Early Childhood Historical Views Report

Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education Building a Foundation

Su e Bredeka m p Early Childhood Education Consultant

Third Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bredekamp, Sue. Effective practices in early childhood education : building a foundation / Sue Bredekamp, Early Childhood Education Consultant. — Third edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-395670-2—ISBN 0-13-395670-9 1. Early childhood education—United States. 2. Child development—United States. I. Title. LB1140.23.B72 2015 372.21—dc23

2015029580

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Student Edition ISBN 10: 0-13-395670-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-395670-2

Loose-Leaf Version ISBN 10: 0-13-411549-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-411549-8

REVEL eBook ISBN 10: 0-13-430324-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-430324-6

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To Joe Bredekamp, for a lifetime of love, friendship, wonderful memories, and tolerance of craziness, and to Darby whose unconditional love enriches our lives every day.

Dedication

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About the author Dr. Sue Bredekamp is an early childhood education specialist from the Washington, D.C., area who serves as a consultant on developmentally appropriate practice, curricu- lum, teaching, and teacher education for state and national organizations such as NAEYC, Head Start, the Council for Professional Recognition, and Sesame Street. From 1981 to 1998, she was Director of Accreditation and Professional Development for NAEYC where she developed and directed their national accreditation system for early childhood centers and schools. Dr. Bredekamp is the editor of NAEYC’s best-selling, highly influential publi- cation, Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs.

Dr. Bredekamp is Chair of the Board of the HighScope Educational Research Foun- dation. She was a member of the National Research Council’s (NRC) Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, which produced a landmark report, Mathematics in Early Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity. Dr. Bredekamp serves on several advisory boards and is a frequent keynote speaker and author of numerous books and articles re- lated to standards for professional practice and teacher education. She has been a visiting lecturer at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia; Monash University in Melbourne; University of Alaska; and University of Hawaii. She holds a PhD in Curriculum and In- struction from the University of Maryland. The McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership at National Louis University recognized Dr. Bredekamp with its Visionary Leadership Award in 2014. For 45 years, Dr. Bredekamp has worked for and with young children toward the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of early childhood education programs.

About the contributor Dr. Kathleen (Kate) Cranley Gallagher is an educational psychologist and scientist at Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at University of North Caro- lina at Chapel Hill. She is a Clinical Associate Professor in the School of Education at UNC, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate early childhood professionals. Dr. Gallagher has herself been an early childhood professional for over 30 years; she has taught in and administered diverse programs for children birth to 8 years of age, with and without disabilities. Dr. Gallagher’s publications and applied work focus on developing, implementing and evaluating evidence-based interventions to support social- emotional well-being and development for young children, their families and early childhood pro- fessionals. Dr. Gallagher has served on state advisory panels, developing standards and assessments for early childhood education and health and is a founding member of the North Carolina Infant Mental Health Association. She developed Be Well to Teach Well, a program designed to support the well-being and of early childhood professionals. Dr. Gallagher is an accomplished teacher and frequently invited speaker nationally, and presented a keynote address at the International Preschool Teachers’ Conference in Hangzhou, China as a guest of Zhejiang Normal University. She delivered a TEDx talk, entitled, The Healthy Child: Assembly Required in which Dr. Gallagher argued that the single most important feat of construction that our society undertakes is the assembly required to build physically, emotionally, cognitively, and socially healthy children. She lives in Carrboro, North Carolina, with her husband, John, and enjoys time with her two adult children, Jack and Bridget.

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v

In the previous editions of this book, I described the challenge of my first day of

teaching preschool in a child care center many years ago. It was the hardest job I have ever

had, primarily because my bachelor’s degree in English did not prepare me for it. I didn’t

know enough about child development, how and what to teach, how to communicate with

families, how to positively guide children’s behavior—the list goes on and on. Feeling com-

pletely incompetent, I seriously thought about not going back the next day. Then I realized

that although I had a choice not to return, the children did not. They deserved a better

teacher than I was at that time. As a result, I continued teaching, went back to school, and

set out to learn as much as possible about child development and how best to teach young

children. And I have been learning ever since. In short, my initial motivation in writing

this book was a personal one—to help ensure that new teachers get off to a better start

than I did and that the children do, too.

In the decades since I entered the early childhood profession, however, there has been

an explosion of new knowledge and research, and a huge increase in public recognition

and support for early education. A great many parents, policy makers, and researchers

now consider early childhood programs essential for fostering school readiness and long-

term success in life. Economists and business leaders consider high-quality child care and

early education a necessary investment in the future of our country. Nobel Prize–winning

economist James Heckman believes that investing in early education is a cost-effective

strategy that will improve educational and health outcomes, strengthen the economy, help

solve America’s social problems, and produce a more capable, productive workforce.

But the power of early education depends on the quality of interactions teachers have

with children, and the effectiveness of their instructional practices. To achieve their po-

tential, children need and deserve highly competent, well-educated teachers. My goal in

writing this book is to help all teachers, whether beginning or continuing their profession-

al journeys, gain access to the exciting new knowledge about child development, engaging

and challenging curriculum content, and effective ways of teaching. Today, our profes-

sion has a deep responsibility to meet the expectations of families, the general public, and

policy makers and to fulfill the promise that has been made to children.

My hope is that every teacher embraces new knowledge as well as the enduring values

of early childhood education, and encounters the sheer joy of teaching young children.

Every child needs and deserves a highly qualified teacher from day one.

Preface

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New to This Edition This is the first edition of Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education: Building a Foundation offered in REVELTM.

REVELTM is Pearson’s newest way of delivering our respected content. Fully digital and highly engaging, REVEL offers an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Enlivening course content with media inter- actives and assessments, REVEL empowers educators to increase engagement with the course, and to better connect with students.

REVEL offers: Dynamic content matched to the way today’s students read, think, and learn

• Integrated Videos and Interactive Media Integrated within the narrative, videos empower students to engage with concepts and take an active role in learning. REVEL’s unique presentation of media as an intrinsic part of course content brings the hallmark features of Pearson’s bestselling titles to life.

• Quizzing and Short-Answer Response Opportunities Located throughout REVEL, quizzing affords students opportunities to check their understanding at regular intervals before moving on. Quizzes are in multiple-choice and short-answer response formats.

• Chapter Quiz “Demonstrate Your Learning” end-of-chapter multiple-choice ques- tions allow students to check their understanding on chapter concepts.

Additional Significant Changes to this Edition • A new feature, “Promoting Play,” in every chapter addressing a different issue re-

lated to supporting children’s learning through play or protecting children’s right to play. See the Special Features page at the end of the Table of Contents for a list of all of the feature topics by chapter.

• Revised Chapter 3 with examination of current issues such as the Common Core State Standards and accountability through the lens of developmentally appropriate practice.

• New sections on the implications of the Common Core State Standards for curricu- lum and teaching in preschool through grade 3 in Chapter 10 on planning curricu- lum, Chapter 11 on assessment, Chapter 12 on language and literacy, and Chapter 13 on mathematics.

• Updated Chapter 1 with discussion of new policy initiatives, changing demograph- ics, new research on the effectiveness of early education, and trends in the field.

• Updated Language Lenses on research-based classroom practices for effectively teaching dual language learners.

• New examples of developmentally appropriate use of digital media with children, teachers, and families throughout the text.

• Reorganized content by moving sections on developmentally appropriate learning environments, materials, and schedule to Chapter 3, Developmentally Appropriate Practice.

• Reorganized Chapter 10, Planning Effective Curriculum, to include discussion of Reggio Emilia.

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• Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.

• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive function and implications for teaching.

• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the primary grades.

Book Organization Reflects Guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practice This book is designed to teach the concept of developmentally appropriate practice for students because an understanding of its principles is the foundation on which to build early childhood programs and schools for children from birth through age 8. Chapters are organized according to NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice, which I have coauthored for 30 years.

Part 1, Foundations of Early Childhood Education, describes the current profession and the issues and trends effecting it today (Chapter 1), the rich history from which developmentally appropriate practices evolved (Chapter 2), and an overview of its principles and guidelines, which are described in depth in later chapters (Chapter 3).

Part 2, Dimensions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice, includes chapters describing the key factors teachers must consider as they make professional decisions. Chapter 4 presents an overview of current knowledge about how all children develop and learn. Chapter 5 addresses the unique, individual differences among children, including children with diverse abilities. Chapter 6 discusses the critical role of social, cultural, and linguistic contexts on all children’s development and learning and how teachers must embrace a diverse society to help every child succeed in school and life.

Part 3, Intentional Teaching: How to Teach, describes the role of the teacher in implementing developmentally appropriate practices. Each of the interconnected aspects of the teacher’s role is addressed in separate chapters: building effective partnerships with families (Chapter 7), creating a caring community of learners and guiding young children (Chapter 8); teaching to enhance learning and development (Chapter 9); planning effective curriculum (Chapter 10); and assessing children’s learning and development (Chapter 11).

Part 4, Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach, describes both how and what to teach children from birth through age 8 in language, literacy, the arts, mathematics, science, technology, social-emotional development, social studies, physical development, and health. Each chapter demonstrates how the continuum of children’s development determines the appropriateness of curriculum content and intentional, effective teaching strategies for children of different ages.

Early childhood educators join this profession and stay in it because they believe their work can make a difference in the lives of children and their families. But to make a last- ing difference, our practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s learning and development. This book reflects this core goal by building on the basic framework of developmentally appropriate practice while going beyond to emphasize intentional teaching, challenging and interesting curriculum, and evidence-based, effective practices for a new generation of early childhood educators. Each of these key themes is discussed on the following pages.

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach118

gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet and makes a circle around the room.

By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro- vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching in the “Zone.”

Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers, which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (her independent level of problem solving) and the level of po- tential development she could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children.

scaffolding The assistance, guidance, and direction teach- ers provide children to help them accomplish a task or learn a skill (within their ZPD) that they could not achieve on their own.

co-construction Children learning by solving prob- lems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers; also called social construction of knowledge.

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Teaching in the “Zone” Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are working on the basic mathematical number operations— adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin- gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug- gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach to support his understanding and application of subtraction:

1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ- ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains! During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping and counting, using short word problems and number cards.

2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro- duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, according to the list, and return (subtract) things they no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel purchases and returns items for his building project, I support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math for his project.

3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together

to solve the problem, ex- plaining each of their steps.

After about two weeks of this more intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his adding and subtracting.

Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach- er, I know that understanding and applying these founda- tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil- dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that children learn best in the context of supportive relation- ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in- tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing each child’s level of independent performance on a skill, (2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help) performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al- low a child to practice in their supported level, until the child can do the skill independently. I then set the next higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.

Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as- sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have information on how to support the child’s progress. But by assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres- sive development and learning.

Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal Development?

Intentional Teaching of Young Children This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.

Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale for the decisions they make to other teachers, administrators, and families. To help students understand this concept, Becoming an Intentional Teacher features reveal what teachers are thinking in classroom situations, how and why they select the strategies they do, and challenge students to reflect further on these scenarios.

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education84

should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat- tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut- terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six- year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac- tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting it optimally for all children.

Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci- sions of one primary grade teacher:

Frida Lopez has 22 children in her first-grade class. Her first challenge each year is to get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one conversations with children, observes their behavior and skills throughout the day, and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math problems with counters.

As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in- terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur- riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.

Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and communities.

So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.

So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making

The Complex Role of the Teacher According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice, the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1) creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel- opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.

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Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt for individual differences, including for children with dis- abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding features engage students in assessing their own learning. Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood field. These quizzes appear only in REVELTM and include feedback.

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99

Key Terms ■ age appropriate ■ assessment ■ caring community of

learners ■ culturally appropriate

■ culture ■ curriculum ■ developmentally appro-

priate practice (DAP) ■ individually appropriate

■ intentional teachers ■ learning centers ■ position statement

■ push-down curriculum ■ reciprocal relationships ■ scientifically based

curriculum

Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and learning: Transforming early childhood environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel- opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

ASCD Whole Child Initiative This website provides resources promoting elementary education that supports all areas of children’s develop- ment and learning.

National Association for the Education of Young Children NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop- ies of all their position statements.

ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families This website provides resources and practical tips for working with infants, toddlers, and their families.

Readings and Websites

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

✓

Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl- edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat- egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end of each chapter require students to practice these skills. This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and includes feedback.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81

quietly with a puzzle or pegboard. A second grader loves to read and spends all of her free time with a book, while another struggles with reading but looks forward to math because it’s her best subject.

The term individually appropriate refers to teachers using what they know about the personality, strengths, interests, and abilities of each individual child in the group to adapt for and be responsive to individual variation. Consider, for instance, two tricycle riders: The fearless rider may need more careful supervision to prevent injury, while the warier child may need extra encouragement and support to develop his large motor skills. Similar- ly, some children will need enriched experiences to accelerate their language development, while a few may need individual support to continue to build on their precocious reading ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with life’s challenges, while another needs help controlling aggression to make friends.

With the individual differences that exist, teachers clearly cannot expect all children in a group to learn the same thing in the same way at the same time. Even when the teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to a whole group, each child will take away something different from the learning experience. Therefore, to help children progress,

individually appropriate Information about the strengths, interests, abilities, and needs of each individual child in the group that enables teachers to adapt to and be responsive to individual variation.

People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro- priate practices are effective for children with dis- abilities. The fact is that the basic elements of de- velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary for inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:

Isaac is 4 years old and has a diagnosis of autism. He is sitting on a brightly colored carpet square between two of his preschool peers at circle time. His teacher is reading a book the class made called Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but features pictures of the children in the class paired with their names. Isaac loves the book, and reads along with the teacher. As the teacher reads each child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and moves. After the story, it is time for singing. Isaac knows this because circle time happens in a similar routine each day.

The teacher pulls out the “song chart” featur- ing the pictures and titles of eight different songs. One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the “Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re- move the song card. Isaac holds the card while the children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play” with his hands. The teacher says, “Yes, Isaac, it is time for centers.” She lets Isaac choose a center first because she knows it is hard for him to wait. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then points to the picture of the water table. His teacher models, “I want to play at the. . . .” Isaac says, “Water table.” His teacher, proud of his increasing verbal skills, gives him a hug and says, “Off you go to the water table.” When Isaac’s mother picks him

up from school, his teacher describes how often he used his words and which friends he played with during center time.

By contrast, when children with disabilities are included in programs that are not developmentally appropriate, it becomes difficult for the child with special needs— indeed, for all of the children—to make meaningful progress. Compare this child’s experience to Isaac’s:

Tara, also a 4-year-old with autism, is sitting next to her teacher at circle time. The teacher is reading from a small-sized book, and many of the children can- not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With- out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. She begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re- turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi- cally moves her back to the circle, and a 10-minute struggle ensues. When Tara’s father comes to pick her up, the teacher describes “her bad day” and asks him to talk to Tara about listening at school.

A child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the developmental appropriateness of an early child- hood program. As is clear from Isaac’s case and by contrast Tara’s experience, developmentally appropri- ate practice provides the necessary foundation for his successful inclusion in the program. But individually appropriate adaptations are also essential for children with disabilities and other special needs.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Children with Disabilities

Including All Children

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449

What Works Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as- sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan- tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab- stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners.

Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example, gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil- dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel- evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be referred to later.

Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan- guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group, it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer.

Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil- dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s response will be singled out.

Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe- cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first

graders used to interpret their graphs in Figure 13.1.

Problem solving is playing a larger role in today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual language learners. Teachers should avoid tricky word problems that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2 cars and 3 trucks; how many vehicles does he have?” Such a question poses a lan- guage test rather than a math problem. A related challenge pre- sented by word problems is the culturally implicit knowledge they often require. Solving a problem usually requires that a child un- derstand the situation in which it occurs, whether it’s purchasing groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.

Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM, and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms. For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray- ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste- reotypes of only white males in these roles.

What works most effectively are the practices that are de- velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning- ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed to worksheets that test what children should have already learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science, technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil- dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging STEM content.

Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora- tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips- discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American, Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March 8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/ its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_ Twitter.

STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways.

A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.

Current Research on Effective Practices In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability, and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content, assessment, and intentional teaching.

What Works features present research-based practices in action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective practices such as teaching mathematics to dual language learners, father involvement, and using evidence-based cur- riculum to narrow the achievement gap.

Lens features present insights on culture, language, and in- cluding all children. These features discuss practice through diverse lenses, expanding the sources of information teach- ers use to make decisions and helping them look at questions or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens with which teachers view their practice is a strategy to move beyond the persistent educational tendency to dichotomize difficult or controversial issues into “either/or” choices, and move toward “both/and” thinking.

• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn- ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful by connections to classroom and community examples.

• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared vocabulary for all of those in and entering the field.

• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.

Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach192

Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel- op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi- language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.

Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.

Anti-Bias Education The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society but also to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias ( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally responsive, anti-bias education and ways of helping children achieve those goals. The overarching goal of anti-bias education is to help all children reach their full potential. To do so, anti-bias education focuses on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010; Teaching Tolerance, 2012):

1. Identity. Teachers foster and support children’s self-awareness, confidence, and pride in their family and own identity.

anti-bias education Learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society, but also to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups, and to guard against expressions of bias.

Language Lens Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners

With growing numbers of dual and multi-language learn- ers in our classrooms, all teachers need to be prepared to support English language acquisition while also pro- moting continued home language development. Using technology exponentially increases teachers’ options to achieve these goals, as these examples illustrate:

Yao is a Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in preschool. He is isolated from the other children who won’t play with him. His teacher knows that without social interaction, his English skills won’t develop. She loans his family an iPad and with the help of a trans- lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a story about his family with photos and narration in both English and Chinese. When he shares the story with the other children, they realize that Yao has an interesting life and several of them decide to use the app to create stories about themselves.

Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different home languages, some of whom are newly arrived immi- grants. She relies on technology to create an accessible environment for all the children as they acquire sufficient English to navigate the school. Kara posts pictures and labels in various languages (in some cases with phonetic

spellings) to help children learn routines and safety pre- cautions. On the Internet she finds images, songs, and stories that accurately depict children’s homelands, and uses these to spark conversations among small groups of children. She teaches all the children to use iTranslate on classroom tablets to aid communication and support burgeoning friendships. The class uses Skype to com- municate with children’s relatives in other parts of the country or world. Within a few weeks, all the children, including native English speakers, enjoy helping each other explore different languages and learn together.

Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits every child in America if schools take advantage of young children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford- able, technological resources now available.

Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August 27, 2014, from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story- helps-dual-language-learner; “Using Technology as a Teaching Tool for Dual Language Learners in Preschool through Grade 3,” by K. N. Nemeth and F. S. Simon, 2013, Young Children, 68(1), 48–52.

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 393

Stage Description How Teachers Can Help Stage 6: Advanced Language Proficiency

Children have developed understanding of specialized, content-related vocabu- lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for children to master this level of cogni- tively demanding language.

Teachers intentionally teach the vocabu- lary and language skills required for academic achievement in school. For example, mathematics requires knowing words like addend or double-digit mul- tiplication that are not used in everyday speech.

Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Code switching is the ability to understand and use both the commonly accepted version of English and the home language or dialect. When children are learning a second language, they often code switch, usually beginning a sentence in one language and then switching to the other as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact, bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages depending on the setting and the topic of conversation. Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex- press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native language.

In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant that children were confused or incompetent. But now we know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa- rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ- ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative competence. They are using all they know to communi- cate as clearly as they can.

So what should teachers do about code switching? First, they should expect code switching as a normal aspect of dual language learning. The most important thing is not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of code switching.

Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers should focus on understanding the child’s message. They should view code switching as a strength. As always, teachers should be good language models themselves,

using the same strategies that promote language learning in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, intentionally teaching new words, and extending conversations with questions and ideas.

Sometimes bilingual teachers think that they can sup- port dual language learning by alternating languages themselves. Again, the opposite is true. Children’s brains will automatically listen and respond to the language they know best and tune out the other one. To promote dual language development, bilingual teachers can read books in each language but should do so at separate times.

Encouraging children to code switch and responding positively honors the language system that they already possess and helps them adapt to different communica- tion requirements in different situations. And it also respects and supports their cultural identity because language and culture are inextricably linked. Teach- ers should always create a warm, positive classroom climate in which children feel safe to express them- selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to think about their own use of language, which serves them well in other learning situations and has long- lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so- cial development.

Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.

Understanding and Responding to Code Switching

Culture Lens

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 31

Addressing Threats to Children’s Play Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many children today experience high levels of unrelent- ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of all children to some extent. Teachers today report that more children are aggressive and disruptive as a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood obesity is also endemic.

Research demonstrates that exercise and child- initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically, however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil- dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out- doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre- pare children academically for school. And children living in poverty are most likely to suffer because they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic instruction to close the school readiness gap.

Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and administrators need to understand that play and school readiness is not an either/or choice. The American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that play is essential for children’s physical health, emo- tional and mental well-being, social relationships, and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity. In short, play contributes to all areas of develop- ment and learning.

In an attempt to get children ready for school and protect them from injury, early childhood programs may actually be contributing to children’s stress by minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child- initiated play time. Because children spend so much time in early childhood programs and school, it may be their only opportunity to have physical activity or outdoor play.

Early educators need to draw on the support of physicians and other experts to help educate parents and policy makers about the importance of play in children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil- dren cope with stress and improve school success. They also need to advocate for funding to provide safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and opportunities must be designed to protect children from injury, but protecting them from stress is equally important.

Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A. Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012, Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics. aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/ peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, & Council on Communications and Media Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health, Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http:// www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.

Continuity and Change One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.

Promoting Play

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383

Developmental Continuum Oral Language

Age of Child Developmental Expectations Birth to about 8 months

• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.

• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play. • Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing

consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.” • Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone. • Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets. • Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.

Between 8 and 18 months

• Become more purposeful in their communications. • Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from

a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.) • Understand many more words than they can say. • Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech. • Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me. • Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and

18 months.

From 18 to 24 months

• Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu- nicating their message: “No nap.”

Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).

• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words. • Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.) • Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as

they seem to want to name everything.

Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words. • Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the

more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l. • Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations. • Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten. • Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.

The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace. • During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend

what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal. • At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-

guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.

Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language, and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.

Connections between Curriculum and Child Development Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.

In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides an overview of the continuum of learning in the areas of language, literacy, mathematics, and cognitive, social, emo- tional, and physical development and describes how child development is linked to curriculum planning for children from birth through age 8.

• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach- ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual language learning.

A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the important role of play in development and effective strategies to help children learn through play or protect their right to play. These features address play across the full age range, from birth through age 8. Discussions of play are also integrated in each chapter throughout this book as an effective means to support all domains of development and promote learning in all cur- riculum areas. Today many people are concerned about how the standards movement is negatively impacting play. We often hear statements such as “We can’t let children play because we have to teach literacy,” or “We don’t have time for outdoor play in primary grades because we have to get children ready for stan- dardized tests.” Play should not be treated as a separate part of an early childhood program or day that can be cut if someone deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of play in every chapter of this book.

• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita- tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Council.

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O ver more than four decades in early childho o d education, I have had the privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of the following people:

My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil- dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder, and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work in a timely fashion.

I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel- opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and gracious support.

I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver- sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.

Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children lenses.

Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.

I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language learners.

Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman. My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi- tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con- tinues to reflect her vision.

A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools (APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos; K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts found in this book.

I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including: Cathy Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool, Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan; and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.

I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering support for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the development

Acknowledgments

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of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.

My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE, whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment to developmentally appropriate practice.

I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly, The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail, Spring Hill College.

Instructor Supplements The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access, and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.

• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro- vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach- ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.

• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.

• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and big ideas presented throughout the text.

• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats: TestGen Testbank file - PC • TestGen Testbank file - MAC • TestGen Testbank - Blackboard 9 TIF • TestGen Testbank - Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF •

Angel Test Bank • D2L Test Bank • Moodle Test Bank • Sakai Test Bank

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Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education: Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im- pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic, and far more intentional practices.

Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12 Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa- tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3 Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear- ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems, standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align- ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early mathematics, and learning progressions.

With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be- ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each recognizes the critical importance of balance.

Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im- portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de- mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators. Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice, and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with which it was written.

Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words “developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to balance developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, Bredekamp brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the

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developmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of children, their families, and their countries.

Sharon Lynn Kagan, Ed.D. Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood and Family Policy,

Teachers College, Columbia University; and Professor Adjunct, Yale University’s Child Study Center

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xv

Brief Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2 Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . 68

Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100 Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . 100

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204 Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children . . . . . 238

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378 Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy,

and the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems: Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children . . . 516

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2 Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

What Is Early Childhood Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The Landscape of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Access to Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

How Early Childhood Education Is Changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

The Joys of Teaching Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Career Options for Early Childhood Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The Culture of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Setting Standards for Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Measuring Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care . . . . . . . . 24

Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Current Trends in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

New Federal and State Policy Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Standards and Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Higher Teacher Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Advances in Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Continuity and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Learning from the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Why History Is Relevant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

The Changing View of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

European Influences on American Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . .41

John Amos Comenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Table of Contents

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Johann Pestalozzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Friedrich Froebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Maria Montessori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

The Nursery School Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

A Wider View of Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

African Americans in Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . 70

Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Intentional Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Purposeful Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Understand and Explain Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Make Informed Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Consider All You Know When Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

The Complex Role of the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

Create a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Teach to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Assess Children’s Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Build Relationships with Families and Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

The Teacher’s Role in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 89

Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Organize the Physical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Organize the Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Research Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . 95

The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100 Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning

and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

What Is Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The Role of Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Why Study Child Development and Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Implications for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Learning Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

The Role of Play in Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

The Benefits of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 The Importance of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Where Do Individual Differences Come From? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience . . . . . . . . . 142

What We Know About Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Cognitive Development and Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Emotional and Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Approaches to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Seeing Each Child as an Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Gifted and Talented Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Responsive Education for All Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Differentiating Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Response to Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

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Individual Differences in Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

The Language of Early Childhood Special Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155

What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements for Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Work on a Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . 170 Understanding Cultural Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

What Is Culture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

The Role of Culture in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

A Framework for Thinking About Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Individualistic Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Interdependent Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Continuum of Common Cultural Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Applying the Continuum in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Embracing Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Cross-Cultural Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Effective Practices for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Culturally Responsive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Linguistically Responsive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Anti-Bias Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204 Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Today’s Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Welcoming Diverse Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Family Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Family Circumstances and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Reciprocal Relationships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Roles of Teachers and Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Family-Centered Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

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Communication with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Barriers to Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Family Engagement in Programs and Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Benefits of Family Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Clarify Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Communicate Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Negotiate Successfully . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . 240

The Value of a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Positive Relationships with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

The Importance of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

High-Quality Supportive Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Support Children to Do Their Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior . . . . . . . . . 255

Guidance and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Intensive Individualized Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Understand Challenging Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans . . . . 261

Use Positive Behavior Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Teaching: Both a Science and an Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

The Science of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

The Art of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

What Are Teaching Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Using an Array of Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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Reflect on Your Own Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Strategies That Develop Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving . . . . . . . . 292

Grouping as an Instructional Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

The Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Play as a Context for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Teachers’ Involvement during Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Teachers’ Role during Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Teaching with Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Research on Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Defining Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

What Is Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Written Curriculum Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

The Teacher’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

The Role of Standards in Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Approaches to Planning Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Emergent Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Integrated Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

Thematic Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

The Project Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Scope and Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Comprehensive Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Focused Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

The Reggio Emilia Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Research on Preschool Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

The Child in the Sociocultural Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

Sources of Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Learning the Language of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Formative and Summative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Informal and Formal Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

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Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Dynamic Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Types of Standardized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs . . . . . . . . . 351

Evaluating Program Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

Assessing for Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Indicators of Effective Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Developmentally Appropriate Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . 358

Observation and Recording to Improve Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

Observing and Gathering Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

Recording What Children Know and Can Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . 369

Standardized Testing of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Types of Standardized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Concerns about Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Assessment and the Common Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Kindergarten Entry Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378 Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts . . . 378

Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

The Critical Importance of Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

Types of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

Language Differences in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Developmental Continuum: Oral Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Scaffolding Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Dual Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

How Children Learn a Second Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Literacy-Rich Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

Literacy in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

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Learning to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades . . . . 404

Evidence-Based Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Digital Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Impact of the Common Core State Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

Communicating Through the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

The Value of Creative Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Visual Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

Music, Movement, and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Seeing the Arts with New Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems: Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

The Importance of Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

The Need for an Educated Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

The Mathematics Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

The Continuum of Cognitive Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

Executive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

Children’s Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

Language and Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Mathematics Curriculum Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Mathematics Process Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

Effective Mathematics Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

Effective Mathematics Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

Science Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Effective Science Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

Teaching about and with Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Self-Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

Continuum of Social and Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

Infants and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

Preschool and Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

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Diversity and Social-Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

Emotional Development and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

Social Development and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

What Is Social Studies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

Social Studies Content Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

Benefits of Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

Childhood Obesity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

Implications for Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

How Physical Development Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

The Continuum of Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Gross-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

Fine-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

The Role of Play in Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

Outdoor Play Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

Health and Safety Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical Fitness and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

Curriculum for Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

Life as an Early Childhood Educator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional . . . . . . . . . . . 526

Become a Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Join a Profession That Makes a Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

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Promoting Play

Ch. 1: Addressing Threats to Children’s Play . . . . . 31

Ch. 2: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play. . . 42

Ch. 3: Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Ch. 4: Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Ch. 5: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Ch. 6: African American Children and Play . . . . . 186

Ch. 7: Get Outside and Play! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Ch. 8: All Can Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Ch. 9: Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Ch. 10: Involving Children in Planning Their Play . . . 329

Ch. 11: Play as an Assessment Context . . . . . . . . 361

Ch. 12: How Play Supports Language and Literacy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Ch. 13: Digital Play and Traditional Play . . . . . . . . 451

Ch. 14: Learning to Get Along Using Board Games . . . 473

Ch. 15: Teaching Sports Skills in Primary Grades . . . 496

Ch. 16: Resolving an Ethical Dilemma about Play . . . 530

Becoming an Intentional Teacher

Ch. 1: Being Purposeful and Playful . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Ch. 2: Expanding Children’s Experience . . . . . . . . 55

Ch. 3: Expanding Thinking and Communication Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Ch. 4: Teaching in the “Zone” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Ch. 5: Individualizing Group Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Ch. 6: Responding to Cultural Differences . . . . . . 199

Ch. 7: Responding to Parents: Welcoming “Complainers” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Ch. 8: Easing Separation Woes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Ch. 9: Working in Small Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Ch. 10: Shaping Curriculum to Connect with Children’s Needs and Interests . . . . . . . . . 315

Ch. 11: Using Assessment to Inform Teaching . . . 365

Ch. 12: Teaching the Alphabet and Phonological Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Ch. 13: Integrating Physical Science in Block Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Ch 14: Integrating Social Studies Content to Meet Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Ch 15: Teaching Fine-Motor Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Ch 16: Advocating for Effective Inclusion of Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

What Works

Ch. 1: Increasing School Readiness for All Children . . . 25

Ch. 2: Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Ch. 3: How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated Experiences Promote Learning . . . . . . . . . . 90

Ch. 4: Exposing Babies to Different Languages . . . 107

Ch. 5: Principles of Universal Design . . . . . . . . . 162

Ch. 6: Making Education Culturally Compatible . . . 191

Ch. 7: Father-Friendly Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Ch. 8: Teaching Emotional Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Ch. 9: Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Ch. 10: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

Ch. 11: Using Technology to Assess Learning . . . . 371

Ch. 12: Dialogic Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Ch. 13: Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Ch. 14: The Turtle Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

Ch. 15: Teaching Physical Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Ch. 16: Having an Effective Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . 534

Special Features

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xxvi

Developmental Continuum/Learning Trajectory

Ch. 12: Oral Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Ch. 12: Second Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 392

Ch. 12: Early Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Ch. 12: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Ch. 13: Cognitive Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in 3- through 5-Year-Olds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

Ch. 15: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

Ch. 15: Fine-Motor Skills from Birth through Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

Including All Children

Ch. 1: What Does Inclusion Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Ch. 2: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Ch. 3: Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Ch. 4: Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Chil- dren with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Ch. 6: Cultural Diversity and Diverse Ability . . . . . 184

Ch. 7: Family-Centered Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Ch. 8: When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills 258

Ch. 9: Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive Early Intervention Program for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Ch. 10: Individualized Education Plans: Meeting Chil- dren’s Individual Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Ch. 11: Individually Appropriate Assessment Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Ch. 13: Science Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Ch. 14: Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Ch. 15: Nutrition and Children with Developmental Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Culture Lens

Ch. 2: Early Childhood Education through the Lens of Non-Western Culture . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Ch. 3: The Role of Culture in Development . . . . . . 83

Ch. 4: The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Ch. 5: Responding to Cultural and Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Ch. 7: Developing Partnerships with Latino Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Ch. 8: Helping Each Child Adapt to School . . . . . 250

Ch. 12: Understanding and Responding to Code Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Ch. 13: Finger Counting in Cultural Context . . . . . 432

Ch. 14: Learning about Cross-Cultural Similarities through the Milestones Project . . . . . . . . . 476

Ch. 15: Cultural Influences on Gross-Motor Movement and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

Language Lens

Ch. 1: Preparing to Teach Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Ch. 5: Accurate Assessment of Linguistically Diverse Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Ch. 6: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Ch. 9: Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Ch. 10: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Ch. 11: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Ch. 12: Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . 394

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1

Tables—Effective Practices

Ch. 1: NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards . . . 20

Ch. 4: Erikson’s Stages of Personal and Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Ch. 4: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development . . 115

Ch. 4: Comparing Theories of Child Development . . 130

Ch. 4: Principles of Development and Learning to Guide Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Ch. 5: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences . . . 148

Ch. 5: Some Types of Exceptionality . . . . . . . . . . 154

Ch. 7: Characteristics of Family Systems . . . . . . . 210

Ch. 7: Planning and Conducting Family Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Ch. 7: Strategies for Engaging Families . . . . . . . . 228

Ch. 8: What a Caring Community Looks Like . . . . 249

Ch. 8: Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution . . 259

Ch. 8: Effective Teaching and Intervention Strategies for Boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Ch. 9: Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . 279

Ch. 9: Learning Centers and Suggested Materials . . 295

Ch. 10: Continuum of Curriculum Approaches and the Teacher’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Ch. 10: Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . 316

Ch. 11: Matching Purpose and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Ch. 11: Effective Assessment Practices . . . . . . . . . 354

Ch. 11: Learning to Observe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

Ch. 11: Methods of Gathering Assessment Information: Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . 364

Ch. 11: Methods of Recording Assessment Information: Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . 370

Ch. 12: Improving Teacher–Child Conversations . . . 387

Ch. 13: Scientific Inquiry Processes in Children . . . 445

Ch. 13: Effective Science Teaching Strategies . . . . 447

Ch. 14: Levels of Social Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Ch. 14: Social Studies Themes and Concepts . . . . 475

Ch. 14: Geography Education Standards . . . . . . . . 479

Ch. 14: Teaching Early Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Ch. 15: Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . 490

Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in Infants and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in Preschool and Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . 500

Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Perceptual-Motor Development from Birth to Age 8 . . . . . . . 503

Ch. 16: Considerations for Infant/Toddler Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

Ch. 16: Considerations for Preschool Teachers . . . 522

Ch. 16: Considerations for Kindergarten Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

Ch. 16: Considerations for Primary Grade Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

Ch. 16: Recognizing Potential Signs of Child Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

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1 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1 Define early childhood education.

1.2 Describe the career options of early childhood educators and the dimensions of intentional, effective teaching.

1.3 Explain high-quality early childhood education and how it is measured.

1.4 Report research about the positive effects of early childhood education.

1.5 Analyze the current trends affecting early childhood education.

Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education

Learning Outcomes

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3

At Cresthaven Primary School, teachers, children, and family members of all generations are viewing children’s work and sharing memories during the year-end celebration. This public school serves children from age 3 to grade 3, through a partnership with Reed Child Development Center nearby. The Reed Center

provides state-funded preschool classrooms for 3- and 4-year-olds who will attend Cresthaven as well as before-

and after-school care and child care for infants and toddlers.

The preschoolers are in awe of the “big school” where they will attend kindergarten and are excited to see their work

displayed in the hallway. “Look, Mommy! Here’s my painting of the yellow fish,” cries 4-year-old Amber as she tugs on her

mother’s hand. “See where I wrote my name. And here’s Brenda’s picture. She’s my new best friend.” Amber’s mother

smiles and tries to read what her daughter wrote: “I lk fsh.” The teacher, Ms. Engels, comes up and says, “Amber knows

a lot about writing and letters. She can write her name, and she is starting to write the consonants she hears in words.”

For several years, Cresthaven School has been involved with its neighbors in a community garden project.

In each class, the teachers connect the larger curriculum—especially science and social studies goals—to

aspects of the garden project. Six-year-old Sergio and his grandmother walk down the hall to find the list of all the

meals the kindergartners prepared with the vegetables they harvested. He exclaims, “And tonight, we get to eat

strawberries!” Meanwhile, first-grader Mathias quietly explains to some parents, “Me and my friends made this

graph. It shows the vegetables the kids liked most.” Third-grader Carola describes her class project to her father.

“You’ll like this, Dad. For social studies, we’re figuring out where food comes from and why it costs so much.”

The second-grade teacher, Ms. George, gets everyone’s attention. “Our class is going to present their video of

the garden project in 15 minutes.” Seven-year-old Kelsey takes 75-year-old Mrs. Carrero by the hand and invites

her to see the show. The children share most of the food raised in the garden with elderly neighbors such as

Mrs. Carrero. “I’ll show you the chapter book I can read, too,” says Kelsey.

Four-year-old Cooper, who has autism, has been in Ms. Watson’s class for 2

years. His mother comes up and quietly whispers to Ms. Watson,

“I wanted you to know that Cooper got invited to Martie’s birthday party.

I never thought that would happen, but he’s made more progress here

than I ever imagined.”

As she’s leaving, Nicky’s mom stops to thank Isela and Evan,

who are finishing their first year of teaching 2-year-olds. They

remember their struggles with Nicky’s tantrums

as he hugs his mom’s leg and playfully peeks

around at Evan. She says, “I know he is growing

up and has to move to preschool, but we are really

going to miss you two.” ■

L istening to these children, parents, and teachers, some new to the field and others with many years of experience, reveals the most exciting—as well as challeng- ing—dimensions of early childhood education. Teaching young children is hard

work. It takes energy, physical stamina, patience, a sense of humor, and a wide range of knowledge and skill. But early childhood professionals soon discover the rewards of their efforts. Nothing is quite as exciting as making a baby smile and giggle, seeing a toddler’s grin as he climbs the stairs on his own, or observing a preschooler’s serious look as she comes to the rescue as a pretend firefighter. And what can compete with a first grader’s feeling of utter accomplishment that accompanies learning to read?

Case Study

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education4

Early childhood education is a rewarding profession for many reasons. We describe the diverse field of early childhood education and discuss its rewards in this chapter. We also discuss why early childhood education is a field on the rise and what the current trends are that present both challenges and opportunities. We also describe how, in a period of rapid change, the early childhood profession continues to be shaped by its enduring values. Above all, early childhood educators enter and stay in the field primarily for one reason— they know that their work makes a difference in the lives of children and families.

What Is Early Childhood Education? Early childhood education is a highly diverse field that serves children from birth through age 8. During these years, children participate in many different kinds of care and education settings. Regardless of where they work or what their specific job titles are, however, early childhood teachers are professionals. This means that they make de- cisions based on a specialized body of knowledge, continue to learn throughout their careers, and are committed to providing the best care and education possible for every child. The opportunity to make a difference in this exciting field has never been greater.

Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise Early childhood education benefits greatly from increasing public recognition, respect, and funding. In fact, a bipartisan poll reported that 86% of American voters believe that “ensur- ing children get a strong start in life” should be a national priority, second only to increas- ing job opportunity and growing the economy (First Five Years Fund, 2014). A Gallup poll found that 70% of voters supported federal funding to make high-quality preschool pro- grams available for all children (Jones, 2014). Although higher percentages of Democrats and Independents supported such funding, a majority of Republicans were also in favor.

Forty states—as diverse as Oklahoma, Georgia, New Mexico, New York, Illinois, Massachusetts, Tennessee, and Florida—provide funding for prekindergarten programs (Barnett, Carolan, Squires, & Brown, 2013). Continued funding even in challenging eco- nomic times reflects growing public recognition of the benefits of early education, espe- cially for children at risk of later school failure, but also for middle-class children. A great many policy makers, parents, and researchers now consider early childhood programs essential for fostering school readiness and long-term success in life (Barnett, 2013a). Groups such as the prestigious Committee for Economic Development (2012) consider quality child care and early education a necessary investment in the future of our coun- try. A powerful advocate for early education, Nobel Prize–winning economist James Heckman (2013) believes that investing in early education is a cost-effective strategy that will improve educational and health outcomes, strengthen the economy, help solve America’s social problems, and produce a more capable, productive workforce.

Early education is also considered an effective crime-prevention strategy. A presti- gious group of America’s police officers and prosecutors call themselves, “the guy you pay later” because America’s failure to pay for quality services for young children in- creases the costs of the criminal justice system (Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 2014).

Several factors have contributed to the rise in status of early childhood education. These include an impressive body of research on the positive effects of early childhood programs and concerns about the persistent achievement gap in our schools. Next, we examine the overall landscape of the field, including the types of settings where children are served.

The Landscape of Early Childhood Education Although early childhood terminology is not uniform across diverse settings, throughout this text we will use vocabulary that is consistent with that used by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and that we feel best represents the present

early childhood education Education and child care ser- vices provided for children from birth through age 8.

professionals Members of an occupational group that make decisions based on a special- ized body of knowledge, con- tinue to learn throughout their careers, and are committed to meeting the needs of others.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) The world’s largest organization of early childhood educators, whose mission is to act on behalf of the needs and interests of children from birth through age 8. NAEYC estab- lishes standards for teacher preparation and accreditation of early childhood programs.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 5

and future of the field. NAEYC, headquartered in Washington, D.C., is the world’s largest professional organization of early childhood educators. Founded in 1926, NAEYC’s mis- sion is to act on behalf of the needs, rights, and well-being of all young children from birth through age 8.

One way the association achieves its mission is by establishing standards for teacher preparation at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate-degree levels (NAEYC, 2011b). NAEYC’s standards have considerable influence in the field; it is likely that the course you are now taking is designed to meet the association’s teacher education standards. NAEYC (2008b) also administers an accreditation system for high-quality children’s pro- grams and provides resources such as publications and conferences to support teachers’ continuing professional development.

Given NAEYC’s definition of the field—birth through age 8—early childhood teachers work with various groups:

1. Infants and toddlers: birth to 36 months 2. Preschoolers: 3- and 4-year-olds 3. Kindergartners: 5- and 6-year-olds 4. Primary grades 1, 2, and 3: 6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds.

Because early childhood is defined so broadly, the field encompasses child care centers and homes, preschools, kindergartens, and primary grade schools. Figure 1.1 pro- vides an illustration of the various settings where young children are educated and cared for. Young children are always learning, and they always need loving care. Therefore, it is important not to distinguish child care from early education, but rather to ensure that all children have access to programs that are both caring and educational, regardless of the length of day or who provides the service.

FIGURE 1.1 Types of Early Childhood Settings Early childhood education is a diverse field because young children’s care and education occurs in a variety of settings as depicted here.

Types of Early Childhood Settings

Schools

Kindergarten to 3rd grade Public schools Charter schools Private schools

Head Start/Early Head Start

3-, 4-, & 5-year-olds in centers & home-based programs Infants/toddlers & families Income-eligible families

Family Child Care Homes

Birth through school-age Caregiver’s home Individuals and groups

Child Care Centers

Infants/toddlers Ages 3, 4, & 5 Before- and after-school for school-aged children For-profit or nonprofit

Preschools

3-, 4-, & 5-year-olds Private or public Prekindergartens Parent cooperatives Laboratory schools

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education6

Child Care The term child care typically refers to care and education provided for young children during the hours that their parents are employed. To accommo- date work schedules, child care is usually available for extended hours, such as from 7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. In some settings, such as hospital-affiliated child care centers, care is offered for longer hours to accommodate evening, weekend, or even night-shift employment.

Child care is typically provided in two types of group programs: child care centers and family child care homes. In either setting, children’s care may be privately funded by parent tuition or publicly subsidized for low-income families. Child care centers usu- ally enroll children from infancy through preschool-age children, and many also offer before- and after-school care for primary grade children. In family child care homes, caregivers provide care in their own homes for a small group of children, often of varying ages. Family child care is the setting of choice for many parents of infants and toddlers because of its home-like atmosphere.

Preschool Preschool programs, as the name implies, serve 3- and 4-year-olds pri- or to their entrance into kindergarten. Preschool programs may be operated by com- munity organizations or by churches, temples, or other faith-based organizations and also by parent cooperatives, which are run and partially staffed by groups of parents. Preschools often operate half-day, although extended hours—the school day—are be- coming more common. Some colleges and universities operate laboratory schools, which usually serve children of students and faculty and also act as models for student teachers.

Preschools are called by various names, including nursery schools and prekindergar- tens. (To further complicate matters, child care centers are also called preschools.) Pre- school programs are both privately and publicly funded. Those that are primarily funded by parent tuition tend to serve middle- or upper-income families. Two particular types of preschool are designed primarily for children from low-income families: public prekin- dergarten and Head Start.

Public Prekindergarten The term prekindergarten (pre-K) usually refers to preschools that are funded by state and local departments of education. Currently, public prekindergarten is in the news media regularly and is the fastest-growing sector of the field, with enrollment increasing enormously in recent years. In 1980, 96,000 preschool- ers were served in public elementary schools; in 2012, enrollment had increased to more than 1.3 million children across 40 states (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).

The primary purpose of prekindergarten is to improve school readiness; that is, to prepare children for kindergarten. Although some state officials narrowly define readi- ness as literacy and math skills, the early childhood profession uses a broad definition of school readiness that describes the whole child (Head Start, 2015):

• Language development and early literacy skills • Cognitive development and general knowledge, including mathematics and science • Social-emotional development • Physical development and health • Positive approaches to learning such as curiosity and motivation

The majority of public prekindergarten programs are designed for children from low- income families or those who are considered at risk for school failure due to conditions such as low levels of maternal education or speaking a language other than English in the home. However, a growing number of people, including the president and members of the U.S. Congress, are calling for funding of universal voluntary prekindergarten, the goal of which is to make these programs available to families of all income levels who choose to use them. Publicly funded prekindergarten has contributed to the field’s growth; today the number of 4-year-olds in state pre-K programs exceeds the number enrolled in Head Start (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).

child care center Group program that provides care and education for young children during the hours that their parents are employed.

family child care home Child care in which caregivers provide care in their own homes for a small group of children, often multi-age groups.

preschool Educational programs serving 3- and 4-year-olds delivered under various sponsorships.

parent cooperative Preschool program owned, operated, and partially staffed by parents.

laboratory school School operated by colleges and universities that usually serves children of students and faculty and also acts as a model of excellent education for student teachers.

prekindergarten (pre-K) Educational program serving 3- and 4-year-olds, usually in public schools.

school readiness Children’s competencies related to success in kindergarten, including physical development, health, and well-being; social-emotional development and learning; cognitive development and general knowledge such as mathematics and science; positive approaches to learning such as curiosity and motivation; and language development and early literacy skills.

universal voluntary prekindergarten Publicly funded preschool, usually for 4-year-olds but sometimes 3-year-olds; available to any family that chooses to use it.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 7

Head Start Head Start is a federally funded, national program that promotes school readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children ages 3, 4, and 5. Head Start provides educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to the na- tion’s poorest children and families whose incomes fall below the official poverty level (Head Start, 2013). Head Start’s goal is to improve school readiness by supporting all areas of children’s development and promoting the early reading and math skills needed for later success. In addition to these comprehensive services, parent involvement is a special focus of the program. Parents volunteer in the classroom and also serve in governance roles, with the goal of empowering families to move out of poverty. In fact, 23% of Head Start staff members are parents of current or former Head Start children (Head Start, 2013). Children with disabilities make up about 12% of Head Start’s enrollment (Head Start, 2014b).

Head Start programs are quite diverse. Most Head Start children are served in classroom-based preschool programs, although in rural or remote areas, a home-based option is available. One of the smallest serves 30 children on the Havasupai reservation in the Grand Canyon, accessible only by helicopter or donkey, while the largest programs serve over 22,000 children in 400 centers across Los Angeles (Head Start, 2011a).

The families represent all the racial and cultural groups in the United States (Head Start, 2014b). About 43% of the children are White, 38% are Latino, and 29% are Afri- can American. A sizable number of families—almost 10%—report that their children are biracial or multiracial. In addition, the program has a special focus on serving American Indians, Alaska Natives, and migrant and seasonal workers. About 30% of the children speak a language other than English at home. Of these, 85% speak Spanish, but 140 other languages are spoken.

In response to brain research and concerns that age 4 or even age 3 is too late for services to be effective, the government launched Early Head Start in 1995. Early Head Start serves low-income pregnant mothers, infants, and toddlers and promotes healthy family functioning. As of 2012, there were more than 1,000 Early Head Start programs in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico (Head Start, 2014a). Research on Early Head Start (Vogel, Yange, Moiduddun, Kisker, & Carlson, 2010) demonstrates that it achieves its promise of lasting positive effects on children and families.

Head Start Federally funded, national program that promotes school readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive develop- ment of children ages 3, 4, and 5 through providing educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to the nation’s poorest children and families.

Early Head Start Federally funded program serving low-income pregnant mothers, infants, and toddlers that promotes healthy family functioning.

Early childhood education includes child care centers, preschools, prekindergartens, family child care homes, and schools. But every high-quality program provides both loving care and education for young children and support for their families.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education8

Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education Early childhood special education serves children with disabilities or special needs who meet eligibility guidelines that are determined on a state-by-state basis, according to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In addition to serving children with identified disabilities, some states provide early intervention services for infants and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and their families.

Federal legislation enacted during the past three decades has fundamentally changed the way in which early childhood services are organized and delivered to children with disabilities and special needs (Division for Early Childhood & NAEYC, 2009). These children, including children who are at risk for disabilities or who exhibit challenging be- haviors, are far more likely to participate in a typical early childhood program than in the past. This trend, called inclusion, is defined and described in the Including All Children: What Does Inclusion Mean? feature.

All early childhood educators are likely to work with children with disabilities at some point in their careers. This inevitability broadens what teachers need to know right from the start, and requires that general early childhood teachers develop skills to col- laborate with special educators.

Kindergarten and Primary Grades Most 5- through 8-year-old children at- tend public schools, although many attend secular or faith-based private schools funded

early childhood special educa- tion Services for children with disabilities or special needs who meet eligibility guidelines that are determined on a state-by-state basis according to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Federal law governing provision of ser- vices for children with disabili- ties and special needs.

early intervention Services for infants and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and their families.

inclusion Participation and ser- vices for children with disabilities and special needs in programs and settings where their typically developing peers are served.

Mark and Monique Berger operate a family child care program in their home. Their state permits group homes such as theirs to serve up to 12 children. The licens- ing agent informs them that they are required by law to serve children with disabilities and special needs. One mother, whose son Barry has cerebral palsy, has in- quired about enrolling him in their program. Mark wants to be sure that they abide by the law, but Monique is a little unsure about what it means to include a child with a disability in her child care home.

Although full inclusion of children with disabilities in early childhood programs has been the law of the land for several years, Mark and Monique are not alone in being unsure about what it means. To help them and other professionals like them, the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children and NAEYC (2009) jointly developed a statement defining early childhood inclusion:

Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, poli- cies, and practices that support the right of every in- fant and young child and his or her family, regardless of ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members of families, commu- nities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experiences for children with and without disabili- ties and their families include a sense of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and development and learning to reach their full potential.

The statement describes the key features of high- quality inclusive programs, which are (1) access, (2) participation, and (3) supports.

A defining feature of high-quality early childhood in- clusion is access, which means providing children with a wide range of learning opportunities, activities, and environments. In inclusive settings, adults also promote belonging, participation, and engagement of children with disabilities and their typically develop- ing peers in a variety of intentional or purposeful ways.

Finally, an infrastructure of inclusion supports must be in place to ensure a foundation for the efforts of individuals and organizations that provide inclusive services to children and families. For example, Mark and Monique will need access to ongoing professional development and support to acquire the knowledge, skills, and dispositions required to effectively meet Barry’s needs and contribute to his development. In addition, specialized services and therapies for Barry will need to be coordinated and integrated with the other activities they offer the children.

Source: Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), by Division for Early Childhood and National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2009, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, retrieved from http://community.fpg.unc.edu/resources/ articles/ files/EarlyChildhoodInclusion-04-2009.pdf.

Including All Children What Does Inclusion Mean?

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 9

by parent tuition. Typically considered the first year of formal schooling, kindergarten has traditionally been designed for 5-year-olds. States estab- lish varying dates for the legal entrance age to kindergarten, but 40 states require that children who are entering kindergarten must have their fifth birthday before the end of September or earlier (Education Commission of the States, 2013). This means that today’s kindergartens enroll many 6-year-olds. By contrast, in 1975, only nine states required that children be 5 by September (Colasanti, 2007)

First, second, and third grades are the primary grade years of school (6 through 8 years of age). These grades are especially important because during these grades, children are expected to acquire the fundamental abilities of read- ing and mathematics, along with the foundations of other academic disciplines includ- ing social studies, science, the creative arts, technology, and physical education. In first to third grade, children are learning to read; after that, they are expected to read to learn (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2010). Therefore, if a good foundation is not laid during the primary years, children are likely to struggle in later years (U.S. Depart- ment of Health and Human Services, 2014).

Forty states and the District of Columbia permit funding of public charter schools. A charter school is a publicly funded school that is independently oper- ated under a contract with the state or district. Typically, charter schools have greater f lexibility than do regular public schools for meeting regulations, but they must also meet accountability standards. In school districts where charter schools are an option, parents have a choice of where to send their children. More than 2 million children attend charter schools and the percentage is increasing (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014a).

How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding Participation in early childhood programs has increased steadily for many decades as more children participate in group programs at younger ages. In 1965, only 60% of 5-year-olds went to kindergarten, whereas today about 95% do (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b). A similar but steeper growth trend is apparent for younger children. In 1960, only 10% of 3- and 4-year-olds were enrolled in any type of early childhood program. By 2012, 64% of 3- to 5-year-olds were enrolled in preprimary programs (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b). Although the economic downturn has affected enrollment, all types of early childhood pro- grams have seen growth over the years, including private preschools and child care centers, state-funded prekindergartens, preschool special education, and Head Start (Barnett, Carolan, Fitzgerald, & Squires, 2011; National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b).

Growth in Preschool Attendance Changes in preschool participation are ap- parent in the findings of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (Jacobson Chernoff, Flanagan, McPhee, & Park, 2007). The study revealed that preschool, rather than kindergarten, is now seen as the first year of school for children. The percentage of children who attend center-based preschools is approximately the same whether or not their mothers are employed. This finding indicates that the growth in preschool enroll- ment is related to increased demand for early education as much as increased need for child care (Barnett & Yarosz, 2007).

Child Care for Employed Families Expansion of the early childhood field is directly related to the demand for child care for employed families. Currently, 64% of women with children under age 6 are in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Infant and toddler care is a particular need because 58% of mothers of children under age 1 are in the workforce. Almost 80% of school-agers need care for some hours of the day (Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2011).

kindergarten Typically considered the first year of formal schooling; serves 5- and 6-year-olds.

primary grades First, second, and third grade; sometimes includes kindergarten.

charter schools Independently operated, publicly funded schools that have greater flexibility than regular schools in meeting regulations and achieving goals.

Classroom Connection This video defines inclusion as “belonging.” How does inclusion benefit all children?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=n_qgW9FWEgQ

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education10

Recognizing how important good child care is to maintaining a productive work- force, some employers sponsor on-site child care centers or subsidize child care expenses as an employee benefit. Employers find that support for child care reduces absenteeism and turnover (National Child Care Information Center, n.d.).

In addition, the federal government provides child care assistance through Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). The TANF program provides temporary financial aid but requires recipients to move into the labor force or school- ing, further increasing the demand for child care. The Child Care and Development Block Grants (CCDBG) allocates funds to states for low-income working families to purchase their own child care. In 2014, Congress reauthorized the CCDBG for the first time since 1996, with significant bipartisan support. The new law significantly improved provisions designed to protect children’s health and safety and improve the quality of care.

Access to Early Childhood Education Despite the overall increase in the number of children attending preschool, access to programs varies considerably depending on family income and other factors. In fact, the children who are most likely to benefit from high-quality programs are the least likely to participate in them. Consider the following statistics:

• Young children who live in poverty are less likely to attend preschool than children from higher-income families.

• Head Start and state-funded prekindergarten programs increase the participation rates for low-income families, but insufficient slots are available to serve all the eligible children.

• Families with moderate incomes face the greatest hurdle because they are not eli- gible for subsidized programs and cannot afford private ones.

• Preschool participation varies considerably depending on the mother’s education. About 75% of children whose mothers have a college education or higher participate in preschool, compared to 54% of those whose mothers are high school dropouts (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b). Again, the children who need preschool the most—those whose mothers are less likely to provide educational experiences at home—are the least likely to get it.

How Early Childhood Education Is Changing Recently, two enormous transformations in the United States have had significant im- pacts on early childhood education—changing demographics and economics. The nation is becoming increasingly diverse. At the same time, economic hardship and poverty— including homelessness—are affecting increasing numbers of families.

Changing Demographics The 2010 U.S. census revealed that the population is highly diverse, both racially and culturally. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the racial and ethnic composition of the child population has changed dramatically since 1990. The white population of children declined from 60% to 53%. By 2018, the majority of young children will be children of color—members of groups currently identified as minorities (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). In many school districts today, this is already the case (Ennis, Ríos-Vargas, & Albert, 2011).

