportunities. As a result

there is tension between investment in lifelong learning and individuals’ employability.

Towards the end, Hake discusses individual survival, where the author warns that, ‘individuals have

assume personal responsibility for formulating identities and life courses. The author notes there is a universal

distribution of threats and risks posed by modernization, therefore individuals differently develop the capacity to

organize their identities. While the assertion that there is a universal distribution of risks is true, the author does

not take pains to discuss who are affected most in terms of region, gender status, age etc. This discussion would

have strengthened his argument. For example in the recent example where 238 school girls were kidnaped in

Nigeria by Boko Haram for studying ‘western education.’ One could try to explain how such girls can enhance

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learning in such a situation. It could be necessary to discuss that issues of peace as endorsed in the UNESCO’s

medium-term plan for 1995-1997 will ever remain important especially in the third world countries. As one may

note in this article the issue of peace is not discussed at all as an important factor to make an individual become an

effective lifelong learner.

In the conclusion, Hake proposes a research program devoted these aspects of lifelong learning in the

globalized knowledge society. This research ought to focus on the interplay of societal, organizational and

individual level processes. This conclusion is valid since it captures what has been discussed in the paper. However,

I would propose that the research agenda would also try to focus on the challenges which are faced by lifelong

learners in the third world countries which are currently plagued by abject poverty; civil unrest, reign of terror

caused religious fundamentalists etc. Also research could focus on how a lifelong learner can thrive in informal

organizations.

All in all the article is informative and highly relevant to communities which are living in peaceful post-

industrial nations of Europe and America. The author is encouraged in the future that when he talks about

globalization, he may transcend the European boundaries and reach other parts of the world like Africa. If that will

be done, the coverage will be balanced and holistic. It must be noted that in Africa and other related regions appear

to have different rules of survival for a lifelong learner.

b. Article Review on Adult Learning in a world “on speed ” by Plumb D

Plumb (2000) makes a contribution as he assesses the implications of globalization for social and cultural processes

of education. In essence the paper tries to make it clear that ‘gone are those days’ when adult education depended

on the slow processes of postal delivery. The author makes it clear that we are in the era of ‘internet speed and

efficiency. In this era both the adult learners, the adult trainers and institutions associated with are called to have

a radical change. The author of article was working with Mount Saint Vincent University in Canada at the time of

writing.

The author does well to begin with an abstract which states the aim of the study noted above. The abstract

gives a reader an important warning that if adult educators will ever continue to understand the world by using

geographical categories of modernity, they will essentially be ill prepared with forms of domination consolidating

in the global age.

The author begins with introduction where he posits several questions such as what role remains for

those on social and cultural processes we know about adult education. Will they be commodified informatics of

global economy? Will they offer a passkey to an emergent elite? Will they persist as a critical and emancipatory

impulse devoted to triggering democratic competences?

After those challenging questions, the author returns to discuss how space and time affects adult

education. Here the author argues that space and time in modernity is no longer confined in Fordist production

processes. But it has become a complex hybrid of inter-weavings where people must negotiate in order to belong

together as democratic citizens in the learning process.

Towards the end of the article, the author also makes clear that adult education in the world of speed

must be affordable to as many people as possible, otherwise for those who are not prepared of this must re-imagine

their terms in the world which is marked by globalization speed.

The article is applauded for being abstract in taking adult education in that philosophical approach.

However, I contend that such articles are of little use (if any). The article arguments in most cases are not logical.

One may fail to understand why the author has chosen to discuss about capitalism as if it is the only political

system that is available. Also one may be surprised when the author is discussing the idea having domination in

global era! Is this the aim of adult education according to key theorists like M. S Knowles? I think their aim was

to make each adult learner be self-directed lifelong learner and not to become a dominating person. It is not clear

why the author uses a difficult language which may make a reader to strain in process of to getting the intended

meaning. I think the aim of education is to transmit knowledge, skills and values in a clearer manner than otherwise.

1.3 Models of Adult Learning Facilitation

1.3.1 The Contribution of Malcom Knowles to Adult Learning Facilitation.

Article Review on the Adult Learner: Neglected no More by Chris Lee

Lee (1998) makes a useful tribute to Malcom Knowles as the ‘Father of Andragogy’ as attested by theory and

practice. Lee at the time of writing this article was working as the managing director of the Training Magazine.

So the language used here is learner-friendly and highly practical, the author is commended for this.

The article begins with a very important quote; “Many current ideas about workplace training build on

the foundations laid by Malcom Knowles. His theory of Andragogy describes the art and science of helping adults

learn.” This quote serves as an ice breaker to prepare the reader for understanding about the unique contribution

of Malcom Knowles.

