8 Slide Powerpoint Presentation (with graphics) comparing two humanities: Egypt & Mesopotamia
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Egypt1.pptxAncient Egypt
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The Civilization of the Nile River Valley: Egypt
Geography – Isolated by deserts on both sides.
The Nile’s periodic flooding made civilized life possible in Egypt. During drought or famine, Egypt was the place to go because Egypt always has water (cf. the story of Joseph and his brothers in Genesis).
The kingdom was divided into two parts: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt (Upper Egypt is in the south), with Lower Egypt being a bit more cosmopolitan than Upper Egypt.
Unlike Mesopotamia, stone was plentiful.
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Pre-Dynastic Egypt: There is some evidence that very early on (3400-3200 BC), Egypt was influenced by Mesopotamia (corresponds to Jemnet Nasr period at Uruk). The evidence includes:
the use of rectangular sun-dried mud-brick in building,
the use of cylinder seals only during this time (Egypt usually used stamp-seals before and after this period),
pictographic writing (the “idea” comes from Mesopotamia),
the idea of kingship, social stratification and specialization,
certain kinds of painted pottery,
and pictures of twisted animals and battling with animals.
This contact may explain Egypt’s sudden explosion into a complex, advanced civilization with writing. The use of mud-brick is peculiar, noting the abundance of stone. There is evidence, however, that the development begins in Upper Egypt (i.e., the south). Two distinct cultures, the Upper, with social stratification and royal artistic expression, etc., and the Lower, with contacts in Palestine, etc.
Egypt seems to go from the Neolithic to a complex civilization overnight. Linear development is not apparent. Agriculture appears to be introduced from outside.
The Pharaoh (the king) is somehow responsible for the yearly success of the Nile. His throne was Isis, the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus. The king is identified with Horus.
Egypt seeks to portray changeless continuity over thousands of years. This is somewhat true, but not entirely accurate. Ancient Egypt went through a few periods of relative chaos or lack of centralized power. Egypt, however, as is well known, chose not to usually record such periods for posterity.
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Map of Egypt
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Egyptian history begins with King Narmer
Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt
He is likely the same person as Menes
Mizraim is often the Hebrew name for Egypt
The combination of the two crowns appears.
This is the beginning of the First Dynasty, and of Egyptian history
He established his capital at the new city of Memphis (= neutral ground)
It was a new city, said to have arisen out of the ground when Narmer diverted the Nile.
The royal burial grounds of Saqqara and Giza are located nearby.
The uniting of Egypt is commemorated on the Palette of King Narmer (fig. 2.3)
Egyptian artistic canon for relief figures is manifested:
head and feet in profile, with one foot forward, but eye and shoulders shown frontally (cf. fig. 2.2)
This is the beginning of Egypt’s Bronze Age
It is also the beginning of Egyptian writing, called Egyptian hieroglyphic.
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Palette of Narmer (fig. 2.3)
Celebrates the uniting of Egypt (c. 3100 B.C.)
Also the beginning of the Bronze Age.
Style = Utilizes the register system. No setting (landscape, city, etc.). King is larger than the others, and the canon of two-dimensional representation is followed:
Head in profile, but eye front-facing.
Shoulders facing forward.
Legs and feet in profile, one foot forward.
Religion of Egypt
Polytheistic: like Mesopotamia, worship of particular deities centered in particular cities.
Egypt has no eschatology (things just go on), nor concept of resurrection (early on).
The theocratic state: The king was thought to be divine.
In the early dynasties, he was identified with Horus, son of Osiris (the king becomes Osiris after death).
The king is linked later in time with Amun-Re (Re is the sun-god).
“Son” of Amun-Re increasing during 12th Dynasty.
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The promise of immortality
Ka (p. 19): Presence of the departed at tomb. The body must be preserved to preserve the ka. Mummification and image of the person is understood as involving the ka.
Pray to the ka for help and vengeance.
The deceased is offered food and beverage. The mastabas of Saqqara have “low flat altar[s]” for providing “fresh provisions” (Edwards 51).
Osiris myth: Osiris, lord of the west (the underworld): symbol of Pharaonic death and resurrection, and from the Middle Kingdom on, of others. There is a judgment of the dead, as found in the Instruction to King Merikare (2100 BC).
The issue of Osiris’ “resurrection”: it is not a resurrection.
Book of the Dead
Cult of Isis: Cf. Mary as Theotokos and Rev 13.
By the end of the Old Kingdom, private people were taking on rights of kings; liturgies of the pyramid texts were altered to accommodate private citizens.