The largest increase is among individuals who identify themselves as Hispanic or Latino. Between 2000 and 2010, the Hispanic population grew by 43%, accounting for over half of the total increase in the U.S. population (Ennis et al., 2011). Due to both higher birth rates and immigration, Latinos now constitute 24% of the nation’s children

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Federally funded program, more commonly known as Welfare to Work, that provides temporary financial aid but requires recipients to move into the labor force or schooling.

Child Care and Development Block Grants (CCDBG) Federal funds allocated to states for low-income working families to purchase child care.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 11

FIGURE 1.2 Child Population by Race and Ethnicity In the last two decades, the population of young children in the United States has become dramatically more ethnically and racially diverse.

Source: Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2014). 2014 Kids Count data book: State trends in child well-being. Baltimore: Author. Retrieved November 16, 2014, from http://www.aecf.org/2014db

(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). Many of these children are dual language learners because they are learning to speak two languages at the same time—their home language and English. These demographic shifts have important implications for early childhood educators as discussed in the feature Language Lens: Preparing to Teach Dual Language Learners.

Changing Economics The recent economic crisis led to millions of children and families falling into poverty, with potentially devastating impacts on children’s health, development, and learning. Almost 25% of all children under 6 live in poverty, but African American and Latino children are about three times as likely to be poor as White, non-Hispanic children (CDF, 2014). Most alarming, in 2014, 2.5 million chil- dren, or nearly 1 in 30, experienced homelessness, an 8% increase in one year (National Center on Family Homelessness at American Institutes for Research, 2014). Children growing up in poverty are especially in need of high-quality early childhood experiences and good teachers.

Increased unemployment also negatively affects enrollments in early childhood pro- grams as families struggle to pay for child care (NACCRRA, 2011). In some situations, families remove their children from preschool or child care centers because they can no longer afford or do not need these services. Some employers are less willing or able to subsidize child care as a benefit.

The effects of the economic downturn on children, families, and early childhood programs are real. However, increased funding for child care and early education at this difficult time in the nation’s history is solid evidence of its broad support and the recognition of its value.

dual language learners Children who are learning to speak two languages at the same time—usually their home language and English.

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✓ Check Your Understanding 1.1: What Is Early Childhood Education?

Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? Choosing to teach young children, like every career decision, involves weighing many factors. Prospective teachers need to be familiar with what the work entails and the pos- sible career options. Most important, they need to determine whether the demands and rewards of their chosen profession are a good match with their own strengths, disposi- tions, and personal goals (Colker, 2008).

The Joys of Teaching Young Children Working with children demands patience and the willingness to care for and about other people’s children, even or especially the least lovable of those children. Teaching young children is truly rewarding work, even when it is most challenging (Colker, 2008). Each day brings new discoveries, accomplishments, and joys for children and teachers.

Picture a 4-year-old child. What are the first thoughts that come to mind? Is he or she curious? Eager to learn? Excellent early childhood teachers take advantage of young children’s deep desire to actively engage with and make sense of the world

Preparing to Teach Dual Language Learners Eight different languages are spoken among the children in Natalia’s kindergarten class. Natalia and two of the children are the only ones whose first language is Eng- lish. Natalia works hard to create a caring community where all the children comfortably experiment with learn- ing English while also developing their home language. She strives to communicate with the parents by using translators. Last year, Natalia’s class also included eight languages—but some of them were different from those spoken this year.

The number of languages represented in Natalia’s class- room may seem extreme, but linguistic and cultural diver- sity is now the norm in our nation’s schools. In the next 20 years, the biggest single child-related demographic change is predicted to be an increase in dual language learners. Most of these children speak Spanish as a home language, but many others speak Asian, Middle Eastern, and African languages. California, Florida, and Texas con- tinue to have the largest percentages of Spanish- speaking families, but according to the last census, between 2000 and 2010, the Hispanic population grew in every region of the country.

In the past, most teachers could safely assume that they would never encounter a language other than English in their entire careers. Today, Natalia’s experience or some- thing like it is not so very rare. New teachers may find it beneficial to learn another language themselves, but learning eight languages is not a reasonable expectation. What can new and experienced teachers like Natalia do?

They can start by remembering some important princi- ples about dual language learners:

• People who speak the same language, whether Spanish or another language, are not all alike—they come from a variety of countries and cultures.

• Learning two or more languages does not confuse chil- dren as some people think, but rather enhances brain development.

• Supporting home language development is essential because children can learn many skills in their home language and apply those skills as they learn English.

• Teachers need to intentionally teach English vocabulary and provide lots of opportunities for children to play together and practice their developing language skills.

• Communicating with families is essential regardless of the effort required.

The children of today must be prepared to function as citizens of a global society. Speaking two or more lan- guages is an important skill for the 21st century. When children enter early childhood programs speaking a lan- guage other than English, the foundation is already there to build on.

Sources: The Hispanic population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs, by S. R. Ennis, M. Ríos-Vargas, and N. G. Albert, 2011, U.S. Census Bureau, retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/ cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf; Pre-K-3rd: Challenging common myths about dual language learners, an update to the seminal 2008 report by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York: Foundation for Child Development.

Language Lens

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 13

around them. Recall the sense of satisfac- tion you felt when you mastered a difficult task such as learning to read or ride a bike. Children, too, gain great pleasure from the sense of mastery that comes from learning something new or overcoming an obstacle.

Another word that comes to mind when thinking of children is fun. Yes, early childhood programs prepare children for success in school, but they also provide them with joyful learn- ing experiences every day of their young lives. Children should have fun in child care centers and homes, preschools, and schools. They love to joke, tease, and be silly; to sing, move, and dance; to play by themselves and with friends; to know that adults care for them; to wonder about and explore the natural world; and to generally enjoy living. When teachers create a safe and supportive place for children to experi- ence the unique joys of childhood, children will thrive—and their teachers will also.

Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching One overarching theme of this book is that effective early childhood practice requires teachers to be intentional in everything they do. Intentional teachers have a purpose for the decisions they make and can explain that purpose to others (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Epstein, 2014). However, we believe that intentional teaching involves much more. Intentional teaching is a multifaceted, multidimensional concept that conveys many of the personal and profes- sional qualities of an early childhood educator. Consider how well your own aspirations and dispositions fit with our description of the dimensions of intentional teaching that appears in Figure 1.3.

For an example of intentional teaching, read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Being Purposeful and Playful feature. Now that we have described both the dedication and the delight that teaching young children entails, we turn to an overview of the job opportunities in the field.

Career Options for Early Childhood Educators As the field of early education grows, so do the potential career options and opportunities for early childhood professionals. At the same time, however, the field is experiencing a shortage of qualified teachers (Whitebook, 2014). Even as a large percentage of the current teaching staff is nearing retirement, teacher qualification requirements are being raised in many sectors of the field.

Because the early childhood field is so diverse and covers such a broad age range, early childhood educators have many possible career choices. Careers tend to fall into two categories:

• Working with children involves daily interaction and direct responsibility for chil- dren’s care and education and includes positions such as classroom teacher or fam- ily child care provider.

• Working for children involves work that supports children’s development and edu- cation, whether in proximity to the children, such as being a child care center direc- tor, or at a further distance, such as being a teacher-education professor.

Over the course of their careers, many early childhood professionals move back and forth between these types of jobs. However, we believe that success in working for chil- dren is greater if an individual has actually worked with children. No one in the early

intentional teachers Teachers who have a purpose for the deci- sions they make and can explain that purpose to others.

Intentional teachers are purposeful, but they are also playful. How can teachers keep the fun in childhood while helping children achieve important learning goals?

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education14

FIGURE 1.3 Characteristics of Professional, Intentional Early Childhood Teachers Intentional teaching involves a wide range of personal and professional qualities such as those listed here.

• Caring and committed. They recognize that developing a personal, positive, warm relationship with each child is the foundation for everything they do. Their commitment to children means putting children’s needs before their own and recognizing that teaching young children is less a job than a calling.

• Enthusiastic and engaged. They genuinely enjoy being with young children however messy or challenging they may be, and share in the excitement of their discoveries. They become energetically and intensely involved in children’s activity, whether it means getting down on the fl oor to play and talk with a baby or thinking through the solution to a problem with a kindergartner.

• Curious and creative. They are eager to learn, just as children are. Young children want to learn all sorts of things that teachers themselves may not know—what’s inside a bug, why the sky is blue, how an airplane fl ies. Intentional teachers model an inquisitive attitude. They want to fi nd out along with children, and they approach questions or problems in new, imaginative ways.

• Respectful and responsive. They value and treat children, families, and colleagues with dignity and esteem. They respond thoughtfully to diversity in all of its forms: language, culture, race/ethnicity, ability/disability, age, gender, and sexual orientation. They are open and accepting of perspectives that are different from their own.

• Passionate and patient. They bring into their work their own emotions and deep interests, such as a passion for music, painting, or poetry; a preference for belly laughs or quiet smiles. At the same time, they recognize that children have their own intense feelings that can spill over into anger, frustration, or fi ts of tears. Intentional teachers respond calmly and thoughtfully, without becoming upset or annoyed themselves.

• Purposeful and playful. They have important goals for children—to help them make friends, regulate their emotions, control their bodies, learn to read and write—and they plan carefully to help children achieve their goals. But along the way, they joke and laugh with children, accept silliness, encourage and support play, and make learning itself playful. A sense of humor is a necessity.

• Focused and fl exible. They are like cameras that can scan the entire classroom and then narrow their attention to meet one child’s need or respond to her question or idea. They can be teaching a reading lesson with a specifi c goal in mind and switch gears when a child starts talking about his brother’s illness.

• Aware and accountable. They are self-aware, they refl ect on and evaluate their own performance, and they strive to improve. But their judgments are not made in isolation; they compare their performance to a standard of excellence. Intentional teachers are willing to be accountable; they accept responsibility for their actions.

• Informed and effective. They know how children develop and learn; they know how to teach and what to teach. They use research-based teaching practices that lead to positive outcomes for children and help children make sense of the world around them. Intentional teachers also regularly check to see if what they are doing is actually working. Are children making progress toward developmentally appropriate goals?

• Listening and learning. They realize that the more they learn about children, the more they need to know. They understand that choosing to teach is choosing to be a lifelong learner. Intentional teachers learn from children every day; they listen to children, and they pay close attention to all of children’s cues. They stay up to date about new knowledge and continue to grow as professionals.

childhood community can do his or her job well without knowing what life is like in an early childhood setting (Colker, 2008). This experience informs decisions at every level.

Working with Children Early childhood teachers are usually the first to admit that they aren’t in this profession for the money. It is the satisfaction they get from working with children that is deeply rewarding. For many of them, the fact that they make an impact on the life of every child they encounter is a powerful incentive and the reason that, once they enter the field, they are there to stay (Colker, 2008).

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 15

Being Purposeful and Playful Here’s What Happened It was the fifth straight day of rain facing my kindergarten children as they arrived at school on Friday. Some of them were already dragging their backpacks in apparent dread while others rambunctious- ly ran down the hallway as though they couldn’t contain themselves another minute. The bell rang and the class- room door opened. The children stopped abruptly, almost stumbling over each other. Their eyes opened wide as if they thought elves had been at work overnight transforming the environment.

Laughing, I suggested they put away their things and come to the gathering area for morning meeting. We usually discuss the day’s plans but today I gave some new directions. “Instead of our regular choice time in centers, we are going to divide into two groups and then switch group assignments later. Group 1 is going to use the obstacle courses we’ve set up here and in Mrs. D’Onofrio’s room. Group 2 is going to go on a treasure hunt. Each group will have a map with clues in pictures and writing. You’ll find answers to some of the clues in our classroom and some in hers. Her children will take turns switching rooms with us to look for clues. You’ll divide up into teams to help each other find the trea- sure, but you’ll want to be quiet deciphering your maps because you don’t want to give away the clues to the other teams.”

Here’s What I Was Thinking Our kindergarten cur- riculum is packed with learning goals based on the state standards. I always keep those goals in mind and have a purpose for everything I plan each day. After five straight days of rain, my fellow kindergarten teacher and I knew that we would have to adjust our regular plans. No outdoor

play time again could only mean very distractible children whose attention spans would suffer greatly.

As kindergarten teachers, we know how much children need to play and how much their healthy development depends on it. That’s why we thought of setting up the obstacle course. The course included a balance beam and narrow space to scoot through as well as objects to go over, around, and through. Each time children attempted the course, they were handed a different set of directions not only to use different muscles, but also to learn to read and follow directions. The children repeated the course several times as they practiced their developing skills.

We had different purposes for the treasure hunt. We still wanted children to be physically active, moving around the room. But we made the clues difficult to figure out, requir- ing kindergarten-level literacy skills. Having the children work in teams meant they had to use language, employ problem-solving skills, and cooperate. They also had to self- regulate so as not to give away their plans to other teams and to solve the puzzle.

At the end of the day, we’d all forgotten about the rain. Some of the children said it was the most fun they had ever had at school. It took a lot of work, but being playful and purposeful meant that we were able to accomplish curricu- lum goals and have a lot of fun as teachers, too.

Reflection Feeling pressured to cover the curriculum, teachers may limit vitally important opportunities for chil- dren to play. What other ways do you think these teachers could have playfully but purposefully addressed their cur- riculum goals?

Becoming an Intentional Teacher

Early childhood teachers work with different age groups from infancy through pri- mary grades in a wide range of settings. The qualifications and required certifications for specific jobs will vary, but a broad-based education in the field is necessary prepara- tion. Following are some of the options and opportunities available for interesting and rewarding work:

• Head Start teachers can alter the life trajectory of young children and their families who are most in need. They help ensure that children from low-income families re- ceive an excellent education and comprehensive health, nutrition, and other services.

• Early Head Start teachers intervene early with mothers and their babies to help set them on a course of healthy development.

• Child care center teachers provide loving care and education to children for ex- tended periods of time each day, and help employed parents feel secure about their children’s care so they can do their jobs. Careers in child care offer the option of teaching various age groups: infants and toddlers, preschoolers, and school- age children before and/or after school. Although teaching in child care pays less than does teaching in other settings, many teachers relish its flexible and cre- ative environment. Conditions also vary by administrative agency; for example,

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education16

an employer-sponsored child care center may offer more benefits and higher com- pensation than a community-based one.

• Teachers in family child care homes literally open their doors to small groups of children from infancy through school age, providing a home-like atmosphere of care and education. Family child care means being your own boss, but requires administering a small business as well as caring for children.

• Preschools vary a great deal—public, private, faith-based, and so on—each with its own benefits that will appeal to different teachers’ interests and match their goals. A public prekindergarten, for example, may provide better salaries, whereas a private one may be more flexible about curriculum and expectations for children.

• A teacher in a parent cooperative preschool has the opportunity to develop par- ticularly close relationships with families but also needs the ability to work with parents as co-teachers, an acquired skill.

• Teachers in public schools have the option of teaching different age groups from kindergarten through primary grades. Schools are bureaucracies with regulations and an established curriculum and tests, but as professionals, teachers make hun- dreds of classroom decisions every day. Salaries and benefits in the public schools are the most secure of any sector in early childhood.

• Early childhood special educators and early intervention specialists are qualified individuals who work with children with special needs in various settings such as in school systems, Head Start, or child care. Inclusion of children with spe- cial needs means that early childhood special educators work closely with regular classroom teachers. In fact, in some states, the same teacher education program prepares teachers for certification in both fields simultaneously.

• Mentor teacher is an evolving career option for more experienced, outstanding pro- fessionals. It is helpful for new teachers to work with a mentor teacher to improve their skills or to get help for children with particular learning challenges. Mentor teachers are becoming more common in elementary schools, preschools, and child care programs.

• The need for bilingual teachers and those who are qualified to teach dual language learners is growing. As the population becomes ever more diverse, these qualifica- tions will be useful in any early childhood setting.

Given the variety of careers available, early childhood teachers have many options. Even when an entire career is spent teaching the same age group in the same workplace, teachers will always encounter new challenges and new experiences. I once asked a for- mer teacher who had taught for 40 years, “Didn’t you ever get tired of teaching first grade?” She looked stunned and replied, “Never, because every group was different.” Having been a child in her class at one time, I clearly understood what she meant—that every child is different and unique and that being a teacher never loses its fascination.

Working for Children At some point in their careers, all early childhood profession- als should work with children in order to understand, firsthand, how educators help shape our young children. However, there are many opportunities for early childhood educators to pursue positions working for children. With additional education, specialized training, and experience, a background in early childhood can lead to positions such as these:

• Director of a child care center or preschool, or school principal (with additional course work in administration)

• Curriculum developer for an individual school, network of schools, or publisher • Home visitor or family services worker in Head Start, Early Head Start, or another

community agency • Policy staff at local/state/federal agencies, associations, and organizations • College faculty teaching teachers and/or conducting research • Writer/producer of resources for children such as children’s book author, technol-

ogy developer, children’s museum staff, or media performer

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 17

In previous sections, we discussed what it means to be a professional, intentional early childhood teacher. These definitions reflect the profession’s core values and beliefs, a topic to which we turn next.

The Culture of Early Childhood Education A key theme of this book is the important role that culture plays in development and learning. Broadly defined, culture is the rules and expectations for behavior of members of a group that are passed on from one generation to the next. These rules determine to a large extent what group members regard as important and what values shape their actions and judgments.

Like other professional groups, the early childhood profession has its own culture. This culture is transmitted both explicitly and implicitly from more experienced, com- petent members to new initiates in three ways: through formal education, through on- the-job experiences, and through mentoring in either setting. New teachers may become confused or flustered when the cultural rules transmitted in one setting, such as their college classroom, do not seem to match the expectations for behavior in another, such as their first teaching assignment.

Cultural groups define themselves in many ways, including through the language they use, how they identify themselves, the values they share, and their fundamental be- liefs. We discuss these topics in the following sections.

Shared Vocabulary One aspect of early childhood culture is a shared vocabulary. Shared language facilitates communication and minimizes misunderstandings within groups. The profession gives particular meaning to terms like developmentally appropri- ate, play, relationships, comprehensive services, or inclusion (all of which are defined in this book). Their definitions are tailored to our profession and may not mirror how these words are used in other professions or everyday life.

An essential part of joining a profession is learning its language. For example, al- though the larger society uses the term day care, within the profession the accepted term is child care. We believe that saying child care is more respectful of children and a more accurate description of the setting and the job.

Shared Identity Most professionals feel a sense of belonging to their group. They identify themselves as members of the profession, whether it is as a doctor, a lawyer, or an accountant. In early childhood education, it is often harder to “name” ourselves. The profession itself does not have an agreed-on name (Goffin & Washington, 2007). Among the names it is known by are early care and education, child care, early education, and early development and learning. In this book, we refer to the field as early childhood edu- cation. We prefer this term because it contains the word child, which is an ever-present reminder of the primary focus of our work. We also believe that the term encompasses the key elements of caring, development, and learning.

Another challenge to establishing a clear identity is what to call the role itself. Infant/ toddler teachers and teachers in center-based care are often called caregivers. In family child care, adults are called providers. But we embrace the term teacher because it is the broadest term, captures most of the job responsibilities, commands society’s respect, and is after all what children usually call the adults who care for and educate them no matter what the setting.

Shared Values The early childhood profession is committed to a core set of values that is deeply rooted in the history of the field. NAEYC (2011a) articulates these core values in its code of ethical conduct:

We have made a commitment to:

• Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle • Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn

culture The explicit and implicit values, beliefs, rules, and expectations for behavior of members of a group that are passed on from one generation to the next. These rules de- termine to a large extent what group members regard as im- portant and what values shape their actions and judgments.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education18

• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family • Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family,

culture (including ethnicity), community, and society • Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family mem-

ber, and colleague) • Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues • Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of

relationships that are based on trust and respect.

I often take informal polls of teachers during speeches at education conferences. A question I always ask is: “What are your values as an early childhood educator?” Most of the core values just listed are mentioned. Yet there is one that is always stated emphati- cally and is usually first—“play!” Early childhood professionals strongly value play as essential for children’s development and learning. Because play is so important in early childhood, we will revisit the topic throughout this book. Political and economic forces threaten these values at times, but they nevertheless endure.

Shared Beliefs Although early childhood culture shares many beliefs, a few dominate: • The strong belief in the potential of all children, regardless of their life circum-

stances and individual abilities or disabilities. • The belief in the power of developmentally appropriate practice to produce posi-

tive results for children. Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that en- gages children’s interests and adapts for their age, experience, and ability to help them meet challenging and achievable goals.

• The belief that early childhood teachers are professionals who make informed deci- sions about what is developmentally appropriate for each child in each situation.

• The fundamental belief in the potential of our work to make a real and lasting dif- ference in the world.

This is the final justification for joining the profession: the opportunity to make a con- tribution to children’s lives. Many professions exist primarily to solve problems. Doctors and nurses treat illnesses. Firefighters put out fires and rescue people. Insurance agents

developmentally appropriate practice Ways of teaching that engage children’s interests and adapt for their age, experience, and ability, to help them meet challenging and achievable learning goals.

Early childhood educators are members of a profession that shares knowledge, values, and beliefs about children and their work. Meeting with more experienced teachers is one way of becoming a professional. Can you think of others?

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 19

help people recover from losses or catastrophes. The work of early childhood profession- als, on the other hand, is to prevent problems from occurring. Our job is to set children on a positive course from the beginning. The proven effectiveness of early intervention when young children face difficulties creates room for optimism and hope.

✓ Check Your Understanding 1.2: Why Become an Early Childhood Educator?

Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness Growing attention to early education primarily results from impressive research dem- onstrating its effectiveness in improving outcomes for children. All of the research that has influenced policy, however, finds that the key ingredient in the effectiveness of early childhood education is the quality of the program for children. But what is quality?

Setting Standards for Quality Earlier in this chapter, we described different types of early childhood programs. Various kinds of programs must meet different sets of standards, which are intended to determine the program’s quality. Early childhood educators have been instrumental in setting stan- dards for quality that, in addition to research, reflect the profession’s core values and beliefs.

Child Care Licensing Standards Child care centers and, in some states, family child care homes, are regulated by each state’s child care licensing standards. These set minimum requirements for a program to operate legally. Such standards usually establish a minimum number of teachers required per child ( teacher/child ratios), teacher qualifications, and health and safety requirements.

These standards, designed to ensure children’s protection, vary considerably from state to state. For example, one state requires a teacher for every four infants, whereas another permits a ratio of one to six. Child Care Aware® of America (2013) evaluates state licensing standards and monitoring of centers’ compliance. They find that no states rank at the highest level, while 21 states rate a grade of D and 20 are failing to provide basic protection for children’s health and safety and support for their development.

Because licensing standards vary and represent minimums, the quality of child care also varies considerably. Some licensed programs exceed the required standards, whereas others barely meet them (Child Care Aware® of America, 2013). To address this issue and help parents make informed deci- sions, many states now operate quality rating and improvement systems (QRIS). These tiered systems rate program quality according to achievement of benchmarks beyond those required for minimal licensing, such as having more highly qualified teachers or better ratios (Mitchell, 2012). The state recognizes centers that meet higher standards with more stars and pay higher reimbursement rates for children served. In some states, achieving accredita- tion is the highest level. QRIS also helps families make informed decisions about choosing child care.

Accreditation Standards The early childhood profession under the leadership of NAEYC (2008) is committed to raising the overall quality of early education for all chil- dren. Toward this end, the association sets high-quality standards and administers a vol- untary accreditation system for all types of early childhood centers and schools serving children from birth through kindergarten. The standards that programs must achieve to obtain accreditation are listed in Table 1.1. These standards apply to any early childhood

child care licensing standards Minimum require- ments, legally established by each state, for a child care program to operate.

quality rating and improve- ment systems (QRIS) State- operated tiered systems that evaluate and rate the quality of child care programs according to achievement of benchmarks beyond those required for mini- mal licensing, such as having more highly qualified teachers or better ratios.

accreditation system NAEYC’s voluntary system for identifying high-quality early childhood centers and schools serving children from birth through kindergarten.

Classroom Connection The video outlines the high standards required of early child- hood programs to become NAEYC accredited. The 10 program standards are the mark of quality and best practices for the field. Accreditation also assists families in choosing the best programs for their children.

http://www. youtube.com/ watch?v=rhBBd9Tl4k4

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education20

NAEYC’s accreditation standards describe all the key elements of a high-quality early childhood program.

Standard Standard Description

1. Relationships The program promotes positive relationships among all children and adults to encourage each child’s sense of individual worth and belonging as a part of a community and to foster each child’s ability to contribute as a responsible community member.

2. Curriculum The program implements a curriculum that is consistent with its goals for children and promotes learning and development in each of the following areas: social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive.

3. Teaching The program uses developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate and effective teaching approaches that enhance each child’s learning and development in the context of the program’s curriculum goals. Teachers purposefully use multiple instructional ap- proaches to optimize children’s opportunities for learning.

4. Assessment of children’s progress The program is informed by ongoing systematic, formal, and informal assessment approach- es to provide information on children’s learning and development. These assessments occur within the context of reciprocal communications with families and with sensitivity to the cultural contexts in which children develop. Assessment results are used to benefit children by informing sound decisions about children, teaching, and program improvement.

5. Health The program promotes the nutrition and health of children and protects children and staff from illness and injury.

6. Teachers The program employs and supports a teaching staff that has the educational qualifica- tions, knowledge, and professional commitment necessary to promote children’s learning and development and to support families’ diverse needs and interests.

7. Families The program establishes and maintains collaborative relationships with each child’s fam- ily to foster children’s development in all settings. These relationships are sensitive to family composition, language, and culture.

8. Community relationships The program establishes relationships with and uses the resources of the children’s com- munities to support the achievement of program goals.

9. Physical environment The program has a safe and healthful environment that provides appropriate and well- maintained indoor and outdoor physical environments. The environment includes facili- ties, equipment, and materials to facilitate child and staff learning and development.

10. Leadership and management The program effectively implements policies, procedures, and systems that support stable staff and strong personnel, fiscal, and program management so all children, families, and staff have high-quality experiences.

Source: From Overview of the NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards, 2008, by National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC, retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/academy/file/OverviewStandards.pdf.

program regardless of length of day or sponsorship. NAEYC accreditation standards are designed to answer the question “What is high quality?”

To understand what we mean by quality, it is important to see the relationships among the standards rather than to see them as a discrete list. In the accreditation system, the primary focus is on children as described in the first five standards: relationships, cur- riculum, teaching, assessment of children’s progress, and health. The other five standards address teachers, partnerships with families and communities, and administration, includ- ing the physical environment and leadership and management. Meeting these standards establishes a supportive context that makes it possible to achieve and maintain the quality of life for children described in the first five standards.

Head Start Standards Quality is also a critically important issue in Head Start, par- ticularly so because it serves the nation’s most vulnerable children. Head Start programs are regularly monitored for compliance with the national Head Start Program Performance Standards (Head Start, 2006). These standards are similar to accreditation standards, but they also address the comprehensive services that are part of Head Start’s mandate.

Head Start Program Perfor- mance Standards National standards that establish the level of quality of services provided by every Head Start program.

Table 1.1 NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 21

Military Child Care Act The largest employer-sponsored child care system in the world is the U.S. military. Its voluntary workforce of men and women depends on the provision of high-quality child care. In 1989, Congress passed the Military Child Care Act to ensure consistently high standards of quality in these programs. The act required that centers seek NAEYC accreditation, and also included provisions for teacher training and a career ladder tying compensation to increased professional development. The Mili- tary Child Care Act resulted in significantly improved quality and learning outcomes for children that have been maintained for decades (Child Care Aware® of America, 2013; Neugebauer, 2011). In addition, the military child care system is now seen as a model for improving all child care systems (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).

Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs The early childhood field defines quality as having two dimensions: structural and process (Minervino, 2013). Structural quality includes features such as maximum group sizes, teacher/child ratios, and teacher qualifications, which are relatively easy to quantify and measure. Process quality, on the other hand, refers to the quality of the relationships and interactions among teachers and children, and the appropriateness of the materials, learn- ing experiences, and teaching strategies. These features are more difficult to evaluate, and yet they are the key aspects of the quality of children’s experiences. They describe what life should be like for children in a program, how they should be treated, and how their learning and development should be promoted.

Structural quality and process quality are interconnected. For example, well-qualified teachers are needed to plan and implement an engaging curriculum and teach effectively. Similarly, positive relationships between teachers and children are more likely to be es- tablished when the size of the group and ratio of adults to children is relatively small. An age-appropriate, well-equipped, and organized environment is needed to protect chil- dren’s health and safety and to promote active learning.

The most difficult challenge is determining how to measure compliance with quality standards. To see if a program is meeting requirements, it is relatively easy to examine transcripts of teachers or count the number of children in a group. But it is much harder— especially for an outside evaluator—to decide if teachers have positive relationships with each child and family or if they are using effective teaching strategies. These standards can be assessed only by directly observing what goes on in classrooms (FPG Child Development Institute, 2008).

To provide consistent ways of measuring quality, researchers have developed obser- vation tools. The most widely used observational measure is the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), with versions for infants, toddlers, preschoolers and primary grades (Hamre, La Paro, Pianta, & Locasale-Crouch, 2014; La Paro, Hamre, & Pianta, 2012; Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008). The CLASS focuses on the quality of teachers’ relationships with children and the instructional strategies they use to support children’s learning. Research shows that how well classrooms and teachers score on these mea- sures predicts how well children score on measures of language, literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional abilities (Curby, Brock, & Hamre, 2013; Downer et al., 2012). The CLASS has been adopted as a tool for monitoring quality in Head Start, state prekinder- gartens, and QRIS.

Another widely used program quality assessment is the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-3) (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2014) with versions for preschool, infant/toddler, family child care, and school-age programs. ECERS is used by many state QRIS systems.

The overall conclusion of all of the research on the effectiveness of early educa- tion is that what teachers actually do with children is the most important determinant of the quality of children’s experiences and their learning outcomes. After decades of research on quality in early childhood programs, one thing we know for certain is that teachers matter. If children are to reach their full potentials, then professionals must also reach theirs.

structural quality Features of an early childhood program, such as maximum group sizes, teacher/child ratios, and teacher qualifications, that are relatively easy to quantify and measure.

process quality The quality of the relationships and interac- tions among teachers and children, and the appropriate- ness of the materials, learning experiences, and teaching strategies occurring in an early childhood program.

Classroom Assessment Scor- ing System (CLASS) Preschool and elementary classroom observational instrument that assesses the quality of teachers’ relationships and interactions with children and the instruc- tional strategies used to support children’s learning.

Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-3) Observational instrument used to rate program quality on a 7-point scale from inadequate to excellent.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education22

Brain research demonstrates the importance of early child- hood education, especially for infants and toddlers.

Measuring Effectiveness As we have seen, program quality is usually defined and measured in terms of “inputs”— the environments children experience and their interactions with teachers. However, pro- gram effectiveness is usually defined in terms of “outcomes”—the effects of these expe- riences on children’s development and learning. As a result, effectiveness is measured against specific, usually age- or grade-related goals. For preschoolers, the most common source of outcome goals are state early learning standards, which describe what chil- dren should know and be able to do before entering kindergarten (Scott-Little, 2011). All 50 states have comprehensive learning guidelines for preschool children, and 30 states have such goals for infants and toddlers (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).

Head Start has established its own set of comprehensive goals for children—the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework. Head Start programs are re- quired by law to periodically assess children’s progress toward the framework’s goals.

State departments of education establish outcome standards for children in kinder- garten and primary grades. Children’s progress toward these goals is often measured by state-wide testing programs usually beginning at third grade, as we discuss later in this chapter.

✓ Check Your Understanding 1.3: Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness

The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education We began this chapter by citing ways that early childhood is a field on the rise. The positive attention and support the field has garnered is to a large extent the result of an impressive body of research on the importance of the early years and the lasting benefits of early childhood programs.

Brain Research Among the most exciting achievements in developmental psychology in the past cen- tury were new insights into how the brain grows and functions during the earliest years of life. Brain research, which had previously been confined to laboratories, is now reported regularly in popular newspapers and magazines. Technologies such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) reveal the inner workings of babies’ brains to policy makers, educa- tors, and the public.

Major conclusions from brain research have significantly lifted the profile of early childhood education—and especially the importance of experiences in the first three years

of life (Shonkoff, 2011; Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee on Psychosocial Effects of Child and Family Health, 2012):

1. Positive experiences in the early years—especially warm, responsive, caring, conversational relation- ships—literally grow babies’ brains and lay the foun- dation for later learning.

2. Negative experiences such as prolonged stress, physical or sexual abuse, or exposure to violence can have dire and long-lasting effects on brain ca- pabilities.

3. Early intervention including intensive early educa- tion and comprehensive support services for fami- lies—the earlier and more intensive, the better—can ameliorate the negative effects.

early learning standards Describe what children should know and be able to do before entering kindergarten.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 23

Dramatic evidence, along with powerful visual images of brain scans, has raised awareness of the vital importance of early experiences. For exam- ple, brain scans of maltreated children provide striking evidence of smaller brain volumes than those of children who have not suffered maltreatment, with more negative effects the earlier the abuse began and the longer it lasted (De Bellis et al., 1999). Findings such as these demonstrate the critical im- portance of early intervention.

Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education A large body of research demonstrates that high-quality early childhood programs can have long-lasting positive consequences for children, especially children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and can be cost effective (Minervino, 2014; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Three well- designed longitudinal studies—the Perry Preschool Project, the Abecedarian Early Childhood Intervention Project, and the Chicago Child-Parent Centers—followed children from early childhood into adulthood. The findings of these studies have been singularly influential with policy makers and are largely responsible for increased investments in early education such as President Obama’s universal preschool initiative (Barnett, 2013b).

The Perry Preschool Project The Perry Preschool Project, which began in the early 1960s in Ypsilanti, Michigan, was one of the first studies to demonstrate the lasting effects of a high-quality preschool program on educational and economic outcomes. (Perry Preschool later became the HighScope Educational Research Foundation.) Researchers found that Perry Preschool graduates were less likely to be assigned to special education or be retained in grade and had better achievement test scores than children who did not attend preschool (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984). Preschool participation was also related to less involvement in delinquency and crime and a higher rate of high school graduation (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993). At age 40, program participants were significantly more likely to have higher levels of education, be employed, earn higher wages, and own their own homes; they were less likely to be welfare dependent and had fewer arrests (Schweinhart et al., 2005).

These outcomes benefited not only the participants but the larger society as well. Economists estimated that for every dollar spent on the program, as much as $16 was returned on the original investment (Schweinhart et al., 2005). This means that Americans saved money in terms of the decreased costs of crime, special education, grade retention, and welfare payments, as well as increased taxes paid by those children who achieve in school and later earn higher incomes.

The Abecedarian Project The University of North Carolina’s Abecedarian Early Childhood Intervention Project demonstrated that intensive early intervention (five years of full-day, high-quality child care with parent involvement) can greatly enhance the development of children whose mothers have low income and education levels (Campbell et al., 2008). The Abecedarian program produced positive effects on achievement in reading and mathematics throughout elementary and high school. Chil- dren who participated were significantly less likely to be retained in grade or placed in special education, and they were more likely to attend 4-year colleges and to have skilled jobs. Access to free child care improved the mothers’ long-term employment opportunities and earnings.

Chicago Child-Parent Centers Perry Preschool and Abecedarian were rela- tively small-scale demonstration programs. A third longitudinal study of the Title I fed- erally funded Chicago Child–Parent Centers reached similar positive conclusions with

Classroom Connection This video highlights brain re- search and the impact of qual- ity early learning opportunities. Dr. Jack Shonkoff, founder of the Center for the Developing Child at Harvard University, presents the importance of positive early child- hood experiences based on what scientists have learned by study- ing the brain.

http://www. youtube.com/ watch?v=tLiP4b-TPCA

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education24

a large-scale, public school program involving more than 1,500 children (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, White, & Ou, 2011). Since 1985, the Chicago Child–Parent Centers (CPC) have provided preschool and kindergarten for children from low-income families and family support services with contin- ued intervention in early elementary school.

Children who participated in CPC demonstrated higher school achieve- ment, better social adjustment, less frequent grade retention, lower drop- out rates, and lower rates of juvenile arrest. A follow-up study conducted 25 years later found strong positive effects into adulthood (Reynolds et al., 2011). Children who attended the program at age 3 attained better levels of education, income, job skills, and health insurance coverage, and lower rates of substance abuse, arrest, and imprisonment.

The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care As publicly funded prekindergarten programs have expanded, a great deal of research evaluating their effectiveness has become available. Numerous states across the country have found positive effects on children’s readiness for school (Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010; Minervino, 2014). For example, a longitudinal study of Michigan’s pre- kindergarten program found that it decreased grade repetition and increased the number of children who passed the state’s reading and mathematics tests and graduated from high school on time, and all these differences were greatest for children of color (Schweinhart, Xiang, Daniel-Echols, Browning, & Wakabayashi, 2012). Similar results were found in Virginia’s state-funded prekindergartens (Huang, Invernizzi, & Drake, 2012). A study involving more than 60,000 children found that prekindergarten was related to improved literacy and less kindergarten retention. Results were most positive for Hispanic and Af- rican American students and also children with disabilities, and persisted through first grade.

Some of the strongest, most positive results were found in an evaluation of Tennes- see’s statewide prekindergarten program (Lipsey, Farran, Hofer, Bilbrey, & Dong, 2011). Children who attended prekindergarten improved on measures of literacy, language, and math between 37% and 176% more than did children who did not attend. The greatest gains were in language, which is very difficult to improve.

Most research demonstrates the value of preschool for children from low income families, but a growing body of research provides evidence of the positive effects of early education for all children. Read the What Works: Increasing School Readiness for All Children feature for an example.

Perhaps no other federally funded project has been as thoroughly studied as Head Start over the nearly 50 years of its existence. An overall conclusion that can be drawn is that Head Start has positive effects on children’s overall development, health and dental care, and preparation for school, including improved literacy skills and social-emotional development (Barnett, 2008; Puma et al., 2005). Although there is evidence that Head Start needs to be improved and participation does not close the achievement gap between poor and middle-class children, it does narrow the gap. The effects are most positive for children who enter at age 3 and participate in full-day programs that include regular home visiting (Walters, 2014; Yoshikawa et al., 2013).

Child care research consistently finds that children who participate in high-quality programs demonstrate better language and mathematics ability and fewer behavior prob- lems than do children in poor-quality care (Cost, Quality, and Child Care Outcomes Study Team, 1995; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002; Peisner-Feinberg et al., 1999). Positive effects are evident for all groups of children but are greater for children from lower-income families.

We could cite many other studies from states as diverse as New Jersey, Louisiana, Maryland, New Mexico, Massachusetts, and South Carolina that prove that high-quality

Classroom Connection This video describes the Chicago Child–Parent programs and cites the results of the studies conducted on the success of the program. Why has participating in this program resulted in lasting benefits for children and families?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ToCbcbpEfDw

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 25

early childhood programs can have positive short- and long-term consequences for young children. Research is also powerfully connected to another reason early childhood educa- tion is a field on the rise—the country’s need to close the achievement gap, as addressed in the next section.

Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap One of our nation’s greatest challenges is addressing the persistent gap that exists between the school achievement of African American and Latino children and their white peers (Aud, Fox, & KewalRamani, 2010; Hemphill & Vanneman, 2011). Scholars tend to agree that these differences result primarily from the fact that race and ethnicity are strongly associated with socioeconomic status (SES) in the United States (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2014). For example, 42% of African American children and 35% of Latino children under the age of 5 are in the lowest socioeconomic level of U.S. citizens compared with 15% of white non-Hispanic children (CDF, 2014). And children of color are much more likely to live in conditions of extreme poverty (CDF, 2014). Achieve- ment differences between racial and ethnic groups narrow considerably among children when they are from similar socioeconomic backgrounds (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014).

As we have seen, the number of young children growing up poor in our country is increasing, with the largest growth in poverty among children under age 5 and children of color, which could further widen the achievement gap in the future. The achievement gap has profound consequences for our nation’s future and its ability to compete in a global, highly technological society. Moreover, the potentially devastating effects on the life tra- jectories of individuals cannot be ignored.

socioeconomic status (SES) Family income level.

Increasing School Readiness for All Children As policy makers consider whether to increase funding for Head Start, public prekindergarten, or child care for needy families, they want to know whether these programs are effective. They want to know, “How well do early childhood programs prepare children for school?” and “Who should be eligible to attend?” A big issue is whether programs should be universal—that is, available to fami- lies of all income levels who choose to enroll their children—or targeted to low income families as Head Start is.

Oklahoma’s state-funded prekindergarten has generated con- siderable attention. It is universal, based in the school system, and reaches a higher percentage of 4-year-olds than any other state pre-K program. Although most classes are located in public schools, some classes are located in Head Start and child care programs that meet the same standards for quality.

The Oklahoma program has high standards compared to other states, with lead teachers required to have a B.A. degree and be certified in early childhood education. Notably, prekindergarten teachers earn the same wages and benefits as other public school teachers. Student–teacher ratios are 10 to 1 and class sizes are limited to 20.

An evaluation of the program involving more than 3,000 children found strong positive effects for children from all income groups. All children’s language and cognitive test scores improved, regardless

of their economic status or ethnicity. The largest gains were for poor children of color, with Hispanic children making the most learning progress, followed by African Americans. But even though gains were somewhat higher for low-income children, gains for children in the higher income group were almost as large. A similar study comparing Tulsa’s ( Oklahoma) pre-K program and the Tulsa County Head Start program (which also receives state funds) found that both programs produce substantial improvements in early literacy and math.

It is increasingly clear that children from low-income families are not the only ones who need and can benefit from attending preschool. Research shows that many middle-income children are also behind their peers from the highest-earning families at kin- dergarten entry and they are less likely to have access to the kind of high-quality programs provided in Oklahoma.

Sources: The Effects of Oklahoma’s Universal Pre-Kindergarten Program on Hispanic Children, by W. T. Gormley, 2008, Washington, DC: Center for Re- search on Children in the U.S. (CROCUS), Georgetown University, retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://www.crocus.georgetown.edu; “The Promise of Preschool: Why We Need Early Education for All,” by W. S. Barnett and E. Frede, 2010, American Educator, 34(1), 21–29, 40.

What Works

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education26

Where the Gap Begins Differences in children’s cognitive abilities are substan- tial at a very early age and widen over time (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). By 18 months of age, SES differences in language development are evident, and by 24 months, economically disadvantaged children are as much as 6 months behind their more advantaged peers (Fernald, Marchman, & Weislader, 2013). At age 4, children who live below the poverty line may be 18 months below what is considered normal for their age group. In fact, inequity in socioeconomic status is the most important predictor of children’s cognitive skills (Aud et al., 2010; McLoyd & Purtell, 2008).

To describe this discrepancy, a more accurate term than achievement gap is really knowledge gap. The differences in achievement are likely the result of differences in children’s opportunities to gain knowledge from a variety of learning experiences. For example, children from higher-income families are much more likely to attend pre- school.

Schools’ Contributions to the Gap Children from low-income families not only enter kindergarten with fewer cognitive skills than their more aff luent peers, but also are more likely to encounter poorer-quality elementary schools (Neuman, 2008). These schools are likely to have fewer resources and qualified teachers, more nega- tive teacher attitudes, and poorer neighborhood or school conditions. As a result, the inequalities in cognitive abilities that are present even before kindergarten entry are not eliminated and often are magnified by their elementary school experience (Parkinson & Rowan, 2008).

One of the frequent criticisms of Head Start and prekindergarten is that the gains chil- dren make “fade-out” by later grades. These criticisms focus on standardized test scores rather than lasting social-emotional and meaningful life outcomes, and fail to take into account the quality of children’s education in primary school (Barnett & Carolan, 2014). A more accurate term than fade-out is convergence (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Children’s achievement scores converge in the early grades because their school experiences do not build on preschool gains.

Children who begin school behind tend to stay behind. Although achievement has improved on average in the last few years, problems remain. By fourth grade, only 41% of public school students are proficient or above in mathematics and only 34% are profi- cient in reading (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). Reading achievement at the end of first grade predicts reading skill at the end of fourth grade (Hernandez, 2011), which subsequently predicts high school graduation. Moreover, deep-seated inequities in communities and schools tend to increase rather than diminish these early achievement gaps over time. As one child advocacy group states, “Our children are not failing to learn. Our schools are failing to teach them effectively” (Foundation for Child Development, 2008, p. 4).

Early Education and Social Justice As we saw from research cited previ- ously, these initial inequalities can be reduced. Children from low-income families who attend high-quality early childhood programs begin kindergarten with higher achieve- ment, thus providing the potential to narrow the gap at the outset. This research, as well as studies on the effectiveness of services for children with special needs, proves that early intervention is less costly, more effective, and more humane than later remediation (Reynolds et al., 2011). Children living in poverty, however, are less likely to have access to high-quality programs.

Improving quality and increasing access to early childhood programs are important strategies for enhancing social justice in America and improving learning outcomes for all children. These goals can be addressed, however, only in the context of current trends in the field and the nation, which we discuss next.

✓ Check Your Understanding 1.4: Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 27

Current Trends in Early Childhood Education Early childhood education is literally a field in transition, experiencing rapid growth and widespread attention. Current trends affecting the field include major new policy initia- tives at the federal and state level, more focus on standards and accountability resulting in increased emphasis on child assessment, calls for greater alignment across the full early childhood age span, increased teacher qualifications, expanding role of technology, and increased stress in the lives of children. These changes present new challenges, but also opportunities. In the sections that follow, we describe the potential benefits as well as the controversies of each trend. Even a cursory look at these trends reveals that they are interconnected.

New Federal and State Policy Initiatives The first two decades of the 21st century have seen enormous growth in public support and funding for early education. The Obama administration proposed new investments to establish a continuum of high-quality early learning from birth to age 5 and to meet the following goals (Office of Early Learning, 2014):

• Provide access to high-quality infant and toddler care through Early Head Start- child care partnerships;

• Expand voluntary evidence-based home visiting to support our country’s most vul- nerable families; and

• Develop partnerships with states to provide voluntary, high-quality, full-day pre- school for all 4-year-olds from families at or below 200 percent of the federal poverty line.

In response, a bipartisan group in Congress introduced the Strong Start for America’s Children Act in 2014. The U.S. Department of Education distributed $1 billion in Early Learning Challenge Grants for statewide systems to improve the quality of early child- hood programs and increase access for children who need them. Early Learning Chal- lenge Grants support state efforts to build high-quality, accountable systems of early education; the grants call for states to use the same learning standards across all pro- grams, measure children’s learning outcomes, and improve professional development and compensation for teachers. As a result, the grants led states to develop or adopt kindergarten entry assessments (KEAs) to help teachers adapt instruction to individual children’s needs. Preschool Development and Expansion Grants were also distributed to states to move the country forward in achieving universal prekindergarten.

Most public prekindergarten programs are not universal. Attendance is limited to children who qualify because they are from low-income families, are dual language learners, or have an identified disability. Proponents of uni- versality cite research showing that middle-class children also benefit from prekindergarten, but the cost of high-quality programs is out of reach for most of these families (Burger, 2010; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). There is also evidence that academic and social skills of children from low-income fami- lies improve when they participate in mixed-income programs (Barnett & Frede, 2010; Schechter & Bye, 2007). In contrast, critics believe that limited funds should go to the neediest families (Fuller, 2007). Another concern is the competing need to fund services for infants and toddlers.

Expanding prekindergarten contributes to another trend: greater involve- ment of public schools in preschool education. In the past, young children rarely encountered a public school before kindergarten, but now the public education system is a major player in the early childhood landscape. As a

Classroom Connection Watch this video from the Na- tional Institute for Early Educa- tion Research to learn about the research on effective teachers in high-quality preschool programs. How would this information be useful to advocate for universal prekindergarten?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=or10f-YcM8Q

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education28

result, issues that have dominated K–12 education for some time now affect programs for younger children, such as more focus on standards and accountability.

Standards and Accountability Since the 1990s, educational systems in the United States have emphasized learning standards—what children should know and be able to do at various ages. At the same time, a stronger emphasis on accountability has emerged, as seen in the Early Learning Challenge Grants. The concept is that schools and teachers, which receive public dollars, need to be held accountable for children’s achieving learning standards. This leads to two related issues: (1) What are teachers to be held accountable for? and (2) How will it be measured?

Elementary and Secondary Education Elementary and secondary educa- tion is primarily controlled and funded by state governments, which means that learning standards vary widely, with some states setting standards lower than others. The federal government provides support to states through the Elementary and Secondary Educa- tion Act (ESEA). This law is periodically rewritten and therefore its requirements and funding are influenced by prevailing political trends. Since the 1990s, Congress has used the law as a lever to hold public schools accountable for eliminating the persistent gaps in achievement between different groups of children. Accountability is most often measured by test scores in core academic programs (reading and mathematics).

The law has also addressed the need for more highly qualified teachers to implement effective, scientifically based instructional practices, ways of teaching that research has demonstrated to improve learning outcomes. Emphasis on standards and accountability in elementary school has led to the development of learning standards for younger children and a stronger emphasis on early literacy and mathematics in Head Start and prekindergarten.

The Obama administration’s Race to the Top initiative (which includes the Early Challenge Grants) was a recent approach to improving accountability and school reform. States competed for funding to adopt high standards that will prepare students to succeed

accountability The process of holding teachers, schools, or programs responsible for meeting a required level of performance.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Law governing how the federal government distributes educa- tion funds to states and holds public schools accountable for the use of funding.

scientifically based instruc- tional practices Curriculum and instructional practices that research has demonstrated improve learning outcomes.

Current trends in early childhood education include more focus on standards and accountability from prekindergarten through third grade. The overarching goal is to help children become more successful readers and writers.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 29

in college and the workplace and compete in the global economy, ensure highly qualified teachers and principals, and turn around failing schools.

Common Core State Standards One problem with a large-scale accountability movement is the great variability among state content standards. To address this issue, in 2010, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governor’s Association (NGA) released the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), which are de- signed to establish a set of rigorous national standards in English language arts and math- ematics for kindergarten through grade 12. The Common Core is intended to provide a consistent, clear understanding of what all students are expected to learn to be successful in college and careers, and for America to compete successfully in the global economy. As of 2014, 44 states and the District of Columbia officially adopted the Common Core, requiring much additional work to align curriculum and teaching practices, and create new assessments to measure achievement of the standards.

Although the Common Core began as a bipartisan effort, it has become politically controversial. A few governors who initially supported it withdrew their support. Some view it as a federal intrusion on state control of education because the federal govern- ment offered incentives to states to build systems around the CCSS. Others criticize the standards for being unachievable, narrowing the curriculum to two areas, and leading to overreliance on standardized tests for which students and teachers are not prepared.

Although the goals of increasing accountability and equity are worthy, the methods that have been used are highly controversial (Ravitch, 2013). Criticisms of the Common Core reflect broader concerns about the accountability movement in general. Some stan- dards are actually unachievable for most children to meet even when they are in excel- lent schools (Graue, 2009). Although the standards do not apply to preschool, like many elementary school initiatives, they have a “push-down” impact on younger children.

Overemphasis on standardized test scores does tend to narrow the curriculum to what is tested, does not truly measure all of children’s important capabilities, and punishes schools that need the most help. Regardless of the requirements of any specific piece of state or federal legislation, accountability is unlikely to go away in the future.

Higher Teacher Qualifications Another related trend is to raise preschool teacher qualifications, with an emphasis on college degrees in early education or child development (Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research Council [NRC], 2015; Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014). Sev- eral research reviews have concluded that having bachelor’s degree–level teachers with specialized preparation in early childhood education leads to better outcomes for young children (Minervino, 2014). Although some research has not found clear benefits of de- grees (Walters, 2014), studies tend to support the fact that the more specialized education teachers have, the better it is for the children they teach.

Head Start’s teacher qualifications have incrementally been raised over the years. For many years, teachers were required to have only a Child Development Associate (CDA) credential. This competency-based credential requires 120 clock hours of train- ing (which may or may not be credit bearing) and 480 hours of experience with children, plus passing a written test and being observed working effectively with young children. The Head Start Act of 2009 requires that 50% of teachers hold a bachelor’s degree with early childhood specialization. The program has exceeded this goal, with 66% of its pre- school teachers holding a bachelor’s degree or higher (Head Start, 2014c). Similarly, at least 50% of teacher assistants are required to have at least a CDA credential or be en- rolled in a degree program. In addition, the CDA credential is the required qualification for teachers in Early Head Start.

Raising teacher qualifications has the potential to improve quality for children and also compensation and status for teachers. The biggest challenge is providing adequate funding to increase compensation commensurate with teacher qualifications, which, sad- ly, is far from the case (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).

Common Core State Stan- dards Rigorous national standards in English language arts and mathematics for kindergarten through grade 12 developed by the Council of Chief State Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governor’s Association (NGA).

Child Development Associate (CDA) credential National competency-based credential for entry-level early childhood educators.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education30

An additional concern is the need to maintain a diverse workforce that reflects the population of children served. State prekindergarten programs have a larger percentage of teachers with bachelor’s degrees than do Head Start or center-based programs. However, Head Start teachers are much more likely to reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the community (CLASP, 2011). For example, 30% of Head Start staff are proficient in a language other than English (Head Start, 2013).

Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8 A trend that is related to accountability and increased involvement of public schools in early education is the call for bridging the continuum of services for children from birth through third grade (Bornfreund, McCann, Williams, & Guernsey, 2014). Traditionally, preschool and K–3 have been two separate worlds with very little communication be- tween them. Alignment means that curriculum at the preschool level would lay a founda- tion for the kindergarten curriculum, which could then more easily build on what children have learned. The idea is to ease transitions for students between schools and school lev- els and enhance continuity of learning while also respecting the needs of young children (Kauerz & Coffman, 2013).

Many early childhood educators are concerned that the push for alignment will nar- row the curriculum to literacy and mathematics, apply learning standards intended for older children, and lead to inappropriate testing of young children (Graue, 2009; NAEYC, 2009). They are especially concerned that schools will eliminate valuable experiences such as play, the arts, and support for social-emotional development.

Advocates for Pre-K–3 alignment support better connected education for preschool and elementary children. They stress that alignment does not mean that preschool children should learn primary grade skills at an earlier age (Kauerz & Coffman, 2013; NAEYC, 2009). Rather, curriculum should reflect what children can and should learn at each age, and teachers should know how to help children make progress.

Advances in Technology In no aspect of life is the speed of change as rapid as in the area of technology. In educa- tion, technology has a tremendous impact on how teachers teach and function in their work, but also on children’s experiences at home and in school. Increasingly innovative uses of interactive media in all aspects of early education is a major trend. Given the de- mand for highly qualified teachers, online teacher preparation and professional develop- ment options are increasing rapidly.

As digital media such as handheld mobile devices and video games proliferate, so has the development of educational apps, the majority of which are targeted to preschoolers (Shuler, 2009; Thai, Lowenstein, Ching, & Rejeski, 2009). In their position statement on technol- ogy, NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012) acknowledge legitimate concerns about potential inappropriate uses of technology but also promote the almost unlimited creative ways that interactive media can support learning and development. The question is no longer whether young children should be exposed to digital media, but rather what is the quality of technological tools provided for them.

Stress in Children’s Lives The foregoing trends coupled with the economic downturn, increased violence in society, and other challenges facing families have all contributed to growing stress in the lives of young children (Almon & Miller, 2011). In turn, mounting stressors endanger children’s long-term mental and physical health (Shonkoff et al., 2012). Teachers and parents are concerned about children’s safety, while at the same time they feel pressured to prepare them for the academic rigors of school. These conditions conspire to threaten one of the most important and beneficial activities of childhood—play, as discussed in the feature Promoting Play: Addressing Threats to Children’s Play.

alignment Coordination of the curriculum from one level of education to the next in order to build on what children have already learned and to ease transitions for students between schools and school levels.

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Addressing Threats to Children’s Play Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many children today experience high levels of unrelent- ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of all children to some extent. Teachers today report that more children are aggressive and disruptive as a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood obesity is also endemic.

Research demonstrates that exercise and child- initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically, however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil- dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out- doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre- pare children academically for school. And children living in poverty are most likely to suffer because they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic instruction to close the school readiness gap.

Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and administrators need to understand that play and school readiness is not an either/or choice. The American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that play is essential for children’s physical health, emo- tional and mental well-being, social relationships, and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity. In short, play contributes to all areas of develop- ment and learning.

In an attempt to get children ready for school and protect them from injury, early childhood programs may actually be contributing to children’s stress by minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child- initiated play time. Because children spend so much time in early childhood programs and school, it may be their only opportunity to have physical activity or outdoor play.

Early educators need to draw on the support of physicians and other experts to help educate parents and policy makers about the importance of play in children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil- dren cope with stress and improve school success. They also need to advocate for funding to provide safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and opportunities must be designed to protect children from injury, but protecting them from stress is equally important.

Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A. Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012, Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics. aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/ peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, & Council on Communications and Media Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health, Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http:// www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.

Continuity and Change One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.

Promoting Play

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Resolving Contradictions Between Enduring Values and Current Trends We propose that the way to resolve potential contradictions that arise over diffi- cult or controversial issues is to “widen the lens.” Widening the lens is a metaphor for ex- panding the sources of information professionals use to make decisions; gaining insights from diverse perspectives including through the lenses of culture, language, and ability/ disability; and looking at questions or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens is a strategy to move beyond the tendency to oversimplify complex educational issues into “either/or” choices and to move toward “both/and” thinking.

Embracing Both/And Thinking Widening the lens to consider diverse points of view—both/and thinking—is a constructive response to addressing both continuity and change in the field. Figure 1.4 illustrates how this process applies to the field today. The left side of the arrow describes traditional practices that have held sway in the past; the right side of the arrow illustrates how current views encompass these earlier approaches and extend beyond them, thus reflecting both/and thinking as well as continuity and change.