This Magazine article begins mentioning the death date of Malcom Knowles. He died in November 27,

1997 at the age of 84. His death apart from bringing sadness in adult education circles, it caused an outpouring of

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tributes which could be summed that Malcom Knowles was a “Father of Adult learning.” It appears that Lee was

also inspired by these tributes which were reflected in website of the Training Magazine, to an extent he also

decided to write this article.

The author recognizes the contribution of Malcom Knowles first in education. Malcom had various

educational training which included his master degree in 1949 and his PhD in 1960, both from University of

Chicago. Moreover Malcom was the founding executive director of Adult Education Association of USA. He

worked as a professor of adult education in various universities which includes Boston University from 1960-1974;

North Carolina University until 1979. Lee also includes the awards which Malcom Knowles was recognized. These

includes but not limited to TRAINING Magazine’s HRD Hall of Fame in 1985; International Adult and Continuing

Education.

However, the most important section of the article is when the author makes it clear that Malcom

published at least 19 books on adult training. The author makes a quick review of the two most excelling books

which includes the Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy (1970). This book

according to the author of this article rests on four basic assumptions which are Self-concept where children self-

concept is different from that of adults. The adults usually are more self-directing. The other assumption is

Experience where adults are differentiated from children in the sense that they usually have a vast accumulated

reservoir of experience which they bring into learning. The last assumption in the book is Orientation to learning,

here Malcom claims children tend to be subject –centered but adults are problem centered.

The other book reviewed by Lee is Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning

(1984). In this book, Malcom added the fifth assumption where adults are seen to be more motivated to learn by

internal factors, such us increased self-esteem, than external rewards such as pay raises and promotion.

Towards the end of the article Lee explains that Malcom Knowles was a practical person, whatever he

theorized for adult education, he lived it. The following quote demonstrates this fact: “His beliefs about adult

learning played out in his practice—and congruence between theory and practice is not the usual thing in a scholar.”

In essence author has accomplished the aim which was to celebrate the contribution of Malcom Knowles

in the theory and practice of andragogy. These tributes were meant to comfort the mourners of this world figure.

However, the author would have done well to mention the major critics of Malcom’s ideas on adult learning. The

article would have sounded better also to recognize his low points as a father of adult learning. This would help

the reader to understand that Malcom Knowles was by no way a “superman.” But a normal human being who was

simply committed to leave a legacy behind in the field of adult education, and he made it!

1.3.2 Constructivism as a Theoretical Framework for Adult Learning Facilitation

Article Review on Constructivism: A Paradigm for Adult Learners by Spigner-Littles D and Anderson, CE

The authors of this article who are Spigner-Littles & Anderson (1999) were both working with University of

Oklahoma at the time of writing this magnificent peace of work. This work is not only down to earth practical, but

it builds from their vast reservoir of experience as adult trainers who are learner centered. The article begins with

an abstract which asserts that, “Older learners tend to be highly motivated especially when favorably predisposed

toward the learning process. This idea is ‘faithfully maintained throughout the article.

Immediately after the abstract, the authors state beautifully the problem and the aim of the paper. The

problem is that; “Educators are concerned about the educational needs of older learners and have frequently sought

to develop teaching and learning theories which will improve the condition.” Then later the authors declare that,

they join the body of educators to share theories and methodologies born out of experience in order to make older

learners enjoy the learning process. The following quote by the authors demonstrate ‘the experience factor:’ “Our

experiences have led us to conclude that older learners respond best to collaborative learning environments, in

which the instructor and the students provide and share information.”

After the introduction, the article transitions smoothly to a subtitle: Cognitive Learning and

Constructivism. In this section, the authors recognize key scholars in the constructivism theory. These are Piaget,

Jerome Bruner among others. According to the constructivism theory, the authors argue that “knowledge is

something that individuals construct for themselves using their previous experiences and derived knowledge and

understanding as building blocks.”

Furthermore, this section, the authors outline 4 instructional methodologies which work closely with the

above definition. These first include1) help learners to develop new skills 2) challenge learners pre-conceived

notions, attitudes and beliefs 3) help learners to revise their worldviews and 4) encourage and promote self-

regulation in the learning process. I concur fully to these instructional methodologies, they have worked in my

classes where I usually deal with adult learners.

After that, the authors discuss 5 ideas under the subtopic of creating learning environments for older

learners. These includes 1) when introduced to new subject matter, most learners learn by comparing past

experiences with new experiences. 2) That older learners tend to be emotionally attached to beliefs, knowledge,

values and worldviews developed over a period of many years. And that even confronted with irrefutable

information they will tend to reject it. 3) That older learners need creative learning strategies which encourage

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flexibility and participation. 4) That older learners prefers instructors to play the function of facilitators and coaches

to lecturers. 5) That some older learners could prefer traditional teaching methodologies where lecturing and

feedback are important.