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Timeline for Ancient Egypt
| Early Dynastic Period (Dynasties I-II) | 3100-2686 BC | Palette of King Narmer |
| Old Kingdom (Dynasties III-VI) | 2686-2181 BC | The Pyramid Age |
| First Intermediate Period (Dynasties VII-X) | 2180-2040 BC | |
| Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI-XII) | 2040-1730 BC | Power centered at Thebes |
| Second Intermediate Period (Dynasties XIII-XVII) | 1730-1550 BC | The Hyksos rise to power (Semitic connections) |
| New Kingdom (Dynasties XVIII-XX) | 1550-1080 BC | Powerful, chariot-borne pharaoh; Valley of the Kings |
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Egyptian hieroglyphic (from the Book of the Dead)
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Egyptian Dynasties
The Egyptian “Dynasties” are recorded by Manetho, who wrote a chronology of these dynasties (30 in all) around 3rd cent. BC. He is significant because his chronology lines up fairly well with the Turin Canon of about the 19th cent. BC. He, thus, accurately represents New Kingdom historical understanding of Egypt’s history. The end of a dynasty tends to mean the end of a family.
The first two dynasties are buried at Abydos, the seat of Osiris. Isis (formerly Hathor – goddess of heaven) is his wife; Horus (the falcon deity) is Isis’ son.
Memphis is ideologically the city of kingship, and is situated on the west bank of the Nile from nearby Heliopolis (which had a rival mythology) on the eastern side.
Lunar calendar (total of three in use). Egypt’s year was 365 days long.
First Dynasty mastaba (Saqqara)
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Mastaba A stone structure over a low mound of earth. Based on house plan. Oriented to the cardinal points of the compass. Chapel area as place for offerings; false door.
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Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty (2686-2613 BC): True rise of pharaonic Egypt (related to previous dynasty through daughter). Capital at Memphis (local deity was Ptah), and stayed that way through the rest of the Old Kingdom.
Most famous king is King Djoser, who built the Step Pyramid of Saqqara (Sakkareh), said to be designed by Imhotep, his chief minister, who was a true polymath (i.e., a person of great and varied learning).
As a physician, Imhotep came to be identified later with the Greek deity of medicine, Asclepius.
Beginning of solar cult at Heliopolis (Egyptian name is On; see Joseph story and Potiphera; present Cairo). Re-Atum, the Sun god, generated himself from Nun, primordial ocean (Edwards 24). Incorporated cult of Osiris, for both are representative of death and afterlife.
Zoser Complex (fig. 2.7)
Stepped Pyramid of Djoser (Zoser; c. 2600 BC; Third Dynasty)
* Also known as the Step Pyramid of Saqqara
* The earliest version of the pyramid
* Said to be designed by Imhotep, his chief minister.
* The model may have been the Mesopotamian ziggurat, and developed from the mastaba form.
* 204 feet high. The base measures 358 to 411 feet.
* Note that it is built on the west bank of the Nile.
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Zoser (found in Step Pyramid)
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The True Pyramids
Old Kingdom: Fourth Dynasty (2613-2494 BC): True pyramids
The true pyramids are an Old Kingdom phenomenon
The first is Seneferu’s at Dahshur, not far from Saqqara, on the west bank of the Nile (part of the Memphite necropolis)
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The Giza complex
Three major pyramids outside of Cairo (fig. 2.8 – 2.11)
Cheops (Khufu)
Cephren (Khafre; c. 2500 BC)
Mycerinus (Menkare; c. 2470 BC)
Cephren Pyramid Casing Stones (top of middle pyramid)
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Passages of the Great Pyramid
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Passages of the Pyramids
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Great Pyramid Grand Gallery
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Great Pyramid Sarcophagus
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The Mesopotamian ziggurat and the Egyptian pyramid compared
Ziggurat
Mud-brick
Temple to living deity
Breaks down over time
Symbolic of Mesopotamia’s kingdoms: here today and gone tomorrow
Pyramid
Stone
Tomb for dead Pharaoh
Built for “forever”
Symbolic of Egypt’s value of changeless continuity
The Sphinx (fig. 2.5)
The Sphinx – Colossal guardian of the dead.
“[E]arliest surviving colossal statue” (Fiero 25)
Lion and man (or woman?).
240 feet long, 66 feet high, width of 13 feet, 8 inches.
Cut out of the bedrock
Situated near the pyramid of Khafre (= Giza pyramid complex).
Dates to c. 2500 BC?
Edwards (140). It has suffered from erosion; beyond this, the head appears too small for the body, and thus perhaps it has been reworked
Napoleon’s men used it for target practice
Undecorated Sphinx Temple and Valley Temple nearby, the latter built with post-and-lintel construction with enormous walls of limestone capped with red granite ashlars (megalithic).