Throughout this text, we will revisit these issues as well as the profession’s core val- ues and demonstrate how new research can help teachers effectively put these values into practice. Chapters are devoted to each of the core values: child development and learning, relationships, families, communities, individuality, and cultural diversity. We discuss the overarching value of play in the context of all the key topics in this book.

We began by pointing out that early childhood education is a field on the rise. The profession is expanding, growing in status, and gaining support from policy makers and the general public. A huge body of research supports the importance of the work. It is indeed an exciting time to be an early childhood educator.

✓ Check Your Understanding 1.5: Current Trends in Early Childhood Education

FIGURE 1.4 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education Early childhood education today builds on the enduring values of its past but also changes as we acquire new knowledge about children, families, and the contexts in which they live.

• Both child-initiated, developmentally valuable play and playful learning

Traditional Practices

• Processes of child development and learning • Both how children learn and what they learn

• Inputs – standards such as licensing or accreditation that mandate what programs should do

• Quality • Both quality and accountability

• Activities

Current Practices

• Free play

• Developmental appropriateness

• Observation of children

• Facilitating learning

• Development, not academics (viewing early childhood education as separate from primary grades)

• Typical, normative development

• Both program standards and outcomes (early learning standards)

• Both coherent curriculum plans and links to learning goals

• Both effectiveness and developmental appropriateness (Are children making progress from the experiences we deem appropriate?

• Both observation and formal assessment of child outcomes

• Both intentional teaching and positive, supportive relationships

• Both viewing learning and development as a continuum from birth to age 8 and alignment from pre-K to grade 3

• Both adapting for individual variation of every child and intervention and adaption for children with disabilities and special needs, as well as children who are advanced

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 33

Revisiting the Case Study . . . Cresthaven Child Development Center

We began this chapter by peeking in and eavesdropping on the end-of-the-year event for Cresthaven

Primary School and Reed Child Development Center. Now that we have seen the broader picture

of the early childhood landscape, the teachers’ thoughts and emotions become more meaningful.

At this event, we saw the wide range of age groups that early childhood encompasses as well as

some of the diverse settings. In addition, these teachers exemplify fundamentals of intentional

teaching.

The collaborative partnership between the school and child care program supports alignment of

curriculum from preschool through third grade, and eases transitions for children and families. The

garden project is one example of how these teachers connect the curriculum to the larger community

and provide children with meaningful, hands-on learning opportunities. Children, families, and teach-

ers not only celebrated the good times they’d had, but children also demonstrated how much they’d

learned through the displays of their work and through technology.

Across the classrooms, we saw the value of communication and responsive relationships among

teachers and families. New teachers Isela and Evan have learned that early childhood education is

hard work but have also begun to experience the rewards. Their patience and focus on intentional

teaching is paying off for Nicky. Cooper’s experience demonstrates the power of inclusion and how

it benefits children with disabilities and their peers. At the end of the day, these teachers go home

feeling good about what they’ve accomplished, but knowing that there is more to learn and new

adventures awaiting them tomorrow. ■

1 Chapter Summary • Early childhood education is a diverse field that covers

the broad age range of birth through age 8. Teachers work in child care centers and homes, preschools, kindergartens, and primary grade schools.

• Becoming a professional, intentional early childhood teacher is a challenging and rewarding opportunity. Early childhood education is expanding and is a field on the rise, benefiting from growing public recognition and support. Many career options are available to work with children or work for children.

• Early childhood professionals are part of a cultural group that shares a vocabulary, an identity, values, and beliefs. These include emphasis on the uniqueness of early childhood, the value of play, the importance of relationships and a sense of community, valuing

and teaching each child as an individual, respecting linguistic and cultural diversity, and relationships with families.

• The early childhood profession sets high-quality stan- dards for programs. The most important determinants of the quality of children’s experiences and strongest predictors of positive outcomes are the social and instructional interactions that occur between teachers and children.

• Brain research demonstrates the importance of early experience to later development. A large body of evidence exists supporting the positive long-term and short-term consequences of high-quality early child- hood programs.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education34

Key Terms

• High-quality early education has an important role to play in improving children’s school readiness and addressing social justice concerns about closing the achievement gap in our schools.

• New political and economic realities present challeng- es and opportunities for the field including the federal and state policy initiatives, universal prekindergarten movement, more focus on standards and accountabil- ity, increased teacher qualifications, calls for greater

alignment across the full early childhood age span, stress in children’s lives, and advancing technology use by teachers and children.

• Early childhood education is a rewarding profession for many reasons, but above all, early childhood educators enter and stay in the field because they know that their work makes a difference in the lives of children and families.

■ accountability ■ accreditation system ■ alignment ■ charter schools ■ Child Care and

Development Block Grants (CCDBG)

■ child care center ■ child care licensing

standards ■ Child Development

Associate (CDA) credential

■ Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)

■ Common Core state standards (CCSS)

■ culture ■ developmentally appro-

priate practice ■ dual language learners ■ early childhood

education ■ Early Childhood

Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-3)

■ early childhood special education

■ Early Head Start ■ early intervention ■ early learning standards ■ Elementary and Sec-

ondary Education Act (ESEA)

■ family child care home ■ Head Start ■ Head Start Program

Performance Standards ■ inclusion ■ Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

■ intentional teachers ■ kindergarten ■ laboratory school ■ National Association for

the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

■ parent cooperative ■ prekindergarten (pre-K) ■ preschool

■ primary grades ■ process quality ■ professionals ■ quality rating and

improvement systems (QRIS)

■ school readiness ■ scientifically based

instructional practices ■ socioeconomic status

(SES) ■ structural quality ■ Temporary Assistance

for Needy Families (TANF)

■ universal voluntary prekindergarten

Chenfield, M. B. (2014). Still teaching in the key of life: Joyful stories from early childhood settings. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Feeney, S. (2012). Professionalism in early childhood education: Doing our best for young children. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Hyson, M., & Tomlinson, H. B. (2014). The early years matter: Education, care and the well-being of children, birth to 8. New York: Teachers College Press.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) NAEYC’s website has a wealth of resources on every aspect of early childhood education, including their pub- lications, accreditation system, position statements on controversial topics, and public policy.

National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) On this website, you will find summaries of research conducted by NIEER and other resources to learn about

Readings and Websites

✓ Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you've learned the content in this chapter.

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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 35

and advocate for high-quality, effective early childhood education for all young children.

National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care and Early Education This site provides access to child care licensing informa- tion for every state and resources for educators, families, and health professionals.

New America Foundation Early Education Initiative The Early Education Initiative of New America Foundation, a nonpartisan organization that brings to- gether diverse perspectives to address current issues, pro- motes a high-quality and continuous system of early care and education for all children, birth to age 8. Read their blog, EdCentral, to stay informed on the latest develop- ments and research in the field.

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2 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 Explain why it is important to learn from the past.

2.2 Describe how European educators influenced early education practices.

2.3 Describe the events and people that propelled the kindergarten, nursery school, and child care movements in the United States.

2.4 Explain the experiences and contributions of African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans in the history of early childhood education.

2.5 Discuss the trends in early childhood history that came together to influence the launch of the national Head Start program and current trends in early childhood education.

Building on a Tradition of Excellence

Learning Outcomes

© Alistair Berg/Digital Vision/Getty Images

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37

Grant, Melinda, and Reece are enrolled in an introductory course in early childhood education. Their first assignment is to observe a preschool classroom. The professor says, “I want you to pretend that you are from another planet, or from such a remote part of the earth that you have never seen a preschool

classroom before. Observe for one hour and write down exactly what you see. Don’t try to guess what I want you

to observe or second-guess yourself, just write what you see.”

After completing their observations, Grant, Melinda, and Reece compare notes. Their lists are different in some

respects but the following items appear on all three lists: child-sized furniture, one-inch cube blocks, and wooden

parquetry blocks in various colors and shapes. They see groups of children building roads and towers with wooden

blocks. Each classroom has a library area with picture books, alphabet books, and stories (each room even has

a copy of Goodnight Moon on the bookrack). One class has sandpaper letters. There are also woodworking benches, sand tables, a posted recipe for cooking a snack, and dress-up clothes and props. In all three classes

children are actively playing or working with teachers in small groups. One group had been to visit the firehouse

(as evidenced by a chart on the wall recording children’s remembrances) and there are firehats and hoses to play

with. At snack time in one room, the children sing “Happy Birthday” to their friend.

During class, the professor asks each student to share one thing on his or her list and

then for a show of hands to see who else had seen the same thing. There is remarkable

uniformity among the observations. The professor explains, “What you

observed are traces of the history of early childhood education. Your unfiltered

observations are like the first steps archaeologists take in uncovering what

has gone before. You may be surprised to find that all these things

you observed can be traced back to specific people or events in

the history of the field. They were put there and they remain

there for a reason. First, we’ll find out how they

got there, and the rest of this course will help you

understand why they are still there or how practices

have changed in the intervening years.” ■

Case Study

E arly childhood educators tend to like stories. We love sharing stories about the en- chanting things that young children say and do. We listen to parents’ stories about their children. And we exchange stories about our teaching—sometimes when we

have a bad day, and almost always when we have a very good day. Those good days usu- ally involve seeing an exciting example of a child’s developmental progress.

Stories—that is what history is. The goal of this chapter, then, is to tell the story of early childhood education. We begin by describing how studying history is relevant. Next, we describe how the concept of childhood has changed over the course of history. Finally, we tell several stories about major historical movements and how they influence early childhood education practice today. Parts of these stories occurred simultaneously and overlap. Click here to review the major events in early childhood education.

Learning from the Past Early childhood education is a field with a long and rich history going back to ancient times. Its history differs from that of education for older children, which has been consid- ered a public responsibility for more than a century. By contrast, young children’s care and education are so closely tied to families that private and public support for early childhood

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care and education is a very recent phenom- enon. In addition, early childhood education is a more interdisciplinary field than is ele- mentary education, with historical influences coming from not only child development and education but also from medicine, psychol- ogy, sociology, and other areas. As a result, many historical paths have converged to lead the field to where it is today.

Why History Is Relevant The history of early childhood education, especially during the past 150 years, reveals that the past and the present are inexorably linked. Most of the current issues and contro- versies have been visited in some form in the

past. For example, even all those years ago, teachers grappled with questions such as these: What environments and materials should be provided? What are the goals for children’s learning and development? How should children be taught? What is the role of the teacher? How should parents be involved? Who is qualified to be a teacher? All of these issues have dominated debates about early education since its inception, and continue to do so.

Rather than assuming that these issues are being encountered for the first time, understanding how they have been resolved in the past can inform current discussions. One reason this is so important is that “the solution to every problem contains the seeds of a new problem” (Bredekamp & Glowacki, 1996). For example, early in the 20th century, advocates fought for kindergarten to be part of public schools. Succeeding in doing so eventually meant that kindergarten teachers were able to earn public school salaries and that services became available for all children. But this solution also cre- ated a new problem—kindergartens became, and still are, more like first grades than like preschools in curriculum expectations and teaching methods. Today’s advocates for public prekindergarten need to be aware of this history as they pursue their goals.

Consider how this phenomenon may be evident in your own life. A problem that many college students face is the high cost of tuition. Students solve this problem in different ways— taking out loans, working full time or part time while going to school, or choosing less expen- sive schools. But each of these solutions can lead to new challenges. The loans need to be re- paid; a full-time job delays graduation; the accessible schools may not meet the students’ needs. In turn, each of these “problems” leads to a subsequent solution, and the process begins anew.

The idea that solving problems creates new challenges can be discouraging; however, it need not be. As long as we are working on solving new problems or challenges, we are making progress. History is composed of such progress in spurts as well as in setbacks. As you reflect on early childhood history you will encounter many example of solutions creating new challenges.

Avoid Getting Stuck in the Past Just as it is true that we continue to confront questions and challenges similar to those faced by our forebears, it is equally true that responses to these issues need to reflect current knowledge. As we will see, many of the principles and values that guide the field today are remarkably consistent with earlier views (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). There are also essential differences based on newer research, theories, and realities. Getting stuck in the past can lead to defending past prac- tices simply because we have always done it that way. Knowing why it was “done that way,” however, can lead to changing it for the better.

Aspire to Make a Difference for Children History is not just the story of events, but the stories of people. The history of early childhood education is replete with inspiring stories of women and men who devoted themselves to improving the lives of

Traces of the history of the field of early childhood education can be found in any preschool classroom today. What in this classroom environment might have been present in a pre- school 80 years ago? Why do you think it is still being used?

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children and families. Many “dauntless women” (Snyder, 1972) contributed in count- less ways to early childhood education at a time when women’s opportunities for higher education and careers were severely restricted. Similarly, men have been at the forefront of building the profession even though children were considered the purview of women.

The stories of these pioneers of early childhood education, who were forward look- ing in both their thinking and their deeds, serve as inspiration and motivation for cur- rent and future professionals. Learning about their lives, the obstacles they faced in their work, and the brilliance of their minds sets a high standard for the rest of us.

Advocate for Change Understanding the paths history has taken is important if early childhood educators are to be successful in improving services in the future. Even a brief summary of historical underpinnings reveals that change is a constant. For example, at times, services for children have been a priority while at other times (regularly, in fact), the services are threatened. The Head Start program is a case in point. In the mid-1960s, Head Start was launched to great fanfare as a means to end poverty in this country, an impossibly unrealistic goal. But over the years, the program has fallen prey to changing public attitudes and funding priorities.

Throughout these years, some advocates have set idealistic goals, which can be in- spiring; yet history has taught us that unrealistic goals doom a program to failure. In the intervening years, advocates have made it plain that Head Start plays a key role in empowering low income families to improve their lives and in preparing their children for success in school. However, Head Start is not a cure for the ills of poverty, nor is it an inoculation against poor school experiences that might follow. To be most effective, ad- vocates for improving Head Start and other early childhood programs and services should use the lessons of successful efforts in the past.

Examining the history of childhood education reveals that there have been significant changes—transformations, actually—in how children are viewed. In the sections that fol- low, we examine the changing view of childhood and its effect on children’s lives.

The Changing View of Children Different periods of history have had differing perspectives on children and the idea of childhood itself (Aries, 1962). These perspectives matter because they have direct implications for how children are treated and what kinds of education they are pro- vided. Different eras in history have tended to view children as miniature adults, born in sin, blank slates, innocent, economic valuables, competent, and as citizens with rights. At different times, one or the other of these perspec- tives has tended to prevail. To some extent, all of these views of children persist to this day. In the sections that follow, each of the perspectives of childhood just mentioned is described, along with the potential positive and negative consequences for children’s lives.

Children as Miniature Adults From the Middle Ages to about the 17th century in Western Europe, children were basi- cally seen as adults on a smaller scale (Aries, 1962). Children dressed like adults, did adult-like work, and even played the same games. In fact, it wasn’t until the 15th and 16th centuries that children appeared in paintings wearing specialized children’s clothing.

In the 18th century, discovery of smallpox inoculation and better condi- tions in general reduced the death rate among children, which likely contributed to changes in the idea of childhood (Aries, 1962). Previously, the extremely high infant mortality rate motivated families to produce a large number of children to ensure the sur- vival of a few. Families depended on their children to provide labor to support the family. As children’s survival became less precarious, so too did their value as individuals and the image attached to them.

Centuries ago, children were viewed as “miniature adults.” Children today are once again dressing like adults, playing adult-type games, and be- ing exposed to adult images through the media at younger and younger ages.

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Today, the image of children as miniature adults is apparent once again in the clothes children wear and the images they are exposed to through the media. Primary-grade girls dress like teenagers or young adults. Concern exists that they are too sexy too soon (Levin & Kilbourne, 2008). Preschoolers engage in team sports previously reserved for older children. Children’s toys have been replaced by adult-like video games and digital devices.

Children in Need of Redemption The image of the child during the 1300s to 1800s was shaped by the religious belief that children were born in sin and needed re- demption. Misbehavior of any kind was considered sinful and punished harshly.

Schools in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th centuries were based on this image of children. Children learned to read from the Bible, recited memorized passages, and were often beaten or ridiculed for errors. Many people today continue to believe that severe punishment is necessary to shape children’s moral character.

Children as Blank Slates English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) coun- tered the religious argument that children are born with a predetermined sinful nature. Instead, he believed that children are born as tabula rasa, blank slates. What gets written on the slates is determined by their experiences in the environment. Locke’s view was a step forward because it rejected the notion of inherent sinfulness and strongly emphasized the importance and value of education.

Locke was accurate in assuming that environmental experiences play a major role in children’s learning; however, he did not see individual differences in children or how they actively shape their own experiences. Nevertheless, Locke’s image of children as blank slates persists. Many schools today still operate on the notion that children are empty vessels that need to be filled, rather than active participants in the process of education.

Children as Innocents In contrast to Locke’s theory as well as the notion of children as sinners in need of redemption, French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) introduced the Romantic image of the child as innocent. Rousseau’s novel Emile promoted the idea that children are born good rather than evil, and that they have inherent abilities upon which to build (Wolfe, 2000). He thought education should build on children’s natural goodness.

Rousseau believed that it is important to observe children. He was among the first to propose the concept of stages of development. He believed that children should not be rushed through stages, nor that one stage was simply preparation for another, a concept that continues to influence practice 150 years later.

Rousseau’s image of childhood was a radical departure from the views of his day. Although he did not put these ideas into practice, they influenced many thinkers who fol- lowed and continue to have an influence today. Early childhood education has a strong tradition of focusing on the positive in children to develop individual potential.

Children’s Economic Value At various points in history, children’s value has been calculated in response to a number of factors. Even today, some consider children to be their parents’ property. They were, and still are in some communities, economically neces- sary to contribute work to the sustenance and care of the family; this includes taking care of other children and parents in old age. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, child labor laws limited children’s potential economic contributions to family well-being. As children’s economic contributions diminished, they began to take on more intrinsic emotional value in the family. For example, insurance companies compensated parents for a child’s death or injury not only because of the costs involved and the potential income lost, but also as an attempt to compensate for the emotional loss (Zellizer, 1981).

The Competent Child Scientific study of children beginning in the 20th century led to an alternative view of childhood—the competent child—the idea that children are active players in their own development and learning. The more researchers learned

competent child The image of children as active players in their own development and learning.

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about children’s competencies beginning at birth, the less plausible it became to see them as blank slates. Brain research in recent decades has further reinforced this image of chil- dren’s innate competence.

The image of the competent child has had a major impact on early childhood prac- tices and the larger culture. But negative consequences can emanate as well. Producers of videotapes and television and computer programs claim that they can teach a baby to read or produce a future Einstein. In addition, the image of the competent child has contributed to the trend to hurry young children through childhood toward expectations or experiences more appropriate for older children or adults (Elkind, 2007; Levin & Kilbourne, 2008).

The Child as a Citizen with Rights The image of the child throughout his- tory has come almost full circle in its relation to adults. But rather than seeing children as small-scale adults, a present-day development is to view children as citizens who have rights just as adults do (Hall & Rudkin, 2011). In a democratic society, rights are imple- mented as laws such as those that protect children from abuse or prosecution as adults. Similarly, toys and products used by children must meet safety regulations.

Internationally, the image of a child with rights has gained widespread attention. In 1989, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (http://www.unicef. org/crc) went into effect. It has been ratified by every developed country in the world except Somalia and the United States. The declaration calls for protection of all children from physical, mental, and sexual abuse. One provision states that, although parents have primary responsibility for children’s upbringing, states should provide appropriate assis- tance and support for child care programs. This is one of several provisions that have been politically controversial in this country. Although the United States has not endorsed the UN Convention, its existence promotes an image of the child with rights.

Images of Childhood Today Elements of all of these images of childhood are pres- ent in children’s lives today and influence how they are treated. Although our country tends to see children as innocents in need of protection by parents and the government, we also propel them into adult experiences at young ages. Our schools swing back and forth, between taking an approach that children are empty vessels, and viewing them as competent contribu- tors to their own learning. On the one hand, children are highly valued, and on the other hand, they are abused and neglected. As we have seen throughout history, the prevailing image of children impacts their lives in many ways. One example is the role of play, which is described in the feature Promoting Play: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play.

As we explore the evolution of early childhood practice in the sections that follow, it will become apparent which of these images has had the greater influence on the field. We can only present highlights of the rich history of the field here; for a more complete picture, click here to consult the timeline of major events.

✓ Check Your Understanding 2.1: Learning from the Past

European Influences on American Early Childhood Education Like much of American history, early education was strongly influenced by Western Euro- pean ideas. Although European ideas were not the only, nor necessarily the best, educational concepts in the world, current practices in the United States strongly reflect these early influences. Later in this chapter, we consider early childhood history through a wider lens.

Rousseau’s belief in the inherent goodness and potential of children had a strong im- pact on the educational ideas and practices that followed. Two other thinkers who shared similar views are Comenius and Pestalozzi. Unlike Rousseau, both created schools that implemented their vision.

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John Amos Comenius John Amos Comenius (Jan Komensky in his native Czech) (1592–1670) was a minister who wrote about educational reform and directed a school where he could put his ideas into practice. He believed in three key ideas (Wolfe, 2000): (1) Teaching methods needed to be radically changed from punitive approaches to make learning easier, deeper, and more pleasant; (2) teachers should engage children with nature and follow their lead; and (3) children should learn in their own language, rather than in Latin.

To accomplish his last goal, Comenius wrote a new kind of book, Orbis Pictus, or “the world in pictures.” Popular for the next 200 years, this was the first children’s picture book or

The Image of the Child and the Role of Play Children always play. However, many factors influ- ence how they play and the materials they play with. To some extent, children’s play reflects the prevailing image of the child. For example, when children were considered miniature adults, there was little difference between their play pastimes and those of their elders. Adults and children played with hoops and danced the same dances. When children were thought to be born in sin, Puritanical adults frowned on play as idleness and thought children's time should be spent in Bible study or productive work.

The view that children are innocents who are inher- ently good meant greater freedom for children to play in less restricted, more creative ways. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw changes in children's play as living conditions improved. When child labor laws went into effect, children enjoyed more time for free play unsupervised by adults. Children created their “toys” from real objects, such as bats out of sticks. Boys and girls played make-believe, often out- doors. Boys tended to engage in informal ball games, and girls enacted housekeeping scenarios with dolls and pretend, rather than manufactured, props.

As scientific study of child development expanded in the later 20th century, the image of the “compe- tent child” had a significant impact on children's play. Whereas previously toys such as balls, dolls, blocks, and cards were relatively open-ended and primarily designed for fun, “educational toys” began to flood the market. Middle-class parents purchased toys to teach rather than entertain their children.

And children’s free time became much more structured with formal dance or music lessons and participation on sports teams at younger ages.

The recent image of children as citizens with rights is a noteworthy development relevant to play. Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child affirms that governments recognize the right to “engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child.”

Although play is influenced by adults’ image of the child, children always exercise a certain amount of control over play, or the activity isn't play at all. And their play is often based on their image of adults. As a result, children prefer toys and play themes that are connected to the adult world. For instance, when horses were the primary mode of transporta- tion, children played with hobby horses or stick horses. Subsequently, these were replaced by cars, and then airplanes, and eventually spaceships.

The U.S. culture now seems to have come full circle. In many respects children are once again seen as miniature adults. They dress like adults, play with adult-like toys (Barbies instead of baby dolls), and desire the same exact “toys” as adults— video games, cell phones, and iPads.

Sources: Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life, by P. Aries, 1962, New York: Vintage Books; Play and Child Development, 4th edition, by J. L. Frost, S. C. Wortham, and S. Reifel, 2012, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/en/ professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.

Promoting Play

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illustrated textbook ever published. It was organized around topics of interest such as birds and plants and included pictures with labels attached. Comenius also wrote the first illustrated alphabet book to teach chil- dren to read in their own languages.

Some of the educational ideas that Co- menius practiced in his school were radi- cal for his time but sound familiar today. For example, he thought the early years were an extremely important foundation for later learning. He believed that chil- dren learn through their senses and need to be active, and he felt that children’s in- terests and firsthand experiences promote learning and memory. Comenius believed that children are born in the image of God, and was vehemently opposed to physical punishment (Wolfe, 2000). Like Rousseau, he identified developmental stages.

Comenius’s ideas have endured for centuries. For example, in the 1990s Eastern European countries that had been under Communist dictatorship moved toward democracy. One strategy was to reform previously rigid educational systems. With the help of American philanthropy, the International Step by Step Association (http://www.issa.nl) was founded to develop Head Start–like preschool programs. There was some concern that these “American” ideas—such as child-centered education—would be culturally inappropriate. However, these concerns underestimated the lasting reverence for native son Komensky (Comenius)—who is, after all, the forerunner of much of American early childhood education.

Johann Pestalozzi Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss educator who, like Comenius, founded his own school and trained the teachers. He believed that all children—including children who lived in poverty—could benefit from education (Nourot, 2005). The field’s current views of best practice are remarkably consistent with many of Pestalozzi’s ideas about teaching and learning.

Learning and Teaching in Pestalozzi’s School Pestalozzi (1894/2007) de- scribed his philosophy in a book titled How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. He believed that teachers must study child development. He thought that learning proceeds through stages, with children needing to master skills and knowledge before moving on to the next stage (Wolfe, 2000). Pestalozzi promoted what came to be called the “whole child” point of view—that children’s physical, emotional, social, moral, and intellectual development are integrated. He called these “the hand, heart, and head.”

Other important ideas of Pestalozzi included the notion that children need to dis- cover ideas for themselves through their own activity—a precursor of Piaget’s theory of constructivism. He rejected punishment and threats and felt that children are motivated to learn by their interests. Like many early theorists, Pestalozzi viewed development as a natural unfolding or blossoming from within, with teachers acting as gardeners who nur- ture the process rather than direct it. Although this view is simpler than our understanding of development today, it persisted well into the 20th century.

Impact of Pestalozzi’s Work Pestalozzi’s ideas directly influenced schools for young children in the 19th century. Particularly influential was his notion of object lessons—learning from direct observation and sensory experience in the natural world— that begin with the here and now and move beyond (Wolfe, 2000).

constructivism Learning theory derived from the work of Jean Piaget, which assumes that children actively build their knowledge from firsthand experiences in stimulating environments.

First created more than 400 years ago, picture books remain one of the most popular, valuable, and engaging learning materials in early childhood programs and homes.

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A well-known school influenced by Pestalozzi was founded by Robert Owen (1771– 1858) as part of his idealized community in Scotland, New Lanark. Owen spread his ideas to America by founding a similar model community in New Harmony, Indiana. Although his experiment did not survive long, the school provided care and education for hundreds of children, from infancy to age 10, whose parents worked in the mills—one of the earli- est examples of a child care center.

Friedrich Froebel Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) built on Pestalozzi’s ideas but extended them to develop educational materials. His view of development as a process of natural unfolding is evident in the name of his school, a “garden for chil- dren.” Froebel is well known as the “father of the kindergarten.”

Froebel believed in the innate goodness and capacities of children, and saw God’s image in them. Like Pestalozzi, he believed that education should be based on children’s interests and their active involvement, and that teachers need to understand children’s development by directly observing their actions (Giardiello, 2014).

He described stages of development that are similar to those Piaget ar- ticulated in the 20th century. He saw infancy (birth to 3 years) as focused on the family and the infant’s relationship with the mother. He wrote Mother

Play and Nursery Songs to assist mothers in their interactions with very young children— something most mothers today take for granted. Froebel’s second stage (ages 3 to 7), for which he developed his kindergarten materials, was the focus of most of his work. The third stage (ages 7 to 10) focused on more formal school instruction.

Froebel’s Kindergarten Froebel’s metaphor of the children’s garden was more than poetry. He strongly believed that children’s learning is a process of unfolding from within. He also believed that learning would occur on the child’s own timetable and not until the child was ready. Froebel’s kindergarten emphasized children’s free play, singing, and movement (Nourot, 2005). The materials he developed, which were called Froebel’s occupations and gifts, were used to guide and structure children’s play. As a result, Froebel’s view of “free” play was not as free as some interpret today.

The role of the teacher in Froebel’s kindergarten was to be like a gardener. Teachers were to observe, nurture, and help but not interfere with the natural growth of the child. They needed to be aware of children’s development, however, so they could provide a new challenge as children engaged with the gifts and occupations.

Froebel’s Gifts and Occupations Froebel’s gifts were concrete materials for children to manipulate in specific ways. The first gift was a box of six wooden balls in the colors of the spectrum—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet—plus correspond- ing strings. Each child could use these materials in many creative ways, but Froebel and his teachers identified more than 100 games to play with this one gift and accompanying songs and rhymes (Elkind, 2015).

Another gift was a cube that could be divided into eight smaller cubes and put back together to form a whole. Children could play many games with this gift, but it also promoted basic math concepts related to number and geometry. Froebel also invented parquetry blocks—a set of flat, colored, wooden shapes that could be put together to form various designs. Other gifts included sticks and rings made of wire and natural materials such as seeds and pebbles. The same or similar materials are prevalent in early childhood classrooms today, where children use them in creative ways, and also to learn mathemat- ics and science.

In contrast to the gifts, occupations were planned experiences designed to train chil- dren’s eye–hand coordination and mental activity (Wolfe, 2000). The occupations includ- ed activities such as drawing on grid paper, lacing paper strips, weaving mats, folding and cutting paper into designs, constructing with sticks, or making models from cardboard.

Classroom Connection This video clearly depicts the ma- terials Froebel developed for use in the first kindergartens. How did Froebel’s educational phi- losophy influence early childhood today, and which materials are still popular toys for children?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=LNBzmCKLNdU

Froebel’s occupations and gifts Invented by Froebel for kindergartners, occupations were planned experiences de- signed to train children’s eye- hand coordination and mental activity, and gifts were concrete materials, many of which influ- enced later toy development.

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Froebel believed that the use of the gifts and occupations engaged children in sym- bolically representing objects and events in the real world—such as creating a model or drawing a picture of a building. The importance of representation, which Froebel pre- saged, is now supported by research.

Impact of Froebel’s Work Froebel’s work had a major impact on education in the United States, leading directly to a large-scale kindergarten movement here. Several teach- ers and teacher educators who studied Froebel’s methods in Europe—“kindergartners” as they were called—transplanted his ideas to this country.

Kindergartens today bear less and less resemblance to Froebel’s “children’s garden”; today they have become more like formal first grades (Strauss, 2014). However, many of his basic ideas are still evident in preschool and child care programs. His gifts and occupations were clearly the prototypes for many of the toys and materials, such as one- inch cube and parquetry blocks, that are pervasive in preschool classrooms. Common ac- tivities—constructing models or using natural materials in art and projects—also mirror some of his occupations.

Froebel’s work had a significant impact on the development of American kindergar- tens, which we return to later in this chapter. First, we visit another European educator who lived a century later than Froebel, but whose work also stands out for its contribu- tions to the field—Maria Montessori.

Maria Montessori Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was a major figure in the history of early childhood edu- cation. A brilliant woman, she was Italy’s first female physician. She was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, and her face graced the 1,000 lira note until Italy abandoned the lira for the euro. Montessori was, and probably always will be, the only early childhood educator whose face adorned a currency.

History of the Montessori Method Montessori’s contributions grew out of her work with poor children in the slums of Rome. The prevailing opinion was that these children were mentally deficient. However, Montessori believed that what appeared to be mental retardation was not biologically based, but rather caused by the lack of stimulation in their environments.

In 1907, she started a program for children, ages 4 through 7, called Casa dei Bam- bini (Children’s House), and developed a highly successful approach to teaching the chil- dren, which revealed that they were not mentally disabled at all. Montessori demonstrated that educating needy children is a less costly and more effective strategy than waiting until they create problems for society. This is the same justification that was used to launch Head Start, and it is still the core rationale for much of the current investment in early education.

Key Elements of the Montessori Method The Montessori method includes several basic elements. In the sections that follow, we briefly describe Montessori’s views about children and learning, the environment, and the teacher’s role.

Image of Children: The Absorbent Mind Like other key figures in early childhood history, Montessori (1909/1964) believed that children develop naturally in an orga- nized environment. Her image of the child is the absorbent mind—actively learning from sensory experiences. She also believed that children from 4 to 7 years old are in- ternally motivated to interact with the world, and do not need external encouragement or rewards.

Where Montessori deviated greatly from others in the field was in her opinion of play. Montessori dismissed play as a waste of children’s time (Wolfe, 2000). She also minimized the value of social interaction for children’s learning. As evidence, children each had an individual small mat to work on and not be disturbed by others.

absorbent mind Maria Mon- tessori's image of the child as actively learning from sensory experiences.

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A Prepared Learning Environment Montessori believed that poor children deserve high-quality experiences. She thought that children need an orderly environment that supports their ability to work on and complete tasks inde- pendently. Accordingly, she designed classroom environments and materials that demonstrate respect for children. Montessori innovations included child- sized tables and other furnishings, and materials arranged on open shelves for easy access by children.

To facilitate learning and prevent wasted time, she developed educa- tional materials for children to use in prescribed ways. Montessori designed self-correcting learning materials for children, many of which are still com- monly used. For example, she created

puzzles with little knobs attached to each piece, for very young children to practice the pincer grasp used for writing; and to practice fine motor skills, she invented a cloth board with buttons and buttonholes. Montessori emphasized that there was one right way to use each of her materials. She did not consider her materials to be toys; instead, she viewed them as educational tools. Children were also taught practical life skills such as washing a table and sweeping a floor.

Montessori’s belief in sensory learning extended to academic areas as well, specifically writing, reading, and mathematics (Montessori, 1912/1964). For example, she created sandpaper alphabets so that children could feel the shapes of the letters as a first step toward writing. She thought children should learn to write as a strategy to teach reading. This was an innovative concept for its time (when promoting reading at an early age was not accepted by her peers in early education), and also presaged later understandings of the strong connection between writing and reading in becoming literate.

The Teacher’s Role Montessori’s view of the teacher’s role is to prepare the environment, observe children, and demonstrate materials, but not to interfere with their natural exploration. Although teachers’ interactions with children are very intentional in the Montessori method, much of the learning is assumed to occur as children interact with materials. The teacher presents brief individual or small-group lessons, but most of the day children choose their activities. Their choices have limits, however, because the adults arrange those choices.

Impact of Montessori’s Work From 1910 to 1920, interest in Montessori’s ap- proach gained popularity in the United States; several elements of her approach remain widely accepted. However, overall interest in her methods soon faded here, primarily due to her unwillingness to adapt to new knowledge and her rejection of key elements of American philosophy, such as the importance of play. Maria Montessori’s lasting con- tribution to the field was her development of Montessori materials and her impact on the organization of environments.

Not until the 1950s was interest in Montessori revived in the United States. In contrast to Montessori’s original intent to serve poor children, Montessori schools in the United States tended to be private, serving a more affluent population. In recent years, however, the approach has been embraced by some magnet and charter public schools. A study of

Montessori classrooms are spe- cially designed environments in which children learn by inter- acting with the materials. What skills might children acquire by working with the Montessori materials depicted here?

Classroom Connection This video shows the arrange- ment and the materials found in a typical Montessori classroom. As you watch, reflect on the key ele- ments of the Montessori Method, how the materials themselves promote learning, and the role of the teacher in a Montessori classroom.

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a public Montessori school in Milwaukee found that the approach contributed positively to 5-year-olds’ literacy, math, and social skills (Lillard, 2005) and to creativity and social skills at age 12 (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006). With its emphasis on individualized instruc- tion, the Montessori approach also has been found to be effective in improving the school readiness of Latino prekindergartners (Ansari & Winsler, 2014). Interestingly, the found- ers of Google, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, attribute their success to the self- motivation they gained from attending Montessori preschool (http://msr.org/google-founders- pay-homage-to-dr-maria-montessori/).

✓ Check Your Understanding 2.2: European Influences on American Early Childhood Education

Early Childhood Movements in the United States The following sections present three interwoven stories of early childhood education in America—the kindergarten movement, progressive education, and the nursery school movement. These stories are described separately but, in reality, they happened simulta- neously and were inextricably connected. A parallel story—the child care movement— was also occurring, but played out differently as you will read later in this section.

The Kindergarten Movement The United States provided fertile ground for the growth of Froebel’s “children’s gar- dens.” In the sections that follow, we describe how the movement began and spread wide- ly and its lasting impact.

Early Days of the Kindergarten Movement The earliest leaders in the kin- dergarten movement transplanted Froebel’s ideas directly. The first kindergarten in the United States was founded by Margarethe Schurz (1833–1876) in Wisconsin in 1856 (Snyder, 1972). Schurz had studied with Froebel and, upon immigrating to the United States, started a German-speaking school to teach her own and neighbors’ children. Later, Schurz met Elizabeth Palmer Peabody (1804–1894), and their encounter was the impetus for the American kindergarten movement.

Elizabeth Peabody was part of a well-known family of social reformers. Her sister, Mary, was married to Horace Mann, considered to be the father of public education in the United States. In Boston, Elizabeth Peabody organized the first English-speaking kinder- garten in 1860, and soon after wrote the first American kindergarten textbook for teachers (Cantor, 2013). She understood that teachers needed to be trained in Froebel’s philosophy to ensure the quality and integrity of the expanding kindergarten movement. She also trav- eled widely and became an outspoken advocate for the cause, inspiring new generations of leaders, the most influential of whom was Susan Blow.

Susan Blow’s Leadership Susan Blow (1843–1916) was the major voice in ex- panding the kindergarten movement and in fighting to keep it true to Froebel’s original vision. Inspired by Elizabeth Peabody’s promotion of kindergarten, Blow visited Froebe- lian kindergartens in the United States and Germany and became the leading interpreter of the approach at home.

Founding Public Kindergarten In 1873, with the support of William Harris, a reform- minded school superintendent in St. Louis, Blow founded the first public school kin- dergarten (Snyder, 1972) in response to Harris’s concern that schooling did not begin until age 7. Blow was ambivalent about connecting kindergarten to public school, fearing that “the formality of the grades would seize kindergarten in its grip” (Snyder, 1972, p. 66). Nevertheless, she worked with Harris and launched more than 50 kindergarten

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classrooms. Teacher training was an essential part of her strategy, with teachers working with children in the mornings and attending lectures in the afternoons on topics such as the correct use of Froebel’s gifts and occupations—a combination of theory and practi- cum that continues to this day in teacher education.

Upon Harris’s departure from his post, a new school administration was less sup- portive of Blow’s cause and threatened her ideal vision of kindergarten. Subsequently, Blow turned her energy from developing and spreading Froebelian kindergarten ideals to defending them (Snyder, 1972). Blow promoted a rigid application of Froebel’s methods (such as using the gifts in narrowly prescribed ways), which was actually antithetical to his vision of kindergarten.

Founding the International Kindergarten Union In 1892, Blow convened a group of ardent kindergartners from throughout the country and formed the International Kindergarten Union (IKU). (Much later the IKU became the Association for Childhood Education International.) The original mission of the IKU was not just to disseminate information but also to protect the integrity of Froebelian kindergartens. Within two decades, this mission was to come into direct conflict with winds of change that were occurring in the wider educational world, emanating from the progressive education movement, described in the next section.

Progressive Education The progressive education movement was a major effort to reform schooling at all lev- els to make it more democratic. Its tenets were in direct contrast to the prevailing practices in schools of the time, which emphasized rote memorization, strict conformity, and harsh discipline. The traditional curriculum was limited to the “3 Rs”: reading, writing, and arithmetic.

The story of the progressive education movement in the United States is integrally connected to the story of the nursery school movement (or preschool, as we now call it). Many principles of developmentally appropriate practice are derived directly from the work of early progressive leaders. Although differences exist between the earlier ideas and current views, the commonalities between the two visions—progressive education and developmentally appropriate practice—are striking. The following sections present the contributions of John Dewey.

John Dewey John Dewey (1859–1952) was a professor of philosophy first at the University of Chicago and then for 47 years at Teachers College, Columbia University, in New York City. While in Chicago, John and his wife, Alice Chapman Dewey (d. 1927), founded the University of Chicago Laboratory School to implement their philosophy of a humane approach to education. Alice taught at the school, prepared the curriculum, and served as principal. The school, which they ran from 1893 to 1903, became a laboratory for developing and trying out their approach.

Principles of Progressive Education Dewey (1916) believed that the purpose of educa- tion is to ensure the effective functioning of a democratic society. He believed that the traditional approach to schooling could not produce citizen decision makers. He was con- cerned that in a democratic society, it is “impossible to foretell definitely what civilization will be twenty years from now” (Dewey, 1929, p. 6). Therefore, it is important to teach children to take initiative and use judgment. Dewey (1929) articulated his philosophy in My Pedagogic Creed. Let’s take a look at some of the principles of progressive education, as described by Dewey in that document.

What Education Is “Education is the process of living and not preparation for future living” (Dewey, 1929, p. 7). This famous quote of Dewey summarizes his definition of education and continues to influence early childhood education.

Dewey was a prolific writer whose words still inspire. The titles of his books alone convey his basic ideas about education: Democracy and Education, Education and

progressive education movement Major effort to reform schooling in the early 20th century to make it more democratic and responsive to children’s needs. This move- ment was highly influential on early childhood education and later ideas about developmen- tally appropriate practice.

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Experience, The School and Society, Freedom and Culture, and The Child and the Cur- riculum. In Dewey’s mind, schooling could not be separated from the larger needs of democratic society, and children, rather than subject matter, needed to be at the center of the curriculum.

What the School Is Dewey (1900) believed that the school should function as a commu- nity. The teacher’s role is to be a member of the community. Teachers should not directly impose discipline, but rather influence and assist children as they work together.

According to Dewey, teachers and parents should learn from each other—an accept- ed idea today, but radical for his time. In his school, parents and teachers met regularly to discuss topics such as why children should or should not learn to read at an early age— again, an issue that many educators and parents debate today (Wolfe, 2000).

What the Curriculum Is Dewey believed that subject matter—reading, writing, geog- raphy, history, science—should be introduced to children in ways that they can under- stand and that involve them in social interaction. He introduced the idea of integrated curriculum, now a staple of early childhood education, which addresses learning goals across multiple subjects at the same time. For example, children might learn economics, history, geography, and other subjects by studying the workers in their neighborhood. A tenet of Dewey’s philosophy is that teachers should find ways to integrate traditional curriculum into topics of interest to children, such as building a model of the neighbor- hood. Dewey also brought expressive and constructive activities into the classroom such as cooking, sewing, and woodworking. He felt academic skills should grow out of these activities.

What Teaching Should Be Dewey (1929) believed that the traditional emphasis on children as passive learners was a “waste of time.” He strong- ly emphasized the importance of teachers observing children and building on their interests. In progressive schools, the role of teachers is to guide or facilitate learning based on what they know about children and to choose the right problems and questions to further children’s learning. For example, teachers don’t simply teach geography as adults know it; rather, they teach the geography concepts and topics that the child is interested in and capable of learning. This approach, called the child-centered curriculum, has been falsely interpreted over the years to mean that children determine the curricu- lum (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Although teachers build curriculum from children’s experiences and interests, Dewey felt strongly that teachers needed to know both what children are interested in and the content that children needed to learn. This both/and thinking principle in progressive education has often been lost in translation.

The Impact of Progressive Education on Schooling Although progres- sive education has often been misinterpreted and periodically comes under attack by proponents of more traditional practices, its contributions to American educa- tion are profound. Lois Meek Stoltz (1977), the first president of NAEYC and a contem- porary of Dewey, eloquently captured the impact:

I think it is very difficult for people of this generation to realize, or even picture, what the public schools were like in the early 1900s. Children were in their seats all day long. When they rose, they rose to count, “1, 2, 3,” they then turned, marched, and went to the cloakroom. Then they did the same thing when they marched out of the school and when they marched in. Everybody read out of the same book at the same time. There was very little consideration for individual differences. (p. 103)

Earlier in this chapter, we talked about how solutions to problems contain the seeds of new problems. Progressive education was a case in point. Giving children more freedom meant that some people interpreted this as chaos, creating a backlash or a new problem.

integrated curriculum Learning plan that addresses goals across multiple areas of the curriculum at the same time.

Classroom Connection This video shows how an inte- grated curriculum can be used effectively in the classroom. As you watch, consider the ways in which key elements of John Dewey’s educational approach have influenced early childhood education and continue to be implemented today.

child-centered curriculum John Dewey’s idea that curricu- lum should reflect the concepts and topics that the child is interested in and capable of learning.

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And yet, as Stoltz points out, the efforts overall led to real change in schools—and that change is progress.

Although he was a philosophy professor, Dewey was strongly influenced by the trend in his day toward more scientific approaches in education. This trend, called the child study movement, is described in the next section.

The Child Study Movement As far back as Pestalozzi, educators understood that teaching should be based on direct study of children. Beginning in the late 19th century, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) launched the child study movement. Hall was interested in understanding individual differences in children through direct observation.

Hall’s students went on to develop systematic scientific approaches to studying child development. Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) is famed for launching a child study laboratory at Yale University called the Gesell Institute. There he observed large samples of children and derived age-related norms for children’s growth and development such as by what age children should take their first steps or speak their first words. These norms were con- sidered “universal” and have been widely influential. However, in the late 20th century, Gesell’s age-related norms were criticized for understating individual differences and not using diverse samples of children.

Hall was a strong critic of Froebelian kindergarten. He thought that its rigid methodol- ogy lacked a scientific basis. Thus, the child study movement played an important role in bringing about changes in the kindergarten movement, and it also contributed in large mea- sure to the growing nursery school movement. We tell this story in the section that follows.

The Nursery School Movement Dewey’s laboratory school and his emphasis on child observation reflected his under- standing of the need to base education on the study of children. Similarly, other univer- sities launched lab schools to train teachers and study children. Many of these schools served children younger than kindergarten age, and were called nursery schools, based on their philosophy of nurturing development. Laboratory schools were established for the purposes of research and demonstration of teaching methods, rather than to serve parents or neglected children (Hewes & the NAEYC Organizational History and Archives Committee, 2001). As a result, many of these programs served middle- and upper-class children of faculty or community members.

The nursery school movement eventually launched the wider field of early child- hood education. It grew out of the kindergarten and child study movements through the leadership of two women whose contributions to early childhood education are unparalleled: Patty Smith Hill, founder of NAEYC, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell, founder of Bank Street College. Every early childhood educator should know the

stories of these women and their contempo- raries, who played seminal roles in laying the foundation of early childhood education as we know it today. We who follow are their direct descendents.

Patty Smith Hill Patty Smith Hill’s life story parallels the early history of early child- hood education, with each phase of her life con- nected to important developments in the field. She was a joyful child, teacher of young chil- dren, creator of resources for children, teacher educator, and national leader.

Hill’s Early Life Experiences Patty Smith Hill (1868–1946) had an idyllic childhood. Her

child study movement Early 20th century effort to scien- tifically observe and system- atically document children’s individual development under the leadership of G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell.

nursery schools Schools serving children younger than kindergarten age; out-of-date term for preschool or prekin- dergarten.

Early leaders of the nursery school movement in the United States, such as Patty Smith Hill, saw the value of pretend play for children’s development. The need to defend children’s right to play continues to this day.

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father believed that girls should be educated, a radical idea at the time. Her mother was a progressive thinker who had secretly, and also illegally, taught enslaved people to read, write, and calculate (Wolfe, 2000). Furthermore, Hill’s mother believed that play was essential to childhood.

Work as a Kindergarten Teacher By the 1880s, the kindergarten movement was under- way and Anna Bryan launched a teacher training program in Louisville, Kentucky, where Patty Hill became one of the first students (Snyder, 1972). Hill started her own kinder- garten where she encouraged creative uses for Froebel’s gifts as toys, and constructive materials such as blocks and clay. Her kindergarten evidenced her belief in the value of children’s play as a way to learn.

In 1896, Hill and Bryan were among a group of influential kindergarten educa- tors who attended one of G. Stanley Hall’s lectures on new knowledge and insights gained from the systematic study of children’s development. Hall’s severe criticism of the Froebelian approach as unscientific outraged the attendees, all of whom stormed out of the meeting—with the exception of Hill and Bryan (Hewes, 1976). They stayed and continued to study with Hall, and they developed a new curriculum for teaching young children.

In 1903, Louisville’s kindergartens became part of the public schools. Hill was ex- cited about the potential benefits, but feared that key kindergarten practices, including parent education, would be lost (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s vision for kindergarten included three purposes: (1) to meet the needs of 4 to 6 year olds, (2) to lay the foundation for the first-grade curriculum while ensuring the right of kindergarten children to develop at their own level, and (3) to connect the child’s experiences at home and school, building on what children learn there (Hill, 1926/1987). This vision of kindergarten, especially the role of parents, was not just ahead of Hill’s time, but one to aspire to today.

Creator of Resources for Children Hill developed resources for children, including a set of lumberlike wooden blocks from which children could build structures large enough for them to play in. She and her musician sister, Mildred, wrote songs for children, us- ing music as a teaching tool. Their most famous song is “Happy Birthday,” although few people know its composers.

Hill also wrote many poems about children’s interests as well as books to help chil- dren learn to read. Much like her mother, Hill was concerned about racial inequality. In the early 1940s, she worked for months on a set of readers showing African American children, but she despaired when no publisher would consider them (Hewes, 1976). She believed that respectful images would help resolve racial prejudices.

Hill’s Work as a Teacher Educator In 1905, Hill joined the faculty of Teachers College in New York, where she stayed for 30 years and was considered a master teacher (Snyder, 1972). She focused her work in the community school, which served poor children, as opposed to the campus lab school, which served well-off children of faculty.

The Dean of Teachers College, James Earl Russell, was famous for bringing to- gether divergent points of view (Snyder, 1972). One of his provocative ideas was to bring Susan Blow to coteach a course on kindergarten methods with Hill. Among the topics they debated were opposing views of work and play. Although students loved their lively debates, eventually it became clear that Hill’s point of view was carrying the day (Snyder, 1972).

Hill’s Contributions as a National Leader Hill was active in the IKU and served as its president. However, her more liberal ideas about kindergarten methods, including her promotion of play and creativity, came into conflict with others’ more rigid interpretations of Froebel’s ideas.

In 1904, the IKU formed the Committee of Nineteen, a group with varying per- spectives on kindergarten practice, to resolve disputes on topics such as the role of play and the curriculum (Wolfe, 2000). Each year the committee issued a report, and dis- agreements became more apparent over time. By 1909, differences could not be resolved

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and three reports were produced: one by Blow, another one by Hill, and a compromise report by Lucy Wheelock (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s report was to become the vision for early childhood practice as we know it today. Nevertheless, the process of debating conflicting points of view, which she embraced, continues to be an essential part of the work of early childhood educators (Bredekamp, 2001).

Founder of NAEYC As nursery schools began to proliferate in the 1920s, Hill was con- cerned about the lack of standards and curriculum and the threat of unqualified people taking leadership positions (Hewes, 1976). In 1926, she formed the National Commit- tee on Nursery Schools, which became the National Association for Nursery Education (NANE). The committee included Lois Meek Stoltz, Arnold Gesell, and Abigail Eliot. Stoltz became the first president.

In the 1960s, NANE changed its name to NAEYC, the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Hill was its first member, and her views dominated the work of the nursery school movement during its early years. NANE’s first publication in 1929 was Minimum Essentials for Nursery School Education. In this tradition, NAEYC has been involved in setting standards ever since (Bredekamp, 2001).

We have chosen to tell the story of Patty Smith Hill in such detail because she lived so many of the historical events that helped define present-day early childhood education. In the next section, we share the story of one of her close colleagues working in progressive education, Caroline Pratt.

Caroline Pratt Caroline Pratt (1867–1954) attended the kindergarten education pro- gram at Teachers College. Like Hill, Pratt rejected the Froebelian approach. She believed that it was far too structured and did not allow children to play freely or experiment with materials.

Pratt’s Educational Philosophy Pratt focused her energies on studying children direct- ly. Her motto, as well as the title of the book for which she is best known, was “I learn from children” (Pratt, 1948). She became intrigued by the potential of engaging children with open-ended play equipment and materials.

Like others in the progressive education movement, Pratt looked to education to trans- form society and worked in settlement houses with poor children. She set up classrooms with her own hand-made blocks and toys, crayons, and paper and observed children’s play. Based on her observations, Pratt realized the benefits for children of firsthand expe- riences and self-directed plans, field trips and pretend play, letting children find answers to their own questions, the relationship of play and intelligence, and the need to nurture children’s play (Wolfe, 2000). Pratt also saw an active role for teachers in supporting children’s play. These conclusions have all been supported by empirical research in the intervening years.

Inventor of Unit Blocks Pratt’s most last- ing contribution is undoubtedly her design of wooden unit blocks. She admired Hill’s blocks but found them difficult for younger children to manipulate. She wanted blocks that would al- low children to openly express their ideas about the world. Her blocks are made of natural hard- wood, in various three-dimensional shapes, and mathematically precise because each block is a fraction or multiple of the standard unit. For example, the standard unit block is one-half of the next size block, one-quarter of the size after that, and so forth. What Pratt intuitive- ly believed about the value of these tools for children’s learning has been proven true by

Caroline Pratt’s invention of wooden unit blocks was a major contribution that countless children have enjoyed and benefited from ever since. Research continues to uncover new and lasting learning benefits of block play.

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research. For a summary of these benefits of block play, read the feature What Works: Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks feature.

Pratt created wooden people representing families and community workers to add a pretend element to the block play. She also designed large hollow wooden blocks to encourage large muscle play and for outdoor use. For more than a century, millions of children have enjoyed and learned from these wonderful, creative materials. However, because she did not patent them, Pratt never benefited financially.

One of Pratt’s closest colleagues was Lucy Sprague Mitchell. Mitchell’s enormous contributions to the field are described in the next section.

Lucy Sprague Mitchell Lucy Sprague Mitchell (1878–1967) has been identi- fied as a major link between Dewey’s progressive education movement of the early 20th century and NAEYC’s current concept of high-quality, developmentally appro- priate education (Field & Baumi, 2014; Greenberg, 1987). Indeed, her life spanned the period from the beginning of John Dewey’s work to the birth of Head Start in 1965. In the sections that follow, we describe her early life, her educational experiments and ideas about curriculum, and the important role of Bank Street College, which she founded.

What Works Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks Terence and Sam are building tracks for their subway train. “It isn’t finished,” Terence says. “Let’s make the dark part where it’s got a roof [the underground].” He starts to lay blocks along the side and then a roof.

“Wait, that’s not going to work,” Sam worries. “The subway cars can’t get in. We need to make it higher for them.”

After some trial and error, the boys use taller blocks for the tunnel sides, add a roof and run the train underneath, shouting, “Yay, we did it!”

The wooden unit blocks Terence and Sam are using are among the most popular and highly regarded play and learn- ing materials for young children. In the early 1900s, when teacher Caroline Pratt designed these blocks—called unit blocks because each block is a fraction or multiple of the standard unit—she was most interested in providing open-ended tools to promote children’s creative play. But many learning possibilities emerged. As children built with the blocks, they developed their fine motor skills; measured blocks and classified them by size and shape; explored symmetry, balance, and stability; discov- ered the mathematical relationships among the blocks (e.g., two small blocks equal one longer block); engaged in pretend play; worked and solved problems together; and did many other things that would contribute to their development and give them hours of pleasure.

Today, researchers agree that unit blocks are indeed valu- able learning materials. Because of the spatial and mathemati- cal relationships that exist between the types of unit blocks,

researchers studying children’s math development and learning have been particularly interested in the effects of block play. Young children’s spontaneous activities with blocks do in fact include mathematical play and exploration of spatial relation- ships. Research suggests that benefits from block play persist over the years.

Evidence also indicates that teachers make a difference in the complexity level of children’s constructions and the out- comes of their block play. Children’s block structures are more complex when teachers talk with children during their play, say- ing, for example, “What would happen if . . .?” or “Sometimes people use a block to join a structure. . . .” And children are es- pecially likely to develop math concepts in block play if teachers introduce math vocabulary and engage children in mathematical thinking related to their play. For example, the teacher might comment, “For your wall you have the blocks standing on their thin edge,” or “Hmm, you’ve run out of the long blocks for your road. What can you do … and how many will you need?” When teachers give voice to thought and extend children’s thinking, they enhance the learning potential of an already valuable and much-loved learning material—unit blocks.

Source: Based on Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity, edited by C. T. Cross, T. A. Woods, and H. Schwe- ingruber, Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, and National Research Council, 2009, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

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Mitchell’s Early Years Lucy Sprague Mitchell was a brilliant woman who studied at Teachers College with John Dewey and Edward Thorndike, the father of educational mea- surement and statistical research. Her life’s work drew on both of these influences—a progressive philosophy combined with research-based practice.

The Bureau of Educational Experiments In 1916, using inherited funds, Mitchell launched the Bureau of Educational Experiments (BEE) to teach teachers and conduct research. The goals of the Bureau of Educational Experiments (Wolfe, 2000) were to:

• Focus on child development rather than learning specific curriculum • Take a whole-child approach to learning and development • Observe how children’s development is stimulated by experiences and activities • Focus on scientific measurement of stages of development and establishing norms

(representing the influence of Arnold Gesell as well as Thorndike).

Bank Street College When the bureau moved to 69 Bank Street in New York City, its name was changed to Bank Street College of Education. A graduate program in teacher education, Bank Street College played essential roles in the history of early childhood education and continues to do so. We can only mention a few here.

Most notably, Mitchell’s educational philosophy emphasized children’s firsthand ex- periences and play. Her ideas came to be called the Bank Street approach, later called the Developmental-Interaction approach to more accurately describe its tenets. In this model, children’s experiences in the “here and now” provide the launching pad for their learning (Mitchell & David, 1992). These experiences, such as the field trips or projects described earlier, gradually widen children’s horizons beyond the here and now. The con- cept is that curriculum should be based on individual children’s development, and that learning occurs through interaction with the environment and other people (Biber, 1977; Shapiro & Nager, 1999). The Bank Street approach has been widely influential in early childhood curriculum development, especially in teaching social studies.