In the conclusion part the authors assert that; “we have found that older learners respond best in a positive

and trusting classroom environment; one which all students are made to feel welcomed, comfortable and respected.

The major strengths of this article is that it is born and bathed out of the experience of authors. Also the

authors make fair use of other scholarly views. They do not simply quote their ideas, but engage them appropriately.

Also the language used is reader friendly. However an area of improvement could be that the authors were

supposed to discuss rival ideas of constructivism such as perennialism, essentialism etc (Ornstein, 2011). The

authors would also do well to discuss the weaknesses (if any) in theory of constructivism.

1.3.3 The Relevance of Piaget’s Theory of Learning and Stage Theory for Adult Learning Facilitation.

Article Review on the Application of Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian Ideas to further and Higher Education

by Sutherland P.

Sutherland (1999) makes a unique contribution by endeavoring to make an application of Piegetian and Neo-

Pigetian experiential learning theories to higher education. He manages this task by conducting empirical research

and also by synthesizing the work of other key theorists in the area.

The author was a lecturer in the department of Lifelong learning within the Institute of Education at

University of Stirling. So his many years of lecturing coupled with the experience in empirical research together

make the aspects of this article.

The paper has an abstract which summarizes appropriately the main ideas entailed in the paper. The

author opens up with a quote, “While the theme of youth is flexibility, the hallmark of adulthood is commitment

and responsibility.” (Labouvie-Vief 1980). This quote is not only informative but it appears to capture what the

author wants to communicate in the entire article.

The paper is divided into 4 sections namely introduction, Piaget’s theory of learning, other theorists of

adult learning and conclusions. These subtopics are reviewed in the order of appearing.

The introduction section acknowledges that Piaget’s biologically based theory was originally intended

for children and adolescents and not for adults. So an attempt to apply these ideas to adult learners is a ‘paradigm

shift’ to what Piaget had intended. Since the author is going to apply these ideas to adults, he makes clear the

intended adult age will be 16-21 year olds as students/apprentices; 23-39 year olds as young adults; 40-65 year

olds as middle aged and 66+ as old adults. The author also indicates that UK, adult age begins legally at 18. This

age is also seen as a transition from high school to university. This introduction section is meaningful and it

prepares a logical flow further arguments.

After that the author decides to give a preview of Piaget’s theory of learning before entering the plane

of application. This is a logical expectation for any author who understands the value of coherence. The author

notes that Piaget theorized that there are two mechanisms in which individuals learn. First is when new materials

is assimilated by learners whether adult or child. Second is when this new material is modified in order to stay in

the memory, then that process is accommodation.

Furthermore the author outlines Piaget’s stage theory which has four ‘periods.’ These are 1) Sensori-

motor activity i.e using hands with no control by language (-0 to 2 yrs); 2)Pre-operation activity (2-7); 3)

Operational thought. This period is divided into subsections, these are Concrete operations (7 to 11) and Formal

operations (11 years onwards). It is noteworthy that these ideas are enshrined in curriculum in many parts of the

world.

After building a background, the also now transitions to the major part of the paper which deals with

application of Piaget’s theory. The author discusses Kohlberg views who advanced Piaget’s theory beginning

from the formal operations stage. This person specialized on morality and cognitive ability. He formulated three

periods which are: preconceived morality, where adults act to avoid punishment or they act for mutual benefit.

The other period is conventional morality, where adults acts mechanically because it has been a tradition to do so.

The last period postconventional morality, this aspect refers when an adult act because it is right and appropriate

to do so.

Moreover the author includes the ideas of Labouvie who took a different approach in applying the

learning theory. This woman, theorized that mature adults have the ability to relate to the abstract thoughts (formal

operations) to everyday life. This section though it appears to be good, but it lacked deeper explanation.

The last scholar in the Neo-Piagetian theorists, is Peel. This person theorized that theme of the youth is

flexibility, however, the hallmark of adulthood commitment and responsibility. In this period, mature adults are

expected pursue careers, form intimacy bonds, raise children. Moreover in this part of life, adults tend to make

deliberate choices for what they want whether good or bad.

The other category of theorists are those synthesize Piaget’s ideas with those of others. The author

includes the ideas of Kolb who linked Piaget’s stages to the notion of experience based curricula for adult learners.

Lovienger argued that adults are to constantly re-accommodate or re-assimilate until they reach the equilibrium of

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their lives. The last theorist in this category is Pascual Leone who also put forward 4 periods which apply to adult

life. These are late formal, pre-dialectical, dialectical and transdental.