The word “Sphinx” may be from Shesep-ankh (“living image”)
Egyptian art = art of death (Fleming); mummy cases, stone sarcophagi, death masks, sculptured portraits, pyramids, and tombs.
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Valley Building of Cephren (Giza)
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Statue of Mycerinus The Egyptian canon for sculpture in the round: 1. Left leg forward 2. Fists clenched 3. Countenance not reflecting emotion 4. Influenced ancient Greek sculpture 5. Idealized representation 6. Quite an advance in representational art
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Tomb of Pepi II
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Egyptian Bull Heads
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Middle Kingdom (2040-1730 BC)
Occurs after the end of the First Intermediate Period.
Begins with the 12th Dynasty (Theban in origin)
The rise of Thebes: Mentuhotep II unites the country.
Larger than life statues of pharaoh, emphasizing power.
Rise of Amen cult, a local deity; now connected with Re.
Palace at Itj-towy, near Memphis.
Still uses a vizier, an administrative executive.
Efficient oversight of taxation and dues. Mining in Sinai.
Sinuhe indicates overall peaceful relations with Levant.
Fortresses in the south to protect against Nubia.
High point of Egyptian literature.
The Second Intermediate Period
Thirteenth Dynasty: Capital at Itj-towy.
Beginning of Second Intermediate Period.
Problems with the Nile diminished reputation of Pharaoh
The end of the 13th Dynasty is “the blast of god smote us” in the reign of Tutimaios (Manetho via Josephus), which ends Egyptian isolation from Asia.
Lots of kings (50-60 between 1786 and 1648 BC) from varied backgrounds, some of foreign origin. Incredible political Instability.
Egypt eventually became dominated by foreign Semitic rulers called the Hyksos. They are the “6 shepherds” of Manetho and the “6 chieftains of foreign countries” of the Turin Canon.
The Hyksos
Hyksos are the rulers of the 15th Dynasty (c. 1648-1540 BC, during the Second Intermediate Period).
the Rule of the Foreign Kings, or Shepherd Kings
Cf. Genesis 47:3: “Pharaoh asked the brothers, ‘What is your occupation?’ ‘Your servants are shepherds,’ they replied to Pharaoh, ‘just as our fathers were.’” Pharaoh then ordered them to be settled in Goshen (Nile delta).
Their capital was Avaris in the eastern Nile delta.
Kings took on traditional Egyptian titles; marriages between Avaris and Thebes
Was it a gradual infiltration or sudden invasion?
It is debated if the Hyksos controlled Thebes.
Avaris paintings of bull-leaping (contact with Crete). Minoan style wall paintings.
Temple structure is Asiatic (Bietak).
Links to the Levant.
The Hyksos introduced the use of bronze weapons and war-chariots, as well as the composite bow.
New weaving methods.
Humped-backed bulls; olive and pomegranate trees. Donkey-burials (cf. Lachish and Jericho).
The New Kingdom
The Hyksos were expelled c. 1540 BC.
Kamose (last ruler of the 17th Dynasty based at Thebes) attacked the Hyksos.
The attack protruded into southern Palestine.
The Theban 18th Dynasty is the first of the New Kingdom.
High-point of Egyptian imperialism. Capital at Thebes.
Emphasis on “younger king” who is a warrior, represented as punishing Egypt’s enemies. In international relations, Pharaoh not unique; overall cordial relations with other major rulers. King as divine son of Amun-re (Kuhrt 215).
Egypt (and Kush) are reorganized as a militaristic state. Introduction of chariot-warfare.
Some of the great temples date to this period, such as at Karnak (near Thebes)
New Kingdom architecture
Valley of the Kings near Thebes. Elaborate rock-cut royal tombs on the west bank of the Nile. Tut’s tomb found here.
The Funerary Temple: Temples important during this period. A great example is the temple/tomb complex of Hatshepsut near Luxor, which is near Thebes
Built with post-and-lintel construction; hidden sanctuary in a cliff.
The tomb and the funerary temple were greatly separated.
One does not find pyramids at Luxor (contra Las Vegas).
Notable New Kingdom rulers
Amenophis I (1527-1507 BC)
Tuthmosis I (1507-1494 BC): Moved the capital from Thebes to Memphis. Power consolidation. He was buried across the Nile from Thebes at the Valley of the Kings. He was the first to be buried there.
Tuthmosis II: married Hatshepsut, his half-sister.