One element of the Bank Street approach that has sometimes been underemphasized is the role of the teacher. In Mitchell’s words, “We were looking at children learning, and intentionally facilitating the process every day” (Greenberg, 1987, p. 75). Read the fea- ture Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Expanding Children’s Experience for an example of the teacher’s role in the Bank Street approach.

The Writer’s Workshops for Children’s Authors Mitchell herself was a prolific writer and authored a series of children’s books. She created a writer’s workshop in 1937 for authors of children’s books at Bank Street, which offered scholarships to ensure racial and socioeconomic diversity. The writer’s laboratory was established to help authors better understand children’s development and interests, and to promote their use of the rhythms and rhymes of language that are so important and enjoyable for children (Wolfe, 2000). Among the best-known writers who participated in the workshop were Margaret Wise Brown and Ruth Krauss. Brown’s books Goodnight Moon and The Runaway Bunny re- main classics, as does The Carrot Seed by Krauss.

Near the end of her life, Mitchell was instrumental in numerous national efforts to ex- pand early childhood education beyond laboratory schools and use it for true social reform (Field & Baumi, 2014). She lived to see the Bank Street approach used as the model for the Head Start program. Head Start is also known for its emphasis on parent involvement, which was another part of the nursery school movement, described in the next section.

Parent Cooperative Preschools As early as 1916, parents organized to start their own nursery schools. In these programs, which are called parent cooperatives or co-ops, the parents “own” and administer the program. They hire a teacher and take turns volunteering in the classroom as a second staff member. Most parent co-ops throughout the 20th century used a play-based, progressive education–influenced approach.

The number of parent cooperative nursery schools grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and through the leadership of Katherine Whiteside Taylor, an association was

Bank Street approach Originating with Lucy Sprague Mitchell at Bank Street College and later called the Developmental-Interaction ap- proach, a curriculum framework based on individual children’s development, emphasizing that learning begins in children’s experiences in the immediate environment (here and now).

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formed, Parent Cooperative Preschools International (http://www.preschools.coop). In recent years, the number of parent cooperative preschools has declined due to the increase of mothers in the workforce. Nevertheless, the movement reinforced the integral role of parents in early childhood education.

In the previous sections, we discussed the interconnected stories of the kindergarten, progressive education, and nursery school movements. Many more outstanding leaders contributed to these efforts than we can describe briefly. Click here to review the timeline of major events in early childhood history to fill in the chronology. Consider this chrono- logical review as you read about the history of child care in the United States, which followed a different path from that of kindergarten and preschool.

The Child Care Movement Kindergartens and preschools grew out of child study, were focused on middle-class chil- dren, and were associated with education and development. By contrast, child care grew out of social welfare efforts for poor families and focused on the need to support work- ing parents. Consequently, child care became associated with physical care rather than education.

In the later part of the 20th century and into the 21st century, these differences have become less distinct. However, these histories still play out in public policy and attitudes. For example, federal child care funding is part of public assistance for needy families, whereas prekindergarten support comes from state education agencies. In the sections that follow, we describe some of the key events and people involved in the history of the child care movement.

McMillan Sisters Margaret McMillan (1860–1931) and Rachel McMillan (1859– 1917) worked to improve the lives of young children in London and North America dur- ing the early 20th century. The purpose of their work was to offer children a temporary alternative to the dreadful living conditions in the London slums, which severely damaged

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Expanding Children’s Experience Here’s What Happened The preschool I work in uses the Bank Street curriculum approach. I was planning to do some cooking with my 4-year-old class, so I wanted them to learn more about where foods come from. In our urban neighborhood, most children have limited experience with growing things; however, there is a community garden that a few of the families participate in, and those children are involved with planting, watching things grow, and eating the produce. In talking with the “garden families” to find out what they grow and what the children do in the garden, I found that the parents were eager to send in a tomato or zucchini from their gardens for the class to see and taste. We did that first, and then made a trip to the garden. After the trip, I encouraged the children to draw and write about what they had seen, and I brought in library books like The Carrot Seed (Krauss, 1945) and Whose Garden Is It? (Hoberman, 2004) to share with them.

Here’s What I Was Thinking When children have little experience with growing things, they eat fruits, veg- etables, and other foods without understanding where they

come from. Even if an adult tells them, “Tomatoes come from the ground,” it doesn’t compute. There’s a gulf between their ex- perience and what someone tells them or shows them in a book, and this gulf limits their understanding, interest, and willingness to try new foods. Part of what should be happening in preschool, and later in school, is bridging this gulf, and sometimes the best way to do that is with di- rect, hands-on experience. Other children in the group may know about gardening and growing things but haven’t seen pictures representing them or read stories about them, so providing that experience is valuable in the early childhood classroom too.

Reflection Many public school kindergartens today are given a curriculum that prescribes certain topics of study such as weather or animals. If you were a teacher in such a situation, how could you apply the principles of the Bank Street approach to make the experiences more meaningful?

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education56

the health of most poor children. Accordingly, they set up a health clinic, a nursery school (they coined the phrase) for children under age 5, and teacher training.

The McMillan sisters developed a model open-air nursery that was unique in em- phasizing outdoor play, nutritious food, cleanliness, and rest to promote healthy develop- ment. The program was also educational. These centers for working families were called day nurseries—the forerunner of present-day child care centers.

The McMillan sisters’ work was influential in the United States. Several Americans studied with them in England, including Abigail Eliot (1892–1992), who subsequently imported many of their ideas and founded one of the first nursery schools in the United States in 1922.

As always happens, events in the larger context had a major impact on early child- hood education and particularly on the history of child care. These included the Great Depression and World War II.

Works Progress Administration Nurseries During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) was established to address the high unemployment rate (25%) and to build needed public works throughout the country. One of the WPA programs established in 1933 was the Federal Emergency Relief Nursery Schools. The purpose of the WPA nurseries, which were open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., was to support the economy by providing jobs for those who worked on the site and child care to families seeking work (Nourot, 2005). Like the day nurseries of the McMillan sisters, WPA centers focused on promoting physical care and healthy living habits (Nourot, 2005). But in con- trast to the McMillan sisters’ vision, most WPA centers did not emphasize education.

The WPA nurseries had both positive and negative effects on early childhood educa- tion. Because day nurseries served children from poor families, the idea of expanding nursery education to all children was born (Nourot, 2005). However, the rapid expansion of WPA nursery schools meant that teachers were hired with minimal training. This cycle of expanding services without attention to ensuring qualified staff has plagued the child care field throughout its existence. As the Depression ended, so too did the WPA nursery schools. But a major national crisis—World War II—followed shortly, leading to another important chapter in the history of child care.

The Lanham Act World War II necessitated full deployment of not only men into the armed services but also women into the workplace to replace the men and support industry. This massive workforce shift required immediate child care assistance, which the federal government provided in the form of the Lanham Act. This legislation funded emergency work-site child care centers, which operated for 10 to 12 hours per day.

One of the most famous centers was located at the Kaiser Shipbuilding company in Ore- gon (MacKenzie, 2011). Kaiser was the largest of the Lanham Act centers, operating 24 hours a day all year long. Lois Meek Stoltz was the director, and the manager was Jimmy Hymes, who later became a professor and president of NAEYC (Anderson, 2013). The program, still considered a model, provided health services and nutritious meals for children and mothers, parent education, teacher training, and a play-based educational experience for children.

As happened with the WPA nurseries, the Lanham Act centers ended along with the war. Child care was no longer supported because mothers left the workforce as fathers reentered it. These high-quality centers remain an ideal for working families; yet it wasn’t until the 1980s that employer-sponsored child care again became a major sector of the early childhood field.

The stories related thus far of the kindergarten, nursery school, and child care move- ments were lived and recorded by members of the majority group—white, European Americans. However, various groups of Americans were also part of these stories and have made significant contributions to the history of early childhood education, which we discuss in the next section.

✓ Check Your Understanding 2.3: Early Childhood Movements in the United States

day nurseries Programs designed to serve working fami- lies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; the forerun- ner of present-day child care centers.

WPA nurseries Federal emergency relief nursery schools, funded by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) during the Great Depres- sion, designed to support the economy by providing jobs for those who worked on the site and child care services to families seeking work.

Lanham Act Federal legisla- tion to provide emergency child care and other services for families employed in the war effort during World War II.

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 57

A Wider View of Early Childhood History History is written by those who gain the largest amount of power. It is important to note that the previous discussion is dominated by white European Americans because they were the individuals with the most power in the society, and their work is most often included in the “official” written history of the field. At the same time, however, parallel stories were occurring among the many groups that populated the United States. That his- tory is less well known primarily because historical sources are scarce, but also because there is a strong oral rather than written tradition in these communities (Simpson, n.d.).

These stories deserve our attention and respect because they also have made the field of early childhood education what is it today. Here we briefly describe historical events and contributions from the perspective of African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans. It is essential to point out that there is huge diversity within these population groups. In fact, they are hardly groups at all except as designated by the United States Cen- sus Bureau. To further understand history from an even wider view, read the accompanying Culture Lens: Early Childhood Education through the Lens of Non-Western Culture feature.

Ideas from non-Western, alternative histories have much to offer early childhood education practices. One con- temporary scholar who has written of diverse cultural approaches to educating children is Timothy Reagan (2005). He studies views from Africa, the Aztecs, North American Indians, the Rom, Chinese Confucians, Indian Hindus and Buddhists, and Islamic traditions.

Consider the African culture in which child-rearing prac- tices and education are based on African people’s view of the relationship between the physical and spiritual reality (Mbiti, 1992). They believe that understanding children requires understanding their spiritual purpose. Before a child is born, the child is a complete spirit—in some traditions, the child is an ancestor returning. At birth, children are celebrated and the community is expected to make room for this child’s purpose in the community. Because the spirit has come home to a community, not just to a biological set of parents, it becomes a com- munity responsibility to take care of this child (Bunseki Fu-Kiai & Lukondo-Wamba, 1988; Some, 1999).

According to Dr. Itihari Toure (C. B. Day, personal com- munication, December 2008):

The view of the spirit returning for the sake of the com- munity also informs the responsibilities for the child. Child rearing is a collective process and children in different traditions not only have specific family responsibilities but partake in various community tradi- tions as they must retain and transmit the values of the

specific community. Biological parents and community members take care of all children. Exposure to various crafts and skills needed for the community to thrive, songs and dances that represent various stages of life, and the countless stories that recall the history of the people are part of the child-rearing experience.… When children engage in formal schooling, the motivation is not based on personal achievement alone; there is a de- sire to bring pride and regard to the community through the personal achievement. This perception of purpose and success comes from a consistent socialization about the value of one’s family and community interde- pendent with the value of oneself. It is often referred to as Ubunutu (I am because we are; we are because I am).

Understanding how other cultures rear children brings to light a very important consideration for all educators: Ev- ery child is a product of his or her own history. Knowing that other cultures rear their children according to non- Western beliefs deepens and broadens the possibilities for educating children to their full potential, in ways that may resonate with their own historical and cultural realities.

Sources: Kindezi: The Kongo Art of Babysitting, by K. K. Bunseki Fu-Kiai and A. M. Lukondo-Wamba, 1988, New York: Vantage Press; African Religions and Philosophy, 2nd edition, by J. Mbiti, 1992, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann; Non-Western Educational Traditions: Indigenous Approaches to Education Thought and Practice, 3rd edition, by T. Reagan, 2005, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Welcoming Spirit Home: Ancient African Teachings to Celebrate Children and Community, by S. Some, 1999, Novato, CA: New World Library.

Early Childhood Education through the Lens of Non-Western Culture

Culture Lens

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education58

African Americans in Early Childhood History Throughout U.S. history, African Americans have been denied power beginning with slavery, when it was illegal to teach enslaved people to read and write, much less attend school. Once schooling became available, it was legally segregated by race until the 1954 Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision banned the practice. But even after desegregation became the law of the land, equal rights and equal educational op- portunity for all racial groups were still denied.

Over the centuries of enslavement, a few formal, mostly religious schools provided education for African American children (Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). By the 1830s, however, such schools were prohibited. Educating enslaved people was a clandestine and dangerous operation, requiring courage on the part of teachers as well as students. We saw earlier how Patty Smith Hill’s mother was one of those who took that risk and what its effects were on her daughter’s life choices thereafter.

African American Kindergartens and Teacher Training After the Civil War, education became the vehicle for advancement of African Americans, propelled by national leaders such as Mary McLeod Bethune (1875–1955), who founded Bethune- Cookman College in 1904, and became an effective voice for civil rights and equal edu- cational opportunity. Between 1865 and 1890, prominent African American institutions of higher education were founded such as Howard University (1867), Hampton Univer- sity (1868), Tuskegee University (1881), and Spelman College (1881). These and other historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) made important contributions to the study of child development, then usually housed in Home Economics departments (Cun- ningham & Osborn, 1979).

Early childhood education was seen as an important foundation for future advance- ment. Many HBCUs operated teacher education programs and laboratory schools (Os- born, 1991). These programs reflected the prevailing philosophies of Pestalozzi, Froebel, and later Dewey and G. Stanley Hall. By 1873, Hampton Institute (now University) in Virginia had a kindergarten teacher-training program and a children’s school that was influenced by Montessori’s ideas about children learning practical skills (Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). Tuskegee in Alabama offered training for parents in child-rearing meth- ods. In the early 1900s, Howard University in Washington, D.C., awarded degrees in kindergarten education, and Atlanta University operated a Froebelian kindergarten and an elementary and high school for African American students (J. E. Hale, personal com- munication, February 2009).

The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was founded in 1896. Its first president, Mary Church Terrell (1863–1954), was the daughter of enslaved parents and one of the first African American women to earn a college degree and later a master’s. She was a strong supporter of early education. Under her leadership, the NACW helped establish kindergartens for African American children throughout the country (Cunning- ham & Osborn, 1979).

African Americans and the Nursery School Movement In 1927, five years after Abi- gail Eliot started the first nursery school in the United States, Dorothy Howard founded the “first Black nurs- ery school” in Washington, D.C., to serve professional families. She operated the school for more than 50 years (Simpson, n.d., p. 262). Spelman College in Atlanta opened the first laboratory school in an African Ameri- can college in 1930, under the direction of Pearlie Reed (Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). This school used the “whole-child” philosophy of the larger nursery school movement. Still in operation, the school is named for

Historically Black Colleges and Universities have played impor- tant roles in the study of child development and the education of future generations of teach- ers. Although not well-known, the contributions of African American early childhood edu- cators have been significant in the field’s history.

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 59

Marian Wright Edelman, founder and president of the Children’s Defense Fund, the na- tion’s premier children’s advocacy organization (http://www.spelman.edu).

From 1929 to 1969, Oneida Cockrell (1900–1970) directed the Rosenwald-Garden Apartment Nursery School and Kindergarten in Chicago (Simpson, 2012). This program became a model for children’s centers in urban apartment dwellings, and also served children with disabilities early on. Cockrell participated in the White House Conference on Children and Youth in 1950. Cockrell also taught at the University of Chicago labora- tory school.

Spelman College produced many future early childhood luminaries. Its first graduate student, Ida Jones Curry, became head of teacher training at Hampton Institute in 1932 (Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). Curry worked with the McMillan sisters for a time in London and was a leader in NANE.

Among Curry’s students at Hampton was Evangeline Ward (1920–1985), who made significant contributions to the field (Simpson & McConnell-Farmer, 2013). Ward was president of NAEYC from 1970 to 1974, and not only was she the first African American president of the organization but also the only president ever to serve two terms. In the mid-1970s, Ward (1977) was the first to take on the challenge of developing a code of eth- ics for the profession. She was also the first executive director of the Child Development Associate (CDA) national credentialing program.

Many other African American early childhood leaders played major roles in the field’s history. Space does not permit citing all of their accomplishments. At a time when their educational opportunity was severely limited, these professionals overcame huge obstacles to earn doctoral degrees at major national and international universities, to edu- cate and mentor future generations of teachers, and to voluntarily serve in professional organizations. The harvest of their work is still being reaped, but was essential as the field expanded tremendously.

Native American Early Childhood History The native population of this country is highly diverse within and among various tribes— each with its own cultural traditions, identity, and languages—and encompassing Ameri- can Indians, Alaskan Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders. Today, almost half of Native Americans live in urban areas rather than on reservations. However, the history of oppression, broken treaties, and removal from native lands has had a uniformly devas- tating impact on our indigenous population.

Schooling for Indian Children Historically, education was part of the govern- ment’s strategy of oppression and control. For example, in the 19th century, children were often removed from the reservation to attend boarding schools in which they were not allowed to wear native dress, speak their language, or practice their cultural traditions (Wortham, 2002). Schools were also established on reservations but controlled by the Bu- reau of Indian Affairs with the goal of assimilating native peoples into the larger society and thus suppressing their cultural identity (Wortham, 2002). Surprisingly, one exception was William N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Indian Schools both on and off reservations from 1894 to 1898, who tried to implement Froebel’s ideas and methods and introduced kindergarten teacher training (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000).

In 1928, a government investigation resulted in the Meriam Report, which concluded that previous policies toward Indians had been detrimental to their health, social, and economic well-being. The report led to a shift in Indian education toward more progres- sive practices—connecting education to family and the values of the community, and to relevant skills and knowledge (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000). However, schooling contin- ued to be mostly segregated and inferior.

Federal legislation between 1965 and 1978 brought about significant change in the education of Indian children. Funds became available to public schools to better meet their needs and to provide bilingual education, enabling transmission of the culture and

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education60

preservation of the languages, many of which were becoming extinct. In 1972, the Office of Indian Education of the U.S. Department of Education was established. Regulations began to require that parents and tribal leaders be involved in setting policies.

American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start Head Start had a major im- pact on Native communities, bringing more emphasis on early education and compre- hensive services. For example, Head Start played a significant role in ensuring that Indian children with disabilities receive intervention (T. Dobrec, personal communica- tion, August 2, 2011). Dr. James Wilson, an Ogalala Sioux, worked with tribal leaders to get them to accept programs on reservations (T. Dobrec, personal communication, August 2, 2011).

Today, American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start programs are located in 26 states (Marks & Graham, 2004). Promoting home language and cultural identity are key goals of families and tribal leaders. Some, like the Cherokee nation, are committed to tribal language preservation, and many Pueblos have teachers who are fluent in the tribal lan- guage. But generally, language preservation is a challenge because in many situations, only a few tribal elders still speak the language, and there is no written form. Head Start and foundations such as Kellogg have been instrumental in expanding teacher preparation by providing grants to tribal colleges.

Native American Early Childhood Leaders The field and Native American children and families have benefited from the contributions of many key leaders. One who was particularly important in higher education was Alice Paul (1930–2005). A lifelong educator in Tucson, she was the first Tohono O’odham woman to receive a Ph.D. from the University of Arizona. She served on the faculty of the University of Arizona from 1986 through 1999 and became head of Teaching and Teacher Education. Paul helped create the Tohono O’odham Community College and served on the Board of NAEYC in the 1990s.

Winona Sample (1917–2008), another important role model and national leader, was involved with Head Start from its beginning. Born on the Redlake Chippewa reservation in Minnesota, Sample had to go away to school like many Indian children. She became director of a large Head Start program and eventually head of Indian Health Services for the state of California. She, too, served on the NAEYC Board. In her own words, “The highlight of my life was being selected as the vice chair of the International Year of the Child (1979–1980)” (Neugebauer, 1995, p. 57).

Helen Scheirbeck (1935–2010) has been described as one of the 20th century’s most significant American Indian leaders. She was an untiring advocate for American Indian civil rights, Indian children and families, Indian control of their own education, and the sovereignty of her Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. She served as director of the Office of Indian Education, where she led efforts to pass the Indian Education Act of 1975. She was the head of the Indian Head Start Program beginning in 1991. Notably, Scheirbeck was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C., for which she planned museum exhibitions, cultural arts programs, and educational materials.

Latino Early Childhood History As with African Americans and Native Americans, the history of early education among Latinos has involved social injustices and shifting political winds. We use the term Latino to describe a highly diverse population with countries of origin including Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and various Latin and South American nations. Despite recent controversies surrounding immigration, most Latinos in the United States are American citizens and were born here.

In this brief overview of history from a Latino perspective, we address the two most significant inf luences: bilingual education in the K–12 sector, and the history of dual language programming in preschool and Head Start. Of course, the topic of

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 61

bilingual education is relevant to hundreds of lan- guage groups in this country, but we discuss it here because the Spanish-speaking population of children is by far the largest group. Only Mexico has a larger population of Spanish speakers than the United States (Rumbaut, 2006). Also the issue of bilingual education is central to the his- tory of early education from a Latino perspective.

K–12 Bilingual Education Perhaps be- cause the United States has always been a nation of immigrants, bilingual education has always been an issue. As far back as the colonial era, German, French, and Scandinavian immigrants provided bilingual schools (Cerda & Hernandez, 2006). In the 1870s, William Harris, the Superintendent of Schools in St. Louis who helped Su- san Blow found the first public kindergarten, also founded the first kindergarten taught in German to help immigrant children get a “head start” on their education (Cerda & Hernandez, 2006). By the 1920s, however, most bilingual schools were abolished and children were expected to learn only English.

Modern bilingual programs began in the 1960s. The first two-way immersion pro- gram (taught in both Spanish and English) was established in Miami in 1963. Several important court cases in the 1970s, such as the Lau vs. Nichols decision in California and Aspira vs. the City of New York on behalf of Puerto Rican children, established that meet- ing linguistic and cultural needs, including providing bilingual education, was essential for children to have equal educational opportunity.

The federal government has played an important albeit changing policy-setting role in this history. Consider how names have changed in the U.S. Department of Education over time. In 1973, the Office of Bilingual Education was established to implement the first national Bilingual Education Act. From 1980 to 1995, the agency was called Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). Eugene Garcia, a highly respected scholar and advocate for early childhood education, was a director of the agency. Another important early childhood advocate, Delia Pompa, also led the agency and is now an executive at National Council of La Raza. OBEMLA’s mission included helping school districts serve “limited English proficient” children (sadly called LEPs) and administering provisions in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act that in- cluded serving preschool children.

In the 1990s, bilingual programs came under attack as not effective and voters suc- ceeded in banning them in California, Massachusetts, and Arizona. Emblematic of this political shift, OBEMLA was renamed the Office of English Language Acquisition. Many more states now have English-only laws for K–12 schools. These laws have not yet been applied to preschool programs but certainly have an effect on how and by whom children are taught. Despite research in support of dual language programs, strong public senti- ment against them prevails. In the words of Antonia Lopez, Early Childhood Director at the National Council of La Raza: “The history of Latinos in early childhood education is tied into the history of not being seen as fully fledged Americans” (A. Lopez, personal communication, March 30, 2012).

Preschool Level A slightly brighter picture of Latino history has prevailed at the preschool level, with Head Start leading the way from its earliest days in support of chil- dren and families who speak languages other than English. In 1972, The Head Start Pro- gram Performance Standards required that programs help each child build cultural iden- tity and that staff speak the primary language of the children and are knowledgeable about their culture. As part of the Strategy for Spanish-Speaking Children in the 1970s, Head Start funded development and dissemination of four Bilingual and Bicultural Curriculum

American schools have always served large numbers of children who speak a language other than English at home. Every early childhood teacher needs to know and use effec- tive strategies to teach dual language learners.

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Models. These models provided an important foundation on which subsequent curricula and professional development have been built.

In 1982, the Child Development Associate (CDA) Credential Bilingual Specializa- tion was established for candidates who have a working knowledge of two languages and to provide more well-prepared staff to work with dual language learners. In 1991, Multicultural Principles for Head Start Programs were developed by a cadre of profes- sionals such as Yolanda Garcia, who provided training on the four multicultural curricula. In 1996, they were incorporated into the revision of the Head Start Program Performance Standards. For decades, Head Start has served migrant and seasonal workers, most of whom now are Spanish-speaking, which has stimulated much of the Bureau’s work on linguistically and culturally responsive resources.

Despite these positive contributions to the field, historically, Latino children have been underrepresented in Head Start. The prevailing view has been that Latino families have a cultural preference for in-home care rather than formal programs for their children. This view, which is not supported by research, masked the reality that Latino families did not have adequate access to programs in their communities, nor were all programs cultur- ally and linguistically responsive (M. Lopez, personal communication, January 26, 2012). However, the expansion of Head Start and increase in Early Head Start programs led to its population now being one-third Hispanic. In 2009, Yvette Sanchez Fuentes became the first Latina director of the Office of Head Start.

Latina Early Childhood Leadership As we have seen throughout this chapter, history is primarily the story of how people impact organizations. The efforts of a small but committed group of leaders brought about real change within the early childhood establishment. Leaders such as Antonia Lopez, Amie Beckett, Mary Margarita Contie, Lily Wong Fillmore, Lourdes Diaz Soto, and Marlene Zepeda launched the Early Child- hood Interest Group of the National Association of Bilingual Education. A handful of people attended its first meeting, but before long, more than 400 people flocked to their sessions (A. Lopez, personal communication, March 30, 2012). These advocates were joined by many others, including Governing Board member Rebeca Barrera, to influ- ence policy within NAEYC. As a result, in 1995, the association adopted a position state- ment, Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity, and also significantly revised its position statement on developmentally appropriate practice to reflect their input.

In widening the lens on the history of early childhood education to include the per- spective of African Americans, Native Americans, and Latino Americans, it is apparent that Head Start has played a key role in providing services for these populations of chil- dren and families. We conclude by describing how Head Start wound all the various strands of early childhood history together.

✓ Check Your Understanding 2.4: A Wider View of Early Childhood History

Bringing the Stories Together The separate stories described previously continue to influence early education today. For example, we struggle with the large gap between preschool practices and what fol- lows in kindergarten and primary grades. Similarly, child care and preschool continue to be divided in terms of standards, funding, and populations they serve. But over time, the stories began to converge, most notably in the national Head Start program and, more recently, in the prekindergarten movement.

The Story of Head Start The harvest of the work of diverse leaders in the past is still being reaped, but was essen- tial as the field expanded exponentially with the launch of Head Start in the mid-1960s,

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 63

which brought together the strands of early childhood history (Hinitz, 2014). The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s brought about real change in virtu- ally every aspect of society. Early childhood education was no exception. In response to the call for equal opportunity in this country, President Lyndon Johnson launched the War on Poverty. One of the cornerstones of this effort, and the only one that still exists, was the Head Start program. Head Start represents a coming together of the nursery school movement, which had previously served middle-class families, and the child care movement, which originated to serve the indigent and working poor. The following sections describe how the key elements of Head Start reflect the lessons learned from early childhood history.

A Comprehensive Program Just like Patty Smith Hill, Maria Mon- tessori, the McMillan sisters, and so many others, the framers of Head Start believed in serving the whole child. Early childhood education has long been a multidisciplinary field. Head Start reflects this history as a comprehensive program providing health, mental health, social services, and parent involvement in addition to education.

Head Start was also a pioneer in fully including children with disabilities, who must constitute 10% of the population served. This mandate harkens back to the lessons learned from Montessori about the benefits of early intervention. Early education for all children with disabilities is a relatively recent phenomenon. For an overview of its history, see the lens on Including All Children: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical Perspective.

Classroom Connection This video shows a quality Head Start program. How does Head Start today reflect the lessons learned from early childhood history?

When I first met my neighbor Clark—a large, friendly man about my age—I was struck by his delightful sense of humor and learned of his love of fishing and television. Even a brief encounter with Clark revealed that he had an intellectual disability, but spending time with him was always great fun. One day, while reading a book on my porch, I spied Clark watching me. When I asked him to join me, he replied, “I’d like to read a book.” An older neighbor who’d known Clark since he was a child later explained, “Clark started school like all the other kids, back in the mid-1950s, but after a few days, they sent him home. They said, ‘It didn’t work out.’ ” Clark never returned to school.

If Clark had been born today, he would probably be di- agnosed as having mild intellectual disability. His life experience would have been quite different due to ma- jor changes in special education services. In the lat- ter part of the 20th century, parents of children with disabilities who were unable to obtain services formed organizations such as the Association for Retarded Children (ARC) and United Cerebral Palsy and also started preschools for the children. With the advocacy of parents, special educators, and other profession- als, public laws began to change. In 1972, the gov- ernment mandated that 10% of Head Start’s student population be children with special needs.

By far the most important event in the history of special education was the passage of Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Chil- dren Act of 1975, which in 1990 was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This law established standards for how public schools must serve children with disabilities, from ages 3 to 21. A few years later, Public Law 99-457 extended services to children from birth to 3 years of age with emphasis on the role of families in early intervention. In addition, the Americans with Dis- abilities Act (ADA) of 1990 requires that programs be accessible for persons with disabilities, and pro- hibits child care centers from discriminating on the basis of disability.

Early childhood special education today is the result of an amalgamation of traditional K–12 special educa- tion, regular early childhood education, and compen- satory education including federal programs such as Head Start that were originally designed to “compen- sate” for areas of need in children’s lives. The history of special education goes back to well before Maria Montessori demonstrated the power of early interven- tion to change children’s lives. It is the story of many people working together to make a difference on be- half of children like Clark.

Including All Children Early Childhood Special Education in Historical Perspective

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An Educational Program The educational model for the Head Start program is the nursery school, specifically the Bank Street model (Shapiro & Nager, 1999). Over the years, Head Start’s educational program has changed as new knowledge has emerged. But its core is developmentally appropriate practice, with its foundation going as far back as Comenius and Pestalozzi.

Because it was based on the laboratory nursery school model, many Head Start pro- grams were and still are half-day. This is changing as more families need full-day child care, but Head Start has yet to completely merge the child care and nursery school threads of the field.

The rapid launch and expansion of Head Start meant that, like the WPA and Lanham Act centers, a large workforce was needed on short notice. As a result, minimal training was required for teachers. In recent years, the program has raised qualifications signifi- cantly but compensation remains a challenge.

A Parent Involvement Program A core component of Head Start’s mission is parent involvement. Here we see the influence of Lucy Sprague Mitchell and Jimmy Hymes, and the parent cooperative movement. In Head Start, however, parents are not only involved in the classroom; they are also part of the governance of the program, acting in major decision-making roles.

As part of the War on Poverty, Head Start’s mandate included hiring parents as teach- ers and in other positions. At times, as many as one-third of the staff have been parents in the program. As in the case of WPA nurseries, however, hiring parents has presented the challenges of ensuring that the teachers are professionally qualified and has created the need for a professional development system.

The National Laboratory An important part of Head Start’s mission is to act as the national laboratory for the field. In this role, Head Start has funded seminal research and contributed to the development of curriculum and teacher training models. Head Start programs also partner with universities on research projects. In this capacity, Head Start has supplanted the child study laboratory schools of the early 20th century.

Head Start programs are locally administered and controlled. But Head Start has maintained its integrity and consistency despite its national scope because every grantee must meet the Head Start Program Performance Standards. These standards address, at least for Head Start, the recurring questions that confront the early childhood field.

The Prekindergarten Story Leaders such as Susan Blow and Patty Smith Hill were deeply concerned about the po- tential negative consequences of public school involvement in kindergarten and nursery school. Some of their deepest fears have come to pass. With kindergarten an integral part of the public school system, much of the child development focus they espoused has been lost. Similarly, with the movement toward universal, voluntary preschool and more states providing funding for pre-K programs, the rigid dividing line between preschool and public education no longer exists.

On the other hand, bringing the nursery/kindergarten movements together with pub- lic education has contributed to more children having access to early education. This story is only beginning; the consequences have yet to be revealed. However, if Pre-K–3rd grade curriculum were aligned in a developmentally appropriate way and comprehensive services offered for all children from birth through age 8, all the stories could be brought together in the best possible way.

Building on a Tradition of Excellence The fundamental questions that have faced the field since its inception continue to domi- nate the conversation: How is quality defined in programs for children? What should be the qualifications for teachers and how should they be prepared? What are the goals for

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 65

children’s learning and development? What should be the content of the curriculum and how should it be taught?

Looking back through history, we find that many ideas are revisited: stages of devel- opment, active learning, children’s interests, sensory learning, positive guidance, image of the child, the teachers’ role, and the role of materials and environments. But differences emerge as well. Today we view the teacher’s role as more intentional than our predeces- sors did, and we no longer see children’s development as a natural unfolding. Instead, we better understand the interaction of environment and biology. In addition, developmental stages are not rigid as previously assumed. Standards and approaches need to be flexible and changing—based on new knowledge—unlike Maria Montessori and Susan Blow, who refused to change their views.

The most basic history lessons that early childhood teachers should never forget in- clude these:

• We all need to learn from children, as did all of the historical figures discussed in this chapter and as Caroline Pratt wisely put it.

• We need to draw on science and the wisdom of experience, as Patty Smith Hill and Lucy Sprague Mitchell modeled for us.

• And, as Patty Smith Hill believed, it is always valuable to listen to opposing points of view and to learn from them.

✓ Check Your Understanding 2.5: Bringing the Stories Together

. . . the Preschool Classroom

Take a moment to revisit the classroom observations of the college students in the opening vignette

of this chapter. The traces of early childhood history should now be apparent. The students saw

Comenius’s picture books and alphabet books, evidence of Froebel’s gifts in the wooden cube and

parquetry blocks, and the legacy of Maria Montessori in the child-sized furniture and sandpaper

letters. They also observed children’s active play with Caroline Pratt’s unit blocks and Patty Smith

Hill’s beloved dramatic play. Their firehouse field trips are reminiscent of John Dewey’s call for ac-

tive learning and integrated curriculum as well as Lucy Sprague Mitchell’s Bank Street approach.

The woodworking tables and cooking are more evidence of Dewey’s influence. Finally, the students

saw the lasting contribution of Lucy Sprague Mitchell’s writer’s workshops in Margaret Wise Brown’s

Goodnight Moon and the enduring joy of singing Patty Smith Hill’s “Happy Birthday” on one child’s

most special day. ■

Revisiting the Case Study

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education66

• Studying history is valuable because it helps people understand current issues, avoid getting stuck in the past, aspire to make a difference for children, and advocate for change.

• Different periods of history have had different perspec- tives on children and childhood, which have implica- tions for how children are treated and what kinds of education they are provided.

• Early education in the United States was strongly influenced by Western European ideas, such as those of Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori. Although European ideas are not the only, or necessar- ily the best, educational concepts in the world, current practices strongly reflect these early influences.

• The kindergarten movement in the United States was based directly on the work of Froebel and led by Eliza- beth Peabody, Susan Blow, and others who spread his ideas widely through teacher training and founding the International Kindergarten Union.

• The progressive education movement led by John Dewey had a profound impact on education in the United States, especially early childhood education,

whose principles of developmentally appropriate prac- tice are congruent with progressive ideas.

• The nursery school movement, which grew out of the child study movement, eventually launched the wider field of early childhood education through the leader- ship of Patty Smith Hill and Lucy Sprague Mitchell, among many others.

• The child care movement grew out of social welfare efforts for low-income families, focused on the need to support working parents, and became associated with physical care rather than education, although this divi- sion is changing.

• African Americans, Native Americans, and Latino Americans played significant roles in the history of early childhood education, although their contributions are not well documented.

• The launch of Head Start in the mid-1960s brought together the various strands of early childhood history, which are ref lected in its comprehensive services, developmentally appropriate educational program, parent involvement, and its role as a national laboratory.

Chapter Summary2

Key Terms ■ absorbent mind ■ Bank Street approach ■ child-centered curricu-

lum

■ child study movement ■ competent child ■ constructivism ■ day nurseries

■ Froebel's occupations and gifts

■ integrated curriculum ■ Lanham Act

■ nursery schools ■ progressive education

movement ■ WPA nurseries

✓ Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you've learned the content in this chapter.

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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 67

Readings and Websites Hinitz, B. F. (2013). History of early childhood education in multicultural perspective. In J. L. Roopnarine & J. E. Johnson (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education (6th ed., pp. 3–24). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Wortham, S. (2002). Childhood: 1892–2002. Wheaton, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.

American Montessori Society Check this website for information about the history of Montessori and also its present-day practices, profession- al development opportunities, and other resources.

Association for Childhood Education International Originally the IKU, ACEI now provides a global com- munity of advocates for children from birth through early adolescence.

Office of Head Start The website provides many valuable resources for all aspects of Head Start programming, which are also useful for any early childhood program, and the list of Head Start Program Performance Standards.

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3 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

3.1 Define developmentally appropriate practice.

3.2 Identify the behaviors of intentional teachers.

3.3 Describe how teachers make decisions about developmentally appropriate practices.

3.4 Identify the key roles of early childhood teachers.

3.5 Apply principles of developmentally appropriate practice in planning learning environments and daily schedules.

3.6 Discuss research about developmentally appropriate practices.

Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Learning Outcomes

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69

T oday is Olivia’s first day of preschool at the elementary school that her

older brothers also attend. They have been teasing her about how hard

school is, and she is a little fearful as well as excited. She hesitantly enters

the building clutching the postcard her teacher sent her to welcome her to school. Aware that several of the newly

enrolled children and their families speak Spanish at home, Olivia’s teacher, Mr. Washington, has arranged for a

translator to be present this morning. He has also learned a few key phrases in Spanish himself, including how to

say, “I’m sorry, I don’t speak Spanish, but Ms. Lopez is here to help.”

When Olivia’s grandmother arrives at the classroom door, Mr. Washington greets her in Spanish and pulls the

translator into the conversation. Olivia’s brothers and mother speak English but her grandmother speaks only

Spanish. Then Mr. Washington stoops down to Olivia’s eye level and greets her warmly with a smile, “I’m so

happy that you are here, Olivia. We’re going to have lots of fun playing, listening to stories, and making friends.”

Mr. Washington offers his hand to Olivia and escorts her to a cubby with her name on it where she can store her

belongings. He asks, “Would it be okay if I took a picture of you? We will print it and put it next to your name. Later

we can display a photo of your whole family on the wall with the other children’s families.” She shyly smiles for the

camera and then asks to see herself.

“Now we’re going to have some quiet play time while the children are arriving and

then we’ll eat breakfast together. Your grandmother says that you like to do puzzles, so

I’ll show you where we keep them,” Mr. Washington says. Olivia’s eyes sparkle as she

spies all the materials in the room, alighting on the iPad that two children

are using to listen to a song in Spanish. She is especially delighted by

the dress-up clothes, the painting easel, and the sand table. She feels

good already because her teacher is so nice and she likes

the chairs and tables that are just her size. The puzzles are

ones that she can put together all by herself, too.

Olivia is already feeling comfortable at school on

her first day because her teacher understands

and engages in developmentally appropriate

practice. ■

T hroughout this book and throughout your studies and work as an early childhood educator, you will hear the term developmentally appropriate practice. In this chapter we discuss the evolution of this concept and examine how it is used in

the classroom. We also discuss the concept of becoming an intentional teacher. Next, we address the question of how to decide what is developmentally appropriate and the multi- faceted role of the early childhood teacher. We apply this decision-making process to how teachers plan appropriate learning environments and daily schedules for children. Finally, we briefly describe the research base for developmentally appropriate practice.

The concepts addressed in this chapter are part of the foundational knowledge of early childhood education. These topics provide a basic framework for organizing much of your beginning knowledge. A large body of literature exists about child development and its application to early childhood practice (see Berk, 2012; Kostelnik, Soderman, Whiren, & Rupiper, 2014). This chapter considers some of this literature, as well as the definition, principles, and guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice as described by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009).

Case Study

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What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice? Over time, the phrase developmentally appropriate practice (often abbreviated as DAP) has been defined and used in different ways. Its definition has evolved as new research and knowledge have become available.

Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that is attuned to children’s ages, experience, abilities, and interests and that helps them attain challenging and achievable goals. The foundations of developmentally appropriate practice, as it is de- fined today, lie in the history of early childhood education. Most fundamental is the premise that teaching young children should be based on what is known about how they develop and learn optimally.

Within the field of developmental psychology, the concept of developmentally ap- propriate has been widely used for more than a century and refers to age-related and individual human variation. Early childhood educators have long used the phrase devel- opmentally appropriate to describe high-quality environments, materials, learning experi- ences, or expectations for children of varying ages.

NaEyC’s Position statement on Developmentally appropriate Practice The concept of developmentally appropriate practice gained widespread recognition and in- fluence in the mid-1980s when NAEYC published position statements on developmentally appropriate practice (Bredekamp, 1987). A position statement is a document that articulates a research-based stance that an organization is taking in response to an issue or a problem. Based on new research, emerging controversies, and the changing contexts in which early childhood education occurs, NAEYC revised its statement on developmentally appropriate practice in the mid-1990s (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997) and again in 2009 (NAEYC, 2009).

NAEYC’s 2009 position statement describes principles and guidelines for teaching young children from birth through age 8. NAEYC also presents recommended practices for different age groups: infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kindergartners, and children in the primary grades (Copple, Bredekamp, Korelek, & Charner, 2013a, 2013b, 2014a, 2014b). The position statement is widely used as a summary of the field’s best thinking, a defense of its valued practices, and an advocacy tool for improving programs for young children.

The position statement serves several purposes. Originally NAEYC sought to clarify the term to help professionals consistently interpret its standards for early childhood program accreditation. A second purpose that continues to be an issue was to address the issue of age-appropriateness of expectations for chil- dren, as well as curriculum and teaching practices. In addition, the 1997 re- vision brought more attention to the critical role of culture and language in development, the inclusion of children with disabilities, and the teacher’s role as intentional decision maker (Bredekamp, 1997a, 1997b). The 2009 state- ment continues these emphases and also responds to current issues such as addressing the achievement gap and alignment from pre-K to grade 3.

Current Issues in Developmentally appropriate Practice The early childhood profession continues to raise concerns about what is de- velopmentally appropriate as new issues arise in the lives of children. Three issues are currently under serious debate: push-down curriculum, Common Core State Standards, and appropriate practice in the digital age.

developmentally appropri- ate practice (DAP) Ways of teaching that engage children’s interests and adapt for their age, experience, and ability to help them meet challenging and achievable learning goals.

position statement a docu- ment that articulates a stance, usually research based, that an organization is taking in response to an issue or a problem.

Classroom Connection In this video, sue Bredekamp discusses the achievement gap within the framework of devel- opmentally appropriate practice. How do you think we can teach most effectively when children come to school with very different levels of vocabulary or mathemat- ics skills?

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 71

Push-down Curriculum Perhaps the most important motivation for defining de- velopmentally appropriate practice over the years has been to counter the trend toward push-down curriculum, in which content that was previously taught in first grade is being taught in kindergarten or even preschool. This was one of the original motivations for writing developmentally appropriate practice. However, the problem is even more urgent today because the trend toward increased academic focus in kindergarten has ac- celerated (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). For example, in 1998, about one-third of kindergarten teachers believed that most children should learn to read in kindergarten. By 2005, 65% of teachers held this expectation (Bassok & Rorem, 2014).

Not surprisingly, these increased academic expectations led to changes in the curricu- lum. Time devoted to literacy in kindergarten has increased by 25% and social studies, science, music, art, and physical education have decreased (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). In- creased academic demands have resulted in many teachers using practices such as work- sheets and whole-group, didactic instruction that are not developmentally appropriate (Strauss, 2014). A related trend is that young children no longer are given time or materi- als to play in school (Alliance for Childhood, 2010; Squires, 2014). As a result, increasing numbers of children are experiencing stress, being judged not ready for kindergarten, or struggling and failing in their earliest school experience (Almon & Miller, 2011; Bassok & Reardon, 2013).

Push-down curriculum has been a trend for decades and is often attributed to the accountability movement, whereby teachers are held responsible if children fail to achieve certain standards. This trend was propelled by No Child Left Behind legisla- tion in the early 1990s. More recently, a particularly troublesome trend is the require- ment in many states that children read by the end of third grade or be held back. This requirement puts additional pressure on teachers in the earlier grades, thus pushing down curriculum even more.

push-down curriculum Con- tent previously taught in a higher grade in school being expected to be learned in an earlier grade

In developmentally appropriate classrooms, teachers get to know each child as an individual and build a positive relationship. What is this teacher doing to “meet children where they are” as individuals?

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Common Core State Standards Another controversial issue is the impact on curriculum and teaching, and especially on children, of the Common Core State Stan- dards (CCSS) (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a, 2011b). The Common Core establishes national standards in English Language Arts and Mathematics in kinder- garten through grade 12 that were initially adopted by 45 states but subsequently became politically controversial. Some early childhood educators have expressed deep concern that the Common Core standards themselves are not achievable for most children in K–3, that they will lead to developmentally inappropriate teaching practices, and that they will narrow the curriculum further to the two subject areas (Defending the Early Years, 2014; Miller & Carlsson-Paige, 2013).

NAEYC (2012) charges the field to approach the CCSS with caution but also to see it as an opportunity. Many of the standards call for the kind of higher-order thinking and problem solving that developmentally appropriate practices promote, and they should not automatically lead to bad teaching. The fact is that Common Core establishes standards for what children should know and be able to do, but does not address how teachers should teach. These words appear in the English Language Arts standards: “The use of play with young children is not specified in the Standards, but it is welcome as a valuable activity in its own right and as a way to help students meet the expectations in this docu- ment” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a, p. 6).

Nevertheless, some of the standards will be unattainable by many children in kin- dergarten through grade 3, especially those children who have not had enriching prior experiences. Therefore, it is important that early childhood educators remain vigilant as the Common Core is implemented and children’s learning is assessed. Standards them- selves are periodically reviewed and if they are found to not be achievable for the major- ity of children (that is, are developmentally inappropriate), then they should be revised.

Appropriate Practice in the Digital Age A third issue that is often discussed in the context of developmentally appropriate practice is technology. Some early educators are troubled by the fact that children spend too much time engaged with “screens,” which takes away time from important activities such as play, outdoor time, conversations with other children and adults, and other joyful childhood experiences (Campaign for Commer- cial-Free Childhood & Alliance for Childhood, 2012). The fact is that from 2011 to 2013, the number of children under age 8 using mobile devices doubled, and the average amount of time children spent on digital media tripled (Common Sense Media, 2013). A related concern is the quality and value of the content that is provided via digital devices.

On the other hand, technology and interactive media permeate children’s lives and have demonstrated great potential to support young children’s learning (Donohue, 2015). Rather than simply “protecting” children from technology by limiting screen time, educators have a responsibility to promote the effective integration of high-quali- ty, developmentally appropriate media (Donohue, 2015; Rogow, 2015). Lisa Guernsey (2014), a national expert on children’s media, advises that the most important consid- erations are the quality and appropriateness of the content on the screen, the context within which it is used (how long, under what supervision), and the age and character- istics of individual children.

The joint position statement on technology in early childhood programs by NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012) is an ex- cellent guide for decision making in the digital age. The fundamental principle is that “Technology and interactive media are tools that can promote effective learning and development, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice”(p. 5). In short, interactive media require many professional decisions on the part of early child- hood teachers and media developers to ensure that they are of the highest quality and are used appropriately and effectively.

Undoubtedly other issues will arise as they have in the past. Over the years, the position statement has generated controversies, including questions about whether the recommended practices apply equally well to diverse groups of children (e.g., Dahlberg, Moss, & Pence, 2007; Graue & Delaney, 2011; Woodhead, 2006). In turn, new research

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 73

and critiques will continue to stimulate productive discussions among early childhood educators about what is best for young children.

Developmentally appropriate Practice in the Classroom Developmentally appropriate practice begins with early childhood educators’ knowledge of how children learn and develop. Its ultimate goal is to promote the development and enhance the learning of each individual child served. “Developmentally appropriate prac- tice” is used by some as a shorthand term for the value of play or letting children be children, not pushing them to grow up too soon. Play is an integral component of devel- opmentally appropriate practice; however, it is only one facet. To better understand how play relates to developmentally appropriate practice, read the feature entitled Promoting Play: Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play?

The term, developmentally appropriate practice, is used within the early childhood profession to describe the complex work of the early childhood teacher. Knowing how children learn and develop is essential for teachers of young children. The more they

Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play? For many early childhood educators, play is synony- mous with developmentally appropriate practice. There are many reasons why this is true. The pri- mary reason is that a vast amount of research dem- onstrates that play is critical to healthy development and learning in the early years. To be developmen- tally appropriate, teaching practices must reflect what is known about how children develop and learn most effectively. Therefore, play must be an integral component of a developmentally appropriate pro- gram for young children.

But play is complex. There are many types of play that have different benefits for children and children play differently depending on their age, level of development, and experience. Observe how babies play and you will notice that they tend to play with objects and explore the world us- ing their senses—especially touch and taste. as toddlers gain mobility, their play involves their whole bodies with running and climbing among their favorite activities. They begin to play more with toys, and occasionally with or near one other child. The preschool years are prime time for play, with children engaging in virtually every type of play both alone and with friends such as block building, table toys, pretend, or rough-and-tumble play. Primary-grade children continue to need lots

of play, including active outdoor free play, games with rules, and dramatization.

Children’s play also varies with their individual in- terests and prior experiences. Girls and boys often gravitate toward different types of play despite the efforts of teachers and parents to discourage gen- der stereotyping. some children prefer solitary play while others take the lead in organizing a small group to build a fort or set up an airport.

Finally, children play the culture in which they live. Play is a natural context for children to practice adult roles, and they mimic the activities, behaviors, and language of the adults and older children in their cultural group. For example, in a highly tech- nological society such as ours, children play with digital tools as well as the typical tools of daily life such as cars or microwaves.

Like all other aspects of development and learning, play varies in predictable ways by children’s ages, individual characteristics, and the social and cultur- al contexts in which they live. To fully benefit chil- dren, teachers must intentionally promote children’s play and use it to help children reach challenging and achievable goals. Developmentally appropriate practice is more than play, but play is developmen- tally appropriate.

Promoting Play

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education74

know about and are sensitive to the way children think and learn, the more effective their teaching and the more satisfying their work. To successfully engage in developmentally appropriate practice (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013b), teachers need to:

• Meet children where they are, as individuals and as a group. • Use a variety of intentional strategies to help each child attain challenging and

achievable goals that contribute to his or her ongoing development and learning.

Meet Children Where They Are Knowing what children, within a given age range, are generally capable of and how they learn provides teachers with a starting point for planning and organizing a program. But such a broad picture is not enough. Teachers must go beyond what is “typical”; they must recognize that they will have little success if they try to teach everyone the same way. They must also recognize that if their expectations are too high, children become frustrated; if their expectations are too low, their students will become bored. In either case—teaching only what is “typi- cal” or having unrealistic expectations—children will fail to make learning progress.

Good teachers continually observe children’s engagement with materials, activities, and people in order to learn about each child’s abilities, interests, and needs. Based on this information, they plan curriculum and adapt their teaching strategies to help children make continued progress. Meeting children where they are might look something like this:

Nathan knows only a few letters, he does not sit still during story time, and he is significantly behind on many of the kindergarten literacy goals. His teacher knows, however, that all kinds of transportation vehicles fascinate him. On a class visit to the library, she helps Nathan locate several information books on transportation to read with him and have him take home. He especially likes one book about all kinds of trucks. To interest Nathan in learning letters and words, his teacher prints the names of the different trucks on cards for him to match with the pictures. Soon, Nathan is drawing pictures of the trucks and trying to write the words himself.

Four-year-old Jamal speaks Arabic at home and is learning English at school. His teacher often reads to him in a small group, with other children whose home lan- guage is not English, using books with limited vocabulary and clear correspondence between the pictures and words. She also uses other cues to aid his understanding. For instance, she uses real objects as props when she introduces new words such as the kinds of food that the Very Hungry Caterpillar (Carle, 1969) is eating. She stays in close contact with his parents, communicating through a translator, to learn about the competencies he demonstrates at home, and she encourages the family to talk and read with him in their own language.

These examples demonstrate how teachers meet children where they are by assessing what they already know as well as learning about their interests. At the same time, teach- ers keep in mind the teaching goals.

Help Children Reach Challenging and Achievable Goals Meeting learners where they are is important, but it is just the beginning. As il- lustrated in the preceding examples, learning is most effective when materials or experiences not only build on what children already know and on what they can do, but also require them to stretch toward new skills and understandings.

Developmentally appropriate goals for a given group of children need to be realistic and attainable for most children within the age range of the group. However, developmentally appropriate practice does not mean making things easier for children. Instead, goals must be challenging but not so difficult that children are unable to achieve them. Further, children need to have plenty of opportunities to practice their newly acquired skills to the point of mastery. Young children often initiate such practice on their own, such as when they re- peatedly count the steps they climb or try time and again to balance on one foot.

Classroom Connection as you watch this video, identify the challenging goals that the teacher has for the children and how she intentionally uses play to help them achieve those goals.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 75

Once new skills have been mastered, children need new challenges to continue to learn. These new challenges should provide children with a reasonable stretch that is “just achievable.” For example, consider a group of kindergartners learning to play catch. If the teacher consistently throws the ball way over children’s heads, they will soon give up in frustration. But if she makes the task too easy—rolling the ball on the ground—most 5-year-olds would quickly grow bored and call it “baby stuff.” Instead, a teacher who is taking into account what is developmentally appropriate will provide just the right amount of challenge. One child will need the ball thrown right into her extended arms, while another who has had more practice will joyfully leap to catch it over her head.

Teaching in a developmentally appropriate way brings together meeting the learner where he or she is and helping children achieve goals. Teachers keep the curriculum’s learning goals in mind as they determine where children are and what the next steps for- ward are. What is challenging and achievable varies from one child to the next, depending on each child’s level of development; prior experiences, knowledge, and skills; and the context within which the learning takes place.

To be developmentally appropriate, teaching practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s ongoing development and learning. That is, if children are not learn- ing and progressing toward important outcomes, then the practices and experiences in the program are not developmentally appropriate. To ensure their practices are in fact effective and developmentally appropriate, teachers need to be intentional in everything they do.

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.1: What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?

Intentional Teaching To be effective in their work, teachers cannot leave important aspects of children’s develop- ment and learning to chance. In everything early childhood teachers do—from organizing

Developmentally appropriate teaching practices must be effective. Intentional teachers don’t simply as- sume that play is developmentally appropriate. They support children’s play so that it benefits children’s development as much as possible.

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the environment to planning the curriculum to choosing specific teaching strategies or adapting their plans for individual children—effective teachers are intentional teachers. Intentional teachers have a purpose for their actions; they make decisions for a reason. The intentional teacher plans carefully in advance, but also has enough knowledge to make thoughtful decisions throughout the day, even during the unplanned, spontaneous “teach- able moments” that inevitably arise.

Purposeful Planning Intentional teaching and developmentally appropriate practice go hand in hand. Sometimes in early childhood classrooms where children spend sig- nificant periods of time in exploration, play, and activities they choose and pursue independently, uninformed observers may think that the situation is “anything goes.” However, if the child is in a program that truly is develop- mentally appropriate, teachers’ intentionality undergirds the entire program and all of the experiences provided. The teacher carefully organizes the envi- ronment and selects and arranges the materials to promote children’s active engagement, both mental and physical.

In planning the learning experiences, the intentional teacher thinks care- fully about what will foster children’s enthusiasm for learning and enable them to reach important goals in all areas of their development and learning. She regularly observes and assesses children and then uses the information

gleaned to gauge her interactions with the children, both individually and in small groups, to promote ongoing learning and enable children to master new challenges.

Understand and Explain Practices Intentional teachers are able to explain the rationale for their practices to administrators, other teachers, and family members. Intentional teachers are also alert to the need to modify plans, recognizing that there will be times when what they have planned doesn’t work out. Perhaps the children master a skill sooner than expected and lose interest in the activity; conversely, a task may be beyond the children’s current abilities and they become confused or discouraged. In either case, an intentional teacher will have planned for such possibilities and be prepared to modify the learning experience or shift to another strategy that will be more effective in achieving the goal. Consider the following examples of practices, which are generally thought to be developmentally appropriate, and light of the additional criteria of intentionality and effectiveness:

Tiana Carstairs teaches 4-year-olds. Each day she reads a different Big Book (an oversize picture book with limited text per page) to the class. The children enjoy the readings and respond readily to Tiana’s questions about the letters in print or sounds they hear. She also points out concepts of print by tracking the words on the page left to right and noting how to turn the pages. An observer in Tiana’s class would probably view her practice as developmentally appropriate. What the casual observer would miss, however, is that 14 of the 16 children have mastered the print concepts that Tiana continues to teach. In addition, 4 children already know all the letters.

Rather than use this same teaching strategy every day without reflection, Tiana should regularly assess children’s learning so that she continually adds challenge as children achieve new goals. Although the children enjoy the Big Book readings, the limited vocabulary contained in the books is not helping them learn new words. Tiana needs to be more intentional about building vocabulary in this group of children who are already significantly behind in language development. She needs to employ effec- tive practices such as reading more complex stories and information books in small groups and engaging children in conversations about the readings.

Jana Baker teaches in a full-day kindergarten. She believes strongly in the value of play for children’s learning and development, and she has been able to preserve time and materials for play in her classroom. In the early days of Jana’s career, when

intentional teachers Teachers who have a purpose for the deci- sions they make and can explain that purpose to others.

Classroom Connection Observe how the teachers in this video engage the children in playful activities that are fun but also thoughtfully planned to meet learning goals.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 77

parents or principals questioned her, she defended play by simply stating that it is developmentally appropriate. But as pressures increased for literacy instruction in kindergarten, Jana found herself thinking more critically about her practice. She ob- served that during choice time, children’s play had become repetitive. Boys built the same roads and towers in the block area. Few children engaged in dramatic play, and those who did pretended to be characters they had seen on TV or in video games. Other children wandered from one activity to another without engagement or sus- tained interest.