The last category of theorists to be discussed are those who took a completely different alternative to

Piaget. The cited example by the author is Perry who came out with 3 important ideas. These were first, adults

tend to have emphasis on qualitative than quantitative in terms of developmental change. Secondly, adults tend to

prefer constructing their own knowledge. And lastly adults exhibit formal operations because it is their mode of

thinking.

After synthesizing the ideas of all theorists in the paper, the author proposes various aspects, but the

most notable ones are, when dealing with adults there must be a stress on learning by doing or move from visual

to material. The last significant application according to the writer is that when the teacher is not sure on the stage

of the student; it is advisable to begin with learner’s experiences, thereafter proceed to abstract approaches.

As noted earlier the author has brought a unique contribution by synthesizing the ideas of Piagetians and

Neo-Piagetians. Moreover, he added also his own contribution too. However, the part of the article which could

be improved in the one on application. The author spends most of the paper discussions about the Piaget theory,

but spends little space+to deal with the application which is found in the title of the paper. You may be surprised

a theorists like Perry and Papalia are covered in just 3 lines!

1.4 The Implications of Andragogical Models for Adult Learning Facilitation

The effect of Malcom ideas in Tanzania system of education are yet to be fully realized. Because most of our

scholars have learned these ideas not as a full academic programme but as a course or a topic. As a result adults in

formal, non-formal and informal settings are taught in subject centered approaches and not in problem centered

approach. Moreover adult learning approaches have been ‘reduced’ to literacy. This happened was back in 1967

when truly the country had low literacy rates. But for almost four decades later, this definition has refused to

change in the minds of people. This reality shows how much need to be done to improve the current situation

( (Mhando, 2012).

The implication of constructivism ideas in the Tanzania curriculum so far are theoretical. In all

curriculum statements for secondary as well as teacher education the concept of constructivism is at least seen.

However its practice is far from reality. This could be a result of many causes but not limited to teacher motivation,

big classes, few learning equipment etc ( (Justin, 2013).

The effect of Piaget theory for adult learning is at least under application. The learners in high school

are basically taught in abstract concepts. However the Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian theories are a new phenomenon

at least according to my observation. I have noted through observation in university setting that lecturers are

comfortable to call students as ‘kids!’ This also shows how these theories needs to be given an attention that is

worthwhile.

1.5 Personal Views Regarding Facilitating Adult Learners

All the views discussed in this paper are groundbreaking in the field of adult education. It is noteworthy that these

views were born in the western contexts. Where the learning environment is optimally sufficient in terms of

infrastructure; the teachers are adequately trained; the environment is also peaceful. But in Tanzania and the rest

of sub-Saharan Africa, things are different. The infrastructure in both rural and urban are typically below the world-

class standards; some teachers are employed either without training or are trained in poor environments and also

to make it critical, there is a rising wave of terrorist events such as those done by Al Qaeda, Al- Shabab and Boko-

Haram. In such settings one may wish to ask how African scholars can apply Malcom Knowles ideas? How can

African Scholars apply constructivism ideas? And how can African Scholars apply Neo-Piagetian ideas. I therefore

give a call to African academics in adult learning to push boundaries further in the field of andragogy in order to

be applicable in the current socio-political and economic realities.

1.6 Conclusion

The paper was geared to synthesize a theoretical basis for adult learning facilitation in order to provide a valuable

systematic resource in the field of adult education. The paper has reviewed 6 journal articles with topics ranging

from theory of andragogy; the effect of globalization on adult learning; the contribution of Malcom Knowles;

Constructivism as a theoretical Model for Adult Learning and the Relevance of Piaget and Neo-Piagetian theories

on adult education. Each article was first summarized and then it was critically reviewed to reflect the current

Africa realities on Adult Education. The overall finding is that African scholars have not been in the forefront in

contributing towards theories of adult learning facilitation. The key theorists like Malcom Knowles, John Dewey,

and Piaget are among many others who were born and trained in the west. So they theorized according to their

own contexts. So the paper emphasizes again for the need for African academics in adult learning to push

boundaries further in the field of andragogy in order to be applicable in the current socio-political and economic

realities.

Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org

ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)

Vol.6, No.31, 2015

61

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Mussa S. Muneja is a recipient of the award of Postgraduate HIV and AIDS Student Research Champion from

University of Botswana (2014). He was awarded a Sabbatical Leave Scholarship Fund by University of Arusha

(2012). He is currently a lecturer at the School of Postgraduate Studies at University of Arusha. He holds a

doctorate in Theology, obtained at University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa. He is expecting to

have a Masters in Education in 2015 by the same University.