Notable New Kingdom rulers
Hatshepsut (1490-1469): daughter of Tuthmosis I. Widow of Tuthmosis II (half-sister).
“She employed pharaonic titles, wore male royal dress, such as the ceremonial beard, used her daughter, Neferure, to act ritually as queen and was acknowledged as ‘king’ by her officials” (Kuhrt 191).
Reigned 22 years. Co-reigned with Tuthmosis III.
Campaigns (successful) into Nubia and probably s. Palestine. Organized expedition to Punt.
Her funerary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes is quite impressive.
Acted as regent for husband’s son Tuthmosis III, who ascended the throne without a problem upon her death, though “some of her monuments were defaced” by him. Because she is removed from inscriptions, it is difficult to determine all she did.
Notable New Kingdom rulers
Tuthmosis III (1490-1436 BC): Son of Tuthmosis II.
Classic model of NK warrior-pharaoh. 17 campaigns over 20 years. Claimed most of Palestine.
Made treaty with Hittites. Treaty with Mesopotamians.
Amenophis II (1438-1412 BC):
Deported to Egypt many from Syro-Pal. and made slaves of them (Late Bronze in Palestine is sparsely populated and lacks wealth).
Amenophis III (1403-1364 BC). Son of Tuthmosis IV.
Enjoyed a long reign (almost 40 years) as a result of his predecessor’s treaty with Mitanni (married two Mitanni princesses). It was “a time of peace and prosperity” (Kuhrt 194). Contributed to Amarna Letters.
Small temple at Soleb shows him worshipping himself.
His most famous wife was Queen Tiye, perhaps a Nubian or commoner of high regard.
The Amarna Revolution in the New Kingdom: A political, artistic and religious revolution
Centered around Amenophis IV, who became known as Akhenaten (his wife was Nefertiti; Tutankhamun may have been his brother)
A new capital: at today’s el-Amarna
A new style of art (figs. 2.1, 2.16, 2.17)
Sentimental scenes of the royal family
Akhenaten as androgynous
A new religion
The sun disk (the Aten) was to be solely worshipped
Note the change in the names from Amen to Aten
Note The Hymn to the Aten (Reading 2.1)
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Akhenaten and the Amarna Revolution
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Queen Nefertiti
Head of Nefertiti: found at Amarna. Extremely famous.
Late New Kingdom rulers
Rameses II (1290-1224 BC; 19th Dynasty). Long reign (67 years).
Warrior and builder.
Refounding of Avaris as royal and dynastic capital (Per-Ramses, “The House of Rameses”).
Fought Hittites at Battle of Kadesh.
One of the primary candidates for the pharaoh of the Exodus.
Merneptah (1224-1204 BC):
Helped the Hittites during their famine.
Campaigned in s. Palestine.
Fought the Sea-Peoples in his fifth year (1209 BC; inscription at Karnak).
His stele, the Merneptah Stele, mentions “Israel.”
The Rosetta Stone (p. 12, fig. 0.16)
Found by one of Napoleon Bonaparte’s engineers at Rosetta, Egypt.
Black Granite 45” x 24”
A trilingual inscription in Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphic
demotic = simplified Egyptian writing
The text commemorates the first anniversary of the accession of Ptolemy V (196 BC).
It was the cartouches that allowed a comparison with Greek
Deciphered after 23 years by Jean Champollion, and the results published in 1822.
Opened up an understanding of Egypt.
Note that elite writing lasts
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Nubia / Kush
Nubia: possible source of certain aspects of Egyptian culture
Another Nile River culture
Kush = biblical Cush
Meroë as capital
“[F]irst literate urban civilization to appear in Africa south of the Sahara” (Fiero 60).
Traders
2000-1700 BC: threat to Egypt, thus fortresses by Sesotris I
1700 BC: Kerma Culture: mass burial and sacrifice.
Ruled Egypt 750-660 BC
Emphasis on the god Amun
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Nubia / Kush & W. Sudan
King Shabaqo bronze statue (fig. 2.23)
Amon and the ram’s horns
The Nok Culture of w. Sudan (1st mill. BC)
Terracotta head (fig. 2.24)
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Major categories of understanding
Cosmology (and New Year)
The deity / deities (and worship)
Polytheism
Monotheism
Life and death
The cycle of birth and death (and re-birth)
Fertility
Sacred space
Rulership
Social structure
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Works Cited
Edwards, I. E. S. The Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. Print.
Fiero, Gloria K. The Humanistic Tradition Volume 2: The Early Modern World to the Present. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.
Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East c. 3000-330 BC. 2 Vols. New York: Routledge, 1995. Print.