Jana realized that she didn’t know enough about play; she couldn’t explain clearly why it was valuable for children and didn’t know how to enhance children’s involvement. After attending workshops and reading professional journals, Jana be- came aware that there were many missed opportunities for learning in her classroom. She learned ways to help children engage in mature, sustained, sociodramatic play that builds social and emotional skills and language. She introduced board games to help children learn mathematics while cooperating and having fun.

Jana began to see that choice time provided many opportunities for her to engage in one-on-one, extended conversations with children or to build writing, reading, and math into their play. In short, Jana became intentional in her interactions with chil- dren during play and in the kind of play experiences she provided. As a result, play became a more effective teaching and learning experience for the children in her kindergarten.

Expanding Thinking and Communication Skills Here’s What Happened after the 45-minute learning center time in my preschool classroom, I asked each child to tell what he or she had done. a few children just pointed to where they had gone or ran back over there to show me. I thought of these children as the “Pointers.” a few oth- ers verbally identified the center they had played in, saying something like, “I was in the block area” or just “Blocks.” I’ll call them the “Namers.” Other children—the “Detail- ers”—said more about what they had done and who they played with, though their descriptions were often unclear to anyone who hadn’t been there (“I tried to get it to stay, but it fell”). There were variations, but basically the children fell into these three groups.

after a few days, I began asking children to reflect in small groups and added some more challenge. For example, with children who were Pointers, I had a photo of each center, and I asked the child to find the center where they had worked. Then I said, “ah, you were building in the block area.” I repeated the name of the center several times.

With the Namers, I asked them to tell me what they did in the center they identified. sometimes I asked a question such as, “What were you building today?” and if I got no response, I added, “Were you building a road, or something else?” I would also say things like “Hmm, let’s see, what was I doing? I took my sick puppy to Mark and Bobbie’s veterinarian’s office.”

With the Detailers, I used a variety of methods. sometimes I paired two children who responded at similar levels and had them tell each other what they had done that day. Often

children would ask each other ques- tions like, “What fell? What were you trying to build?”

Here’s What I Was Thinking I decided to start this routine—asking the children what they had done in the centers—for two reasons. First, it helps develop their abil- ity to reflect, to think about the past rather than the pres- ent. at their age, children are increasing in their capacity to think back (or forward to the future) if they are encouraged to do so. They’re very interested in their own activities, so they are motivated, and this is a good way to extend their oral language and communication skills.

I started wherever each individual child was and tried to help each one go a little farther. sometimes I tried using a visual support like the photos to see if that would help stim- ulate more language. I also modeled both the language—for instance, by repeating the center names—and the practice of thinking back and reflecting on what one has done.

Having pairs of children talk to each other is useful be- cause children want their peers to understand them and will try hard to get their message across. I also model talk- ing and asking questions, and the children pick it up and do it themselves. Gradually the more verbal children who at first give a lot of disjointed details get better at giving a coherent account of their activities.

Reflection are there other intentional teaching strate- gies this teacher could use to achieve her goals? What other skills might these experiences help children develop?

Becoming an Intentional Teacher

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As we can see in the previous scenarios, intentional teachers continually reflect on their own decisions and gather evidence of how well children are doing. They may dis- cuss their practices with colleagues and children’s families. They modify their practices when these are not benefiting children. Read the feature titled Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Expanding Thinking and Communication Skills for an example of a teacher’s actions and the thinking behind them.

Intentional teaching requires constant decision making. Next we describe what teach- ers need to consider when making good decisions.

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.2: Intentional Teaching

Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making Teachers of young children make hundreds of decisions every day: which book to read to what size group, which questions to ask when, how to intervene with a child who is struggling to enter a play situation, and so forth. They must be able to negotiate difficult situations, such as what to do when a child shares a confidential family secret, how much support to give two boys who are trying to fairly divide the blocks, and what intervention to try with a first grader who is significantly behind in reading development. The list goes on and on. Day after day and hour after hour, teachers are called on to determine what is developmentally appropriate.

In many cases, decisions are the result of careful advance consideration and plan- ning. For example, teachers must consider what kinds of learning experiences will help the group achieve important learning goals. These decisions include planning curricu- lum so that the learning goals established for the group are achievable and challenging for the children. For instance, although the school district prekindergarten curriculum calls for teaching the alphabet, Ms. Jonas determines which children in her class have not yet achieved this goal and which children have already mastered the alphabet. The curriculum plan as written may be appropriate for many children in the former group, but the latter group can connect letters and sounds and use recognizable letters in their own writing.

Other decisions include setting up the physical environment, which materials to place where, how to schedule the day, or how to group children for various learning experi- ences. Ms. Jonas ensures that the alphabet is displayed at children’s eye level as a model for children’s writing, and that magnetic letters and alphabet puzzles are available for children to manipulate in their work and play. She organizes the daily schedule to ensure that children have ample time to write on their own and, during the day, she works in small groups with children who need extra help.

Some situations require teachers to make immediate decisions. For instance, suppose a dump truck pulls up outside the preschool window. The teacher may decide to interrupt his prior plans and follow the children’s interest by taking them outside to observe the truck unloading the gravel for a new driveway. Or he may see that most of the children are engrossed in learning centers and decide not to interrupt. Likewise, if the story a teacher is reading to a group doesn’t hold the children’s interest, she can readily switch gears and select another book or engage children in an active song.

Primary-grade teachers must make numerous short- and long-term decisions as they support children’s learning, particularly each child’s reading progress. Some teaching decisions have lasting consequences for individual children. For example, identifying a child for special education services or determining a plan to work with a child who is extremely aggressive and disruptive has far-reaching consequences. When making such a decision, the teacher needs to take into consideration many sources of information, obser- vations over time, and the diverse perspectives of family members and other professionals such as special educators or social workers.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 79

Make Informed Decisions Large or small, all decisions that teachers make should be informed decisions. NAEYC (2009) identifies three fundamental considerations that guide teachers in making deci- sions about what is developmentally appropriate for children:

1. Consider what is known about development and learning of children within a given age range. Having knowledge of age-related human characteristics allows teachers to make general predictions within an age range about what materials, in- teractions, and experiences will be safe, interesting, challenging, and within reach for children, and thus likely to best promote their learning and development. This dimension is sometimes called age appropriate.

2. Consider what is known about each child as an individual. Gathering information about the strengths, interests, and needs of each individual child in the group en- ables teachers to adapt and be responsive to that individual variation.

3. Consider what is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children live. Learning about the values, expectations, and behavioral and linguistic con- ventions that shape children’s lives at home and in their communities allows teach- ers to create learning environments and experiences that are meaningful, relevant, and respectful of all children and their families.

Considering all this information is important because it reflects what we know about how children develop. At each age, they share characteristics with other people within that age range but also develop as individuals and as members of cultural groups whose values and beliefs shape how their development occurs. Figure 3.1 depicts this model of child development.

In each of these three areas, the knowledge to be considered is substantial and changes over time. Intentional teachers make sure to stay informed both through ongoing profes- sional development, which includes gaining information from new research, and through those avenues that will provide necessary information about the children they teach, their families, and their communities. Let’s examine each of these areas more closely and see what each contributes to the decisions teachers make.

Consider What Is Known about Child Development and Learning During early childhood, it is possible to make relatively accurate predictions about children’s capabilities based on age ranges. Babies need constant care and careful

age appropriate age-related human characteristics that allow teachers to make general predic- tions within an age range about what materials, interactions, and experiences will be safe, interesting, challenging, and within reach for children and, thus, likely to best promote their learning and development.

FIGURE 3.1 Model of Child Development This model illustrates the three core considerations of developmentally appropriate practice—child development in general, individual variation, and social and cultural contexts.

Unique

• Individual abilities, strengths, needs

• Personality, interests

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Similar to children of same age

Predictable expectations

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Values of cultural group

Community influence

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supervision because they put everything in their mouths. Two-year-olds who have mastered walking waste no time in running headlong into furniture and walls. Preschoolers are fairly good communicators but need help to keep expanding their vocabulary. Primary-grade children are reasonably indepen- dent learners when motivated by the topic or activity.

Adults—especially parents, family members, and teachers—consider what is developmentally appropriate every day without necessarily recog- nizing it. For instance, when selecting a toy for 2-year-old Hudson, his aunt chooses a schoolhouse with a handle for carrying. The toy has a label that indicates there are no small parts that can be swallowed. She determines that the toy is manageable for most toddlers whose fine motor skills are limited, so they are unlikely to become frustrated. Because the toy is age appropriate, it should hold Hudson’s interest. Like most 2-year-olds, Hudson is beginning to engage in pretend play and also loves to carry his toys around with him.

At other times, adults fail to recognize what is inappropriate as when competitive soccer leagues for 4-year-olds are organized.

Some characteristics that young children typically demonstrate are common knowl- edge. For example, when a young panda cub makes his media debut, reporters observe that he behaves “like a toddler.” Readers immediately get the picture even without the descrip- tion—“He squirmed in the arms of his keepers, climbed and tumbled over a rock pile, and walked through a small stream. He also showed a penchant for putting things in his mouth” (Barker, 2005).

Knowing age-related characteristics helps guide teachers’ expectations of children’s behavior and abilities, the organization of the environment, and the materials provided. They also guide teachers’ planning and affect their interactions with children. One ex- ample of age-appropriate interaction is how parents, teachers, grandparents, friends, older children, and even strangers talk to babies differently from how they do to each other. All over the world, people speak to babies in a high-pitched, repetitive voice, called moth- erese or parentese, which infants consistently prefer hearing (Matychuk, 2005). Hearing the exaggerated sounds of parentese apparently makes it easier for babies to learn the sounds of their own language and is emotionally engaging.

Consider What Is Individually Appropriate One of the most basic principles of child development is that there are individual differences. In fact, children demonstrate a wide range of variability across every area of development—physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—while remaining within the range of “typical” development.

The development of some children falls beyond the range of what’s predictable in one aspect or another. For example, in some respects, children with disabilities or develop- mental delays and children who are gifted add further diversity to the range of individual differences. A developmentally appropriate program accommodates individual variation. The expert lens feature, Including All Children: Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Children with Disabilities, illustrates this point.

Averages or norms never tell more than a small part of the story. Far more informative is the range; that is, the large variation of growth or performance across different individu- als within the age (Copple & Bredekamp, 2006). Picture a group of 4-year-old children. They range in height from 35 to 46 inches, and in weight from 30 to 55 pounds. One can already skip, while another still takes the stairs two feet at a time. One can read, while another knows only a few letters. One converses fluently in two languages, while another has just mastered talking in complete sentences. One will play for extended periods with two or more friends, while another struggles to play cooperatively for even a short time.

Children also have individual personality traits and preferences, some of which are obvious even in early infancy. Some babies are feisty, while others are more passive. Some children stand back and watch for quite a while before attempting something new, and some plunge right in. Some children talk nonstop, while others cannot be enticed to speak up. One preschooler rides a tricycle with abandon, while another prefers to sit

Classroom Connection as you watch this video, observe the diverse ways that children play in early childhood programs and listen as Dr. Jeffrey Trawick- smith describes what we know from child development research about the important benefits of play.

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vnH4Ijen7OI

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81

quietly with a puzzle or pegboard. A second grader loves to read and spends all of her free time with a book, while another struggles with reading but looks forward to math because it’s her best subject.

The term individually appropriate refers to teachers using what they know about the personality, strengths, interests, and abilities of each individual child in the group to adapt for and be responsive to individual variation. Consider, for instance, two tricycle riders: The fearless rider may need more careful supervision to prevent injury, while the warier child may need extra encouragement and support to develop his large motor skills. Similar- ly, some children will need enriched experiences to accelerate their language development, while a few may need individual support to continue to build on their precocious reading ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with life’s challenges, while another needs help controlling aggression to make friends.

With the individual differences that exist, teachers clearly cannot expect all children in a group to learn the same thing in the same way at the same time. Even when the teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to a whole group, each child will take away something different from the learning experience. Therefore, to help children progress,

individually appropriate Information about the strengths, interests, abilities, and needs of each individual child in the group that enables teachers to adapt to and be responsive to individual variation.

People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro- priate practices are effective for children with dis- abilities. The fact is that the basic elements of de- velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary for inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:

Isaac is 4 years old and has a diagnosis of autism. He is sitting on a brightly colored carpet square between two of his preschool peers at circle time. His teacher is reading a book the class made called Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but features pictures of the children in the class paired with their names. Isaac loves the book, and reads along with the teacher. as the teacher reads each child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and moves. after the story, it is time for singing. Isaac knows this because circle time happens in a similar routine each day.

The teacher pulls out the “song chart” featur- ing the pictures and titles of eight different songs. One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the “Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re- move the song card. Isaac holds the card while the children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play” with his hands. The teacher says, “yes, Isaac, it is time for centers.” she lets Isaac choose a center first because she knows it is hard for him to wait. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then points to the picture of the water table. His teacher models, “I want to play at the. . . .” Isaac says, “Water table.” His teacher, proud of his increasing verbal skills, gives him a hug and says, “Off you go to the water table.” When Isaac’s mother picks him

up from school, his teacher describes how often he used his words and which friends he played with during center time.

By contrast, when children with disabilities are included in programs that are not developmentally appropriate, it becomes difficult for the child with special needs— indeed, for all of the children—to make meaningful progress. Compare this child’s experience to Isaac’s:

Tara, also a 4-year-old with autism, is sitting next to her teacher at circle time. The teacher is reading from a small-sized book, and many of the children can- not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With- out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. she begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re- turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi- cally moves her back to the circle, and a 10-minute struggle ensues. When Tara’s father comes to pick her up, the teacher describes “her bad day” and asks him to talk to Tara about listening at school.

a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the developmental appropriateness of an early child- hood program. as is clear from Isaac’s case and by contrast Tara’s experience, developmentally appropri- ate practice provides the necessary foundation for his successful inclusion in the program. But individually appropriate adaptations are also essential for children with disabilities and other special needs.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Children with Disabilities

Including All Children

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education82

teachers must continually keep track of what children know and are able to do, what they are struggling with, and what is engaging their interest and meets their needs.

Consider Children’s Social and Cultural Con- texts All learning and development occur in and are in- fluenced by social and cultural contexts (Bronfenbrenner, 2004). In fact, appropriate behavior is always culturally defined. The cultural contexts a child grows up in begin with the family and extend to include the cultural group or groups with which the family identifies. Culture refers to the behaviors, values, and beliefs that a group shares and passes on from one generation to the next. Because children share their cultural context with members of their group, cultural differences are differences between groups rather than individuals. Therefore, cultural variation needs to be considered as well as individual variation in deciding what is developmentally appropriate.

Children learn the values, beliefs, expectations, and habitual patterns of behavior of the social and cultural con- texts in their lives. Cultural groups, for example, have char- acteristic ways of showing respect; there may be different rules for how to properly greet an older or younger person, a friend, or a stranger. Attitudes about time and personal space vary among cultures, as do the ways to take care of a baby and dress for different occasions. In fact, most of our experiences are filtered through the lenses of our cultural group. We typically learn cultural rules very early and very deeply, so they are not part of our conscious thought.

Social contexts of young children’s lives differ in ways such as these: Is the child growing up in a large family, or a family of one or two children? In a single-parent family, a two-parent family, with same-sex parents, or in a house- hold that includes extended family members? In an urban, suburban, or rural setting? Has the child been in group care from a young age, or is this the first time in a group pro- gram? What social and economic resources are available to the family? All of these situations frame the social context and impact children’s lives in unique ways.

For young children, what makes sense and how they re- spond to new experiences are fundamentally shaped by the social and cultural contexts to which they have become ac- customed. To ensure that learning experiences are meaning-

ful, relevant, and respectful to children and their families—that is, for those experiences to be culturally appropriate or culturally responsive—teachers must have some knowledge of the social and cultural contexts in which children live. Such knowledge helps teachers build on children’s prior experiences and learning so they can help children progress.

All young children must adjust when they move from the security and familiarity of their homes into schools or early childhood programs. The challenge is greatest, however, for children whose cultural experiences at home differ sharply from those predominating at the school or program. For these children, the transition can be confusing and frighten- ing. Consider a Native American child, whose culture expects children to quietly listen and observe adults, entering a classroom where the teacher expects everyone to speak up. Think of how you feel, at least for a moment, when people around you are speaking a lan- guage you don’t understand. Even as adults with all of our coping mechanisms intact, we

Because children’s needs, interests, and abilities differ as they grow and change, a developmentally appropriate environment for babies and tod- dlers looks very different from one for preschoolers or primary grade children.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 83

tend to feel uncertain, ignorant, and uncomfortable in environments different from those to which we are accustomed. (Are they talking about us?)

For teachers, being responsive to all social and cultural variation can be challenging. Our own cultural experience is so integral to us that we are rarely aware of it. If we are in the position of power as a teacher, we must be especially careful to be aware of and respectful toward those whose cultural backgrounds and accepted rules for behavior may be different from ours. Most important, we must be careful not to assume that our own cultural perspective is superior and make negative judgments based on our cultural varia- tions. An example illustrates the potentially damaging result of such judgments:

A European American teacher is employed in a school serving a predominantly African American community. One of her principal teaching strategies is questioning. But she finds that her questions are often met with blank stares or disdain from the children and she assumes they don’t know the answers. She doesn’t realize that within their cultural community, people rarely ask questions that they already know the answers to.

To better accommodate the realities of cultural and linguistic diversity in schools and early childhood programs, teachers today need to work at being especially sensitive and responsive to the perspectives of children and their families that may be different from their own. To broaden your own perspective, read the Culture Lens: The Role of Culture in Development feature.

Consider all you Know When Making Decisions The three considerations that teachers must take into account when making decisions— knowledge about children’s learning and development, information about individual children, and information about the social and cultural contexts of children’s lives—

culture The explicit and implicit values, beliefs, rules, and expectations for behavior of members of a group that are passed on from one generation to the next.

culturally appropriate applying knowledge of the social and cul- tural contexts in which children live, which helps teachers build on children’s prior knowledge and make experiences meaning- ful and responsive.

Take a moment to think about what you understand about culture. Do you tend to think about culture only as characteristic of children and families who are “culturally different”? Does the concept of culture ap- ply only to some children? actually, it is important to remember that every child is socialized in a cultural group, and the most important elements influencing children’s development are really aspects of their cul- tural experiences that are often the hardest to observe.

What people sometimes think of as “cultural” are the products that culture produces, such as dress or holiday celebrations. These are the surface features of culture. But culture produces more indiscernible behaviors and attitudes that emerge from the same set of rules as the surface features of culture. These deep structural as- pects of culture act as much more powerful influences on children’s development than the surface features do. For example, if the cultural group believes that women should not be seen by men except for those in the im- mediate family, a woman’s mode of dress will reflect this value. at the same time, this cultural belief will have much farther reaching effects on her behavior and life choices than simply how she dresses. Consider an example in an early childhood classroom:

It is circle time in kindergarten and the children are supposed to bring an object from home that has writ- ing on it. Most of the children eagerly seek their turn, waving their hands widely, and showing off how well they can read the words. Jai has brought something but is not eager to share. The teacher assumes that he can’t read the words. so, she doesn’t call on him.

as in all developmental domains, culture influences the expression of emotions. although emotions such as fear, anger, and happiness are part of human inter- action in all cultural groups, variations emerge in the way they are expressed. Jai, who is from India, is from a cultural group that avoids drawing too much atten- tion to individuals or expressing emotions too openly. Children from other, more individualistic cultures such as the United states’ are generally encouraged to ex- press their feelings openly. These cultural differences account for Jai’s behavior and that of the other chil- dren in his class more than their reading abilities do.

Cultural differences do not mean that one way is right and the others wrong. They simply demonstrate that there is a wide variety of developmental patterns that can be explained best by understanding the cultural context in which development occurs.

The Role of Culture in Development

Culture Lens

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should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat- tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut- terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six- year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac- tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting it optimally for all children.

Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci- sions of one primary grade teacher:

Frida Lopez has 22 children in her first-grade class. Her first challenge each year is to get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one conversations with children, observes their behavior and skills throughout the day, and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math problems with counters.

As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in- terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur- riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.

Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and communities.

So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.

So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making

The Complex Role of the Teacher According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice, the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1) creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel- opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 85

One way to remember these dimensions is to visualize the five points of a star, as depicted in Figure 3.2. Each of the five points is necessary for the star to be complete, and they are all interrelated—take one away and the figure is no longer a star.

It may be helpful, in fact, to think of it as a “mariner’s star.” Seafaring people use the stars to guide their way, but without considerable knowledge of the stars’ positioning and their relation to navigation, mindlessly following a star won’t lead to a destination. So it is with the mariner’s star of early childhood teaching. Each of the star’s points links to a set of guidelines that represent a large body of knowledge about early childhood edu- cation. Just as the stars guide seafaring people, the mariner’s star helps guide teachers’ professional behavior; but without that strong foundation of knowledge, the guidelines themselves have little meaning.

In the following sections, we introduce each aspect of the teacher’s role in accor- dance with NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice. Each of these aspects of the teacher’s role is described in later chapters.

Create a Caring Community of Learners An early childhood setting—whether it serves infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kinder- gartners, or second graders—needs to be a caring community of learners. The term caring community of learners incorporates several key ideas that characterize early childhood education: (1) Children’s care and education are equally important; (2) children learn through positive relationships with adults and other children; and (3) the learning context matters—the indoor and outdoor environments, how the environments are organized, and the materials and equipment they contain.

caring community of learners a group or classroom in which children and adults engage in warm, positive relationships, treat each other with respect, and learn from and with each other.

FIGURE 3.2 Mariner’s Star: The Complex Role of the Teacher The image of the Mariner’s star illustrates how the teacher’s many roles are integrally connected.

Source: adapted from Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children 3 to 6, by C. Copple and s. Bredekamp, 2006, p. 24, Washington, DC: NaEyC. Reprinted with permission from the National association for the Education of young Children.

Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important

Goals

Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important

Goals

Assess Learning and Development

Assess Learning and Development

Teach to Enhance Learning and Development

Teach to Enhance Learning and Development

Create a Caring

Community of Learners

Create a Caring

Community of Learners

Build Relationships with Families

Build Relationships with Families

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Children learn when they feel safe and cared for. They thrive in an en- vironment in which they see positive images that reflect their own identity, such as photos of themselves and their families; where they see their own contributions to the community; and when they see their own work displayed. They also see examples throughout the community that reinforce their cul- tural identity. The messages are clear to each child: You belong here. We care about and support each other. You have important things to contribute to this group. You will thrive here.

The foundation of young children’s learning is in positive relationships with other people who are responsive to them. At the same time, the early childhood setting is a learning community where adults and children learn with and from each other. Each child’s thinking can build on or challenge that of another. When Josué tells Willa she can’t be the doctor because she’s a girl,

Willa promptly informs him, “I go to Dr. Ashai and she’s a lady, so there.” Josué has to adjust his concept of doctor to include women as well as men.

In a caring community, children acquire the ability to regulate their own emotions and behavior and to make friends. Teachers actively teach children social and emotional skills and engage in individualized interventions for children who persistently demon- strate challenging behaviors such as aggression.

Teach to Enhance Learning and Development Teaching seems the most obvious aspect of the teacher’s role, but it isn’t simple at all. Early childhood teachers typically do not conform to the images that come to mind for many adults when they think of “teaching”—the teacher standing in front of a blackboard or at a podium lecturing. Teaching simply looks different in the early childhood setting, and it takes many forms.

Effective early childhood teachers know the children in their group very well. They thoughtfully plan the learning experiences and environment with these children in mind while also keeping in mind the learning goals. They use a variety of teaching strategies to help each child develop and learn. And they guide young children to become socially responsible, self-regulating, contributing members of the community.

Classroom Connection Listen as these primary-grade children describe what it means to be part of a caring community of learners. What other ways do you think a caring school commu- nity benefits children?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zjrl2HqCTua

Intentional teachers use every possible opportunity to promote children’s learning, including preplanned small group lessons, and conversations throughout the day.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 87

Teachers also use various learning contexts such as teacher-guided group work, in- cluding large-group and small-group preplanned experiences, and periods of play and en- gagement in which children primarily guide their own activity with the support of teachers (Epstein, 2014; Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009). Teachers use various ways of grouping children for learning; they may gather a reading group of similar ability level or organize a group of children with different language abilities to work together on a project. Teachers’ behavior needs to vary with the setting as well. In addition, routines such as eat- ing meals and transitioning from one place or activity to another are all potentially valuable learning contexts if teachers use these activities as opportunities for one-on-one conversa- tions with children or to reinforce a learning goal through singing a song or reciting a poem.

Plan Curriculum to achieve Important Goals If developmentally appropriate practice tends to focus on the how of teaching, then curric- ulum is the what—the content that children are expected to learn. Curriculum is a writ- ten plan that describes the knowledge and skills to be taught in the educational program and the learning experiences through which teaching takes place (Copple & Bredekamp, 2006, p. 61).

Currently, there is increased demand for scientifically based curriculum that is based on research about important learning goals that predict later achievement, the se- quences in which concepts and skills build on each other, and the teaching strategies that have proven effective. Whatever the process through which a curriculum is selected, developed, or planned, to be effective it must be implemented with attention to individual differences and cultural variation among children (NAEYC & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education [NAECS/SDE], 2003).

Good curriculum, whether published resources used in school districts or teacher developed, offers teachers flexibility and ways of adapting, often providing many more suggested activities or materials than teachers could possibly use. Thus, they have many further decisions to make. Teachers need to be very familiar with the curriculum plan, es- pecially the key learning and development outcomes for children—that is, what children should know and be able to do as a result of their participation in this program.

assess Children’s Development and Learning In the current era of educational accountability, assessment is often a controversial topic. However, it is an integral component of developmentally appropriate practice. Assessment is the process of observing and documenting the work children do and how they do it as the basis for a variety of educational decisions. Assessment is important because teachers must draw on assessment information about individual children in an ongoing, systematic process to understand children’s learning and development.

Children, especially very young children, are moving targets. What they can’t do today, they can do tomorrow. What they didn’t know or understand yesterday may gradu- ally become clear, or they may have an “Aha!” moment of recognition. Their development may follow a predictable though somewhat slower trajectory in one area, or they may be in need of intervention for a serious developmental delay. To address any of these situa- tions, teachers must use appropriate, accurate tools to assess children.

Each decision that teachers make about children has consequences. The more impor- tant and lasting the consequence, the more vital it is that the decision is based on multiple sources of information, including information from parents.

Build Relationships with Families and Communities Young children do not come with résumés; they come with families. NAEYC (2009) guidelines emphasize the importance of teachers and administrators developing recipro- cal relationships with children’s families. Reciprocal refers to a two-way relationship,

curriculum a written plan that describes the goals for children’s learning and develop- ment, and the learning experi- ences, materials, and teaching strategies that are used to help children achieve those goals.

scientifically based curriculum Derives from research evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes relate to later achieve- ment, and what types of teach- ing and learning experiences help children acquire those outcomes. such a curriculum has been evaluated and its ef- fectiveness demonstrated.

assessment The ongoing process of gathering evidence of children’s learning and develop- ment, and then organizing and interpreting the information to make informed decisions about instructional practice.

reciprocal relationship a two-way relationship in which information and power are shared evenly.

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education88

in which information and power are shared evenly. Such a relationship is based on mu- tual respect, trust, cooperation, and shared responsibility. A reciprocal relationship re- quires regular open communication and a willingness to negotiate differences toward shared goals.

We’ve already seen that in order to teach young children effectively, teachers must get to know each child well. The younger the child, the more teachers must rely on family members as key informants about the child’s competencies, interests, needs, and cultural experiences. Young children’s competencies are not always apparent, especially if they have been acquired in a cultural context that is different from that of the teacher. For example, a child may know colors and basic shapes and be able to count up to 20 in Rus- sian, yet demonstrate none of this knowledge in English at school. Through a relationship with the parents, however, this teacher can ascertain that she needs to help the child learn the English words for concepts he already knows, rather than teach these concepts. This allows both the teacher and child the opportunity to use what he already knows and move on to other important concepts more efficiently.

The Teacher’s Role in Context In each aspect of their work, whether creating a caring community, teaching, planning curriculum, assessing, or working with families, teachers must draw on a broad base of information to make useful decisions. The following example illustrates how the five dimensions of the teacher’s role come together during a memorable experience for a beginning teacher:

Scotty’s teacher, Gina, believes him to be the “bad boy” in his preschool class. Gina feels she is constantly correcting what he has done wrong. One day, a fight breaks out in the block corner and a chorus of voices arises, shouting, “Scotty did it!” Gina sighs, not surprised by these events, until she remembers that Scotty isn’t there that day. She realizes that her focus on Scotty’s misdeeds has made him the “bad boy” in everyone’s eyes.

Developmentally appropriate practices are respectful of children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Intentional teachers build two-way, reciprocal relationships with families to get to know children as individuals and to understand their cultural context.

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Her realization forces Gina to reflect on her own and Scotty’s behavior. She real- izes that she doesn’t really know Scotty, and spends time systematically observing him. Soon she discovers strengths she can help him build on, such as his exceptional fine motor skills, and comes to see that there is much Scotty can do well. She gives him opportunities to use these skills (she allows him to cut up the oranges for snack under her supervision), and finally catches him doing something right for a change. Gina also meets with Scotty’s mother so that together they can begin to focus on his positive behavior rather than his missteps. Gradually, Gina notices that Scotty’s be- havior improves. As a result, both Gina and Scotty’s mother begin to enjoy him more. With more support and a sense of accomplishment, he makes friends with several other children.

Scotty’s teacher wasn’t named Gina. I was actually his teacher, and I learned a lot about developmentally appropriate practice from this firsthand experience. In making professional decisions, teachers should always consider strategies to broaden their own perspective, as illustrated by Scotty’s situation. They need to take into consideration as many points of view as possible—to “widen the lens” with which they see children, their families, and the educational process.

Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking Questions of educational practices in the United States are often dichotomized as either/ or choices (Bishop-Josef & Zigler, 2011; Zigler, Gilliam, & Barnett, 2011). Is phonics or vocabulary more important in learning to read? Should preschool stress social-emotional development or cognitive development? Should early childhood programs provide child- initiated or teacher-directed experiences? These either/or choices oversimplify the com- plex processes of becoming literate or developing the whole child. Either/or thinking assumes that there is one right answer to a complex question. Instead, children would be better served and educators more effective if the questions were addressed with both/and thinking. Both/and thinking rejects simplistic answers to complex questions and requires diverse perspectives and several possible answers to be considered.

To avoid either/or thinking, it is useful to use the analogy of widening the lens. Think of yourself as holding a camera and altering the view by adjusting the lens. Depending on how you adjust the lens, your view and, therefore, your perspective changes. You might zoom in on one child’s expression, or you might zoom out to see the whole room arrange- ment. If you use a video camera, you could gain more information about the context, perhaps including the child’s friends, extended family, or community. In fact, to engage in developmentally appropriate decision making, teachers must indeed widen their views. Just as the camera lens adjusts to display different views, teachers allow their minds to expand and accommodate several ideas at once.

As we have discussed, children of similar ages are both alike and different. Like- wise, children of the same cultural group share some characteristics but not all. When you widen the lens, you will find that your view broadens and you can incorporate more information. As a result, you are less likely to get stuck in either/or thinking. When you widen the lens through which you look at children, the curriculum, teaching practices, as- sessment, and families—all aspects of your work—you begin to recognize the complexity and interrelationships among the principles that guide early childhood practice.

When teachers are willing to look beyond the view they have held, they enhance their effectiveness in their work with children and families. Consider the following example that demonstrates the power of widening the lens:

Ms. Grantham is the director of a Head Start program. Several parents complain to her that they aren’t seeing worksheets or similar products showing their children’s learning coming home in the backpacks or displayed in the classroom. Her program doesn’t use worksheets because their philosophy of developmentally appropriate

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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education90

practice is based on children’s active engagement. Ms. Grantham believes that work- sheets are just busy work for children and don’t really teach them anything.

At first, she thinks that the parents are just uninformed about good early child- hood education. But she asks a few more questions to better understand their perspec- tive. Ms. Grantham comes to see that both she and the parents want the children to succeed—in the wider view, they are in agreement. And what the families are asking for is evidence that the children are in fact learning and on track to succeed in school.

Reflecting on the parents’ legitimate desire, Mrs. Grantham realizes that she could do a much better job of sharing with the families concrete samples of the chil- dren’s work that show what they are learning and how they are thinking. She explains that worksheets are not effective because instead of active learning, they simply call for right answers (“circle the 4”) and busy work like coloring. Worksheets are more like testing than learning. She begins to collect portfolios of children’s drawings and writing, transcripts of their language, and photos of their project work and meets with families regularly. She displays the children’s work, describes what they have learned and will be learning next, and what she and the teachers are doing to help build the children’s skills and knowledge. Along with the children, Mrs. Grantham develops a class website through which they communicate to families about their work in progress.

Now it’s your turn. What do you see when you widen your lens? Try to think of several examples where widening the lens would help you be a better teacher or improve your relationships with family members, college professors, or work colleagues. For an example of the effectiveness of both/and practices, read the feature, What Works: How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated Experiences Promote Learning.

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.4: The Complex Role of the Early Childhood Teacher

How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated Experiences Promote Learning One issue that is too often presented as a dichotomy in discus- sions of developmentally appropriate practice is teacher-directed vs. child-initiated experiences. as we have seen, both are impor- tant components of intentional teaching. Considerable research supports this finding, including data from the influential, longi- tudinal study of the Chicago Child-Parent Centers. These centers provided preschool and kindergarten for children from low-income families with extensive parent involvement that continued into early elementary school. strong positive effects on participating children’s school achievement and life outcomes were found 25 years later.

To delve deeper into what accounted for the lasting effects, researchers analyzed the curriculum and teaching practices that teachers reported using most often. This analysis involved more than 900 children in 20 centers. The researchers found that chil- dren whose teachers used a blend of teacher-directed and child- initiated activities were more likely to be ready for kindergarten, have higher reading achievement in third and eighth grades, and avoid being retained in grade. Moreover, they found that teaching

practices that emphasized only teacher-directed or child-initiated activities were less related to children’s school success over time.

One interesting pattern they found was that child-initiated teaching in the early years was more associated with high school completion by age 22 than approaches that were low in both teacher directedness and child initiation (that is, a low degree of intentionality among teachers), and those that were overly teacher- directed.

The researchers concluded that this both/and approach to early childhood teaching—intentionally providing teacher-initiated and child-initiated learning experiences—along with a high degree of parent involvement accounted for the long-term benefits of the Chicago Child-Parent Centers.

Source: “More Than Teacher Directed or Child Initiated: Preschool Cur- riculum Type, Parent Involvement, and Children’s Outcomes in the Child- Parent Centers,” by E. Graue, M. a. Clements, a. J. Reynolds, and M. D. Niles, 2004, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12, retrieved from http:// epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/viewFile/227/353.

What Works

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 91

Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments How the learning environment and children’s daily schedules are organized are the most obvious indicators of whether a program is developmentally appropriate. The environment should be rich in equipment and materials that are safe, healthy, interesting, and engaging for the age group of children for which it is designed. Because children’s needs and abilities predictably vary by age, to be developmentally appropriate, environments should look differ- ent for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, or school-age children.

Organize the Physical space Environments send messages, often subtle or even subconscious, about how to behave or which behaviors are acceptable. Libraries convey the message that soft voices and quiet reading are expected. Open spaces and playgrounds invite children to run and chase one another around. With the knowledge that environ- ments send messages, teachers need to consciously think about the messages they want their classroom environments to send to children.

The classroom needs to be accessible to all children, including children with disabili- ties, and organized so that children can interact positively, function as independently as possible, and learn decision-making skills. For example, teachers should make sure there is enough space for active play that is protected from traffic. They should also make sure to provide enough age-appropriate materials and duplicates of popular toys so children do not always have to share, which can lead to frustration and, ultimately, conflict.

A developmentally appropriate preschool or kindergarten environment should be or- ganized into separate learning centers, which are defined areas of the classroom that have a particular purpose and that contain relevant furnishings and materials. Learning centers in a preschool typically include a library area, blocks, dramatic play, writing cen- ter, art center, manipulative toys near tables, and a group meeting area. Learning centers enable children to focus their attention, promote small-group interaction, and require children to make choices and experience the consequences of those choices. Figure 3.3 depicts a room arrangement for a preschool or kindergarten classroom that is organized with these guidelines in mind:

• Allow children to independently choose their own activities for part of each day. • Establish clear boundaries between learning centers by using furniture, floor cov-

erings (carpet, tile), or shelves that help limit the number of children who work or play in each area at one time.

• Locate quiet areas, such as the book, art, writing, and computer centers, next to each other, separated from noisier and more active centers such as blocks, dramatic play, or woodworking.

• Provide easily supervised places for children to be alone or with a friend. • Locate messy activities such as sand and water play and art projects near a source

of water for easy access and cleanup. • Provide a comfortable meeting space for the whole group to engage in music,

movement, book reading, and other large-group activities. Designate seating ar- rangements so children are not crowded or distracted by toys within reach.

• Eliminate unnecessary clutter, which can distract and agitate some children. • Avoid large open spaces or corridors that invite children to run.

An environment for babies and toddlers, on the other hand, should be more individu- alized with large areas for active play and separate spaces for sleeping, feeding, and dia- pering. There should be carpeting for crawlers and soft furniture for children to snuggle with a teacher while looking at a book or pull themselves up on.

Classroom Connection This video takes you on a tour of a developmentally appropriate preschool environment. Notice how the furnishings, toys, and space are organized to allow for chil- dren’s independent use while also encouraging them to stretch their abilities.

learning centers Defined areas of the classroom that have a particular purpose and that contain relevant furnishings and materials.

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A classroom for primary-grade children would have tables or desks arranged in clus- ters so children can face each other and work collaboratively. Primary-grade children should take an active role in designing the environment. Learning centers in a primary- grade school are more closely linked to curriculum areas such as a reading corner or a science observation area. Spaces for individual or small group work are also needed as well as a whole class meeting area.

Organize the Day Another way for teachers to ensure developmentally appropriate learning experiences for children is to carefully plan how time is used. If the schedule is not carefully planned with children’s developmental needs in mind, learning opportunities will be missed or children’s valuable time will be wasted. Many of the difficulties that children exhibit in school are related to how the day is organized. Teachers can alleviate these difficulties by providing a consistent, predictable routine that children can rely on. At the same time, teachers need to be flexible so they can easily change plans in response to children’s interests or to unanticipated events.

Young children are often thought to have short attention spans; however, the amount of time they engage in small-group activities that they have chosen is often considerably longer than adults would expect. Children’s attention during activities that involve the whole group, such as story reading or morning meetings, is usually more limited and

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FIGURE 3.3 Preschool/Kindergarten Classroom Arrangement a developmentally appropriate en- vironment for preschoolers or kindergarteners is organized into learning centers that support child-guided and teacher-guided experiences.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 93

difficult to maintain because there are so many distractions. So time should be planned accordingly. Figure 3.4 provides an example of a daily schedule for a preschool or kin- dergarten classroom.

Ideally, in an effective classroom, the schedule for the day is posted so that chil- dren can predict what will happen throughout the day. At times, the schedule will

Approximate Times (vary by program or school schedule) Activity

15 to 30 minutes 8:00–8:30

Arrival: Teachers greet children and families. Children store belongings, wash hands, fi nd a quiet activity such as looking at books or drawing, or eat breakfast.

15 to 20 minutes 8:30–8:50

Morning meeting: Teachers and children gather in whole group to plan for the day and encourage a sense of community and belonging in the group. They share music and movement.

60 to 75 minutes 9:00–10:15

Center time and small groups: Children play and work in learning centers that the teacher has prepared. Teachers observe and interact one on one with children and also work with small groups on projects, book reading, and playing a math game. Children clean up and wash hands.

15 minutes 10:15–10:30

Morning snack time: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model mealtime behavior. Children serve themselves.

15-20 minutes 10:30–10:45

Group time: Children share/revisit experiences of the morning. Teachers lead music, movement, and read and discuss a book.

30 to 45 minutes 10:45–11:30

Outdoor play: Teachers supervise children at play and as they make nature discoveries; they interact with them one on one or in small groups.

10 to 15 minute 11:30–11:45

Half-day program, group meeting: Teacher and children refl ect on the day and plan for tomorrow.

Full-day program, group meeting: Do a calming activity, prepare for lunch.

30 to 45 minutes 11:45–12:30

Lunch: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model mealtime behavior. Children serve themselves.

60 to 90 minutes (varies with age and needs of children) 12:30–2:00

Full-day program, group meeting, nap, or rest time: Teachers help children relax. They also supervise and provide quiet activities for those who do not sleep.

15 to 30 minutes 2:00–2:30

Afternoon snack and activities: Children have an afternoon snack and engage in quiet activities such as putting puzzles together, book reading, drawing, or writing.

45 to 60 minutes 2:30–3:30

Full-day program: Children engage in outdoor play or large muscle experiences indoors.

Children continue projects from morning and/or make different choices or play outdoors: Continue projects from morning and/or make different choices, or outdoor play.

10 to 15 minutes 3:15–3:30

Group time: Refl ect on the day and plan for tomorrow.

60 to 90 minutes 3:30–4:30/5:30

Full-day program center time: Children play, continue projects from morning, and/or make different choices.

FIGURE 3.4 Sample Daily Preschool/Kindergarten Schedule young children need a predictable daily schedule designed to meet their developmental needs, but they also need flexibility.

Source: Based on The Creative Curriculum for Preschool, 5th ed., by D. T. Dodge, L. J. Colker, and C. Heroman, 2010, Washington, DC: Teaching strategies.

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change for planned or spontaneous events, such as a celebration or finding a bird’s nest on the playground. But for the most part, a regular schedule allows children to thrive in predictable environments. If the schedule has to be changed, teachers need to inform the children in advance. The daily schedule should be based on the following guidelines:

• Plan for a balance of learning experiences: large group, small group, and individualized; child initiated and teacher initiated; active and quiet; indoor and outdoor.

• Allow 60 to 75 minutes for learning-center time so children can become deeply engaged in play and projects. In a full-day program, allow at least 1 hour in the morning and another in the afternoon.

• Limit whole-group meeting times to 10 to 20 minutes (allowing more time as chil- dren get older) and give opportunities for children to be actively engaged during these experiences.

✓ Check Your Understanding 3.5: Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments

Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice The basic research question regarding any educational practice is this: Does it work? Is this educational practice effective in helping children achieve important learning out- comes? Because developmentally appropriate practice involves many different teach- ing behaviors and aspects of classroom organization, research on the broad construct of developmentally appropriate practice is difficult to conduct. However, subsequent chapters present the research base for each dimension of the teacher’s role and area of the curriculum.

Research Reviews Well-grounded research about learning and development is the foundation for NAEYC’s work on developmentally appropriate practice and provides solid guidance for early childhood educators. This knowledge is summarized in major scientific reports such as Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001), From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), Handbook of Early Childhood Education (Pianta, Barnett, Justice, & Sheridan, 2012), and Handbook of Child Development and Early Education (Barbarin & Wasik, 2009).

A vast amount of evidence demonstrates the lasting positive effects of high-quality early childhood programs (see Diamond, Justice, Siegler, & Snyder, 2013; Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Although the studies reviewed were not de- signed to evaluate developmentally appropriate practice per se, the practices employed in effective programs are consistent with NAEYC’s guidelines. One large-scale review identified the key components of effective early childhood education as “stimulating and supportive interactions between teachers and children that support learning and are emotionally supportive, and effective use of curricula” (Yoshikawa et al., 2013, p. 10). That review found the most benefit from developmentally focused curricula, meaning curricula that are not intended to be completely comprehensive, but rather that focus on a developmental area such as social skills or an academic topic such as mathematics or literacy.

One review of research identifies the key components of effective early childhood education as a blend of “explicit instruction, sensitive and warm interactions, respon- sive feedback, and verbal engagement or stimulation intentionally directed to ensure children’s learning while embedding these interactions in a classroom environment

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 95

that is not overly structured or regimented” (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p. 50). They point out that this type of teaching is also related to children’s achievement in K–12.

The Oklahoma universal prekindergarten program, which is the largest state- funded voluntary pre-K program in the country, found substantial improvements in school readiness for children from all racial and ethnic groups. The largest gains, however, were for Hispanic children and boys. When the children were followed through third grade, the most lasting benefits were found in mathematics (Hill, Gorm- ley, Adelstein, & Willemin, 2012). Similarly, a large-scale effort to address inequity in the quality of education in the Abbott School District in New Jersey focused on providing excellent prekindergarten programs for low-income children. The children who participated made strong gains in language, literacy, and math at kindergarten entry that persisted into second grade. Researchers followed the children through fifth grade and found that the program helped close the achievement gap, and fewer children were assignment to special education or retained in grade (Barnett, Jung, Youn, & Frede, 2013).

Research on Elements of Developmentally appropriate Practice Some studies examined effects of developmentally appropriate practice in preschool or kindergarten compared to “inappropriate” practices. These studies typically have defined appropriate classrooms as those characterized by child-initiated activity, active learning, problem solving, and positive, warm relationships between teachers and children. On the other hand, inappropriate classrooms are characterized by didactic lessons, heavy reli- ance on whole-group instruction, and emphasis on seatwork and rote learning. Much of the feedback in such classrooms tends to be teachers’ correcting of children rather than expanding on their thinking and understanding.

Several studies compare the effects of such practices on children’s social or emo- tional outcomes. For example, studies relating teaching practice to stress behaviors in children found significantly fewer stress-related behaviors in preschool and kindergarten children in more developmentally appropriate classrooms compared to children in less appropriate classrooms (Honig, 2010; Miller & Almon, 2009; Shanker, 2012). Children in less appropriate classrooms have also been found to score lower on measures of motiva- tion (Stipek, 2011).

Over the years, a number of observational measures have been used to evaluate the quality of early childhood classrooms and the effects on children’s outcomes. These tools, such as the CLASS and ECERS-R, are based on the same principles of child development and learning as developmentally appropriate practice. Children enrolled in classrooms that score higher on these measures are more likely to demonstrate positive outcomes including language, early literacy, mathematics, and social and cognitive skills (Bryant, 2010; Pianta et al., 2009).

Effects of Positive Teacher–Child Interactions A large body of research supports the efficacy of one of the key aspects of developmentally appropriate practice— warm, responsive relationships between teachers and children (Diamond et al., 2013). In observing numerous preschool and kindergarten classrooms, Stipek (2011) found that positive affect among teachers and children seemed to go along with developmentally appropriate practice, whereas negative affect was more likely to be found in classrooms using more inappropriate practices.

Observational research in preschool and primary classrooms has also found that positive, warm relationships with teachers that are developmentally appropriate pro- mote academic success, social competence, and fewer behavior problems (Hamre & Pianta, 2005, 2007, 2010; Mashburn et al., 2008). Research following children from infancy to age 4 in child care programs also found that high-quality, developmentally

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appropriate experiences and interactions with teachers contribute positively to chil- dren’s development (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003).

Effects of Teaching Practices In the last decade, more research has increas- ingly become available on the effectiveness of developmentally appropriate teaching strategies. A large number of studies using the CLASS have found that teachers’ scores on instructional climate (which measures the quality of their language modeling, concept development, and feedback that engages children’s higher-order thinking) predict chil- dren’s language, literacy, and mathematics ability and their on-task behavior (Mashburn et al., 2008; Rimm-Kaufman, La Paro, Downer, & Pianta, 2005).

The Boston public schools are engaged in a highly successful early childhood initia- tive to close the achievement gap by instituting high-quality prekindergarten programs that are NAEYC accredited and use the same developmentally appropriate mathematics and literacy curricula with professional development for teachers. A rigorous evaluation found substantial gains in language, literacy, mathematics, and executive function for all groups of children, but the largest gains were for Hispanic children (Weiland & Yo- shikawa, 2013).

A large-scale observational study in England (Sammons et al., 2008) used an expand- ed version of the ECERS that incorporated curriculum content items. The study found that by age 5, children who attended developmentally appropriate, high-quality programs scored better on measures of early literacy, math, reasoning, and social-emotional skills. This study also found that the most effective preschools provided both teacher-initiat- ed small group work and child-initiated play activities that were supported by teachers (Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2004). A similar balance of child-directed, free-choice activity and teacher-directed group activities was found to im- prove low-income children’s language development in U.S. preschools (Fuligni, Howes, Huang, Hong, & Lara-Cinisomo, 2012).

A classic, longitudinal study compared the effects of the HighScope curriculum or child-centered nursery school experience with a highly scripted, teacher-directed curricu- lum called Direct Instruction (Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). The HighScope cur- riculum is a blended approach incorporating child-centered, active learning and intentional

Developmentally appropriate classrooms function as caring communities of learners where each child is valued, and families are welcomed.

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teaching. A longitudinal follow-up study (Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997) found that at age 23, the Direct Instruction group had three times as many felony arrests per person, espe- cially those involving property crimes, while 47% of the Direct Instruction group exhibited emotional problems during their schooling, as compared to only 6% in the other groups. Researchers attributed these results to the emphasis on planning, social reasoning, and other social objectives in the developmentally appropriate HighScope and nursery school curricula, but not in the Direct Instruction curriculum.

A more recent study demonstrated the effectiveness of building on a developmentally appropriate framework such as HighScope with additional research-based teaching strate- gies (Bierman et al., 2008), such as those we describe in this book. This Head Start inter- vention program involved brief lessons on literacy and social skills, hands-on activities, and specific teaching strategies designed to promote children’s social-emotional compe- tencies, language development, and emergent literacy skills. Materials were also provided to parents to enhance children’s development at home. The program significantly im- proved children’s vocabulary, emergent literacy, emotional understanding, social problem solving, social behavior, and learning engagement.

The Future of Developmentally appropriate Practice One of the most important functions of NAEYC’s work on developmentally appropriate practice has been to further discussion and debate in the field about teaching practices. Given the history of the field, it is likely that this topic will continue to be debated. What aspects are most likely to continue to provoke thought? Undoubtedly the realities of diver- sity and changing cultural contexts in our country will continue to raise questions about what is culturally responsive as well as developmentally appropriate. Increased demands for accountability and the challenge to close the achievement gap raise the stakes over which practices can be successfully defended (Bassok & Rorem, 2014; Graue, 2009). Likewise, debates about curriculum have been a constant and will continue in the future, but are likely to be driven more by research than in the past.

The word appropriate is a culturally laden term and thus will continue to provoke controversy. Similarly, it is difficult to counteract the tendency of teachers and other pro- fessionals to emphasize “typical development” over individual differences and cultural variations (Graue, Kroeger, & Brown, 2003). After all, the first can be learned by read- ing books and journals, whereas the latter two require ongoing assessment of children, building relationships with families, and reflecting on how our own cultural perspectives influence our judgments and behavior.

To be developmentally appropriate, practices must contribute to children’s learn- ing and development. Therefore, this book focuses on recommended teaching practices, which must be responsive to children’s individual development and cultural variation to be deemed appropriate. At the same time, we also focus on whether those practices help children achieve important learning goals. By definition, developmentally appropriate practices should be effective practices. To be effective, teachers must know children, they must know how to teach, and they must know what to teach. Each of these areas of knowl- edge must be informed by research. The following equation describes these components of effective, research-based practice.

Effective Practice = Knowing Children + Knowing How to Teach + Knowing What to Teach

Ultimately, the truest measure of developmentally appropriate practice is seeing chil- dren joyfully, physically, and intellectually engaged in meaningful learning about their world and everyone and everything in it (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

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. . . Mr. Washington’s Classroom

At the beginning of this chapter we met Olivia, who was somewhat timidly experiencing school for the

first time. Having explored the basic premises of developmentally appropriate practice, we can now

see Olivia’s experience with a more informed eye. Her classroom, with its age-appropriate materials, furnishings, and environment, not only made Olivia feel comfortable but also encouraged her involve-

ment. Furthermore, her teacher, Mr. Washington, drew on his knowledge of how children develop and

learn by working to establish a warm, positive relationship with Olivia right from the start. He also pro-

vided Olivia with a learning experience that would build on what she was already able to do, such as

her proficiency with puzzles.

At the same time, Mr. Washington demonstrated the importance of paying attention to what is

individually appropriate. He made Olivia feel welcome by sending her a personal postcard, speaking with her at eye level, designating her cubby with her name and photo, and piquing Olivia’s interest in

puzzles. Finally, Mr. Washington was culturally appropriate—sensitive to the cultural context in which Olivia lives—using his own language attempts and a skilled translator to communicate with and reas-

sure Olivia’s grandmother. He also plans to display a family photo so Olivia’s identity will be honored.

In so doing, he demonstrated that he values and respects Olivia’s family, their language, and cultural

background. Taken together, the actions in that brief scenario demonstrate the teacher’s broad base of

knowledge and bode well for Olivia’s successful transition to school. ■

Revisiting the Case Study

Chapter Summary3 • Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that

is attuned to children’s ages, experience, abilities, and interests, and that helps them attain challenging and achievable goals.

• Intentional teachers have a purpose for everything that they do, are thoughtful and prepared, and can explain their decisions and actions to other teachers, adminis- trators, or parents.

• Decisions about developmentally appropriate practice are based on knowledge of child development and learning (what is age appropriate), knowledge about children as individuals, and knowledge of the social and cultural contexts in which children live (what is culturally appropriate).

• The role of the early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1) creating a caring com- munity of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and development, (3) planning curriculum to meet

important goals, (4) assessing children’s learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relation- ships with families.

• “Widening the lens” is a metaphor to help teachers remember to consider diverse perspectives and move beyond either/or thinking to both/and thinking when solving problems or making decisions about practice.

• How the learning environment and children’s daily schedules are organized are the most obvious indica- tors of whether a program is developmentally ap- propriate and therefore, they should look different for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children because abilities and needs predictably vary by chil- dren’s ages.

• Well-grounded research about learning and develop- ment is the basis for NAEYC’s position statements on developmentally appropriate practice and provides solid guidance for early childhood educators.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99

Key Terms ■ age appropriate ■ assessment ■ caring community of

learners ■ culturally appropriate

■ culture ■ curriculum ■ developmentally appro-

priate practice (DAP) ■ individually appropriate

■ intentional teachers ■ learning centers ■ position statement

■ push-down curriculum ■ reciprocal relationships ■ scientifically based

curriculum

Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and learning: Transforming early childhood environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel- opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

ASCD Whole Child Initiative This website provides resources promoting elementary education that supports all areas of children’s develop- ment and learning.

National Association for the Education of Young Children NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop- ies of all their position statements.

ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families This website provides resources and practical tips for working with infants, toddlers, and their families.

Readings and Websites

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

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4 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

4.1 Distinguish the meanings of development and learning and describe the relationship between the two.

4.2 Discuss how knowledge of brain development in early childhood informs teaching practice.

4.3 Identify key components of developmental theories (Erikson, Maslow, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner) and apply them to early childhood practice.

4.4 Identify key components of learning theories (Behaviorism and Social Cogni- tive theories) and apply them to early childhood practice.

4.5 Explain the role of play in children’s development and learning, and describe ways teachers can support play in early childhood settings.

4.6 Apply theories of development and learning to early childhood practice.

Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development Learning Outcomes

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Y vonne Donati is a prekindergarten teacher in an inclusive public school. One of her goals is to create a caring community in which her energetic youngsters learn how to get along and work together. Yvonne’s approach to guiding children’s behavior is to engage the children in lively discussions of the classroom rules and

how to solve conflicts that arise with their classmates.

In planning curriculum, Yvonne draws on the children’s interests to integrate literacy instruction with science

study of plants or animals, and children often work on small-group projects such as making a terrarium. She

and the children have large-group meetings and she sometimes reads to the whole group, but she keeps these

periods brief. She tries to find ways to make sure the children are physically active such as doing motions to

songs or fingerplays. She also actively engages children’s minds, as when she gives clues for the children to

guess what object is hidden in a paper bag or has them take turns figuring out what a new word means in a story.

When children encounter challenges in their play, Yvonne helps them to come up with their own solutions

rather than solving the problem for them. She asks probing questions: “Why do you think your tomato plant didn’t

grow tall?” “Let’s compare your plant and Juana’s—why is hers taller?”

Because some children in Yvonne’s class have identified disabilities, she regularly meets with the special

education team and cooperates in implementing the children’s individualized education programs (IEPs). Maya has

severe behavior problems, and the team works together to plan and implement a positive behavior support program

to reinforce her desirable behaviors. After a few weeks of systematically working with Maya, Yvonne observes that

the new strategy is working and Maya is less aggressive.

After a month of school, Yvonne observes that every day the block area is dominated by boys, while girls prefer

the dramatic play center. She isn’t sure if this is just reflecting typical gender differences or if there is another

reason. Yvonne knows from studying the importance of play that children benefit from both block building and

pretend play and that the benefits differ. She contemplates assigning children to areas,

but then she designs an experiment. One week she closes the dramatic play center,

and the next week she closes the block center, observing and recording children’s

behavior. Yvonne finds that without the availability of the dramatic play

center, girls freely enter the block area; some boys play with them while

others go elsewhere. On the other hand, when the block center is closed,

the girls continue to play in the dramatic center, but the boys

seem at loose ends and do not choose pretend play. Based on

the results of her experiment, Yvonne institutes a play planning

session each morning to make sure that girls

have block-building opportunities. She also adds

themes and props, such as creating a car wash,

to interest more boys in pretend play. ■

Case Study

T his brief visit to Yvonne’s classroom reveals several things about her approach to teaching. Although Yvonne may not be fully aware of it, the decisions she makes, like those of every teacher, actually reflect various theories of how children learn

and develop. The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand and apply the prevail- ing theories of child development and learning. At times, beginning as well as experi- enced teachers wonder why theories matter or what relevance theories have to their work.

We begin by describing how theories of child development and learning are most useful in informing and inf luencing practice. Next, we describe research on brain development and its implications. Then, we discuss all the major theories and how

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach102

they apply to early childhood practice. Next, we explain the critically important role of children’s play, which is supported by the key developmental theories. We conclude the chapter with a summary of the main principles of child development and learning derived from research and theory that guide early childhood practice.

Understanding Development and Learning Intentional, effective teaching requires that teachers understand how children think and learn, and how best to support their healthy development at various ages in all areas—physical, social, emotional, and cognitive. Both development and learning are complicated processes requiring that teachers not only study research and theory but also study children themselves.

What Is Development? If you spend any time with early childhood educators, you are likely to hear that it is im- portant for teachers to understand child development. This is true. But what do they need to know about development and why is it important? To answer these questions, we must first define terms. Development refers to age-related change that results from an interac- tion between biological maturation and physical and/or social experience.

Development occurs as children grow, adapt, and change in response to various ex- periences. Consider how language develops. Biology plays a role, with babies all over the world producing similar sounds at about the same age. But language development re- quires more than maturation. Babies need social interaction with adults and older children who talk to them. As they grow physically and are able to get around on their own, infants and toddlers encounter more examples of language interaction, and their speech starts to take off around age 2 (just as their legs do).

Domains of Development Different areas of human functioning, including phys- ical, cognitive, social, and emotional, are often described as domains of development. Physical development refers to biological growth and acquisition of fine motor skills, such as drawing, and gross motor skills, such as running. Cognitive development is a broad term encompassing thinking, intelligence, and language abilities. Social development refers to interpersonal relationships such as the ability to make friends, cooperate, and resolve con- flicts. Emotional development is the ability to regulate and appropriately express feelings.

Discussions of child development inevitably address these domains as if they were separate. In reality, of course, human development does not occur in different categories. Our brains do not have separate compartments for cognition or social development. As- pects of development are inextricably linked, which is one reason we often talk about social-emotional development as though it were a single construct. Domains of develop- ment are an artifact of how researchers study development, rather than how development actually occurs. The integrated nature of development requires that teachers maintain their awareness of the whole child at all times.

Recently, researchers and educators have begun to focus less on skills related to specific domains and more on abilities that cut across traditionally defined developmental domains, such as executive function and self-regulation (Jones & Bailey, 2014), which we discuss later in this chapter. Bolstered by new findings from brain research, we now know that such broad domain-general processes strongly predict children’s success in school and life. For example, Galinsky (2010) identifies seven essential life skills that every child needs: focus and self-control, perspective taking, communicating, making connections, critical think- ing, taking on challenges, and self-directed engaged learning. A similar list is promoted by the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (n.d.): critical thinking, communication, col- laboration, and creativity. Another way of describing these skills is children’s approach- es to learning—motivation, interest, persistence, curiosity, engagement, and enthusiasm

development Age-related change that results from an interaction between biological maturation and physical and/or social experience; development occurs as children grow, adapt, and change in response to vari- ous experiences.

domains of development Areas of human development and functioning that include cognitive, social, emotional, and physical.

physical development Biological growth and acquisi- tion of fine motor and gross motor skills.

cognitive development Think- ing, intelligence, and language abilities.

social development The ability to establish positive relationships with adults and peers, make friends, cooperate, and resolve conflicts.

emotional development The ability to regulate and appropri- ately express feelings.

domain-general processes Broad abilities that cut across traditionally defined develop- mental domains.

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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 103

(Hyson, 2012). These lists of goals are overlapping and consistent, and they demonstrate the connection between development and learning, which we define in the next section.

What Is Learning? Learning is a change in knowledge or skill that results from experience or instruction. Learning and development are not the same things, although they affect each other. Learn- ing is a similar, though not identical, process whether a person is 3 years old or 33. For example, for a first grader, learning to read isn’t completely different from the way it is for an older person.

Because experience plays a role in both development and learning, there is a close connection between these processes, especially in the early years of life when chil- dren are growing and changing so rapidly. Sometimes development leads to learning (Piaget,  1952). For example, when a baby develops the ability to grasp objects and begins to put them in her mouth, she learns a lot about the objects in her world. Some are hard, others soft; some taste good, others don’t. In this case, her development fosters her learning. Children’s developmental level can also put limitations on what they are capable of learning. For example, preschoolers can do some abstract thinking, but they won’t fully understand complex, abstract con- cepts such as chronological time until they are older.

Learning also drives development. As children participate in the activities of their cultural groups and come to understand more complex concepts, their cognitive devel- opment is affected (Rogoff, 2012; Vygotsky, 1978). What children learn at home and in their cultural community powerfully affects their development. Consider the devel- opmental differences between a 5-year-old child in America, whose primary “job” is to attend kindergarten, and a 5-year-old in rural Africa, whose primary responsibility is to transport water for the family.

The Role of Theory Centuries ago, human beings thought that the world was flat. No one wanted to venture too far out onto the sea for fear of falling off the edge. Slowly, more people traveled farther from shore, and others observed that the tops of arriving ships appeared first and then grad- ually the rest. If the earth were flat, the entire ship would appear at once. These observa- tions and experiences led to the conclusion that the earth is not flat, but is actually a sphere.

This simple example illustrates the power of theories. A theory is an explanation of how information and observations are organized and relate to one another. As we can see, theories are important because they affect how people think and behave. In education, theories of learning and development affect how people treat children, how they structure environments, and how they teach.

The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice Where do theories come from? Theories usually evolve from research, which can take the form of systematic observations over time or scientifically controlled experiments. In fact, a theory derives from a hypothesis, which is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon. The more research is available to support the “truth” of a theory, the more useful the the- ory becomes in guiding practice. Yvonne had a theory about why girls and boys play dif- ferently. She tested and then revised her theory by conducting an informal research study.

When research findings contradict earlier conclusions, theories evolve, are discarded, or are replaced with new ones. In the early part of the 20th century, the prevailing theory of child development was maturationist. According to this theory, derived from research by Arnold Gesell (1940; Ames & Ilg, 1979), the sequence of changes in abilities and be- havior is largely predetermined by children’s biological growth processes rather than by their experiences or learning.

learning A change in knowl- edge or skill that results from experience or instruction.

theory An explanation of how information and observations are organized and relate to one another.

During early childhood, children’s development and learning are closely connected. Right from the start, babies put things in their mouths, which teaches them about objects in the world—how they feel and what they do.

hypothesis An assumption about or tentative explanation of a phenomenon.

maturationist Theory of development that assumes that the sequence of changes in abilities and behavior is largely predetermined by children’s biological growth processes rather than by their experiences or learning.

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Maturation theory led to the notion that teachers needed to wait until children were ready for experiences to be effective. Because it was assumed that children were not ready to read until first grade, few literacy experiences were provided in preschool or kindergarten. Re- search in the intervening years demonstrated that differences in children’s abilities are heav- ily influenced by their experiences (Sameroff, 2009; Tierney & Nelson, 2009). As a result, maturationist theory has been displaced by other theories. Nevertheless, maturationist theory continues to influence some practices such as kindergarten “redshirting”—holding children out of kindergarten until they are a year older and presumably more ready to learn.

Theories can also drive the way research is conducted and findings are interpreted. For example, if a theory is assumed to be universally true for all children, then research that sup- ports the theory is assumed to apply to all children. Even if the research has been conducted only with white, middle-class children, the findings are applied to children of color or children of different socioeconomic, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds. Understanding the role of cul- ture in development and learning requires that theory and research be more cautiously inter- preted through these lenses. Therefore, despite the frequent claim that theories are “universal” and apply equally well to all children, they need to be evaluated from a broader perspective, as described in the Culture Lens: The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory feature.

Culture Lens The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory

An especially important consideration in evaluating theo- ries is the cultural background of the children and fami- lies who participated in the research. For decades, one theory of how parental child rearing affects preschool children’s development has been assumed to apply to all children and families (Baumrind, 1971). The theory identifies three parenting styles:

• Authoritative. Loving, nurturing, involved, and sensitive parents who explain their reasons for discipline have children who are motivated to learn and are well ad- justed socially and emotionally.

• Authoritarian. Restrictive, punishing, rejecting, and controlling parents have children who lack initiative and are inhibited.

• Permissive. Parents who are warm and accepting of children but minimally involved and laissez-faire about discipline have children with the lowest levels of motivation and achievement.

Authoritative parenting is found to be the most effective style of child rearing. Most research on the theory, how- ever, has been conducted with Caucasian middle-class families. More recent research with Head Start families (McWayne, Owsianik, Green, & Fantuzzo, 2008) using culturally familiar language and behaviors identified sim- ilar but not identical types of parenting:

• Active-responsive (e.g., tell child “I’m proud” when he tries to be good).

• Active-restrictive (e.g., I spank the child when she is disobedient).

• Passive-permissive (e.g., tell child “I’ll punish,” but don’t).

Research with low-income, urban, African American families found no relationships between these different parenting

styles and preschool children’s social- emotional skills. What might account for these contradictory findings between diverse cultural groups? When children grow up in poverty-stricken, dangerous communities and face possi- ble discrimination and prejudice, parents’ priorities reflect these conditions. They may express their love by focusing on survival skills and making sure that their children behave maturely and competently in situations where people are biased against them. With these goals in mind, the effec- tiveness of restrictive parenting makes more sense.

In addition, compared to Caucasian middle-class fami- lies, African American child rearing tends to be spread among a number of people in the extended family and community. The mother may be relatively passive and permissive, for example, whereas others in the child’s circle such as a grandmother or aunt may be more re- strictive or actively responsive.

What can we conclude from revisiting a widely accept- ed child development theory like Baumrind’s parenting framework? Research that leads to a new theory needs to be conducted with diverse populations of children and fami- lies. Otherwise, the theory simply can’t be said to apply to them. In addition, research needs to be interpreted through a wide lens that considers the social and cultural contexts in which children live—in this case, the realities of life for low-income, urban, African American families.

Sources: “Current Patterns of Parental Authority,” by D. Baumrind, 1971, Developmental Psychology, 4, 1–103; “Parenting Behaviors and Preschool Children’s Social and Emotional Skills: A Question of the Consequential Validity of Traditional Parenting Constructs for Low-Income African Americans,” by C. M. McWayne, M. Owsianik, L. E. Green, and J. W. Fantuzzo, 2008, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 173–192.

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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 105

Why Study Child Development and Learning? Understanding theories of learning and development is particularly important for early childhood teachers for several reasons. During the first eight years of life, children grow and change more rapidly than at any other period of the life span. As a result, development and learning are more closely connected in early childhood, making the developmental accomplishments and learning that take place at this point critically important founda- tions for what follows.

Understanding child development and learning helps teachers in many ways, including:

• Setting and evaluating goals that are achievable for most children within a given age range and that also challenge children to go on learning

• Accurately interpreting children’s behavior as predictable for their age or in need of intervention

• Knowing predictable sequences of development and learning to plan curriculum and adapt teaching to accommodate where individual children are in the sequence

• Predicting the kinds of topics and experiences that will be interesting and meaning- ful to children of different ages

• Understanding how children’s social and cultural contexts affect their learning and development

• Using information about typical and atypical development to identify and diagnose potential disabilities or developmental delays in children, as well as to determine if children’s development is advanced

In previous sections, we defined and described the relationships between develop- ment and learning, and between theory, research, and practice. Teachers have much to learn about these topics, but we begin with the most current area of new knowledge, brain development.

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.1: Understanding Development and Learning

Brain Development and Implications for Practice Some of the most exciting discoveries about human development ever made have occurred in the past 30 years as advanced technologies have enabled scientists to directly study how the brain grows and changes. Tools such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) open windows into how the brain functions when people perform different tasks and how the brains of children and adults compare (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). An explosion of brain research has captured the imagination of the general public and policy makers, in addition to educators and parents.

A major conclusion of this research is that brain development results from an interaction between what is happening in children’s minds and their experiences in the world (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). In other words, experiences, both positive and negative affect brain development, and brain growth and change affect learning.

How the Brain Promotes Learning The brain is the most complex of human organisms, the most important to overall func- tioning, yet we know the least about it. But we are learning more.

The Physical Brain The brain is composed of a massive number of nerve cells, or neurons, that receive information through the senses or from other neurons and then communicate information back to other parts of the body (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). One

neurons Nerve cells in the brain that receive information through the senses or from other neurons, and then com- municate information back to other parts of the body.

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connection might alert the baby to look at a human face; another might signal a smile in response to mommy’s face. These connections that carry information between neurons are called synapses.

In utero, the baby’s brain undergoes astonishing growth. Neurons are produced at a rapid rate, and they migrate (or move) to the places in the brain where they will develop and be used. They also begin the process of differentiation—specialization for particular functions. The processes of neuron production, migration, and differentiation are mostly directed by genes. However, they are also affected by maternal health, nutrition, and en- vironmental risks such as alcohol or drug use.

The adult brain has about 100 billion neurons, about the same number that babies have at birth. The major difference between the newborn brain and adult brain, however, is the intricate network of connections (synapses) between the neurons, the brain’s wiring system (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). During the first 2 to 3 years of life, babies’ brains over- produce synapses, going from about 2,500 at birth to 15,000—many more than adults have. After that, the brain starts pruning unnecessary or unused synapses. Throughout life, new synapses are formed and others are pruned away.

Pruning is important because it contributes to efficient brain operation, aids learning and memory, and increases the brain’s flexibility, actions that neuroscientists term plasticity. Plasticity is the brain’s ability to develop and change in response to experiences. After prun- ing, fewer and stronger connections among brain cells strengthen those that remain. This process is similar to pruning a bush that has grown too large; cutting off  unneeded branches strengthens those that remain and may mean more blossoms in the future.

The Role of Experience in Brain Development During early childhood—a period of rapid brain growth—the brain is most receptive and responsive to experience (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Children’s relationships with the family and community impact brain development and influence how well the

neurological system works. Both positive and negative experiences modify the brain architecture, with the most emotionally intense and most meaning- ful experiences having the greatest effects (Levitt, 2008). For these reasons, highly stressful experiences during early childhood can have lasting negative consequences (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010).

Although too little stimulation can lead to poor outcomes, exposing young children to overstimulating environments is not supported by brain re- search (Thompson, 2008). Babies and toddlers in particular become stressed when they are overstimulated. They either tune out (usually by going to sleep) or act out (usually by crying). Either way, they aren’t learning.

Brain research indicates that the years up to age 10 are the prime time for learning. Instead of critical periods, researchers use the term windows of

opportunity to suggest that there are times in life when the brain is most open to certain types of experiences. One such example is language development, as described in the feature What Works: Exposing Babies to Different Languages.

Young children’s brains are much more active, connected, and flexible than are adults’ (Thompson, 2008). However, this does not mean, as some people have concluded, that the first few years of life are such a critical period that after age 3 or 5, the window for learning closes. On the contrary, brains remain flexible throughout life, as demonstrated when an 80-year-old learns to knit or a 58-year-old learns Italian.

Implications for Children Fostering optimal early brain development is essential for positive outcomes for children. Reviews of brain research (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009; Tierney & Nelson, 2009) conclude that:

• The brain’s most significant development occurs before birth, placing great impor- tance on prenatal care.

• Early experiences change and organize the physical structure of the brain.

synapses Connections in the brain that carry information between neurons.

pruning The process whereby the brain eliminates unneces- sary or unused synapses, which contributes to efficient brain operation, aids learning and memory, and increases the brain’s flexibility.

plasticity The brain’s abil- ity to develop and change in response to experiences.

windows of opportunity Periods of time during which human brains are particularly susceptible and responsive to certain types of experience.

Classroom Connection Watch this video to learn more about how the young child’s experiences and interactions influence the architecture and health of the developing brain.

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=m_5u8-QSh6A

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• Different parts of the brain are more responsive to experiences at different times. There are windows of opportunity for particular types of learning.

• Neglect, abuse, and stress pose serious threats to healthy brain development. Pre- vention and early intervention become even more important in light of the poten- tially lasting negative consequences for brain development.

• Brains develop best when children experience loving relationships, play, oppor- tunities to explore their world, interesting and engaging things to learn about, and healthy, safe environments.

• Brain development is integrated; as children get older, the areas within the brain become better connected.

During preschool and the primary grades, considerable growth and change take place in the frontal lobes of the brain, the areas that are responsible for regulating thought and action (Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). As a result, the following skills improve considerably during these years: attention, impulse control, planning, reasoning, problem solving, and memory.

Implications for Practice Brain research has electrified public interest in early childhood education. Nevertheless, neuroscience provides clearer guidance about the kinds of experiences that harm develop- ment, such as prolonged stress, rather than those that enrich it (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Learning to handle the typical stresses of childhood is a normal part of growing up, such as when children go to the doctor or start a new

What Works Exposing Babies to Different Languages One of the conclusions from research on brain development is that there are windows of opportunity during which human brains are particularly susceptible and responsive to certain types of expe- riences. One of those windows relates to language development among very young children.

Patricia Kuhl is a leading authority on speech development. She has conducted numerous studies with very young infants to test babies’ ability to discriminate the sounds of diverse languages. Using MEG (magnetic) technology to view stimulation of different areas of the brain, Kuhl and colleagues found that the auditory (hearing) and motor areas of the brain were activated when hearing speech syllables of any language, including those they had never heard. This means that American babies reacted when new sounds were introduced, whether in English, Spanish, or other languages. Kuhl next investigated what would happen after babies were a little older and had more experience hearing the language around them. At 11 months of age, babies showed more auditory reaction to sylla- bles from their own language, and more motor reaction to syllables from another language. This suggests that by 11 months, babies already know the sounds from their own language, and that they are attempting to understand and make the sounds from their non- native language. Apparently, long before babies can talk, the brain is practicing the sounds, especially those of their native language.

This research supports the value of intensive social interaction for learn- ing language for infants, for building the brain’s capacity to learn and use language. Previously, Kuhl and others have found that if children are introduced to a second language before 7 years of age, they are able to speak it like a native—that is, without an accent. After about age 10, how- ever, people who learn another language are never able to speak it like a native speaker. Contrary to this finding, most “foreign” lan- guage instruction in U.S. schools doesn’t occur until high school, long after this window of opportunity has closed, making learning a new language more difficult.

What brain research tells us is that when babies are born, a great deal of neurological capacity is in place. But during the first few years of life, the brain changes in major ways in response to experience—the brain learns, especially from human interaction. Which leads to another conclusion: The brain—and the baby, of course—learn best from interaction with people.

Source: “Infants’ Brain Responses to Speech Suggest Analysis by Synthe- sis,” by P. K. Kuhl, R. R. Ramirez, A. Bosseler, J. L. Lin, and T. Imada, 2014, Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, 111(31), 11238–11245.

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school. At other times, children may experience more long-lasting stressful experiences, such as an injury or death in the family, which are difficult but tolerable as long as a caring adult is there for support. The biggest threat to children’s developing brains is toxic stress, which occurs when children experience intense, frequent, and/or prolonged anxiety such as abuse, neglect, violence, or economic deprivation without adult support to help them cope (Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2012). Such prolonged stress can impair brain growth and have lasting negative consequences for physical and mental health.

Threats to brain development reinforce the need to prevent child abuse and neglect and to eliminate risk factors such as poor nutrition and exposure to toxic substances. Like- wise, evidence from brain research supports the need for Head Start–like comprehensive family services to minimize stress and trauma in children’s lives and improve the mental and physical health of caregivers.

At least at the present time, brain research is not precise enough to provide guid- ance about specific ways to optimize development (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). In general, it validates the importance of positive relationships with parents and teachers. And because the areas of the brain that contribute to social- emotional and cognitive development are connected, early childhood programs should focus on both (Thompson, 2008).

However, we have much less knowledge of specific curricula, products, or teaching practices that enhance brain development; therefore, teachers should be wary of products that claim to be based on brain research (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). It appears that the best course is to use educational practices that have been shown to be effective. Neuroscience is most useful when coupled with the larger body of knowledge about theories of development and learning, which we describe in the sections that follow.

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.2: Brain Development and Implications for Practice

Child Development Theories In this section, we present the theories of child development that are influential in early childhood education today. One of the most debated aspects of human development has been whether biology or experience (nature or nurture) plays the bigger role in explain- ing individual differences. Some theories place greater emphasis on inborn, biologically driven changes, whereas others consider the environment to be the primary influence. Most of the prominent theories, however, reflect the prevailing view that human develop- ment is a product of both biology/heredity and environment/experiences.

Multiple theories exist because of the various dimensions of development, such as social, emotional, and cognitive. The work of Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslow, which we describe in the sections that follow, has been influential in guiding practice in social and emotional development and motivation to learn. We follow with a description of two developmental theories that explain how children develop cognitive skills, Piaget’s Cog- nitive Developmental Theory and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory. The section closes with a comprehensive theory of human development that explains how characteristics of the individual child and the settings interact, Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems theory.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was influenced by cultural anthropologists and came to see the importance of culture and social experience in shaping development.

toxic stress Children’s experi- ence of intense, frequent, and/ or prolonged anxiety such as abuse, neglect, violence, or economic deprivation without adult support to help them cope.

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Based on extensive investigations conducted with his wife, Joan, Erikson published his seminal book, Childhood and Society (1950/1963).

He proposed an eight-stage theory of personal and social development in which at each stage of life an individual confronts a major challenge or “crisis.” Successful nego- tiation of the crisis requires achieving a balance between two possible extremes. If crises are not resolved positively at particular points in the life span, Erikson postulated that later problems will ensue. Table 4.1 provides an overview of Erikson’s eight stages, the typical crisis, and successful resolution.

Stages of Personal and Social Development in Early Childhood Erikson hypothesized the following four stages of psychological and social development in the lives of children. He assumed that mothers and other family members are the principal actors in children’s lives during the first three stages. However, children today participate in out-of-home child care from birth. Therefore, teachers also play signifi- cant roles in helping young children negotiate these critical life events. Following are examples of how features of Erikson’s stages can be seen in young children’s behaviors and relationships.

Stage 1: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months). Eight-month-old Martin is stand- ing up in his crib sobbing and bouncing on his chubby legs. His family child care pro- vider, Joanne, comes in and soothingly says, “I can tell you are wet and hungry. Let’s change your diaper now.” Martin sighs as she picks him up lovingly. Joanne knows Martin well enough to interpret his cries and respond accordingly; in turn, Martin is comforted by the fact that when he cries, Joanne is there for him.

The major task of infants and their caregivers is to develop a sense of trust in the world, a feeling that their needs for food and love will be met. Babies’ trust develops through responsive relationships with caregivers. If adults are inconsistent or rejecting, the baby learns that the world is an untrustworthy place and that he has little power to influence what happens to him.

TAble 4.1 Erikson’s Stages of Personal and Social Development

Approximate Age Stage Lessons Learned from Life’s Challenges

Infants Birth to 1 year Trust vs. mistrust Gaining feelings of security and positive attachment, learning to trust other people to meet needs as well as exert some control over environment

Toddlers 1 to 3 years Autonomy vs. doubt Becoming aware of increasing competence, strong will to practice new skills without restriction, and growing sense of self as individual

Preschoolers 3 to 5 years Initiative vs. guilt Becoming more purposeful in initiating play with other children and toys, increasing power and ability to act without taking too many risks

Elementary School-age 6 to 12 years

Industry vs. inferiority Becoming confident in school work, mastering challenging tasks, and acting responsibly

Adolescence 10 to 20 years Identity vs. role confusion Finding sense of self and building relationships with peers

Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Building close relationships with sexual partners, friends, and colleagues, beginning career

Middle adulthood Generativity vs. self- absorption

Gaining satisfaction from life’s work and contributing to larger society, nurturing next generations and caring for others

Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Reflecting on life with contentment, engaging in rewarding activities, coping with loss and end of life challenges

Source: Based on Child Development and Education (5th ed.) by T. M. McDevitt and J. E. Ormrod, 2013, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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Stage 2: Autonomy versus doubt (18 months to 3 years). Belinda is 22 months old. She has been in the same child care center with the same primary caregiver, Sandy, since she was 5 months old. She and Sandy have a warm, loving relationship. But lately, Belinda has begun to resist just about everything Sandy wants her to do. As soon as Sandy finishes dressing her, Belinda starts pulling off her shoes or shirt. She yells, “I want red shirt.” Sandy calmly says, “Okay, you can choose. Do you want your red shirt or your yellow one (the one she is already wearing)?” Belinda pumps up her chest and says, “Yellow one.”

Belinda’s behavior may seem like a step backward toward infancy, but actually it is evidence of her advancing development. By 18 months, most babies are mobile and are soon able to communicate their wants and needs in words. They begin to separate from primary caregivers, try to do things for themselves, and assert their autonomy with state- ments like “Me do it!” or “Mine.” This desire to break away from caregivers is sometimes called the “terrible twos” because it can lead to power struggles. One minute the child wants to hold onto the adult, and the next minute she wants to push away. But becoming a more autonomous human being is a major task of growing up. If adults are too harsh or restrictive with children at this age, children can feel powerless and doubt their own competence. One effective strategy is giving a toddler a manageable amount of power, such as Sandy did by offering a choice of two shirts.

Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years). Donald teaches 4-year-olds. He loves this age group because he finds that most 4-year-olds can do many things on their own, while at the same time expressing their unbridled joy at every new accomplish- ment. He sets up his classroom and daily schedule to allow for as much choice as possible, while also being available to assist children during these periods of child- initiated activity. Dorcas especially needs his help because her parents have been somewhat overprotective and she is hesitant to try new experiences.

The preschool and kindergarten years are marked for most children by an increasing sense of their own abilities, especially improved motor skills and exploding language capacity. This sense of confidence, at times unwarranted, leads children to initiate their own activities. When children’s initiatives are regularly punished or thwarted, they may begin to feel guilty and withdraw. The resolution for negotiating this stage is making sure that encouraging children’s initiative and risk-taking is balanced by ensuring their safety.

Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (6 to 12 years). Melodie’s second-grade class is working in small groups on subtraction problems. One group works feverishly, argu- ing over the correct answers and giving each other high fives when they figure them out. Another group of children is quieter, appearing frustrated and unsure. Looking over at the others, Max says, “We’re the dumb group. We’ll never do good in math.”

During the elementary school years, children’s spheres expand, and the opinions of teachers and peers become more important and parents’ less so. School work becomes a major part of children’s lives, and they begin to find satisfaction in achievement and in mastering new skills. They also begin to compare themselves to others and are more capable of judging their own performances. When children’s accomplishments are not up to their standards, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

Erikson emphasized that development does not end during childhood but continues throughout the life span. Adults—students, teachers, and parents—will see themselves in the later stages (see Table 4.1). Understanding the struggles of the later stages—identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair—can provide teachers with insight into the behavior of adoles- cents (who may be parents) and other adults, including parents and colleagues. However, the first four stages are most relevant to the work of early childhood educators.

Implications for Teaching Erikson’s theory has important implications for the social-emotional climates of early childhood programs, as we can see from visiting the

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Love and Learn Child Care Center. In this center, babies and toddlers have primary care- givers who stay with them for 2 or 3 years so teachers get to know them well and can provide consistent, responsive care. The preschool and kindergarten classes are structured with extended periods of time for children to initiate their own activities within the op- tions that the teacher provides. Teachers encourage children to voice their opinions and ideas. The after-school program provides time, space, and materials for primary-grade children to pursue and master hobbies and interests such as photography, computers, painting, sports, and writing stories.

In this book, we advocate a both/and approach to many questions regarding early childhood practice. Erikson’s theory is an example of this approach because each of the crises that children must negotiate is resolved by achieving a balance between the two poles. Trust is essential, for example, but children also need to develop a healthy sense of caution when interacting with strangers. Similarly, preschool children’s initiative should be encouraged, but they also need to learn limits.

Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role of the sociocultural context on children’s per- sonal and social development, but parts of his theory assume particular cultural perspec- tives. For example, his emphasis on the singular role of the mother during the first three stages doesn’t reflect the value that some cultural groups place on multiple caregivers (see the Culture Lens feature on page 104).

Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was part of a group of psychologists, called humanists, who studied healthy personality development rather than mental illness, as psychologists had done previously. Maslow (1954) developed self-actualization theory, which identi- fies a hierarchy of needs, as depicted in Figure 4.1, that motivate people’s behavior and goals that are necessary for healthy personality development.

Hierarchy of Human Needs Maslow’s hierarchy is a pyramid depicting the relationship between needs and goals. The bottom two layers represent the basic physical needs required to sustain life, such as food, water, and shelter, and the fundamental psychological needs for safety and security. Maslow postulated that unless these needs are met, humans cannot move up the hierarchy to achieve the next goals: love and a sense of belonging and then self-esteem. The top of the pyramid represents self-actualization, which is achievement of life’s goals in many individual forms. Goals that contribute to self-actualization are things that make life meaningful and satisfying. Maslow speculated that self-actu- alization is not achieved by everyone, although most people strive for it.

Implications for Practice Maslow’s theory is useful as a framework for understanding how people are motivated. If children are hungry, it follows that they cannot focus their attention on any- thing else. Similarly, if children are frightened or emotionally in- secure, they cannot learn effectively. Meeting children’s basic physical needs as well as their need for psychological safety and emotional security is at the heart of good early childhood practice. Consider free school lunch programs and state li- censing standards that set requirements for operating a child care center—these mandates are designed to protect chil- dren’s health, safety, and security.

Effective early childhood programs go beyond meeting children’s basic needs, however. Their goals include estab- lishing positive, affectionate relationships among children and adults (the need for love and belonging) and building children’s competence in all areas and, therefore, their self- esteem. Meeting children’s needs and helping them achieve

self-actualization theory Maslow’s view that behavior and learning are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

FIGURE 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierachy of Human Needs graphically depicts how successful relationships, positive self-esteem, and learning depend on a strong foundation of physical safety and security.

Source: Maslow, A., Motivation and personality. © 2013. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

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these goals contributes to life satisfaction and successful learning. Although children will not reach the pinnacle of Maslow’s hierarchy—self-actualization—the foundations are laid during those early years. Adults might want to consider that a career teaching young children can be a self-actualizing experience, especially for those who find this work meaningful, playful, rewarding, and contributing to a better world.

The theories of both Erikson and Maslow apply primarily to social and personality development and the motivation to learn. Next, we turn to two theorists—Piaget and Vygotsky—whose work applies primarily to cognitive development. Because all domains of development are so integrally connected, however, these theories also have implications for social-emotional development.

Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory The cognitive-developmental theory of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) has had enormous im- pact on early childhood education. Although parts of his theory—particularly the stages of cognitive development—have been criticized, he remains a towering and influential figure decades after his death.

Swiss-born, Piaget spent the greater part of his life observing and listening to chil- dren of various ages, beginning with detailed observations of his own children as infants. Piaget’s wife, Valentine, did most of the minute-by-minute, day-by-day observing and recording of the children’s behavior beginning at birth using the only tools available at the time, pen and paper (Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 1999).

Several aspects of Piaget’s theory readily apply to education. The following sections present key concepts for teachers: constructivism, the process of learning (adaptation), types of knowledge, and the general idea of stages of cognitive development.

Constructivist Learning Theory Piaget’s relatively complex theory can be summed up in a simple sentence: Children think differently from adults. Einstein called this discovery by Piaget “so simple that only a genius could have thought of it” (Papert, 1999). Piaget believed that children’s minds are not empty vessels to be filled with knowl- edge by adults; instead, children actively make sense of their experiences by building or constructing their own knowledge. Piaget’s theory of how children learn is called constructivism.

From his own perspective as a scientist, Piaget viewed children as little scientists who hypothesize about how the world works, and continually test and refine their own theories (Piaget, 1955). The following example illustrates how Piaget (1930) did his work and how a young child thinks:

Piaget: Where does the wind come from? Ost (age 4): From outside. Piaget: How is it made outside? Ost: By the motor cars. Piaget: What else can make the wind? Ost: Bicycles, trams, carts, dust. Piaget: What else? Ost: When you blow, when you sweep. (p. 35)

This dialogue demonstrates Piaget’s idea that children develop their own theories of how the world works. With their experiences, children test their theories and eventually either strengthen, change, or discard them.

How Development Occurs: The Process of Adaptation One way we can tell that children construct their own knowledge is that they come up with their own ideas about or explanations for events. This is one reason why young children can be so enchanting. Five-year-old Pearson arrives at kindergarten one morning and proudly an- nounces to his teacher, “I know what A + A is—B!” Pearson hasn’t discovered algebra, but he does apply what he has learned about how numbers work (1 + 1 = 2) to the alphabet.

constructivism Learning theory derived from the work of Jean Piaget; assumes that children actively build their knowledge from firsthand experiences in stimulating environments.

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However mistaken Pearson is at this point, he is clearly thinking and trying to connect what he is learning to what he already knows.

Piaget believed that all children, like Pearson, have an inborn ability to organize and make sense of their experiences. Piaget coined the term scheme or schema for the orga- nizing structures people use to think or guide behavior. Schemes develop and change with experience. Toddler Veronica has a big German shepherd dog named Darby. When Ve- ronica meets the Labrador next door, she calls him Darby, too. Her mom responds, “He’s a doggie, but his name isn’t Darby. It’s Milo.” Then, Veronica sees a pony at the petting zoo and exclaims with glee, “Doggie!” But when she goes to pet the pony, she realizes he is much taller than either Darby or Milo. Again, her mother clarifies: “No, he has four legs like Darby and Milo, but he’s a pony, not a doggie.”

After many such experiences, Veronica changes her scheme for dogs (including the fact that dogs are not all the same) and another scheme for ponies. This process of chang- ing schemes in response to experiences is called adaptation, and occurs in two ways: through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information or experience is understood in connection with an existing scheme. Veronica assimilated her experience with Milo into her scheme for dogs.

By contrast, if the new information doesn’t fit within an existing scheme, the child must modify that scheme or construct a new one, a process called accommodation. In Veronica’s case, the pony couldn’t be assimilated into her doggie scheme, so a new scheme for pony had to be created. As Veronica gets older and has many more experi- ences, she will create different schemes to organize this basic information. Pony will be connected with the general scheme of animals, as well as the narrower scheme of animals you can ride.

When Veronica touched the pony and her mother gave her new information, she ex- perienced disequilibrium, which is an imbalance in thinking that occurs when new in- formation or physical experience cannot be understood in terms of what is already known (i.e., cannot be assimilated). Piaget believed that human beings seek equilibrium—we want the world to make sense, so we try to restore balance by creating new schemes or adapting existing ones, the process of equilibration.

Piaget theorized that learning depends on this process of adapting schemes through assimilation and accommodation in order to achieve equilibrium. He also believed that

scheme or schema The orga- nization of mental structures people use to think or guide be- havior; the structures develop and change with experience.

adaptation The mental process of altering concepts (schemes) in response to experience, which occurs in two ways: through assimilation and accommodation.

assimilation When new information or experience is understood in connection with existing knowledge (schemes).

accommodation When new information or experience doesn’t fit within an existing concept (scheme), the child must modify it or construct a new scheme.

disequilibrium An imbalance in thinking that occurs when new information or physical ex- perience cannot be understood in terms of what is already known (cannot be assimilated).

equilibration The process whereby humans try to make sense of new experiences by cre- ating new concepts (schemes) or adapting existing ones.

As young children play and interact with objects and other people, they construct their own understanding about the world, such as what a crayon can do and how paper is used.

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to change schemes, or accommodate, children need hands-on physical experience (they need to act on objects) and social interaction with peers and adults who help clarify their thinking. In the case of Veronica, her pony scheme was constructed through her real-life encounter at the zoo as well as her conversations with her mother.

Types of Knowledge Another important point of Piaget’s theory is that there are different kinds of knowledge. Piaget believed that children’s minds develop as the result of interactions between experience and biology. But the process is not identical for every type of learning. In fact, Piaget (1952) identified three types of knowledge—physical, logico-mathematical, and social-conventional—each acquired in different ways.

• Physical knowledge is understanding how objects move and function in space— how the physical world works. Two-year-old Evan loves to watch the rubber ball roll down the ramp, and repeats the action over and over. Then he tries using a rub- ber block. Even though the block is soft like the ball, it doesn’t cooperate. Evan’s hands-on experience with the ball and block adds to his knowledge of how different objects function in the physical world.

• Logico-mathematical knowledge is the relationships that are constructed in our minds between objects or concepts. Unlike physical knowledge, logico- mathematical knowledge is not directly observable. While playing with his ramp, Evan sees that Delia has two small balls and he has one big one. He decides that he wants a second ball. The idea that two balls are more than one ball is an example of logico-mathematical knowledge. Evan created the relationship between the objects in his mind; it does not exist otherwise. He could just as easily have focused on the relationship of size instead of quantity and decided to keep the big ball.

• Social-conventional knowledge is the culturally agreed-on names and symbols that need to be transmitted to the learner directly. For example, the letters of the alphabet, number names, and the meaning of the colors on the stoplight are all ar- bitrary. This kind of knowledge can’t be reinvented by every learner. Usually, children learn these symbols by repeated exposure (hearing and seeing them frequently) or being directly taught.

A challenge for teachers is that different types of knowledge require different types of teaching and learning. Just because social-conventional knowledge is most efficiently learned through instruction does not mean that other types of knowledge can be easily acquired this way. Complex concepts such as counting, which is logico-mathematical knowledge, require much deeper understanding than simply reciting the number names. At the same time, children can’t learn to count if they don’t know the number sequence, just as they can’t learn to read if they don’t know the alphabet. Therefore, in constructing their understanding of concepts, children often draw on all three kinds of knowledge.

Cognition and Biology: Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget be- lieved that biology plays a key role in cognitive development, with specific cognitive abilities changing in significant ways as children get older. His theory identifies four stages of cognition, as listed in Table 4.2. Piaget theorized that although the ages were approximate, the order of the stages is fixed and that every child goes through each stage.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2) During the years from birth to about age 2, children learn about the world through a combination of their sensory abilities—sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell—and their motor skills. Newborn and young infants rely on reflexes such as sucking and grasping to build schemes. When baby Sonia grasps her rattle and brings it to her mouth, she finds out lots of things about the rattle—it makes a noise she likes, and it feels hard and cold. Another characteristic of the sensorimotor pe- riod is that babies lack object permanence, which means that when an object is no longer in their sight, it ceases to exist for them. For example, if Mommy hides the favorite rattle under a blanket, Sonia won’t look for it. Then when the blanket is removed, Sonia will inevitably be surprised to find the rattle there.

physical knowledge Under- standing how objects move and function in space and how the physical world works.

logico-mathematical knowledge The relationships that are constructed in our minds between objects or concepts.

social-conventional knowledge The culturally agreed-on names and symbols that need to be transmitted to the learner directly.

object permanence A concept that babies lack early in the period of sensorimotor develop- ment, so that when an object is no longer in their sight, it ceases to exist for them.

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As children get older and are able to move on their own, crawling and toddling, they use more conscious movements to find out how things work. But their learning occurs through their actions; they don’t yet think or plan in advance. Consider 18-month-old Ronde, who stacks his blocks in front of the cabinet door. When he opens the door, the blocks fall over, much to his surprise and dismay. Nevertheless, Ronde keeps stacking and knocking over the blocks, not realizing that if he moved the toys before opening the door, they wouldn’t fall down.

Very young children also tend to see everything from their own point of view, what Piaget called egocentrism. Their experiences, such as shaking the rattle or making milk flow by sucking, convince them that they are the center of their world and can cause events to happen.

By about age 2, young children begin to be able to use symbols such as words, in- stead of relying on actions and objects to learn about the world, and they move into Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development—preoperational.

Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7) Several major cognitive developments occur dur- ing this stage. First, children’s language development explodes, which provides symbols that enable children to think (that is, hold a mental representation) of an object or event. Ronde can now picture the door knocking down his blocks and, therefore, thinks ahead to building in a safer place. As a result of this new thinking ability, children are less depen- dent on sensorimotor learning, although active learning is still most effective.

Piaget did many classic experiments with preoperational children, trying to gauge their ability to solve various prearranged tasks. What he concluded from these studies is that preoperational children rely on their perceptions or intuitions about solutions rather than on logic. For example, at snack time, 4-year-olds Isela and Ruth each have one graham cracker. Isela breaks hers into four pieces and tells Ruth, “Look! I have more crackers than you do!” Nothing her teacher says will convince Ruth that they have the same amount. Ruth is not content until the teacher resignedly breaks her cracker into four pieces as well.

From his observations, Piaget concluded that there are several specific limitations to the thinking of preoperational children. Ruth and Isela’s situation demonstrates that they were unable to conserve quantity. Conservation is the concept that the quantity of objects or liquids does not change just because their physical appearance is transformed. If Ruth had a tall glass of milk and her teacher poured the milk into a short fat one, no doubt she would think that she had less milk and feel cheated once more. Ruth is unable to reverse the operation of pouring the milk in her mind and figure out that the amount has not changed. The same phenomenon—judging by appearances rather than logic—is observed when preschool children are presented with two equal rows of checkers. After one row is spread out and appears longer, even though no checkers have been added or removed, preoperational children will assume that the spread-out row has more checkers.

egocentrism The process whereby very young children tend to see everything from their own intellectual and emo- tional point of view.

conservation The understand- ing that the quantity of objects stays the same regardless of changes in appearance.

Stage Approximate Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Learns through senses and physical movement, gradually moving from reflexes to conscious activity.

Preoperational 2 to 7 years Develops ability to learn through symbols—language and mental representations of thoughts; thinking is controlled more by perceptions than logic.

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Able to think and solve problems more logically, through concrete experience; abstract thinking is limited.

Formal operational 11 years to adulthood Can think and solve problems abstractly, using symbolic thought and systematic experimentation.

Source: Based on Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 11th edition, by R. Slavin, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

TAble 4.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

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Preoperational children also continue to be egocentric—interpreting the world from their own point of view, though less so over time. During a visit to the Gettysburg battle- field, 3-year-old Ryan declares to his Nana, “I was too little to fight in the battle. I had to stay in the van.”

Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11) During the elementary school years, children’s thinking becomes more logical, and they are able to solve problems mentally and reverse operations. They are no longer fooled by a conservation problem. Children are capable of carrying out mental actions. Piaget used the word concrete to refer to this stage of cognition because this age group is not yet capable of thinking about and fully comprehending complex, abstract concepts such as historical time or death. Instead, they are most successful at solving problems they can directly experience. Piaget be- lieved that abstract reasoning is not possible until the stage of formal observations in adolescence and adulthood, and that some people never reach this stage of cognitive development.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory Piaget’s theory was first widely disseminated in the United States in the 1970s and had a major impact on views of how children learn and appropriate ways to teach. Parents, toy manufacturers, and publishers were also in- fluenced by Piaget’s ideas about the competence of children, leading to an explosion in educational products for babies.

Piaget’s stage theory emphasized the limitations of children’s thinking at each stage, leading some educators to focus more on what children were not able to do rather than on their developing competencies. Preschool classrooms provided an interesting environ- ment for children to “discover,” with little interaction with adults to support expanding children’s thinking. And most educators assumed that mathematics and literacy, which are based on understanding symbols, were too abstract for preoperational children and, therefore, not taught until children were older.

In recent decades, researchers and educators have challenged some of the funda- mental tenets of Piagetian theory. Researchers have found that Piaget overestimated the role of biologically based stages and discovery in children’s development and underes- timated the role of the environment and teaching. For example, researchers have found that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities to think in more complex ways (Case & Okamoto, 1996; Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Baillargeon, 1983; Mix, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 2002). Using carefully designed experiments, researchers have found that infants have object permanence much younger than Piaget theorized. With support, chil- dren can begin to understand the perspectives of other people at a much younger age than Piaget assumed. In addition, the inability to conserve quantity does not interfere with some preschool children’s learning basic mathematics concepts, as Piaget assumed (Clements & Sarama, 2009).

Researchers today agree that a major, though gradual, transformation occurs in chil- dren’s cognitive abilities around kindergarten age, known as the 5- to 7-year shift (Berk, 2006; Sameroff & McDonough, 1994). Children don’t pass through sharply drawn stages; rather, their brain development and experiences contribute to their expanded memory and more logical reasoning (Bauer, 2009; Ornstein, Coffman, & Grammer, 2009).

Contributions of Piagetian Theory to Practice Despite the criticisms of Piagetian theory, the contributions of his work are enormous. Visit any good-quality early childhood program and you will see evidence of these contributions. Children are actively engaged in learning—not sitting still and listening to a teacher talk most of the time. There are concrete learning materials, and children have time to use them on their own. The environment itself is designed to promote learning. While Piaget underestimated in- fant and toddler understanding, he was the first to suggest—correctly—that infants have an active intellectual life. Knowledge of the sensorimotor state of development literally launched the industry of toys and equipment for babies—mobiles over cribs, noise-making toys that babies control, and board books.

5- to 7-year shift Major transi- tion in cognitive abilities that gradually occurs between 5 and 7 years of age, resulting in increased ability to think logi- cally, self-regulate, and solve problems.

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Piaget changed the way we view young children and how they learn. Piaget believed that children developed understanding by interacting with objects and people in the environment. He relied on observing and interview- ing to understand what children thought. However, he overestimated the role of exploration and discovery in children’s cognitive development and un- derestimated the important role of the teacher. Piaget also thought cognitive development was essentially the same across cultures. Lev Vygotsky, a Rus- sian psychologist, studied Piaget’s theory and expanded our understanding of children’s development in important ways.

Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was born in Russia the same year as Piaget. Al- though he died young, he was a prolific writer, and after his death his theories were further developed and disseminated by his students. Because his work was not translated into English until 1962, it was unknown in the West until long after his death. The Stalinist regime also suppressed his work in his native country.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on his belief that children learn from social interaction within a cultural context. He emphasized that what children learn is determined by the culture in which they grow up, such as an urban child learning to negotiate dangerous street crossings, or a rural child learning to milk a cow. In recent years, Vygotsky’s views on learning and teaching have become more influential than Piaget’s, although the theories are actually complementary (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Vygotsky’s Theory of How Development Occurs Among developmental theorists, Vygotsky provided the greatest amount of guidance for educators (Stetsenko & Vianna, 2009). He viewed development as a continuous process driven by learning. At particular ages, the primary learning task differs. Babies learn through their senses and by manipulating objects (similar to Piaget’s view). Relationships with adults, who talk and play with babies and often use objects when doing so, drive learning during the first 2 years of life.

From ages 2 to 5, children’s development is dominated by their perceptions and re- actions. They pay attention to what is interesting and meaningful to them, rather than to what adults prefer. They act and react without prior thinking or reflecting on past actions. For example, when Ms. Broyles says, “It’s time to go outside, so put away your toys and get your coats,” most 3- and 4-year-olds will run to the door. Much to Ms. Broyles’s dis- may, they still have this reaction after weeks of school. Vygotsky believed that a major goal of preschool is to help children move from such reactive thinking to the ability to think before they act (Bodrova & Leong, 2012b).

During the preschool years, children need to acquire cognitive and social-emotional competencies that shape their minds for all further learning—language, memory, focused attention, and self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012b). If these important foundations are in place, in the primary grades children acquire the ability to “learn on demand,” as Vygotsky called it. They are more likely to cooperate with the school’s agenda—learn- ing to read, calculate, and follow group rules—even when they would rather be doing something else.

According to Vygotsky, cognitive development involves the zone of proximal de- velopment, scaffolding, social construction of knowledge, language and other symbol systems, self-regulation, and play. These concepts, discussed in the sections that follow, have important implications for practice.

Zone of Proximal Development Twenty-month-old Ave is trying desperately to get on the pony riding toy. Her teacher, Khari, observes that she is about to cry in frustra- tion. He could pick her up and put her on it, but instead he gently lifts her leg so that she

sociocultural theory Vygotsky’s theory that children learn from social interaction within a cultural context.

Classroom Connection See constructivism in action in this primary school classroom. Observe how the teacher supports children as they construct their own knowledge. He asks questions and encourages experimentation. How do you think questioning supports children’s scientific understanding better than just telling them the information?

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gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet and makes a circle around the room.

By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro- vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching in the “Zone.”

Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers, which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (her independent level of problem solving) and the level of po- tential development she could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children.

scaffolding The assistance, guidance, and direction teach- ers provide children to help them accomplish a task or learn a skill (within their ZPD) that they could not achieve on their own.

co-construction Children learning by solving prob- lems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers; also called social construction of knowledge.

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Teaching in the “Zone” Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are working on the basic mathematical number operations— adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin- gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug- gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach to support his understanding and application of subtraction:

1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ- ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains! During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping and counting, using short word problems and number cards.

2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro- duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, according to the list, and return (subtract) things they no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel purchases and returns items for his building project, I support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math for his project.

3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together

to solve the problem, ex- plaining each of their steps.

After about two weeks of this more intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his adding and subtracting.

Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach- er, I know that understanding and applying these founda- tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil- dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that children learn best in the context of supportive relation- ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in- tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing each child’s level of independent performance on a skill, (2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help) performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al- low a child to practice in their supported level, until the child can do the skill independently. I then set the next higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.

Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as- sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have information on how to support the child’s progress. But by assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres- sive development and learning.

Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal Development?

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Seven-year-olds Lucrezia and Gloria are drawing a map of their school. Lucrezia is working on the classrooms and Gloria is drawing the entrance area, lunchroom, and offices. They have the following exchange:

Lucrezia: You are making them too big. There won’t be room for my part. Gloria: Well, they are bigger. See all the stuff we have to put in. Lucrezia: But the lunchroom is the biggest. How can we make this work?

Each girl has a different perspective on the problem. As they continue to work on it, they try different solutions, none of them satisfactory to both. Finally, they determine the following:

Gloria: We need to figure out how to measure the rooms. Lucrezia: My brother showed me on the GPS that one inch means one mile. We need to figure out something like that.

They then proceed to address the new problems of finding a way to measure the school and creating a scale for their map.

In this example, peers work collaboratively to construct understanding. They chal- lenge each other’s ideas and alter their perspectives as a result. Lucrezia, the more accom- plished peer, introduces some cultural knowledge—what she has learned about a GPS. In other situations, the teacher plays the role of provocateur, challenging the children’s thinking and thus, promoting their learning.

Language and Thought Because Vygotsky (1962) believed that learning depends on interaction with other people, he also believed that speech is the most important tool for learning. Babies begin by communicating through gestures, as when they learn that holding up their arms means “pick me up.” Then they connect sounds and words with their meanings; saying “Da Da” gets a different result from saying “Ma Ma.” Language growth during the preschool years enables children to learn through conversation. Speech gradually becomes internalized and used for thinking.

Think of a situation, such as learning a psychology concept or solving a mathemat- ics problem, which you didn’t really understand until you talked about it with some- one else or at least stated your ideas out loud. According to Vygotsky, articulating an idea is necessary for real understanding. He described the relationship between language and thought as moving from interpersonal (between people) to intrapersonal (inside the child). Learning begins in conversation between people and then becomes part of an in- dividual’s thinking.

Interpersonal understanding or socially constructed knowledge is turned into intrap- ersonal knowledge through private speech (Vygotsky, 1962). For preschool children, private speech can look like thinking out loud. As 3½-year-old Ivor stands in front of the easel contemplating the next color to use, thick paint starts running down the paper. Ivor says, “Whoa, don’t do that. I’m gonna get you with my brush,” and proceeds to do so. By age 6 or 7, private speech becomes silent and is used for thinking and problem solving.

To summarize, children first use language for conversation. Then, through the vehicle of private speech, they literally use language to talk to themselves and to control their own behavior—that is, for self-regulation (Bailey & Brookes, 2012).

Self-Regulation Vygotsky considered the development of self-regulation the pri- mary task of the years before formal school entry. Self-regulation is the ability to adapt or control behavior, emotions, and thinking according to the demands of the situation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012b). Preschool children’s self-regulation ability, more so than their intelligence or family background, predicts their academic success in the early grades (Blair & Razza, 2007; McClelland, Acock, & Morrison, 2006). By contrast, early problems in self-regulation are strongly related to later problems in school and life (Calkins & Williford, 2009). Teachers or parents may understand self-regulation as “the

private speech The process whereby interpersonal under- standing or socially constructed knowledge is turned into intrapersonal knowledge (think- ing aloud becomes thinking to oneself).

self-regulation The ability to adapt or control behavior, emo- tions, and thinking according to the demands of the situation.

gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet and makes a circle around the room.

By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro- vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching in the “Zone.”

Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers, which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The distance between the actual developmental level an individual has achieved (her independent level of problem solving) and the level of po- tential development she could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children.

scaffolding The assistance, guidance, and direction teach- ers provide children to help them accomplish a task or learn a skill (within their ZPD) that they could not achieve on their own.

co-construction Children learning by solving prob- lems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers; also called social construction of knowledge.

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capacity to control one’s impulses both to stop doing something that is unnecessary (even if one wants to continue doing it), and to start doing something that is needed (even if one does not want to do it)” (Boyd, Barnett, Bodrova, Leong, & Gomby, 2005, p. 4). This is why self-regulation is so strongly related to success. Every day preschool teachers require children to stop playing (which they usually want to continue) and start cleaning up (which they don’t want to do). Similarly, children in primary grades must attend to the reading lesson when they would rather go outside for recess.

The activities of the prefrontal cortex region of the brain that allow us to self- regulate—to manage our emotions, focus and shift attention, and regulate behavior to meet our goals—are known as executive functions (EF) (Jones & Bailey, 2014; Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). They are some of the most important skills for learning and development (Galinsky, 2010; Gilpin, Boxmeyer, DeCaro, & Lochman, 2014). Children who have ADHD typically have developmental delays in their executive functions. They are often impulsive, and have trouble paying attention. They also may have difficulty with working memory, the brain ability that allows us to remember infor- mation in the short term and use the information to understand and solve problems. While some children are identified with ADHD in preschool, children are typically diagnosed in early elementary school, when the demands of formal schooling highlight children’s EF skills of attention and regulation.

Teachers can support EF in development of children with ADHD in several ways (Murphy, 2014). To help children focus better, teachers can break instructions and tasks

into structured pieces, give individualized instructions, and check for un- derstanding of instructions. Teachers can help children regulate their own behavior by providing positive reinforcement for positive behavior, and by avoiding negative feedback, which can lead to poor self-image in children with ADHD. Many children with ADHD take medication to help them attend and regulate in the school setting; however, research suggests that the sup- ports families and teachers can provide may help as much as medication in helping children experience school success.

Children with ADHD benefit from an environment that allows for play and exercise. Recent research has examined the role of physical activ- ity in children’s attention and EF. Physical exercise enhances sustained

executive function The ability to control emotions, focus attention, plan and think ahead, and monitor cognitive processes.

Effective teachers draw on all the relevant theories to support children’s learning progress. What strategies do you think this teacher is using to help this young girl accomplish a new skill?

Classroom Connection In this video, learn more about how executive function develops, why it is important, and how adults can support its develop- ment in early childhood.

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attention in preschoolers (Palmer, Miller, & Robinson, 2013) and EF in elementary school children with ADHD (Gapin & Etnier, 2010). In the feature Promoting Play: Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum, you can learn how one teacher integrates playful movement to support all the children in her classroom, including children with ADHD.

Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum Tamara has 22 children in her combined kindergarten-first grade class. She enjoys their energy and enthusiasm, but has noticed that several children have been struggling with main- taining attention during math and literacy work blocks. A few children have even started to act silly when they are supposed to be working. Two of the children who struggle with attention, Mabel and Nassim, have diagnoses of ADHD. Tamara knows that they are intelligent, but sees that they are falling into patterns of not finishing their work. Mabel is acting a bit anxious, possibly in response to frequent redirection and reminders. Nassim’s disruptive behavior is escalating during large group activities, and he is wandering during center time and teasing his classmates. Tamara consults with her co-teacher and the school resource teach- er, and together they come up with a plan that will support Mabel, Nassim, and all of the children in the class.

Before implementing any changes in the class- room, Tamara, her co-teacher, and the resource teacher take turns observing the children during the course of classroom routines and activities. They notice that children are more attentive after morn- ing recess, lunchtime recess, and physical educa- tion. Conversely, they notice that before recess and lunch, the children have the most difficulty attending, following directions, and working inde- pendently. Although Tamara and colleagues cannot add more recess time to the children’s day, they decide to: (1) introduce physical activities into large group time, (2) shift activities in the daily schedule, (3) introduce an exercise area at center time, and (4) adjust learning environments for children who need more activity.

First, Tamara shifts the most demanding aspects of the daily schedule. She starts the day with a large group activity that ends in a “dance time”—the children pick the music and they spread out across the room—and dance playfully. Children may move as they wish or follow a leader. Literacy block fol- lows, and Tamara ensures that Mabel and Nassim complete their most demanding tasks at the begin- ning of the literacy block. Tamara schedules other demanding lessons such as math and science after morning and lunch recess.

Next, Tamara and her co-teacher arrange for a move- ment center, and choose animals for the first theme. Using cue cards and a flip-video camera, children in the center tape each other moving like animals. The teachers plan themes for future movement centers, including yoga, calisthenics, and dance party. They discuss how to introduce rules for this center and monitor for safety, and include the children in think- ing of fun ways to move in the center.

Finally, Tamara makes accommodations for Mabel and Nassim, observing any other children who might benefit. Because she knows that children with ADHD often benefit from being able to move while learning, Tamara arranges for Mabel and Nassim to stand while doing work, if they choose. She provides “fidget toys” for them to hold during large group time, and identifies special classroom jobs for them to move and help during the day.

Tamara knows that she can’t let children play all day, but by thinking about playful movement and exercise in her daily routines and curriculum, Ta- mara and her co-teacher witness dramatic increases in engagement and attention for Mabel, Nassim, and the entire class.

Promoting Play

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Play and Vygotsky’s Theory According to Vygotsky (1978), make-believe play is the leading activity in children’s development from about ages 2 through 5. Play creates a zone of proximal development in which a child behaves “as though he were a head taller than himself” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102). When children pretend to be adults—parents, teachers, or workers, as they often do—they use more sophisticated language than usual and model grown-up behavior.

Pretend play in small groups is especially valuable for promoting self- regulation because it is the one activity that requires children to regulate their own behavior, be regulated by others, and regulate others all within the same context (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Boyd et al., 2005). Picture 5-year-olds playing restaurant. Each child, whether playing customer, waiter, or cook, has an assigned role and must stick to the script. The customer can’t say, “Can I take your order?” That’s the waiter’s role. If the customer begins serv- ing the food, the play breaks down. The waiter says, “You can’t do that. You have to sit down, look at the menu, and eat.” The rules have to be renegoti- ated. The customer may say, “Okay, but I get to be the waiter next.” So we see that the customer has to regulate herself (stay in her role and follow the rules), be regulated by others (the waiter), and regulate others (place her or- der so the waiter can do his job).

As is evident in the foregoing example, sociodramatic play promotes children’s ability to take another person’s perspective (Vygotsky, 1977). Assuming a pretend role—being another person for a while—helps chil- dren move to another perspective and then back to their own. This ability to take another’s perspective—to go beyond egocentrism—is necessary in school where children need to see the perspectives of teachers and other children.

Elena Bodrova, who studied with Vygotsky’s students, and her colleague Deborah Leong developed a Vygotskian curriculum model, Tools of the Mind (Bodrova & Leong, 2007, 2012b). The model focuses on teachers building self-regulation in children through mature sociodramatic play.

Implications for Practice Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory has many implica- tions for early childhood practice. Teaching in the zone of proximal development requires that children experience a challenging curriculum—not content that is meant for older children, but content that moves them ahead in thinking and problem solving.

Similarly, the role of the teacher becomes more important than ever, not as controller of the classroom, but as a collaborator with children. Teachers need to scaffold children’s learning and set up situations where groups of children work together to solve problems and have the freedom to think out loud. During preschool and kindergarten, teachers need to intentionally support mature sociodramatic play to promote self-regulation, a topic we will return to later in this chapter.

Major contributions of Vygotsky’s theory were his emphasis on (1) the role of adults in children’s development, and (2) the transmission of cultural understandings as a part of children’s development. We’ll next consider a model that expands theory to a systems level, in which children develop in the context of many environments and interactions over time.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development One of the most useful theories for understanding the interactive influence of social and cultural contexts on human development is the ecological systems model proposed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Figure 4.2 illustrates Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2004), which describes the diverse, interactive contexts that influence children’s development over time.

ecological systems theory Bronfenbrenner’s theory that describes the diverse, interac- tive contexts that influence children’s development over time.

Classroom Connection Observe these two instances of sociodramatic play in a preschool classroom. What are some things you notice about the children’s play? How might the different theorists view the learning and development supported in the context of the children’s dramatic and block play?

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At the center of the model is the individual whose development is influenced by their own biological factors, social interaction, and experiences in a variety of contexts. The environments, or systems, surrounding an individual from birth and beyond plays signifi- cant interactive roles in a child’s development. The systems in which the child directly participates on a regular basis are known as microsystems, and include the family, child care, school, and faith-based settings. The child’s daily interactions, which Bronfen- brenner called proximal processes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) have the most im- pact on a child’s development, due to their frequent, ongoing nature, often over extended periods of time. Thought of as “drivers” of development, proximal processes include the physical care children receive, daily conversations with parents and teachers, and play- ground interactions with peers.

The next level of system that impacts a child’s life is the mesosystem, which refers to the interaction of different microsystems in a child’s life. Parent-teacher interactions, in- cluding conferences, phone calls, home visits, and back-to-school nights are examples of a mesosystem—where the child’s microsystems of home and school come together—and interact and influence each other. Bronfenbrenner believed that the strength of these me- sosystems—the degree to which the systems worked together—is important for support- ing the child’s positive development.

The exosystem consists of systems that affect the child’s microsystems, but in which the child doesn’t directly participate. This includes parents’ employment, child care

microsystem System in which the child directly participates on a regular basis and include the family, child care, school and faith-based settings.

proximal processes Interac- tions in the context of daily liv- ing that have the most impact on a child’s development, due to their frequent, ongoing nature, often over extended periods of time.

mesosystem Interaction of different microsystems in a child’s life.

FIGURE 4.2 Model of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Source: McDevitt, Teresa M., Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis, Child Development and Education, 5th Ed., © 2013. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ

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regulations, religious traditions, and school board decisions. When a teacher experiences stress in her home life, she may carry that stress into the classroom, impacting the quality of her relationships with students and the impact of her teaching. On the other hand, a teacher whose school board institutes policies that support good working conditions may be more likely to interact positively with children and provide effective instruction. An exosystem can include economic, media, education, health, legal, and political entities that directly effect a person or circumstance in the child’s microsystem.

The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the macrosystem, which refers to the overarching cultural context of the values, beliefs, laws, and policies of a society. American society, for example, is strongly influenced not only by values of freedom and individual rights and responsibilities, but also by the value of collective responsibility for its neediest members. As a result, our institutions and social policies reflect these values, such as laws regarding provision of public assistance for families living in poverty. While it may not seem that macrosystems effect a child’s daily life, they can exert a powerful influence over time. Bronfenbrenner uses the term chronosystem to refer to effects of circumstances over time. According to Bronfenbrenner, children who experience home- lessness for a short period of time will likely suffer fewer negative outcomes than a child who is homeless for their entire childhood.

Bronfenbrenner’s theory has helped educators and child development researchers re- alize the importance of considering the multiple, complex systems that impact children’s development. Bronfenbrenner believed that society needs to attend carefully to support- ing children by supporting all of the systems needed for a child to develop. Especially committed to supporting children and families who live in poverty, Bronfenbrenner was one of the key conceptual founders of the Head Start program. The comprehensive ser- vices (education, health, and family engagement) that are the hallmark of Head Start can be attributed, in part, to the influence of Bronfenbrenner’s thinking.

In the previous sections we described the developmental theories of Erikson, Maslow, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s work, as well as that of Maslow, pro- vides insights into children’s social and personality development and their motivation. The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky cast considerable light on the processes of cogni- tive development and have much to teach teachers. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory attempts to connect children’s social and cognitive development with the many influential systems that are involved in children’s development. In the next section, we turn to descriptions of the most influential theories of learning.

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.3: Child Development Theories

Learning Theories In contrast to developmental theories, which are linked to age-related changes in chil- dren, learning theories are assumed to apply in the same way regardless of the age of the learner. In the following sections, we describe the work of two major learning theorists: B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura. (Another learning theory is Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory, which we discuss in the chapter on individual differences.)

B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism One of the most influential learning theories of the last half century is behaviorism or behavioral learning. According to this theory, learning is reflected in changes in behav- ior that are controlled by the consequences, either positive or negative, that follow the behavior. Using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control behavior is called operant conditioning.

Psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1980) developed the theory of operant condi- tioning through systematic experiments. Skinner discovered that he could train rats to press a lever by rewarding them with food. From experiments with animals and people,

macrosystem System that in- cludes the overarching cultural context of the values, beliefs, laws, and policies of a society

chronosystem System that refers to effects of circum- stances over time.

behaviorism or behavioral learning Theory that learning is a change in behavior that is controlled by the consequenc- es, either positive or negative, that follow the behavior.

operant conditioning The process of using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control behavior.

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Skinner developed the core principles of operant conditioning, an example of which follows:

During center time in her prekindergarten, teacher Nessa Stokes observes as Jemma struggles to print her name next to her artwork. As Jemma tires and looks as though she will give up, Nessa says, “You’ve almost got it, Jemma, J-E-M—two more letters and you will have written your name!” Jemma smiles proudly and continues her task. Nessa is reassured that her encouraging praise will keep Jemma working on a task that is difficult.

Nessa also understands how technology can provide reinforcement to keep chil- dren motivated on difficult learning tasks. In the Tech Center, three children gather around a math game on the computer that has the boys distinguishing “more” and “less” in groups of dinosaurs. “More!” shouts Jessica, and Brian presses the button that indicates there are more dinosaurs in the new array than the previous. With the correct answer button pressed, the dinosaurs break out into a dance on the screen, leav- ing the children laughing. “Let’s try the next one—a harder one” says Azim. “They get even funnier with harder ones.” Nessa smiles, as in this activity she witnesses children cooperating, learning important math concepts, and getting positively reinforced for practicing their skills and also doing progressively more difficult math problems.

Although Nessa’s actions in this brief scenario may seem relatively simple, she is in fact implementing several key principles of operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning The most important principle of operant conditioning is that behavior changes as a result of its immediate consequences. Positive consequences strengthen the frequency of specific behaviors; unpleasant consequences decrease the frequency. Reinforcers are consequences that increase or strengthen behaviors. There are two kinds of reinforcers: positive and negative.

Positive reinforcement is a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a behav- ior, causing that behavior to be repeated. In the previous example, Nessa reinforced or rewarded Jemma’s writing efforts with a smile and positive words of encouragement. As a result, Jemma kept working at a difficult task. While Jessica, Brian, and Azim were sufficiently reinforced by the dancing dinosaur math game, she knows to monitor their engagement in the activity to keep the learning and interactions positive and productive.

Negative reinforcement also increases the frequency of a desired behavior, but in a different way. A negative reinforcer is an unpleasant consequence that is avoided if the person performs a behavior more frequently. For example, an annoying bell or buzzer—a negative reinforcer—signals when the seat belt is still unfastened after a car is started. To avoid the sound, most people fasten the seat belt as soon as they can. If Nessa had observed the children arguing over the computer game, she may have pointed out that they would lose computer time if they did not find a way to cooperate. Azim may have responded, “Let’s take turns pressing the button, Brian.” In this circumstance, negative reinforcement would have changed the children’s behavior in positive ways.

Negative reinforcement is sometimes confused with, but is not the same thing as, punishment. Punishment is an unpleasant consequence that stops or decreases the frequency of a behavior. Many people, teachers as well as parents, think punishments are effective in changing behavior and use them often. However, the problem with punish- ment is that it may temporarily stop an undesirable behavior, but it does not teach the child what to do instead. As a result, repeated punishment soon becomes ineffective in changing behavior. For example, in Tiffany’s first-grade classroom, when children misbe- have they get a red card and their name goes on the board, while those who behave well get a green card. But day after day, the same children get the red card. Receiving the card—a punishment—does not improve their behavior.

Teachers need to understand that punishment only decreases an undesirable behavior temporarily. To increase a desired behavior, reinforcement is needed. In fact, in some cases, punishment actually serves as a negative reinforcer and increases the behavior. Consider the situation where a first-grade teacher decides to punish a disruptive child by

punishment An unpleasant consequence that stops or decreases the frequency of a behavior.

consequences Principle of operant conditioning that behavior changes as a result of what occurs immediately afterward.

reinforcer Consequence— either positive or negative— that increases or strengthens a behavior.

positive reinforcement A reward or pleasant consequence that follows a behavior, causing that behavior to be repeated.

negative reinforcement An unpleasant consequence that is avoided if the person per- forms a desired behavior more frequently.

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making him miss recess. If the child wants to avoid recess because he doesn’t get chosen for a team or is bullied, then removing him from recess is not a punishment but a reward and, thus, will have the opposite effect from the one the teacher intended. When reinforc- ers are removed, the conditioned behavior diminishes and eventually disappears, a pro- cess called extinction.

What to Reinforce: Shaping Behavior Most human behavior is complex, much more so than that of the hungry rats Skinner studied. Children learn to take turns, follow classroom rules, or ride a bike over time and after many tries, some successful and others not. It would be impossible to wait to reinforce a highly complex behavior until a child performed it well. What if a kindergarten teacher only reinforced a child’s writing when the letters were formed perfectly on the line? Many children would give up. Instead, an effective teacher recognizes the child’s attempts, each step on the way to mastering writing the letters correctly. Teaching a new skill or behavior by rewarding each step to- ward the goal is called shaping.

Shaping requires the teacher to carefully observe the successive approximations— not the actual desired behaviors, but each approximate behavior that is closer to the goal. For example, when 3-year-old Lola’s scribbles begin to look like (approximate) a circle or straight line, her family child care provider Titia says, “Oh, look, Lola, you made an O like in your name.” Lola didn’t intend to draw an O, but it is likely that Ti- tia’s praise will result in Lola producing pages of O’s to get more of Titia’s positive attention.

Implications of Behaviorism for Practice Research supports the effective- ness of principles of behaviorism, especially for children with special needs (Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children, 2014). Some disabilities, such as cerebral palsy or Down syndrome, affect children’s ability to perform functional behaviors (e.g., eating or dressing) that typically developing children learn relatively easily through imitation and repetition. Children with autism benefit from behavioral techniques to support learning social communication skills (Wong et al., 2014). In these situations, using behavioral learning techniques can be effective, as Yvonne learned in the opening vignette of this chapter. For another example of the application of behavioral principles,

extinction The process whereby a conditioned behavior diminishes and eventually disappears when reinforcers are removed.

shaping Teaching a new skill or behavior by rewarding each step or successive approxima- tion toward the goal.

successive approximations Behaviors that are reinforced (shaped) that are not the actual desired behaviors, but each approximate behavior that is closer to the goal.

When teachers use positive reinforcement such as smiling or commenting on what a child is doing well, children are more likely to continue to stay engaged in learning.

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read the feature Including All Children: Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Children with Disabilities.

Behaviorism is a learning theory, not a theory of development. Therefore, the prin- ciples apply regardless of the age of the learner. However, as the name implies, the ef- fectiveness of behaviorism is limited to teaching or changing observable behaviors. Even with this limitation, the important thing to remember is that behaviorism can be highly effective. At times, the wrong behaviors get reinforced, such as when an aggressive child gets what he wants by bullying.

Behaviorism, as epitomized by Skinner’s work, is often pitted against developmental theories and teaching approaches. This is usually because behaviorism is connected to spe- cific instructional practices, such as when teachers tell children facts and reward their correct answers. Another strong criticism of behaviorism is that overreliance on external rewards un- dermines children’s internal motivation (Kohn, 2014; Reineke, Sonsteng, & Gartrell, 2008).

Including All Children Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Children with Disabilities Children with disabilities may have difficulty making friends and being accepted by other children in the group. Peer rejection is harmful for every child, but es- pecially painful for children with disabilities, who face multiple developmental challenges. And many parents of children with disabilities want most of all for their children to have friends and be treated like their typi- cally developing peers. To achieve these goals, chil- dren with special needs often need adults—teachers and parents—to intervene, as the following example illustrates.

Tommy is a 5-year-old child with Down syndrome. He has attended preschool for the past 2 years and is now in kindergarten. Tommy’s social relation- ships with the other children have been generally positive, especially with several children from his preschool. Recently, however, both Tommy’s par- ents and teachers have noticed that other class- mates have begun to tease him, and former play- mates are less interested in including him in their play unless he takes on the role of the baby. In fact, one playmate says, “Tommy still wets his pants, so he has to be the baby.”

Tommy’s teacher, Ms. Wasky, was trained in early childhood education and has little experi- ence in or knowledge about special education. She strives to provide interesting learning experiences that keep children engaged. She believes strongly in activating children’s intrinsic motivation to learn rather than using external reinforcements like stickers or happy faces. She talks with the children and encourages them to include Tommy. Under Ms. Wasky’s supervision, a few children grudgingly let Tommy join them, but then they ignore him. She is concerned that Tommy’s social development is regressing.

Ms. Wasky and Tommy’s parents discuss ways to help him become more accepted by his peers.

The parents and teacher believe that Tommy is physically capable of self-toileting and, in fact, the pediatrician agrees. All adults involved want to al- low Tommy to achieve this important developmen- tal task on his own terms rather than rely too heav- ily on external reinforcement.

The dilemma they confront is weighing the risk of waiting longer while Tommy continues to be rejected by his peers against the risk of Tommy possibly becoming dependent on extrinsic rein- forcement. Their growing concern about the social costs of peer rejection or infantilization of Tommy leads them to decide on a behavioral intervention. Tommy’s teacher and parents, in consultation with the special education team members, decide to initiate a behavioral intervention that uses operant conditioning. They begin with concrete reinforc- ers for appropriate toileting behavior (in this case, stickers that Tommy selected). Eventually the rein- forcement shifts to tokens that Tommy can trade for extra time on the computer or other experiences he especially likes.

As a result of this intervention, Tommy becomes more aware of and gradually learns to anticipate and re- spond appropriately to his toileting needs. As a result of this explicit teaching strategy, Tommy not only ex- periences the intrinsic satisfaction of controlling his own toileting practices, but this functional achieve- ment also significantly contributes to an improvement in his social status in the classroom. No longer is he relegated to the role of the baby on every occasion.

Source: Adapted from “Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Early Childhood Teacher as Decision-Maker,” by S. Bredekamp, 1997, p. 48, in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs, revised edition, edited by S. Bredekamp and C. Copple, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

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For example, paying children to read books may make them less motivated to read on their own when the payment isn’t available.

But effective teaching is not an either/or choice between constructivism and behav- iorism. These theories each apply best to different phenomena. Behaviorism may work to change observable behaviors, but it does not explain, nor is it effective in influencing the less visible but essential processes of thinking, concept development, and problem solving. To explain this kind of learning, we must look to the theories of Piaget or Vygotsky, as de- scribed earlier. Building on the work of behaviorists and bridging the gap between behav- iorism and cognitive theory is the work of Albert Bandura, described in the next section.

Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura (born in 1925), social cognitive theory (also called social learning theory) is both a behavioral and cognitive theory and therefore serves as a bridge between those two views of learning. Whereas Skinner’s work emphasized that a person’s behavior needs to be directly reinforced to change, Bandura demonstrated that people can learn more efficiently from observing the consequences of another person’s behavior. This theory has important implications for classroom teaching.

Bandura theorized that observational learning depends on learners having an image in their mind of the behavior they observed and its consequences—a memory of an event captured in pictures and/or words. This theory explains an important way that children learn—they observe and then model the behaviors they observe. Bandura’s emphasis on the importance of a mental image adds a cognitive dimension to the learning theory and separates it from Skinnerian behaviorism.

To test his hypothesis that children would model observed behaviors, Bandura (1973) conducted hundreds of studies. In now famous research, he filmed situations in which an adult or another child were complimented or rewarded for beating up a plastic in- flated clown “Bobo.” Then, given the opportunity, kindergarten children who watched the demonstration not only beat up Bobo but also used the exact motions and expressions, “Sockeroo!”

Modeling and Observational Learning The basic principles of social cogni- tive theory are (1) children learn by modeling—that is, imitating the behavior of

social cognitive theory Bandura’s theory that people can learn efficiently from observing the consequences of another person’s behavior.

modeling Teacher showing children a skill or desirable way of behaving or speaking; also children imitating the behavior of others.

According to Bandura, children learn from watching what other children do and the consequences that follow. What do you think the teacher should do if one of the children is hurting other people?

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others—and (2) they can learn vicariously. Vicarious learning is based on observing the effects of other people’s behavior rather than experiencing the rewards or punishments directly. Consider the following example of modeling:

Mr. Evans’s group of 3-year-olds is getting louder and louder as they boisterously encourage each other to jump up and down and scream at the top of their lungs. Wanting to scream himself, Mr. Evans chooses instead to tiptoe around the group, take Bettina by the hand, and whisper softly to follow him. One by one, the children stop their jumping and begin imitating Mr. Evans’s toe walking. Gradually, their voices quiet, in hopes of getting a turn to be the teacher’s partner.

The children in Mr. Evans’s group observed his behavior and saw that Bettina gained his favor by following his lead. According to Bandura (1986), observational learning has four phases:

1. Attention. The first step in observational learning is paying attention. Children pay attention to role models who are interesting, novel, or seemingly powerful. This is why action figures on television garner a lot of children’s attention. Teachers use many fun and interesting ways to get and hold children’s attention, such as talk- ing through a puppet, having them guess what is hidden in a bag, or simply being excited themselves. Mr. Evans surprised the children with the novel behavior of walking on his tiptoes.

2. Retention. During this phase of the process, the teacher models the behavior and gives children a chance to practice it. Mr. Evans’s goal was to get the children to lower their voices, so he modeled whispering and got the children talking softly.

3. Reproduction. The next step is for children to try to reproduce the behavior on their own. Mr. Evans and Bettina step aside from the group and observe as the other children take their turns whispering and tiptoeing.

4. Motivation. Observational learning works because children find that they will be rewarded in some way for imitating the desired behaviors. Such motivation can be based on something that happened in the past or is promised in the future. Or, as in Mr. Evans’s class, the potential reward can be vicarious. Seeing Bettina rewarded with the teacher’s positive attention encouraged the others to follow her lead.

Self-Regulated Learning Bandura’s theory goes even further as a cognitive the- ory in his concept of self-regulated learning. Bandura (1997) postulated that people learn not only by modeling the behavior of others, but also by observing and evaluating their own. Self-regulated learning requires that individuals have internalized standards and that they have the ability to reflect on their own performances and to reward or punish themselves. Bandura’s emphasis on self-regulation is similar to Vygotsky’s. Both theories view self-regulation as essential for cognitive and social-emotional development.

These high-level cognitive abilities are developing in preschoolers but are further along in most primary-grade children. Teachers can promote self-regulated learning by engaging children in setting goals, evaluating their own performances, and celebrating their successes. For example, Ms. Ross’s first-graders do a lot of writing. Periodically she sits down with one child to discuss various pieces of work. The child chooses a few to scan into the computer and preserve in a portfolio. When parents come for a conference, the children talk about why they chose this special piece of work.

Children in the primary grades become capable of setting standards for their own behavior and comparing their performance to that of others. Eight-year-old Melissa is unhappy with herself because she watched TV last night instead of studying, and today she got a failing grade in science.

We have now described the major theories that explain how children develop and learn. Table 4.3 summarizes the theories and their implications for effective teaching. In the following section, we discuss how play contributes to all areas of children’s lives.

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.4: Learning Theories

vicarious learning Learning by observing the effects of other people’s behavior, rather than experiencing rewards or punish- ments directly.

self-regulated learning Bandura’s theory that people not only learn by modeling the behavior of others, but by ob- serving and evaluating their own.

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Theorist and Theory Summation of Theory Implications for Practice

Erik Erikson: Stages of Personal and Social Development

Through a hypothesis of four stages of psychologi- cal and social development in the lives of children, Erikson identifies how children might typically negotiate personal challenges and resolve them dependent on their age and stage of development.

Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role of the socio- cultural context on children’s personal and social lives. Erikson provides useful observations of devel- opmental patterns so teachers can anticipate and respond to children’s needs appropriately.

Abraham Maslow: Self- Actualization Theory

Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs that mo- tivate people’s behavior and their ability to reach a hierarchy of personal goals. Maslow pointed out that if basic needs are not met, it is not possible for people to actualize personal satisfaction and suc- ceed at a higher level of growth and learning.

The foundations for self-actualization of goals are laid early in life. Teachers may need to ensure that basic needs—food, water, shelter, safety, and security—are met to assist in helping children to develop a sense of community and belonging, self- esteem, and respect for others.

Jean Piaget: Cognitive Theory

According to Piaget, children learn by constructing their own understanding based on their direct expe- riences with people and objects. Piaget identified four age-related stages of cognitive development that describe how cognitive abilities change as children get older.

From birth, children are viewed as competent actors in constructing their own understanding. Teach- ers need to provide an enriching environment and hands-on materials for children to explore and investigate. Teachers facilitate children’s engage- ment in projects.

Lev Vygotsky: Socio- cultural Theory

Vygotsky described learning as the result of social interaction within a cultural context. He identi- fied the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental level a child has achieved (their independent level of prob- lem solving) and the level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through collaboration with other children. The support teachers provide children is called scaffolding.

What children learn is determined by the needs of the culture in which they live. Children learn by solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers, which is called co-construction or social construction of knowledge. Teachers use many strategies to scaffold learning— gradually providing less assistance as children become more capable of performing on their own. Play is essential for children’s development of self- regulation.

Urie Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Model

Bronfenbrenner proposed that the child develops in interaction with many environmental systems— some in which the child doesn’t even participate. Family life, parents’ employment, state laws, and national culture all influence how each child de- velops. The most important influences on develop- ment, though, are the proximal processes, or daily routines, that children experience in their microsys- tems of family, school, and community.

Children do best when connections in the mesosys- tem are strong—when family, child care, and school communicate and work collaboratively to support children’s development. The quality of children’s daily experiences, though, is most important for development. Teachers emphasize building strong relationships with children and family members— strengthening the child’s daily experiences in childcare and school, as well as collaborating with the family to help the child develop and learn.

B. F. Skinner: Behaviorism

Skinner developed the theory of operant condition- ing that defines learning as a change in behavior that is controlled by the consequences that follow the behavior. Positive consequences strengthen the frequency of specific behaviors; unpleasant consequences decrease the frequency. Punishment temporarily stops a behavior but does not teach a new one.

Teachers use reinforcement to increase children’s positive behavior and decrease their challeng- ing behavior. They use shaping to teach a new, complex skill or behavior by rewarding each step— successive approximation—toward the desired goal.

Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory

Bridging behaviorism and cognitive theory, Bandura demonstrated that people can learn more efficiently from observing the consequences of another per- son’s behavior rather than having to directly experi- ence them. Children learn by modeling the behavior of others. They also learn vicariously, whether the behavior of other people is rewarded or punished.

Teachers model and demonstrate the kinds of behaviors they want children to perform. They draw children’s attention to other children’s behavior and its positive consequences. Children are motivated to perform behavior that they see rewarded in other people.

TAble 4.3 Comparing Theories of Child Development

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The Role of Play in Development and Learning Psychologists and educators have studied children’s play for a very long time. Despite the large body of research supporting its benefits, however, child-initiated play is becoming less valued and is disappearing from children’s lives today (Alliance for Childhood, 2010; Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk, & Singer, 2009; Zigler & Bishop-Josef, 2004). Many fac- tors conspire against play: television and digital media, lack of safe playgrounds, overem- phasis on direct teaching of literacy and mathematics, and highly structured activities or lessons such as sports or ballet (Elkind, 2008; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009).

Early childhood educators deeply value play. But to use play effectively in teaching children, and to advocate for its value, it is important to be clear about what types of play matter and why it is worth defending. In the sections that follow, we describe what play is, how it develops, and how it benefits children.

Types of Play Play is complex and difficult to define because there are different kinds of play: play with toys, movement play, rough-and-tumble play, make-believe play, and play with games and computers. Most often, play is defined as activity that is freely chosen, initiated and controlled by children, and enjoyable. Despite the lack of definitional clarity, most people would say, “You know it when you see it.” And more important, children know when they are playing.

Different types of play have different benefits for children. Definitions for different types of play follow:

• Functional play. Children play with and manipulate objects, such as when a baby shakes a rattle or a toddler bangs a drum.

• Constructive play. Children use toys or objects to create something new, such as making a puppet from a sock, a design on a computer screen, or a castle out of Legos.

• Symbolic play. Children use one thing to represent or stand for another. Pretend play is a form of symbolic play. A stick becomes a magic wand. A piece of cloth becomes a veil or a cape.

• Games with rules. Children follow prescribed rules for playing together toward a common goal. Games include simple ones such as Candyland or Chutes and Lad- ders, as well as complex ones such as chess or baseball.

Piaget related types of play to stages of development (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005). He theorized that functional play dominates the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) and that the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) is characterized by symbolic and constructive play. Children in the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) tend to play games with rules. Children’s pretend play becomes more complex over time, especially if people play with them and provide props. The following sections describe this sequence.

Functional Play Babies and toddlers engage in functional play, focusing on objects and then on the people who use the objects with them. Toddlers enjoy repetition and prac- tice as they play—for example, when they bang a toy hammer over and over.

If parents or teachers pretend with young children during functional play, toddlers will begin to pretend, too. Ms. Morgan sits next to 2-year-old Hester, picks up a cup, and pretends to drink. “This is delicious tea,” she says. Soon Hester takes a cup and says, “Yum.” This type of pretense is the foundation for later symbolic play.

Constructive Play Constructive play begins as functional play and becomes more symbolic as children use objects to create new ones. For example, children act out pretend

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roles during block building. Constructive play aids logico-mathematical learning and can be as basic as a 2-year-old stacking three blocks or as complex as a second grader build- ing a model airplane.

Symbolic Play Play helps build symbolic representation—using one thing to mean something else—such as when letters are used to represent sounds or number symbols represent quantities. At first, toddlers use real objects or toys in their pretend play, such as picking up the cup and pretending to drink. If adults encourage this type of play, children use other objects in their play. They might pretend that a block is a cup. Finally, children who have lots of experience with pretend play no longer need an object to pretend, using their hands to represent drinking from a cup or stomping their feet and saying, “I’m an elephant.” This type of play helps children move from thought that is linked to physical actions to the ability to use words and other symbols to represent concepts (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1962).

By the time most children turn 4 years old, they begin to develop more complex play with roles and symbolic uses of props. Many preschool- and even kindergarten-age chil- dren, however, still play at the toddler level. Bodrova and Leong (2012b) define this kind of repetitive, unimaginative play as “immature play” to distinguish it from the “mature play” that is expected of 4- and 5-year-olds. Mature play promotes self-regulation, execu- tive function, and other skills (Diamond & Lee, 2011).

Games with Rules As children move into primary grades, they spend less time in pretend play and more time playing games with rules (e.g., sports and board or computer games). Games, including well-designed digital games, can build turn- taking skill, delay of gratification, problem-solving, strategizing, and motivation to learn (Lieberman, 2006).

Games require children to follow the established rules; they rarely get a chance to discuss, negotiate, or change the rules—which would contribute to the development of social competence and self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a). When pretend play is replaced by sports or other organized activities during the preschool years, these impor- tant foundational skills might not develop fully (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a).

symbolic representation The process of mentally using one thing to stand for something else.

Vygotsky saw play as the leading activity of the preschool years. Socio-dramatic play—when children dress up and play parts in a scenario—builds many skills such as language and self-regulation.

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The Benefits of Play Research demonstrates that play contributes to language development, self- regulation, attention, creativity, problem solving, and social and emotional skills (Berk, Mann, & Ogan, 2006; Bodrova & Leong, 2012b; Diamond & Lee, 2011). Play has been found to help prepare children for school (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2012). Research also links play to children’s literacy and mathematics skills (Ginsburg, 2006; Zigler, Singer, & Bishop-Josef, 2004).

Children’s play can be enhanced through adult intervention, as in the Tools of the Mind curriculum described previously. Sara Smilansky (1968), an Israeli psychologist, conducted seminal studies of play among children living in poverty. She found that they did not engage in the same kind of mature sociodramatic play favored by their middle-class peers and were behind in other areas as well. Smilansky trained children to play in more complex ways—using modeling and other techniques— which significantly improved their language and social and cognitive development, findings that have been replicated with other populations (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990).

Play and Motivation Although it is very important for children’s development, play is not the only way that children learn, as we have seen from examining several different theories. If so, why is it so important for teachers to defend and use play as a major context for teaching and learning? One reason is that preschool children themselves are intrinsically motivated to play. Play is so enjoyable for children that teachers don’t need to coerce or cajole them to participate (Bredekamp, 2004).

In one study (Wiltz & Klein, 2001), preschoolers were asked what they like to do at school. Ninety-eight percent of the children said play was their favorite activity. When asked what they did not like about school, nearly a third of the children said meanness by teachers or peers, and others did not like naptime and time-out. But many also disliked circle time, especially in poorer-quality programs where it lasted 30 to 40 minutes and in- volved repetition of calendar, letters, and numbers. Even in high-quality classrooms where circle time was more interesting and engaging, many children reported disliking it primarily because it takes too long. As one little boy, Don, said, “Well, I don’t really like . . . you know, like sit in circle and listen . . . I don’t like that part [because] I think it’s too long for me. I’d rather be playing” (Wiltz & Klein, 2001, p. 225).

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.5: The Role of Play in Development and Learning

Connecting Theory and Practice Too often, teachers think that theories of child development and learning have little relevance to their daily work with children, but the opposite is true. Theory and practice are, or should be, integrally connected. We conclude the chapter with an overview of the research-based and theory-derived principles that are the basis for developmentally appropriate practice.

Looking across theories and research, teachers can become confused. As we have seen, theories explain different aspects of children’s learning or development, and at times they may seem contradictory. How can teachers make sense of diverse theories? To ad- dress these questions, we provide a framework for thinking holistically about develop- ment and learning.

NAEYC (2009) summarizes the research and theory undergirding developmentally appropriate practice in a list of principles. Although these principles do not cover every- thing teachers need to know about development and learning, they highlight some of the key concepts that have implications for practice. In Table 4.4 the principles are listed and illustrated with a few examples.

Classroom Connection Children love to play and so do animals. Learn more in this video about how play is hard-wired into our brains and why it is important for development.

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4Z_hMYGAQ6k

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Principle of Development and Learning Implications for Practice Example Principle 1: Domains of children’s de- velopment—physical, social, emotional, and cognitive—are closely related. Development in one domain influences and is influenced by development in other domains.

Curriculum should be comprehensive, ad- dressing development and learning of the whole child.

During a project on animals, 4-year-olds learn science concepts about animals’ natural environments, use language and literacy to tell and illustrate stories about their favorite animals, and act out those animals’ movements.

Principle 2: Many aspects of children’s learning and development follow well- documented sequences, with later abili- ties, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired.

Teachers need to know the predictable, but not rigid, sequences of development and learning so they can assess children ac- curately and plan for children’s continued progress.

Ms. Rodriguez is familiar with the scope and sequence in the first-grade reading curriculum, so she adjusts her expectations and work with children individually and in small groups at their various levels of read- ing ability.

Principle 3: Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child, as well as at uneven rates across different areas of a child’s individual functioning.

Teachers need to get to know each child well, regularly observing and assessing each child’s abilities, skills, knowledge, and dispositions.

Josh is 3 years old and very verbal, while Jon, also 3, seldom speaks. Jon has excel- lent fine motor skills that Josh lacks. Their teacher pairs them to play with interlocking blocks, where they practice and improve their language and motor skills.

Principle 4: Development and learning result from a dynamic and continuous interaction of biological maturation and experience.

Teachers recognize that although there are inborn individual differences and limits on children’s learning based on maturation, experience plays a large role in children’s development. Teachers know the benefits of early intervention for preventing later problems.

Kindergarten teachers explain to parents that the “gift of time”—holding children out of school until they are older—is not a good policy because children will ben- efit more from the experience of attend- ing school rather than simply waiting to mature.

Principle 5: Early experiences have both cumulative and delayed effects on individual children’s development. Optimal periods exist for certain types of development and learning.

Teachers need to know research on the short- and long-term effects of early experience.

In her family childcare home, Mrs. Pickett rarely uses TV because too much exposure can harm children’s long-term attention spans and doesn’t build language the way real conversation does.

Principle 6: Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regula- tion, and symbolic or representational capacities.

Teachers add greater complexity to learning experiences over time. Teachers engage children in conversations about thinking and problem solving.

Because young children often “think out loud,” preschool teachers don’t expect silent classrooms. They organize activities for children that encourage conversation.

Principle 7: Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relation- ships with responsive adults and opportunities for positive relationships with peers.

Teachers develop a warm, positive, trust- ing relationship with each child. Teachers protect the physical health and safety of each child.

At the beginning of the school year, Ms. Vargas conducts a home visit or meets with parents to get to know each child and fam- ily. She takes time to talk with each child every day.

Principle 8: Development and learning occur in and are influenced by social and cultural contexts.

Teachers recognize that children’s compe- tence acquired in their home culture may not be apparent in the school culture, and know that what is meaningful to children varies, depending on their culture and language.

Concerned about Marta’s language devel- opment, Ms. Kamp works with a Spanish bilingual teacher, Ms. Gonzales, to obtain an accurate assessment of Marta’s vocabu- lary and grammar in her home language.

Principle 9: Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world around them, children learn in a variety of ways; a wide range of teaching strategies and interactions are effective in supporting all of these kinds of learning.

Teachers use a variety of teaching strate- gies—both teacher-guided and child- guided—to meet the needs of individual children. Teachers use a variety of learning contexts—large group, small group, and in- dividual, carefully considering each child’s unique learning needs.

Ms. Hayes demonstrates and instructs the children in how to move the images on the computer screen for a new math program. The children take turns experimenting with the program, with Ms. Hayes close by to provide assistance as needed.

(Continued)

TAble 4.4 Principles of Development and Learning to Guide Practice

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In promulgating this list of principles, NAEYC (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, pp. 10–11) offers several caveats. First, while the list is comprehensive, it is not exhaus- tive; other principles could be added. In addition, just as all domains of development and learning are interconnected, so too are the principles. For instance, cultural and individual variations are addressed in separate principles, and yet they play a role in all of the other principles. In other words, decisions about applying any given principle should consider children as individuals and as members of cultural groups. Despite these limitations, the principles ref lect a solid base of research to guide teachers’ decision making.

✓ Check Your Understanding 4.6: Connecting Theory and Practice

Principle of Development and Learning Implications for Practice Example Principle 10: Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as well as promoting language, cognition, and social competence.

Teachers purposefully plan time and mate- rials for children’s educationally valuable play. Teachers observe children at play and interact constructively with them.

Ms. Phillips models customer behavior in the grocery store center in her kinder- garten, while children engage in counting money, reading labels, making lists, and using vocabulary as they play.

Principle 11: Development and learning advance when children are challenged to achieve at a level just beyond their current mastery, and also when they have many opportunities to practice newly acquired skills.

Teachers provide children with experiences at which they can be successful as well as providing them with some experiences that are at the “just achievable” level of challenge to stretch their learning and development.

Mr. Durkin observes that many children are interested in writing only their own names. He suggests that friends write each other’s names and provides name cards as models.

Principle 12: Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning, such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and development.

Teachers draw on and cultivate children’s interests to get their attention and keep them engaged in learning. Teachers encourage positive approaches to learning such as curiosity and creativity.

Ms. Elias’s kindergartners show little interest in the required reading workbooks. She encourages the children act out the stories, make up songs, and write their own stories—experiences that encourage engagement with the literature.

Source: Based on Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition, edited by C. Copple & S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

TAble 4.4 Principles of Development and Learning to Guide Practice (Continued)

. . . Ms. Donati’s Classroom

We began this chapter by visiting Yvonne Donati’s classroom. Having examined various theories of

learning and their applications, we can see her practices in a clearer light. Yvonne operates from a

constructivist perspective. She sees children as active learners and structures her classroom and plans

curriculum accordingly. Yvonne also implements sociocultural theory as she scaffolds children’s learn-

ing in the zone of proximal development through appropriately timed prompts, questions, and assis-

tance. She applies brain research, building positive relationships, and research on play.

Although Yvonne’s teaching practices primarily reflect cognitive theories, she also applies prin-

ciples of operant conditioning—reinforcements to increase positive behaviors. Yvonne discovers that

Revisiting the Case Study

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behavioral principles can be particularly effective under certain circumstances, such as when she ap-

plies them for a limited period of time in working with Maya’s special need.

Finally, Yvonne does some theory building of her own by testing her hypotheses about children’s

play with an informal research study. Theories are born, grow, or die from research that often begins in

informal observations of children such as Yvonne’s. ■

• Development is age-related change that occurs as the result of an interaction between biological matura- tion and physical and/or social experience. Learning is a change in knowledge or skill that results from experience or instruction.

• A theory is an explanation of how information and observations are organized and relate to one another. Theories are important because they affect how people think and behave. In education, theories of learning and development affect how teachers treat children, how they structure environments, and how they teach.

• Early experiences change and organize the physical structure of the brain. Neglect, abuse, and stress pose serious threats to healthy brain development. High- quality, developmentally appropriate early childhood education can contribute to healthy brain development.

• The most inf luential theories of social-emotional development are Erikson’s psychosocial theory and

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The most prominent theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s theory of constructivism and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. A theory for understanding the interactive inf luence of social and cultural contexts on human development is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological sys- tems model.

• The most prominent learning theories are B. F. Skin- ner’s theory of behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory.

• Research demonstrates that play contributes to lan- guage development, self-regulation, attention, creativ- ity, problem solving, social and emotional skills, and literacy and mathematics skills.

• Effective early childhood education is based on knowl- edge of child development and learning. NAEYC sum- marizes the key concepts of that knowledge base in 12 principles that can be used to guide practice.

Chapter Summary4

Key Terms ■■ accommodation ■■ adaptation ■■ assimilation ■■ behaviorism or behavioral learning

■■ chronosystem ■■ cognitive development ■■ co-construction ■■ consequences ■■ conservation ■■ constructivism ■■ development ■■ domains of development ■■ domain-general processes

■■ disequilibrium ■■ ecological systems theory

■■ egocentrism ■■ equilibration ■■ emotional development ■■ executive function ■■ exosystem ■■ extinction ■■ 5- to 7-year shift ■■ hypothesis ■■ learning ■■ logico-mathematical knowledge

■■ macrosystem ■■ maturationist ■■ mesosystem ■■ microsystem ■■ modeling ■■ negative reinforcement

■■ neurons ■■ object permanence ■■ operant conditioning ■■ physical development ■■ physical knowledge ■■ plasticity ■■ positive reinforcement ■■ private speech ■■ proximal processes ■■ pruning ■■ punishment ■■ reinforcer ■■ scaffolding ■■ scheme or schema ■■ self-actualization theory ■■ self-regulated learning ■■ self-regulation

■■ shaping ■■ social cognitive theory ■■ social-conventional knowledge

■■ social development ■■ sociocultural theory ■■ successive approximations

■■ symbolic representation ■■ synapses ■■ theory ■■ toxic stress ■■ vicarious learning ■■ windows of opportunity ■■ zone of proximal devel- opment (ZPD)

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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 137

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

✓

Copple, C. (Ed.). (2012). Growing minds: Build- ing strong cognitive foundations in early childhood. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Mooney, C. G. (2013). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget, and Vygotsky (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Nell, M. L., Drew, W. F., & Bush, D. E. (2013). From play to practice: Connecting teachers’ play to children’s learning. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Mind in the Making website Ellen Galinsky’s book, Mind in the making: The seven essential life skills every child needs, and website of the same name, provide a useful description for families and teachers of how to support children developing life skills that are essential for healthy development and learn- ing and success in life, including executive function and self-regulation.

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University This website has rich resources about brain development and explains how early relationships and experiences

shape the brain and behavior of the child. There are sev- eral videos and powerpoints to use for teaching adults about the importance of healthy brain development, as well as activities to use with children and families.

ZERO to THREE Explore this website for information on the development of infants and toddlers. You’ll also find information for supporting brain development and young children’s men- tal health, and resources for teachers and families.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) The NAEYC website has a section dedicated to Play and Learning including research, books and teach- ing resources. Information on gender in play, how to choose toys, and how to support play at different ages is included.

Readings and Websites

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5 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

5.1 Identify the kinds and sources of individual differences among children.

5.2 Describe what teachers need to know about variation among children, and identify ways to accommodate individual differences.

5.3 Restate Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, and discuss its implica- tions for teaching practices.

5.4 Compare ways of differentiating instruction to adapt for individual differences in ability, interest, and personality among children.

5.5 Explain practices that are required by law for children with disabilities and special needs.

5.6 Apply your knowledge of effective practices for teaching children with special needs to teaching all children.

Adapting for Individual Differences

Learning Outcomes

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139

Lindsay Creighton is ready for open house night. When Shira arrives with her mom in tow, she greets Lindsay with an exuberant hug and turns to see Rohan coming down the hall. “Rohan! It’s the open house!” Rohan clings to his father’s leg. He is painfully shy and seems unnerved by Shira’s enthusiastic greeting. His father says,

“Go play with Shira.” But Rohan retreats and shakes his head “no.”

The next to arrive are Cal and his grandmother. “Cal!” screams Shira, and the two embrace. Cal runs by his

grandmother on his way to play, and she speaks sternly to him in Chinese. He stops running. Slowly he moves to

the block corner with Shira. When she hands him a pink car, Cal sighs, “This is for girls. I need a boy car.”

Carter and his parents arrive. Shira says hello to Carter, but then speaks to his parents, “Carter can play if he

wants.” Carter flaps his arms and repeats a favorite phrase from a children’s movie. He moves closer to Shira and

grabs her cheeks. His parents intervene and say, “Too close, Carter.” Behind Carter and his parents are the twins,

Alice and Alexandra. Shira’s mom, Beth, greets them, “Hello, Alice. Hello, Alex.” Alice rolls her eyes and says,

“You got us mixed up again!” Beth apologizes, but the twins’ mom says, “Even I get them mixed up sometimes,

until they are in a place like this. Just watch. Alice will try to take over, and Alex will stay in a quiet corner until the

open house is over.” Ruby is the last to arrive. Her father immediately asks Lindsay if any of the food has nuts.

When Lindsay says, “No, I made sure,” he still asks to see the ingredient labels due to Ruby’s severe allergy.

Later, Lindsay reflects on the evening. Although the children are all about the same age, they are so different.

She marvels at the fact that even the identical twins have such different personalities. She wonders if Rohan’s

shyness is exacerbated by his father’s insistence on participation. And what about Shira—how did she get to be

such a social butterfly? Is it in her genes, or did her parents cultivate that, too?

Lindsay’s thoughts turn to Carter, who has autism. She considers how well his parents coordinate with his

teacher and other specialists to reinforce what he’s learning in school. Lindsay also

thinks of 5-year-old Cal, living with his grandmother after his mother’s parental rights

were revoked as a result of neglect. How is it that he is such a positive and vivacious

boy given all he has had to deal with in his young life? Lindsay smiles

when she thinks about Cal wanting a “boy car.” How and when do these

gender stereotypes crystallize?

Finally, her thoughts turn to the challenges she faces. How

will she be able to meet the needs of these children? How will

she provide experiences that challenge Shira and Cal but don’t

overwhelm Carter? How will she make Rohan

and Alex feel at ease in social situations? And

how will she create a strong sense of belonging

and friendship among these children? ■

Case Study

I ndividual differences abound in every group of young children. As is evident from the open house vignette, even children of the same chronological age differ from one another in many ways. The purpose of this chapter is to examine what is known about

the range of individual differences among children and how teachers can effectively adapt the curriculum and teaching strategies to help all children participate, develop, and learn to their fullest potential. Understanding individual differences is a critical dimension of developmentally appropriate practice.

We begin with a discussion of the range of individual variation that exists among all chil- dren and some of the origins of these differences. Next we describe Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which is a useful framework for thinking about individual children’s strengths, needs, interests, and abilities. Then we discuss differentiating instruction and present

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a framework for responding to the diverse learning needs of all children. We conclude with a discussion of effective practices for teaching children with disabilities and special needs.

The Importance of Individual Differences Anyone who has been a parent or a teacher is aware of the fact that every child is unique. Even people who do not have parenting or teaching experience have been children themselves and know that we are all different. Try to remember your earliest school experience and picture the children in your class. Were all the boys or girls alike? Did everyone enjoy and excel at the same activities? Did all of your classmates learn at the same pace and in the same way? Was anyone exactly like you? Of course, the answer to all of these questions is “No.”

Acknowledging the uniqueness of each child is only the beginning. Effective early child- hood teachers understand typical and atypical child development; they also understand the importance of knowing each child as an individual. They use this knowledge to plan and adapt curriculum and to help each child meet important learning goals (NAEYC, 2009).

Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences? One of the most well-known facts about child development is that there is a wide range of individual variation (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). But what does “wide range” mean and what are the implications for teachers? The concept of a range of variation is based on an average; for example, we might say that, on average, men are 5 10 tall. This average was calculated based on the heights of a huge number of men. When we consider their heights individually, however, they may range from 4 8 to 7 1. Now, consider a range of variation in relation to children’s development. On virtually every characteristic we could measure—saying first words, balancing on one foot, knowing the alphabet—the pace and timing of children’s per- formance vary. The average age at which most children master a skill, for example, doesn’t tell us much without knowing the range, which gives us a far clearer picture of reality.

In general, teachers need to be cautious about focusing too much on averages. Many aspects of schooling, including the graded structure and power of standardized tests, tend to reflect the assumption that all children will achieve certain skills and knowledge at the same time. As a result, the tendency is for schools to ignore the range of variation and to try to teach all children the same way.

But if we want every child to achieve the same goals, we must treat them and teach them as individuals. Acknowledging that individual differences exist does not mean low- ering expectations for some children. In fact, high expectations for children’s learning are necessary if they are to succeed. In the sections that follow, we describe some important aspects of variation among children. But first we discuss theories about the origin of indi- vidual differences—the question of nature versus nurture.

Where Do Individual Differences Come From? One of the most enduring debates in psychology is the degree to which development is the product of biology (nature) or environment (nurture). The question is often framed as whether nature or nurture is more influential in determining who we become as individuals. Although we know that physical characteristics are inherited, the genetic markers are less clear when it comes to an individual’s behavior, intelligence, and personality. Consider the twins in Lind- say Creighton’s classroom at the beginning of this chapter. Is Alice more outgoing and Alex more cautious because these personality traits are not part of the genetic pattern they share? Or does this difference result because their parents encouraged the girls in different ways?

The Influence of Biology on Development In the past, some psycholo- gists (Jensen, 1980) proposed that people behave as they do because of inborn char- acteristics. This belief emphasizes the inf luence of nature, the hereditary or genetic

nature The hereditary or genetic contributions to human development.

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contributions to human development. Whether we are male or female, have freckles, black hair, or a certain type of personality can be inf luenced by genetic factors.

Nature also refers to the biological and neu- rological drivers of development. For example, physical growth and advances in motor skills for most humans develop in a predictable sequence. Newborn reflexes soon give rise to voluntary move- ments and the development of abilities such as roll- ing over, crawling, walking, and running. Similarly, language development has a biological component. The fact that most infants, regardless of culture, be- gin to coo and babble at approximately the same ages provides strong evidence that nature indeed affects development.

Whereas some aspects of nature influence a similar course of development for most children, genetics also affects individual differences. For example, most children take their first steps by about 1 year of age, but there is a wide range of variation among in- dividuals. David took his first steps at 7 months; his brother Jeffrey wasn’t mobile until 18 months.

The Role of the Environment Although biology influences individual differ- ences, some scientists (Skinner, 1953, 1968) believe that people behave in certain ways more as a result of their experiences in the environment or because they are taught to do so. This belief stresses the influence of nurture on human behavior.

Heredity may play a role in inf luencing personality traits, but according to the nurture perspective, environmental factors ultimately determine who we become. Par- ents’ discipline methods, for example, might have more inf luence on their children’s behavior than the parents’ genetic contributions. Other dimensions of the environment also inf luence children’s development, such as the family’s economic resources, the quality of their child care setting, the number of siblings in the home, and the safety of the community.

The Transactional Relationship between Nature and Nurture Although the nature versus nurture debate continues, the current thinking is that “nature and nur- ture are partners in how developing people interact with the surrounding environment” (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 39). The transactional theory of development (Sameroff, 2009) explains that development is the result of both biology and experience and the ways in which they influence each other.

To illustrate how nature and nurture interact, consider the following examples. Myra, a highly verbal and inquisitive 6-year-old, seems to in- spire her teacher to engage her in intellectually stimulating projects, such as finding out what causes earthquakes, which in turn further Myra’s already accelerated development and learning. By contrast, Alyssa, who is deaf, is withdrawn and rarely joins in activities even though her teacher uses sign language. Alyssa’s lack of responsiveness may provoke her teacher to initiate communication with her less often.

Both biology and experience play critical, interrelated roles in children’s development. Therefore, the kinds of experiences children have become vitally important. As the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard Uni- versity (2010) reports, “Experiences children have early in life—and the environments in which they have them—shape their developing brain archi- tecture and strongly affect whether they grow up to be healthy, productive members of society” (p. 1).

nurture Environmental factors and experiences that influ- ence human development and behavior.

transactional theory of development Theory that de- velopment is the result of both biology and experience and how they influence each other.

Classroom Connection Understand more about how biol- ogy and environment interact to influence how individuals develop in different ways in this video “What is Nature vs. Nurture?” What does the presenter say about the importance of environ- ments for how young children develop? What can teachers do to provide positive environments?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P-D33oWiOEg

Every class of young children is made up of unique individuals. Intentional teachers must find ways to meet the needs of every child while also challenging each one to make continued learning progress.

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How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience According to the transactional theory of development, children’s experiences impact their overall development. Accumulation of certain kinds of experiences can place children at risk for negative outcomes. Similarly, if children have repeated positive experiences, their development is likely to be enhanced.

Understanding Risk Factors Risk factors are inherited or experiential condi- tions that potentially contribute to negative outcomes for children (Huffman et al., 2001). Among the most frequently identified risk factors are living in poverty, living with a single parent, low education level of parents, disability, and child abuse (Moore, 2006). The concept of risk factors has led to the use of the term children at risk of school failure.

When risk factors multiply in children’s lives, they produce a growing number of poor developmental outcomes (Burchinal & Willoughby, 2013). That is, the more risk factors chil- dren have, the more likely they are to experience developmental delays and social or health problems. These conditions, in turn, can lead to a host of poor outcomes such as peer rejec- tion, academic failure, dropping out of school, mental health disorders, or criminal behavior.

Promoting Resilience Research on children with multiple risk factors demon- strates that exposure to risk and adversity does not necessarily result in negative outcomes for some children (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Positive, supportive experiences can mediate risk and help children become resilient (Masten & Powell, 2003). Resilience refers to a child’s ability to overcome, adapt to, or minimize the damaging effects of adversity (Werner & Smith, 2001).

Mechanisms—called protective factors—exist that may minimize the potentially negative effects for children living in identified high-risk situations. Like risk factors, pro- tective factors are both inherited (nature) and experiential (nurture). A continuous, posi- tive parent-child relationship has been found to be one of the most important contributors to the development of resilience (Thompson & Goodman, 2009). Other protective factors include a variety of external social supports such as extended family, membership in a church or spiritual group, and close friends and neighbors.

Children’s inherent characteristics also contribute to resilience. For example, resilient children often possess temperaments in infancy that elicit positive responses from their care- givers (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). For example, Stefano is a happy, easily soothed baby who draws positive attention from everyone. Timothy, on the other hand, cries all night and doesn’t nurse readily. His mother begins to feel inadequate and has difficulty attaching to him.

In short, risk and resilience are not the result of either biology or environment alone. Rather, the interactions between children’s biological makeup and their experiences contribute to the wide variation among children and families (Gest & Davidson, 2011). Teachers must remember that a child’s genetic inheritance or environmental circumstanc- es should never limit their expectations of children. In fact, one of the most important sources of resilience in children is positive relationships with teachers (Hamre & Pianta, 2010; Howes & Ritchie, 2002; Sabol & Pianta, 2013).

✓ Check Your Understanding 5.1: The Importance of Individual Differences

What We Know About Individual Differences Children whose development is well within the typical range differ from one another in many ways. Gender is a key area where biology and environment interact to influence development, as described in the next section.

risk factors Inherited or experiential conditions that potentially contribute to poor developmental outcomes for children, such as peer rejection, academic failure, juvenile delin- quency, and school expulsion.

resilience A child’s ability to overcome, adapt to, or mini- mize the damaging effects of adversity.

protective factors Mechanisms, both inherited and experien- tial, that may minimize the potentially negative effects for children living in identified high-risk situations.

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Gender Differences “Is it a boy or a girl?” seems to be the first question asked about a new baby. From the first moments of life, and even prenatally, powerful assumptions are made about children on the basis of their sex. These assumptions are soon influenced by experience. When 3-year-old Lucienne receives a soccer ball and goal, she insists that she cannot play with them because “It’s for boys.” Her belief was reinforced by the fact that the packaging showed two boys playing soccer. Indeed, stereotypes about girls and boys are durable and pervasive, which raises questions about what the actual differences are, if any, in the development and characteristics of boys and girls.

Physical Development There is little evidence of gender differences in most domains of development and learning. In some domains, however, the characteristics of females and males have been found to differ. Physically, for example, females are typically more mature at birth, and males are more likely to be miscarried, die in in- fancy, or develop hereditary diseases (Jacklin, 1989). On average, females also reach developmental milestones, such as talking earlier, than do males (Bukatko & Daehler, 2003). Current research is beginning to reveal some sex differences in brain structure, but much remains to be learned before definite conclusions can be drawn (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015).

Cognitive Skills Although there are no significant gender-based differences in overall intelligence, tests of cognitive abilities find some specific differences between girls and boys. Notably, boys demonstrate a slight but consistent advantage in the do- main of visual-spatial rotation (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015), the ability to visualize and mentally transform or rotate figures or objects. While this ability is related to success in other mathematics areas, evidence suggests that early experience and attitudes to- ward mathematics may play a more important role in mathematical learning (Krinzinger, Wood, & Willmes, 2012).

Some evidence suggests, however, that gender differences in visual-spatial ability are to some extent a product of children’s experience (Clements & Sarama, 2008). For example, during the preschool years, boys tend to spend more time than girls do involved in the kinds of activities that build visual-spatial skills: building with blocks, playing with Legos, and putting puzzles together. When girls engage in such play and teachers make the experience meaningful, such as talking with them about what they are doing or reading a story about shapes, girls perform as well as boys on these visual-spatial tasks (Casey, Erkut, Ceder, & Young, 2008).

Social Behavior Popular culture suggests that vast differences exist in social be- havior between females and males; however, scientific research suggests that few broad gender differences exist in the area of social behaviors (Eliot, 2009). There are, however, subtle differences. Girls engage in more imaginary play than boys do, while boys tend to play in slightly larger groups and their play generally takes up more space (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Girls tend to form more intimate play and friendships (Dolgin & Kim, 1994), whereas boys’ friendships are more geared toward a mutual interest in activities (Erwin, 1998). And even as early as 2 years of age, girls talk more about emotion than boys do (Cervantes & Callanan, 1998).

Perhaps the most notable gender difference is that boys are more overtly aggres- sive than girls beginning in the preschool years. Possibly as a result of male hormones, boys are also more physically active and more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). They display more physical aggression, try to dominate peers, and subsequently display more antisocial behaviors than females (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015).

Although it is tempting to think these gender differences are innate, the reality is more complicated. Current thinking is that sex differences in social behaviors are

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heavily inf luenced by the situation (Zakriski, Wright, & Underwood, 2005). Because boys and girls are often observed playing with their same-sex peers, differences be- tween the sexes can appear to be greater than they really are and similarities less obvi- ous (Maccoby, 2002). For example, preschooler Leo gets into frequent fights with his peers and appears to be more aggressive than Johanna. But this difference might have more to do with Leo’s rough-and-tumble play than any innate tendency to aggressive behavior.

In addition, gender differences in aggression are largely a function of where the be- havior occurs and how aggression is defined. The largest gender differences are found in less structured, natural environments such as on the playground. However, when aggres- sion consists of attempts to hurt another person through manipulation, gossip, or exclu- sion from a social group, it is called relational aggression. When we consider relational aggression, girls are more aggressive than boys starting in the preschool years (Burr, Ostrov, Jansen, Cullerton-Sen, & Crick, 2005; Crick, Casas, & Mosher, 1997). If Johanna were to be picked on as often as Leo is, she might be perceived as being aggressive, too. There is also the possibility that Johanna would react differently from Leo. Rather than using physical aggression, she would probably resort to relational aggression, such as name-calling or saying, “I won’t be your friend.”

Gender-Related Expectations Although gender is a biological trait, much gen- der-related behavior is learned. From very early ages, children receive messages about what is expected of girls and boys that influence their behavior. By preschool age, chil- dren are beginning to firmly establish their gender identity, although they may still think that changing their clothes or activity can affect it. Sex-role stereotyping can play a pow- erful role in the classroom.

Among the individual differences that have the greatest significance for teachers are variations in cognitive development and abilities, social and emotional development (including temperament), approaches to learning, physical development, and interests. These topics are discussed briefly in the sections that follow.

Cognitive Development and Abilities A major contributor to individual differences is variation in language development. Con- sider the fact that although, on average, babies say their first word at 11 months, the range is from 8 to 14 months (Hart & Risley, 1999). In addition, although the average age at which half of what children say is understandable is 19 months, the range is from 15 to 30 months (Hart & Risley, 1999), making teaching toddlers a challenging task indeed.

As children get older, variation only increases. Observations of 2-year-olds demon- strate that, on average, children produce 134 different words per hour, but the range is from 18 to 286 words (Hart & Risley, 1999). Such wide variation makes it challenging for teachers and parents to determine whether a child’s development is just at the slow end of the range or is actually delayed.

By the time children reach kindergarten, their language, literacy, and mathematics abilities vary widely, and the achievement gap is already apparent (Hart & Risley, 2003; West, Denton, & Germino-Hausken, 2000). However, it is important to remember our earlier caution about averages when thinking about a large group of individuals such as children from low-income families. A wide range of variation exists within this group as well; although many children will be far behind, others will not. A large national study found that although Head Start children on average score below national norms, especial- ly in vocabulary, the top one-quarter of the children scored at national averages on letter recognition and writing skills (Tarullo, Aikens, Moiduddin, & West, 2010).

Emotional and Social Development Social skills and emotional self-regulation are among the most important skills for success in school and life. Positive social skills include the ability to make friends, join in play,

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and comfort other children in distress (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001). Children who have poor social skills are more likely to be angry and to argue and fight or withdraw from others.

Individual differences in social and emotional development are often related to temperament, and can often be observed when children are infants and toddlers. Temperament refers to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation as shown in children’s emotions, activity level, and attention (Rothbart, 2011). While tempera- ment has genetic and biological roots, research has shown that warm relationships with family members and teachers help all children develop positive social skills, regardless of their temperament type (Bates, 2012; Stright, Gallagher, & Kelley, 2008). One impor- tant aspect of temperament is how children react to new situations and people. Recall the twins, Alexandra and Alice, in the chapter-opening vignette. Alice confidently joins in and becomes the life of the party, whereas Alex is fearful and inhibited in the new situation.

Some studies have shown that children with certain temperament characteristics struggle in school (Gartstein, Putnam, & Rothbart, 2012); however, warm and respon- sive relationships with caregivers help children to be successful in academics and so- cial relationships (Bates, 2012; Rudasill, Gallagher & White, 2010). Teachers who learn about and understand their children’s different temperaments will learn how to adapt the learning setting to meet children’s individual needs (Bates, 2012). Instead of assuming that a shy child has poor social skills or that an outgoing, energetic child is too aggres- sive or out of control, teachers should adapt to each child’s needs. Alex’s teacher will need to help her feel comfortable in new surroundings and teach her skills for making new friends (Gallagher, 2013). Alice’s teacher may need provide gentle guidance for following structured routines, redirecting her energy, and paying attention when needed. Temperament is one dimension of a larger topic, approaches to learning, which is dis- cussed next.

Approaches to Learning Early childhood educators are becoming increasingly aware that children’s approaches to learning are critically important determinants of their success in school (Fantuzzo, Perry, & McDermott, 2004; Hyson, 2008). Approaches to learning are “behaviors, tendencies or typical patterns that children use in learning situations” (Hyson, 2008, p. 10). These include both how children feel about learning—their level of enthusiasm, interest, and motivation—and how children engage with learning. Do they pay attention? Do they per- sist when tasks are challenging or frustrating? If one solution doesn’t work out, are they flexible and creative in trying something new?

As with all other aspects of learning and development, there are individual differ- ences in children’s approaches to learning, which vary depending on the situation. For example, 7-year-old Wes enjoys taking things apart and putting them together; he will persist for hours working on his simple machines project for science. But during reading class, Wes loses interest and his attention wanders; his reading progress suffers. In response, his teacher brings in several books on machines and Wes’s enthusiasm for reading improves.

Even a brief visit to a classroom during choice time reveals the diversity of children’s approaches to learn- ing. Dontrelle can play with Legos for an hour. Ivy loves music, especially songs with movements, but wanders from one area to another, never alighting on one activity. Becca prefers painting but is perfectly happy if it is not available. The challenge for teachers is to foster chil- dren’s positive approaches to learning and build on their strengths to help them acquire new abilities.

temperament The pattern of arousal and emotionality that is characteristic of an individual.

approaches to learning Behaviors, tendencies, or typical patterns that children use in learning situations that include both how they feel about learning—their level of enthusiasm, interest, and motivation—and how they engage with learning.

There are individual differences in children’s approaches to learning. As you can see, this child hesitates to join in play, while others may be enthusi- astic and engaged right from the start.

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Physical Development Children of the same chronological age vary considerably in height and weight. Teach- ers sometimes inaccurately judge children’s maturity based on their physical character- istics. For example, boys who are small for their age may be thought to be less mature than taller boys and inaccurately judged as not ready for kindergarten. At the same time, taller children, girls as well as boys, are often assumed to be older and more capable than they are.

Physical development is largely determined by biology; however, experience also plays a role in how physical skills and abilities develop, as when childhood malnu- trition or chronic illness stunts growth. On average, girls develop fine motor skills earlier than boys do, but cultural expectations for girls’ behavior may contribute to these differences (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Girls, for instance, may be given dolls to dress with miniature clothes and shoes that require fine motor skills, and they may be encouraged by teachers or parents to play in a more restricted way than boys. Simi- larly, because boys may be less adept with pencils or unable to sit still for group time, teachers might think they are less competent. Just as teachers must understand each child’s temperament, they must also come to understand each child’s physical skills and capabilities in order to provide a wide range of learning opportunities to find the best match.

Seeing Each Child as an Individual There is a scene in the movie Mary Poppins when Ms. Poppins meets her charges, Jane and Michael, for the first time. The star nanny pulls out her “magical measuring tape.” The special tape measurer allows her to instantaneously surmise important and unique in- formation about the children that helps her to plan how she will best care for them. While this type of measuring tape does not exist in reality, it illustrates a necessary first step in working with children: getting to know them.

For teachers to build positive relationships and teach effectively, they need to under- stand children’s preferences, interests, background, and culture. For children, this infor- mation is most often accessed by carefully and purposefully observing what they do, and by speaking with parents and other caregivers. The task of knowing children involves observing and assessing on a regular basis.

Some teachers find it helpful for parents to complete surveys about their child. Items on these surveys include family members; pets; fears; favorite foods, toys, or

activities; how to tell when their child is upset; or what other special needs a child may have. With this informa- tion, teachers can help ensure that children are motivated to get involved, that the content of conversations and level of instruction are relevant, and that they communicate respect for children’s families and cultural background.

As we have seen in previous sections, individual differ- ences result from both heredity and experience. A key deter- minant of children’s experience is their culture. For example, cultural groups differ in their views about appropriate behav- ior for males and females. Cultural differences and individual differences are not the same thing, but they are connected. The Culture Lens feature will help you understand the re- lationship between individual and cultural differences, and respond effectively.

The connection between interests and abilities is the foundation of an important theory relevant to individual differences in human beings. This theory of multiple intel- ligences is described in the section that follows.

This All About Me interview helps the teacher get to know each child in her class.

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✓ Check Your Understanding 5.2: What We Know about Individual Differences

Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences A useful framework for thinking about individual differences among children is the theory of multiple intelligences developed by Howard Gardner (2004). Rather than thinking about intelligence as one score that can be measured by an intelligence test, Gardner identified eight different intelligences, which are listed and described in Table 5.1. Gard- ner believes that people have different profiles of strengths and weaknesses among these intelligences. His theory challenges teachers to think of the many different ways children are intelligent and can demonstrate their competence.

Gardner (2004) points out that traditional schooling typically focuses on only two of the intelligences: logical/mathematical and linguistic. Consider the fact that college entrance

theory of multiple intelligences Theory developed by Howard Gardner that identifies eight different intelligences as op- posed to a single score on an intelligence test; this theory is useful for thinking about variation among children and teaching to their strengths.

Culture Lens Responding to Cultural and Individual Differences

Early childhood teachers must respond to both individual differences in children and to cultural differences. Why both? When teachers respond to the individual child, aren’t they also responding to the cultural child? The an- swer is yes and no.

Every child is unique and develops an individual personal- ity as a result of her or his personal history. At the same time, everyone develops some behaviors that are shared with members of his or her cultural group. Because culture is a group characteristic, the rules of a culture are shared by group members and are not unique to individuals. When teachers think of children only as individuals, they risk missing important information about what children have learned about group expectations. Consider this example:

Edwin comes in from outdoor play crying; he is soaked and covered with sand and mud. His teacher, Ms. Amos, starts to undress him to help him get cleaned up and he cries harder. When she tries to help him remove his shoes, he forcefully pulls away. Ms. Amos knows him to be stubborn and tries to coax him into letting her help and consoles him while attempting to undress him, but to no avail. What his teacher doesn’t know is that in Edwin’s cultural group, you don’t get your school clothes dirty, boys don’t cry, and boys dress and undress themselves in private.

Had this teacher known more about Edwin’s cultural group, she could have responded in a more appropriate way. She might have offered him a change of clothes and let him go to a private place to change himself. On the other hand, what teachers know about group differences when blindly applied to all individuals in a cultural group may be equally inappropriate because individuals within groups differ from one another.

After the incident with Edwin, Ms. Amos decides to learn more about his background. She talks to col- leagues and becomes a more careful observer of Edwin and his family, as well as of other children from his cultural group. One day Edwin’s cousin Sammy comes in soaked and covered with mud. Ms. Amos decides not to help him clean up, but offers him a change of clothes. When he takes the clean clothes, returns to the playground, and throws them in the sandbox, his teacher is stunned because she expected him to go in the bathroom and change. Sammy, however, was not at all upset by the wet clothes and enjoyed acting contrary to expectations.

So why did the two boys—both from the same cultural group—behave so differently? Because culture is learned; it can be well learned by some people in the group and less well learned by others. Some families are tradition oriented, others less so. Further, even though families and individuals learn the cultural rules, some people con- form to what they have learned, while others don’t.

Thus, members of a cultural group will behave differently depending on how deeply embedded they are within the core of a culture. Thinking about differences in behavior in this way helps teachers understand why, for instance, all Japanese people don’t always “act Japanese.” And it helps teachers avoid stereotyping groups and applying untested assumptions about individuals.

An important thing to remember is that knowing who children are as members of cultural groups provides more information than simply knowing them as individu- als. But the most important point is that children are both individuals and cultural beings at the same time and in the same place.

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exams result in scores for math and verbal ability. When educators test only children’s ver- bal and math abilities, as is often the case, they miss children’s strengths in other important areas such as sociability or psychomotor skills. Gardner also believes that attention to the full range of children’s capabilities could help more children succeed in school, thus nar- rowing the achievement gap for children from low-income families and children of color.

What are the implications of Gardner’s theory for teachers? Consider the following example of teaching with multiple intelligences in mind. Hanita Blume teaches a mixed- age group of 4- and 5-year-olds. One of the primary goals of the math curriculum is to develop children’s concept of number, which includes counting and beginning operations such as adding and subtracting. The range of ages and experiences among children within her group affects their levels of math ability. She takes these differences into account as well as the fact that each of these children has different capabilities and interests.

Hanita does not try to evaluate individual children’s “intelligences.” Instead, she plans a variety of learning opportunities to draw on children’s strengths and interests to help them all achieve the math goals. Following are some of the learning experiences she provides relevant to each of the multiple intelligences:

• Logical/mathematical. Hanita engages children in solving real-world problems with numbers, such as “We have nine children and only five chairs. How many more chairs do we need?”

• Linguistic. Hanita reads a counting book in small groups and engages children in counting the objects on each page.

• Musical. In large and small groups, Hanita sings counting songs and does fingerplays such as Five Little Monkeys to engage children in counting forward and backward.

• Naturalist. During outdoor play time, Hanita works with children to make col- lections of natural objects such as leaves or stones. Children place the objects in categories (large or small, according to color), count the number in each category, and determine which has more or fewer.

• Spatial. Hanita provides many different kinds of blocks and small manipulative toys for children to count and categorize, and talks with them, supplying the count- ing words for those who need the help.

• Bodily/kinesthetic. Hanita engages children in using their bodies to learn the count- ing sequence and concept of number. Children stomp their feet or clap their hands three times, four times, and so on.

• Interpersonal. Hanita organizes small cooperative groups of children to work on math games such as Chutes and Ladders; children roll the die, read the number of dots, and count the number of spaces. There is no competition.

Intelligence Definition Children’s Possible Interests in School and Later Life

Logical/mathematical Ability to reason, analyze, solve logical problems Earth, space, and physical sciences; mathematics; computers

Linguistic Ability to communicate; sensitivity to words and functions of language

Reading, writing, teaching, public speaking

Musical Ability to produce and appreciate music Singing, playing instruments, composing, listening to music

Naturalist Sensitivity to the natural world, plants, animals Outdoor play, nature, biology, environmental science, gardening

Spatial Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world Visual arts, photography, architecture, graphic design

Bodily/kinesthetic Ability to control body movements and objects Dancing, physical education, sports, movement exploration

Interpersonal Sensitivity to the feelings and desires of others Making friends, collaborative learning, social studies

Intrapersonal Awareness of own feelings and strengths Keeping a diary, reading, writing poetry, meditation

Sources: Based on Gardner (2004, 2006).

Table 5.1 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 149

• Intrapersonal. Hanita works one-on-one with some children in tasks such as calcu- lating attendance, and then asks them to reflect on what they know about counting.

As we can conclude from the example of Hanita’s classroom, seeing children as individuals with multiple intelligences does not mean that every child must be taught differently. Instead, individual variation among children requires using various teaching practices to be responsive to the abilities of all learners, including children whose devel- opment is well above the typical range, as discussed next.

Gifted and Talented Children A small percentage of children may display highly specialized talents at a young age. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is helpful in adapting instruction for these chil- dren. What is giftedness? The National Association for Gifted Children (2010) defines it as: “Individuals who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude or competence in one or more domains.” However, there is no universally accepted definition; giftedness, intel- ligence, and talent may look different in different contexts and cultures (Heward, 2014). Traditionally, giftedness was determined by a high IQ score, but today broader concep- tions are used to identify a child as gifted and talented. A child may be gifted in music, drama, or sports, for instance.

One way to identify young gifted children is to focus on a range of behaviors and char- acteristics that occur in daily activities as well as in school (Heward, 2014). Some common abilities of gifted young children include (National Association for Gifted Children, 2008):

• Curiosity and thoughtful questions about many things • Solving problems in unique ways and using prior knowledge in new contexts • Sustained attention span, willingness to persist on challenging tasks, and good

memory • Especially original imagination, wit, and humor • Keen observation skills and rapid mastery of new learning • Desire to work independently and take initiative • Talent in making up stories and reading

However determined, for their talents to flourish, gifted children need challeng- ing educational experiences and individualized instruction (Coleman & Johnsen, 2011; National Association for Gifted Children, 2010). When interesting, engaging experiences are provided for all children, the needs of gifted children are more likely to be met in a regular classroom.

For example, Melvin’s second-grade teacher, Ms. Dell, thinks he is “very preco- cious.” He reads well above grade level and has a large vocabulary. One day he announces to her that his brother is funny. She asks, “How so?” and he answers, “You know, strange, odd, peculiar.” Melvin exhibits an intense curiosity, asking high-level questions such as, “Where does gasoline come from?” Ms. Dell modifies the curriculum to challenge him. She sets up a time for Melvin to read to preschoolers. She orders National Geographic to satisfy his voracious curiosity about geography. She is also patient with Melvin’s persis- tent questioning that would bother most other adults.

Ms. Dell understands the importance of recognizing early signs of giftedness in young children—particularly in children like Melvin from low-income families who are more often considered at risk than gifted—and nurturing the gift so that it may flour- ish. She also understands that gifted children’s development can be uneven, in that they may have great strengths in many areas but still be at age level or below in others. For example, cognitively gifted children may be very good at articulating school rules and the reasons behind them but at the same time be less able to follow rules in action. A gifted child may also stand out from peers as different and may struggle to make friends.

✓ Check Your Understanding 5.3: Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach150

Responsive Education for All Learners In this section, we first describe how intentional teachers adapt their teaching practices in response to individual variation among all children. Then we describe a specific frame- work for systematically addressing the needs of all learners—Response to Intervention.

Differentiating Instruction In every classroom, teachers need to differentiate instruction so that they support the engagement, interest, full participation, and success of every child (Tomlinson, 2014).

Differentiated instruction refers to creating multiple paths so that children of different abilities, interests, and learning needs experience equally appro- priate ways to achieve important learning goals. Equally appropriate does not mean the same or uniform. Nor does differentiated instruction mean that children receive their own assignments or that they receive a private, one- on-one lesson. Rather, it means that teachers provide interrelated learning opportunities that help facilitate children’s mastery of new skills and content knowledge.

Differentiated instruction is a cyclical process that is illustrated in Figure 5.1. First, teachers must get to know each child in the classroom. They must also know the curriculum. Both of these components influence how teachers plan and differentiate instruction. Planning must take into account the learning environment and materials, the content, the teaching strategies, and the products that demonstrate what children have learned (Tomlinson, 2014), each of which is described next.

differentiated instruction The creation of multiple paths so that children of different abilities, interests, and learn- ing needs experience equally appropriate ways to achieve important learning goals.

FIGURE 5.1 Model of Differentiated Instruction As illustrated here, differentiated instruction is a cyclical process that enables teachers to meet the needs and support the learning of each individual child.

Classroom Connection In this video, the teacher imple- ments a math lesson that takes the form of a game with dominos. How is this game an example of differentiated instruction?

Plan curriculum

using learning standards

and children’s interests

Prepare learning

environment

Meet children where they

are: abilities, interests, prior

knowledge

Assess products that demonstrate

children’s learning

Adapt learning

environment, what to teach,

and how to teach

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Plan the Environment The environment refers to the overall look and feel of the classroom. A differentiated environment provides various spaces throughout the class- room for learning to occur. For example, soft, cozy spaces allow some children to work alone. Other spaces are designed for intrapersonal learners to work together in small groups. A differentiated environment also provides a variety of materials. For example, a reading center includes books at different levels on various topics for children. A writing center might have sandpaper letters or plastic magnetic letters for tactile learners. Chil- dren who learn best while moving may have places to stand and work at tables.

Differentiate Content Differentiating the content involves meeting children where they are and focusing instruction on what they need to learn next. For example, a child who knows letters can begin to map letter sounds to the alphabet and is also ready to re- ceive instruction on blending letters to make sounds. A child who is skilled at decoding words can focus on fluency and comprehension.

Adapt Teaching Strategies Strategies are the ways teachers provide specific content instruction. The intentional teacher considers the child’s abilities and interests when planning content instruction. For example, when teaching science, the teacher pro- vides hands-on tools for children to observe, measure, and record their observations. A computer program or mobile app is motivating for many children. Other examples in- clude providing information books for linguistic learners and cooperative learning activi- ties for the intrapersonal learners.

Assess Learning Products The product that results from differentiated instruction is the demonstration of learning. When content and processes are differentiated for children, the products they produce will be different, too. Consider Josh Peters, a kindergarten teach- er in an inclusive classroom. As he is reading a story, he stops occasionally to ask questions. The purpose of asking questions is so the children can demonstrate what they have learned (the product). He asks some children to recall the events of the story and others to predict what will happen next. One child may even be asked to simply point to an illustration of a character in the story. Josh takes each child’s level of literacy into account and targets their engagement to successful participation and extending learning.

Response to Intervention As we have seen, every early childhood classroom is composed of diverse learners—children of widely varying abilities and interests. Although every classroom teacher is responsible for differentiating instruction for the chil- dren in her class, in recent years, greater emphasis has been placed on preventing learning problems and intervening earlier for all children, rather than waiting until a child falls too far behind or is labeled as having a learning disability. To accomplish this goal, one frequently used approach is Response to Intervention (RTI), a three-tiered, comprehensive framework for bridging assessment and instruc- tion that is intended to prevent school failure, especially in the areas of reading and mathematics (Allington, 2009; National Center on Response to Intervention, 2010; National Profes- sional Development Center on Inclusion [NPDCI], 2012). Figure 5.2 depicts the three-tiered RTI framework for early childhood.

Response to Intervention is not a special educa- tion framework or approach; when well implement- ed, it yields effective results for children with and without disabilities as well as dual language learners. Compared to differentiated instruction, RTI is a more systemic approach that is implemented by a program

Some Children

Targeted small group interventions/ supports

A Few Children

Intensive individualized

interventions/supports

Core curriculum and intentional teaching

All Children

Response to Intervention (RTI) A three-tiered framework intended to prevent learning delays in primary grades from becoming learning disabilities.

FIGURE 5.2 Response to Intervention (RTI) in Early Childhood Source: National Professional Development Center on Inclusion, 2012, Response to intervention (RTI) in early childhood: Building consensus on defin- ing features, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Develop- ment Institute, Author. Reprinted with permission.

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or school system. It requires collaborative participation by teachers, administrators, spe- cialists, and families.

The three tiers of the RTI framework are:

1. Research-based curriculum, differentiated instruction, and ongoing assessment for all children (typically meets the needs of 80% of the children).

Tier 1 of the framework provides a foundation of high-quality education for all children, including a comprehensive, evidence-based curriculum and inten- tional teaching. Tier 1 involves universal screening, assessment, and monitoring of children’s progress to obtain information about each child and to determine whether a child would benefit from additional support.

2. Screening for learning difficulties, focused instruction, and ongoing progress monitoring for those who are not making expected learning progress (approxi- mately 15% of children).

Tier 2 provides developmentally appropriate, large- and small-group in- terventions for children who need more focused learning experiences. For ex- ample, some children may need regularly scheduled small-group reading to improve vocabulary and other literacy skills. To complement the more explicit activities and build on children’s strengths and interests, teachers also embed learning opportunities in daily activities and routines. With these children, teachers monitor their learning progress more frequently and use the informa- tion to guide instruction.

3. Intensive instructional intervention for those children who need it (approximately 5%). Tier 3 focuses on the approximately 5% of children who do not make expected

progress via the Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions. At Tier 3, children receive in- tensive, individualized interventions. These include effective strategies to scaf- fold children’s learning such as prompting and modeling (described later in this chapter). Progress monitoring and collaborative problem solving continue to guide decisions about the child.

Although it is a general-education model, RTI can bridge the gap between general and special education by ensuring that children with special needs fully access and par- ticipate in the regular curriculum. This framework looks at all students with the goal of preventing learning delays from becoming learning disabilities (Coleman, Roth, & West, 2009). It is important to note that children with already identified disabilities are expected to be found at all three tiers of the model. For children who show signs of struggling, this framework provides additional supports such as more focused time, content, scaffolding, and/or one-on-one attention.

Benefits of RTI RTI is a framework that applies to all children. It is very important that RTI tiers are not misinterpreted or misused to categorize or label children. In reality, the tiers are flexible, and individual children move between them based on ongoing as- sessment of their progress.

Successful implementation of RTI depends on accurate, ongoing assessment of children, which can be challenging for teachers of dual language learners. An Eng- lish language learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well- developed vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood at school (Espinosa, 2010a). In such a situation, it can be difficult to accurately assess either the child’s competence or his or her needs, as illustrated in the Language Lens feature.

The value of such prevention/intervention models is becoming more widely recog- nized. A growing body of research demonstrates the effectiveness of RTI in preventing and addressing learning disabilities (Coleman et al., 2009). As of 2004, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) permits schools to use special education funds for RTI, which may reduce the number of children who are identified for special education. Nevertheless, there will always be a small percentage of children with identified disabili- ties and special needs, a topic we discuss next.

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✓ Check Your Understanding 5.4: Responsive Education for All Learners

Individual Differences in Ability For several reasons, all teachers must be prepared to work with children who have spe- cial needs. First, federal laws require that children with special needs be included in classrooms and programs where their typically developing peers are found, and that their learning progress be reported for accountability purposes. Second, effective practices ex- ist that can positively alter the course of children’s development and their success in life. Third, many of the strategies proven effective for children with special needs can be equally effective in addressing the individual variation among typically developing children. In short, early childhood educators who are familiar with the expertise of early childhood special education can be more effective teachers of all children.

To understand how to work with children with special needs, we next address the language of special education. In the sections following, we introduce principles that teachers should know about children with disabilities, describe the laws regulating special education, and the benefits of serving children with disabilities in settings with their typi- cally developing peers.

Language Lens Accurate Assessment of Linguistically Diverse Children

Accurately assessing the abilities of children who speak a home language other than English or whose cultural back- ground varies from the majority of children and teachers can be a challenging task. Cultural and linguistic diversity are not learning delays or disabilities. However, cultural and linguistic diversity can have a significant impact on identification and diagnosis of children’s special needs, as the following example illustrates:

The student body of Rosa Parks Elementary School is about 30% Latino, 30% European American, and 40% African American. Scott James is an African American first-grade teacher. The school’s speech therapist, Tess Brooks, is a white, European American. Scott meets with Tess because he is concerned about two students, Reynoldo and Patrizia, who are behind in reading. Both children speak Spanish at home but speak both Eng- lish and Spanish at school. Reynoldo is quite verbal; Patrizia hardly speaks at all. Scott thinks that Reyn- oldo’s reading problem is related to a language delay but, because Scott doesn’t speak Spanish, he can’t be sure. However, the other children, even the Spanish- speaking children, don’t seem to understand Reynoldo, either. As for Patrizia, Scott thinks she may have an undiagnosed hearing loss.

Scott’s bigger concern is that the screening tools aren’t very accurate for assessing language delays in Spanish, and Tess shares his concern. She thinks the best strat- egy is to get more information from Reynoldo’s family about his communication at home. Using an interpret- er, Tess and Scott meet with Reynoldo’s mother. She is clearly alarmed. She tells the translator that these teachers think Reynoldo is stupid because he doesn’t

speak English, but she knows that there is nothing wrong with her son.

Scott privately meets with Patrizia’s grandmother, again using a translator. Her reaction is different from Reynoldo’s mother’s reaction: “I’ve been worried, too, because she hardly talks at home either. But I under- stand her when she talks, and so does her brother.”

In these situations, Scott and Tess must walk a fine line. They can easily make a mistake. In this case, Reynoldo’s speech problems were real and not a product of learning a second language. Without an accurate assessment of the problem, Reynoldo did not receive therapy and his language delay worsened. Patrizia, on the other hand, did not have a hearing loss. What her grandmother and Scott thought was a language delay was actually shyness.

When assessment tools aren’t sensitive to language differ- ences, or when professionals do not understand a child’s language, they can inaccurately diagnose a delay. In this case, a child may be mislabeled as “delayed,” which can negatively affect teachers’ and parents’ expectations for him. On the other hand, if professionals assume that a language difference is the only cause, they can miss a real problem. The latter error has lasting consequences because the child may not receive needed intervention services.

Source: Based on Cross-Cultural Considerations in Early Childhood Special Education (Technical Report #14), by T. Bennett et al., 2001, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services (CLAS), retrieved December 15, 2011, from. http://clas.uiuc. edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b.

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The Language of Early Childhood Special Education One of the challenges for generalist early childhood educators is learning special educa- tion terminology. Because each field tends to have its own vocabulary, communicating effectively across these related fields requires a common vocabulary.

Defining Terms Children with special needs is a broad term used to describe chil- dren who may have multiple risk factors, specialized health care needs (such as asthma), mental or emotional health concerns, severe allergies, or physical and/or cognitive dis- abilities. The more specific term children with disabilities refers to children who have been identified as having a specific category of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy. However, the terms children with special needs and children with disabilities are often used interchangeably.

Another all-encompassing, though less frequently used, term is exceptional children. This term is used to communicate inclusion of gifted and talented children as well as chil- dren whose development is below the expected range. In fact, the professional associa- tion for special education professionals is called the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). Early childhood special education professionals are members of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children. Table 5.2 lists and defines some of the most common categories of exceptionality.

Using Person-First Language A standard for professionals who work with individuals with special needs is that they use what is called person-first language. Person-first language recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a disability. Consider the difference between describing 4-year-old Zain as “a special needs child” and describing him as “a child with special needs.” The former phrase emphasizes

person-first language Language that recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a disability (e.g., saying “child with special needs” as opposed to “special needs child”).

Category Definition

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Diagnosis describing children who display a pattern of severe inattentive, hyperactive, and/or impul- sive behavior that interferes with the child’s learning.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Condition in which child has impairments in social communication and interactions, and demon- strates restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior and interests.

Down syndrome (DS) Condition in which extra genetic material causes the child to exhibit developmental delays and/or intellectual disability. Children with DS tend to share physical features such as a flat facial profile, an upward slant to the eyes, small ears, a single crease across the center of the palms, and an enlarged tongue.

Cerebral palsy (CP) A neurological disorder that appears in infancy or early childhood and permanently affects the child’s body movement, motor development, and muscle coordination.

Deafness and hearing impairment

A condition in which hearing is impaired, either permanently or temporarily, and negatively impacts a child’s academic performance. Deafness is a severe hearing impairment that prevents a child from hearing and processing language and other sounds.

Visually impaired or blind Condition describing loss or partial loss of vision.

Intellectual disability Disability in which the child has limitations both in cognitive functioning and in social and adaptive behavior.

Developmental delay Diagnosis describing a child whose development is behind expectations for his or her age group as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures. Occurs in one or more areas of development: physical, cognitive, communication, social, emotional, or adaptive.

Gifted Term applied to children with outstanding talent who perform or show potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment.

exceptional children An all-encompassing term used to communicate inclusion of gifted and talented children as well as children whose development is below the expected range.

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) The national professional association for special educators.

Division for Early Childhood (DEC) Subdivision of the Coun- cil for Exceptional Children that is the national professional organization for early childhood special educators and early intervention specialists.

children with disabilities Children who have been identified as having a specific category of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy.

children with special needs A broad term used to describe children who may have multiple risk factors, specialized health care needs, mental or emo- tional health concerns, severe allergies, or physical and/or cognitive disabilities.

Table 5.2 Some Types of Exceptionality

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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 155

the disability, whereas the latter communicates that Zain is first and foremost a child, whose special needs are only part of his identity.

By contrast, placing the adjective first modifies the entire noun to which it is refer- ring; this can place undue emphasis on inability. For example, if you hear a traffic reporter describe a “disabled car,” you think of a car that cannot be driven at all. Compare this to what you may think when you hear “a car with a flat tire.” For similar reasons, we refer to a “child with Down syndrome” or “a child with autism,” instead of saying a “Down’s child” or “an autistic.” A fundamental tenet of inclusion is that children are children re- gardless of disability status, and the use of person-first language reflects this principle.

Admittedly, using person-first language can sometimes feel cumbersome. But lan- guage matters. How we describe people and conditions communicates our attitudes about them. Currently, person-first terms begin with the word individuals, thus emphasizing the uniqueness of each person regardless of an identified disability.

What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities Children with disabilities display a variation in skills beyond what is considered typical; as a result, in many instances, these children qualify for special education services. These services are provided by professionals and therapists who have specialized knowledge about childhood disabilities and disorders. Therefore, it is neither necessary nor reasonable for early childhood educators to know everything about every disorder that might affect a child. Yet, they do need to understand several key principles about children’s disabilities (Wolery & Wilbers, 1994):

1. Children with disabilities are diverse and distinct from one another. All children have unique skills, interests, dislikes, and talents. Therefore, it is essential that teachers recognize each child as a distinctive individual. Children with disabilities share simi- larities with other children, but they may need more specialized and/or individualized instruction and care than children without special needs. However, it is vitally impor- tant for teachers to remember that no child is defined by their disability; children are diverse in countless ways including culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically.

2. Some children may have more than one disability. For example, a child with a hearing impairment may also have low vision or a seizure disorder. Moreover, children may develop additional disabilities as a result of their primary disability. For example, a child with a visual impairment may not be able to explore his environment and may develop motor or cognitive delays. Early identification and effective intervention can sometimes prevent secondary disabilities.

3. A diagnosis rarely leads to specific educational interventions. Educational prac- tices and therapies, such as speech and language therapy, are not selected by the diagnosis. The selected interventions need to align with the child’s current skills and abilities, family concerns, needs and resources, and what works best for the child. Teachers should not assume that a particular diagnosis will automatically respond to a specific intervention (Wolery & Wilbers, 1994).

Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism Even with the same diagnosis, a great deal of individual variability exists, as in the case of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), one of the fastest-growing serious developmental disabilities in the United States today. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014a) estimates that 1 out of every 68 children has been identified with ASD, and boys are five times as likely as girls to receive the diagnosis. Thus, early childhood teachers will likely encounter a child with autism at some point in their careers.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), also known as autism, is a diagnosis associated with impairments in social interaction and communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors

autism spectrum disorder (ASD) complex developmental disabilities that impact the normal development of the brain processes related to so- cial interaction and communi- cation skills.

The Language of Early Childhood Special Education One of the challenges for generalist early childhood educators is learning special educa- tion terminology. Because each field tends to have its own vocabulary, communicating effectively across these related fields requires a common vocabulary.

Defining Terms Children with special needs is a broad term used to describe chil- dren who may have multiple risk factors, specialized health care needs (such as asthma), mental or emotional health concerns, severe allergies, or physical and/or cognitive dis- abilities. The more specific term children with disabilities refers to children who have been identified as having a specific category of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy. However, the terms children with special needs and children with disabilities are often used interchangeably.

Another all-encompassing, though less frequently used, term is exceptional children. This term is used to communicate inclusion of gifted and talented children as well as chil- dren whose development is below the expected range. In fact, the professional associa- tion for special education professionals is called the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). Early childhood special education professionals are members of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children. Table 5.2 lists and defines some of the most common categories of exceptionality.

Using Person-First Language A standard for professionals who work with individuals with special needs is that they use what is called person-first language. Person-first language recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a disability. Consider the difference between describing 4-year-old Zain as “a special needs child” and describing him as “a child with special needs.” The former phrase emphasizes

person-first language Language that recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a disability (e.g., saying “child with special needs” as opposed to “special needs child”).

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(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The first signs of autism often appear between 2 and 3 years of age. Young children with autism often have delays in language and communica- tion, including nonverbal communication such as pointing and gesturing. They may display repetitive motor behaviors, and are often inflexible in their routines and play. For example, a child with autism may have a severe emotional reaction to a change in schedule or inability to find a favorite toy. The thinking and learning abilities of children with autism can vary—from gifted to a more significant intellectual disability. Consider the following examples:

Jeffrey is two and a half years old with a head of curly brown hair. He does not talk yet, but if he wants something he will pull an adult by the hand to what he wants. Sometimes it is easy for his teacher to guess what he wants, but lately he has started crying, screaming, and falling on the ground if she is not able to get him what he wants right away. He spends most of his time wandering around the classroom hold- ing his favorite toy. When another child or teacher tries to play near him, he will quickly leave the area. He will often cry when changing from one activity to another, and once he starts crying it is very difficult to calm him down. Other children and teachers are starting to avoid interacting with him, afraid it may trigger his crying.

Nathan is 3 years old and can climb higher and faster than most other 3-year- olds. He has known his letters and numbers since age 2 and can read a variety of words and phrases. He cannot, however, consistently answer simple questions from adults, interact with children his own age, or tolerate changes to his routine. His parents are extremely concerned because they have been asked to stop bringing him to music lessons at the local community center. They were also told to find a “more appropriate” placement than the local co-op preschool. His grandparents wonder if there is anything “really wrong” with him or if his parents are simply overindulgent.

Cherish is 30 months old and has beautiful blue eyes. Her parents report that she used to walk around the house, point to objects, label them, and laugh. She does not do that anymore. In fact, these days she rarely speaks except to request certain apps or preferred foods. She rarely looks at people or things, unless she can find something that is spinning, and then she is mesmerized by it. Her parents cannot remember the last time that they heard her laugh.

These children are some of the characteristics of ASD. Each child is a reminder that ASD is a spectrum disorder, which means that children who receive this diagnosis differ

Inclusion means that every teacher must be prepared to work with children with disabilities and special needs in the regular classroom. The first step is for teachers to remember that children with disabilities are children first and, like every child, they are unique.

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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 157

dramatically in their abilities, preferences, needs, and areas of delay. As Jeffery, Nathan, and Cherish remind us, there is no “typical” child with ASD. Every child and family brings a unique set of strengths and challenges that must be considered when planning an educational program. Early identification and intervention for children with ASD can dramatically improve educational outcomes (Dawson et al., 2010).

Often, the first adults to notice some of the early signs of autism are teachers and caregivers. It can sometimes be difficult for caregivers to articulate developmental con- cerns when autism is the question, because many of the behaviors associated with ASD can seemingly be explained by other factors such as “He just needs to be disciplined,” “He is just like his father,” or “It is a phase he or she is going through.” As a result, teachers are often the first to recognize that a child’s behavior may be a red flag for a more serious developmental delay and may need to recommend to the family to take action by seeking out a trained professional in this area who can help. Red flags for autism in early child- hood (http://www.autismspeaks.org) include:

• No big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions by 6 months or thereafter • No back-and-forth sharing of sounds, smiles, or other facial expressions by

9 months or thereafter • No babbling by 12 months • No back-and-forth gestures, such as pointing, showing, reaching, or waving, by

12 months • No words by 16 months • No two-word meaningful phrases by 24 months • Any loss of speech or babbling or social skills at any age

The foundation of any program for a child with autism should be the practices that are important for all children, including supportive, caring adults, activities that promote high levels of active engagement, and meaningful interactions with peers. While a common goal is for all children to have opportunities to interact successfully with children and adults, children with autism may require special supports and strategies to be successful in social interactions. Fortunately, researchers have identified many practices that work well for supporting learning and social development for children with autism; some of these practices are described later in this chapter (Wong et al., 2014). One of the most valuable of these strategies is using pretend play to engage children with autism, as described in the feature, Promoting Play: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities.

In addition to understanding how to work effectively with children with special needs, all teachers must be familiar with special education laws. These laws are discussed in the next section.

What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements for Children with Disabilities Federal laws govern how special education services are delivered in the United States. First, we describe the legislation generally. Then we discuss in more detail the require- ments for individualized planning for children with special needs.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Many children with dis- abilities are eligible for early intervention and early childhood special education services. Both early intervention (EI) and early childhood special education (ECSE) are regulated under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), formerly the Education of the Handicapped Act. IDEA was designed to provide protections for children to ensure their right to a free appropriate public education (FAPE). The principle of the law is that children with disabilities should not be denied the same opportunities offered to ev- eryone else. To receive specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, children must meet eligibility guidelines accord- ing to IDEA. These guidelines are determined on a state-by-state basis.

free appropriate public education (FAPE) Education for children with disabilities that is required by IDEA, so that children with disabilities are not denied the same opportunities offered to everyone else.

eligibility guidelines Guide- lines established on a state- by-state basis according to IDEA that determine whether children may receive special education services.

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Part B of IDEA is a federal program that provides funds to states and local school districts to support education for children with disabilities from ages 3 to 21. The most relevant part of the law for early childhood teachers is Section 619 of Part B (also known as Early Childhood Special Education), which applies specifically to preschoolers with disabilities. To meet all children’s individual needs, the law requires that a team of educa- tors and family members create an individualized education plan for each student.

Part C (Early Intervention) provides funds for states to provide services for infants and toddlers who have disabilities or developmental delays. Some states provide early intervention services for infants and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and their families. Early Intervention services are discussed in more detail later in the chapter.

Individualized Education Programs When a child meets the disability re- quirements of the law and is identified as needing special education and related services, school districts are obligated to prepare and implement an individualized education program (IEP), which is designed to meet the unique needs of the child. The IEP is a written plan for services that is developed, reviewed, and revised by an IEP team. Click here to see a sample IEP. An IEP must contain the following information:

1. A statement of the child’s present levels of academic achievement and functional performance

individualized education program (IEP) A written plan designed to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability or special need; it is developed, reviewed, and revised by an IEP team during meetings for each child who is eligible for special education services.

Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities Play is an important learning activity for all chil- dren, and an important context for teachers to ob- serve what and how children are learning. Pretend play skills are associated with later language and social skills, self-regulation, and even reading skills. Children with disabilities, and especially children with autism, often have difficulty engaging in social and pretend play. Since pretend play is an impor- tant context for learning and development, teachers should carefully plan and support play activities and opportunities for children with disabilities.

Pretend play skills are excellent functional goals for children with disabilities: children learn to play with peers in a natural setting, and can learn important cognitive and motor skills embedded in the context of play. Furthermore, teachers can learn about chil- dren’s skill strengths and challenges by watching children play.

Teachers can support growth in children’s pretend play by modeling (showing how) and prompting children to engage in more sophisticated levels of pretend play. At the most basic level, children engage in functional play with some pretense, in

which a child might pretend to pour milk into a cup and drink it. At the next level, substitution, the child uses an object in some symbolic man- ner, such as using a block as a pretend cell phone. Teachers can support children in using sequences of pretend play and add vocalization. As an ex- ample, Adele enjoys playing with dolls, and her teacher, Alec, has noticed that she uses the toy spoon to feed the doll. Alec takes the opportunity to encourage a higher level of pretend play, and uses a small block as a bottle to “feed the baby” (substi- tution). He then encourages Adele to feed the baby, offering the block “bottle,” saying, “It’s your turn to feed the baby.” As Adele’s play becomes more sophisticated, Alec can continue to add more play sequences with the baby doll and include Adele’s peers in the pretend play.

Sources: “Teaching Pretend Play to Children with Disabilities: A Review of the Literature,” by E. E. Barton and M. Wolery, 2008, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 28, 109–125; and “Children’s Play: Where We Have Been and Where We Could Go,” by K. Lifter, E. J. Mason, and E. E. Barton, 2011, Journal of Early Intervention, 33, 281–297.

Promoting Play

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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 159

2. A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic and functional goals designed to: • Meet the child’s needs that result from the child’s disability to enable the child

to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum • Meet each of the child’s other educational needs that result from the child’s

disability 3. A description of benchmarks or short-term objectives 4. A description of:

• How the child’s progress toward meeting the annual goals will be measured • When periodic reports on the progress the child is making toward meeting the

annual goals (such as through the use of quarterly or other periodic reports, concurrent with the issuance of report cards) will be provided

5. A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services, based on peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be pro- vided to the child, or on behalf of the child

6. A statement of any individually appropriate accommodations that are necessary to measure the academic achievement and functional performance of the child on state- and district-wide assessments

The IEP Team The IEP is developed by a team that consists of educators, therapists and medical professionals, and family. By law, the team members must include:

• The child’s parent(s) or guardian(s) • The child’s early childhood teacher • The child’s early childhood special education teacher • A representative of the community program who has certain specific knowledge

and qualifications • An individual who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results

(this may be one of the other listed members, such as an occupational therapist or speech language pathologist)

• Other individuals, who are chosen at the discretion of the parent or the agency, who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services per- sonnel such as the speech language pathologist or physical therapist, as appropriate

A universal design element, such as this automatic sink, eliminates a barrier for children who might have difficulty operating the handles while also achieving the goal of teaching proper hand washing to all children.

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Early Intervention for Infants and Toddlers Children from birth to 3 years old who have a developmental delay, a diagnosed condition, or, in some states, who are identified as at risk for developing a developmental delay may qualify for early inter- vention (EI) services. These children will have an individualized family service plan (IFSP). An IFSP documents and guides the early intervention process for children with disabilities and their families. The IFSP contains information about the services neces- sary to support a child’s development and enhance the family’s capacity to facilitate the child’s development. Some parents learn that their child has a disability before or imme- diately after birth, and the hospital may initiate EI soon after. For other children, delays or disabilities emerge later. In these cases, a parent, other family member, pediatrician, teacher, child care provider, or family friend initially may raise concerns about the child’s development.

Children with developmental delays enter EI services following diagnostic testing or developmental evaluation administered in partnership with the family by a team of specialists. Through the IFSP process, family members and service providers work as a team to plan, implement, and evaluate services tailored to the family’s unique concerns, priorities, and resources.

According to IDEA, the IFSP, like the IEP, is a written plan that must contain specific information, including:

1. The child’s present levels of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emo- tional, and adaptive development

2. The family’s resources, priorities, and concerns relating to enhancing the develop- ment of the child with a disability

3. The major outcomes to be achieved for the child and the family; the criteria, pro- cedures, and timelines used to determine progress; and whether modifications or revisions of the outcomes or services are necessary

4. Specific early intervention services necessary to meet the unique needs of the child and the family, including the frequency, intensity, and the method of delivery

5. The environments in which services will be provided, including justification of the extent, if any, to which the services will not be provided in a natural environment. The natural environment refers to settings that are natural or normal for the child’s same-age peers without disabilities

6. The projected dates for initiation of services and their anticipated duration 7. The name of the service provider who will be responsible for implementing the

plan and coordinating with other agencies and persons 8. Steps to support the child’s transition to preschool or other appropriate services

Differences between IFSPs and IEPs Unlike the IEP, the IFSP (Bruder, 2001):

• Revolves around the family, because the family is the constant in a child’s life

• Includes outcomes for the family, as opposed to focusing only on the child • Includes activities involving multiple agencies to integrate all services

into one plan • Names a service coordinator to help the family during the develop-

ment, implementation, and evaluation of the IFSP • Involves the notion of natural environments, which create opportu-

nities for learning interventions in everyday routines and activities, rather than only in formal, contrived environments

The laws that dictate services for children with disabilities and special needs reflect research demonstrating the benefits of such services for children with special needs and the larger society. The laws also reflect underlying values about what life should be like for all children. However, laws and procedures related to services can be confusing for families. Community organizations,

individualized family service plan (IFSP) Documents and guides the early interven- tion process for children with disabilities from birth to age 3 and their families; contains information about the services necessary to facilitate a child’s development and enhance the family’s capacity to facilitate the child’s development.

Classroom Connection In this video, a parent describes her experience with early inter- vention and early childhood spe- cial education services. In what ways have these services helped her daughter and supported her family?

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schools, and teachers are responsible for understanding and communicating to families how educational systems work for children with special needs.

Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion One of the primary goals of federal laws governing services for children with disabilities is to make sure that these children lead lives that are as similar as possible to those of chil- dren who do not have disabilities. To achieve this goal, professionals need to understand the rationale and embrace the values that led to the law being passed in the first place.

Benefits of Natural Learning Environments Part C requires that EI ser- vices be embedded in everyday routines and activities, and occur in the children’s natural learning environments. Settings where infants, toddlers, and their families would be spending time if the child did not have a disability, natural learning environments can be child care centers, parks, a neighbor’s house, or the zoo. Natural learning environments are important because for young children, learning occurs most effectively in the contexts where children will need to use the new skill (Dunst, 2011; Dunst, Hamby, Trivette, Raab, & Bruder, 2000).

So, what is not a natural environment? Places children go because they have a disability, such as hospitals, clinics, and therapy offices, are not optimal places for children to learn new skills. Young children, especially those under age 3, do not easily learn a skill in one setting and transfer it to another. Furthermore, just because a setting is natural does not insure that a child with a disability will be able to access and ben- efit from what the environment offers. Teachers can use principles of universal design to plan for curriculum, assessment, and environmental adaptations to accommodate the individual needs of all learners (http:// ectacenter.org/ topics/atech/udl.asp). Learn more about how early childhood teachers can use materials and technology to accom- modate the individual needs of all learners in the feature What Works: Principles of Universal Design.

Benefits of Inclusion Inclusion is based on the same principle as natural learning environments—that children with disabilities need to be with their peers without dis- abilities. Although most images of inclusion involve school settings such as preschool or public schools, inclusion is also important in home and community environments such as parks, recreation, and faith settings.

Inclusion requires more than just access to set- tings; children need to participate as fully as possi- ble and receive the supports they and their teachers need to ensure they make progress toward impor- tant learning goals (Division for Early Childhood [DEC] & National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2009). Successful inclusion means that all children in the classroom participate, learn, and thrive. Many, but not all, children with special needs will need individual- ized instruction to achieve positive learning and developmental outcomes in inclusive programs. But it is also important to cultivate a culture of inclusion that provides children with and without disabilities a sense of belonging and membership in the peer group (DEC & NAEYC, 2009).

It is important for teachers to understand that inclusion benefits all of society, in addition to the children with disabilities. Children with disabilities

natural learning environments Settings that are natural or normal for the child’s same-age peers without disabilities such as child care centers, parks, a neighbor’s house, or the zoo, as opposed to hospitals, clinics, and therapy offices.

Intentional teachers foster friendships between children with special needs and their typically developing peers. What are some ways teachers can build positive relationships among children in inclusive classrooms?

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develop opportunities to share in the daily life of their community, and they do as well or better than children in specialized programs, particularly with respect to social develop- ment (NPDCI, 2007). Children without disabilities benefit by developing positive attitudes toward individuals with diverse abilities. Families of children with and without disabilities benefit from developing strong, supportive relationships that enhance the quality of life. In the sections that follow, we describe what teachers need to do for children with special needs if inclusion is to be effective.

✓ Check Your Understanding 5.5: Individual Differences in Ability

Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities The purpose of inclusion is to ensure that the individual needs of all children are be- ing met in shared settings. However, identifying what practices are best for children of varying abilities may be challenging for an early childhood teacher. The Division for Early Childhood (2014) has established a set of recommended practices designed to improve outcomes for children with disabilities, birth to 5 years of age. They in- clude practices associated with assessment, environment, family, instruction, inter- action, teaming and collaboration, and transitions. All professionals who work with

What Works Principles of Universal Design Universal design is the creation of products and environments that are accessible to all people—individuals with and without disabili- ties. Obvious examples of universal design are sidewalk curb cuts and ramps that are essential for people in wheelchairs. However, ramps also benefit travelers with roller-bag luggage, parents with strollers, elderly people, and even toddlers who haven’t mastered steps. Examples abound in today’s world, including Velcro, auto- matic doors, nonslip surfaces, closed captioning, and signs with universally recognizable symbols.

Planning environments based on principles of universal de- sign from the beginning prevents the need to modify at a later time. Successful inclusion in early childhood programs requires three major components: access to the learning environment and curriculum, participation in activities and routines, and adequate support for teachers—all of which are facilitated by attention to universal design. Intentional planning and implementation of uni- versal design enables teachers to promote development and dif- ferentiate instruction for every child. Following are examples of practices based on universal design principles:

• Provide toys and learning materials that have a variety of tex- tures, scents, and sounds, as well as visual stimuli. For example, an assortment of balls of different colors, sizes, and textures (squishy, soft, or rubbery) facilitate engagement for children with sensory impairments. Some balls make noise or light up as they roll or bounce, providing extra cues for children with special

universal design The creation of products and environments that are accessible to all people—individuals with and without disabilities.

needs and also making the toys more inter- esting for all children.

• Blocks are an excellent example of universal de- sign because there is no right or wrong way to play with them. Wooden unit blocks come in various shapes and sizes, enabling children to engage with them in multiple ways. Blocks that have textured sides and make noise add additional sensory clues as well as challenges for children.

• Colorful, magnetic plastic blocks or table toys can be stacked and rearranged easily without frustrating children who have physical or sensory disabilities. Originally invented by Maria Montessori, puzzle pieces with knobs enable children with vi- sual impairments to use their sense of touch to successfully play with others.

• Books with easy-to-turn pages, and various sizes of pictures and text, facilitate children’s independent literacy learning. Those with textures, cutouts, and sound effects engage chil- dren’s interests. Sturdy board books make page-turning easier. Books on iPad or audiotape help children with hearing disabili- ties participate in the language and literacy curriculum.

Sources: Based on “Learning Materials for Children of All Abilities: Begin with Universal Design,” by K. Haugen, 2005, Exchange, 161 (January/ February), 45–47; and About UDL: What Is Universal Design for Learning, National Center on Universal Design for Learning, retrieved September 22, 2012, from http://www.cast.org/udl.

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children with disabilities should be familiar with and adhere to this set of recom- mended practices.

Children with disabilities often require environments that are “organized and ad- justed to minimize the effects of their disabilities and to promote learning of a broad range of skills” (Wolery, Strain, & Bailey, 1992, p. 95). They also may need special- ized instruction, as with Tier 3 interventions in RTI (NPDCI, 2009). Such specialized instruction involves teachers matching an individual child’s goals and objectives with appropriate teaching methods and materials. In addition, teachers need to decide what amount of assistance each child with special needs requires, provide the assistance, and then determine whether the instruction was effective. Most often, a team of specialists is available to help the early childhood teacher achieve these goals. Three types of prac- tices that early childhood teachers can employ to support children with special needs are described below: team collaboration, assessment, and planning and implementing individualized strategies.

Work on a Team Working collaboratively with a team is critical to the success of including young children with special needs in the classroom. Each member of the team has different expertise in areas such as early childhood, special education, motor development, and communication development. Additionally, all members possess specific knowledge about the particular child. The child’s family plays an important role in the collaborative team. They (1) pro- vide information about their child’s strengths and needs, (2) help assess functional skills and develop the IFSP or IEP with the team, (3) implement intervention strategies at home and in the community, and (4) provide critical information about the effectiveness of interventions.

At the IEP or IFSP team meeting, professionals and family members collaborate to (1) identify and prioritize individualized goals, (2) determine if modifications to the en- vironment or curriculum are needed, (3) design specialized instructional strategies, and (4) monitor the child’s progress toward the goals. Teamwork and collaboration goes be- yond team meetings. Many people, including family members, teacher assistants, and community partners, work to facilitate children’s learning beyond the classroom, into home and community settings.

Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities The effectiveness of individualized instruction for children with disabilities depends in large part on accurately assessing their needs and progress. Throughout this book we ad- dress the topic of assessment as related to all children. In this section, we discuss types of assessment that are used in order to best accommodate children with special needs. Screening, diagnostic, and eligibility assessments, are used by specialists to determine whether the child has a developmental delay or disability and is eligible for services. Curriculum-based assessment and routines-based assessment are the most appropriate and useful to early childhood teachers for planning what children with special needs should be learning.

Curriculum-Based Assessments Curriculum-based assessments trace a child’s progress along a continuum of functional skills within a developmentally sequenced curriculum organized by developmental domain. Functional skills are those that are useful and meaningful to children in their everyday lives. For example, it is generally useful for children to learn to use the toilet, feed themselves, communicate and play with peers, and count objects. A developmental domain is an area of development such as fine and gross motor skills, cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities, and social and communication skills. Curriculum-based assessments serve to link assessment, interven- tion, and evaluation, as the following example illustrates:

specialized instruction Involves teachers matching an individual child’s goals and objectives with appropriate teaching methods and materi- als, deciding what amount of assistance each child with special needs requires, providing the assistance, and then determining whether the instruction was effective.

functional skills Skills that are useful to children in their everyday lives.

developmental domain An area of development such as fine and gross motor skills, cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities, and social and communication skills.

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Corwin (age 3½) has experienced an eligibility evaluation for special education based on a recommendation from his pediatrician. According to the multidisciplinary team, he qualifies for early childhood special education because he has a moderate communication and social skills delay. Consequently, Corwin’s parents are referred to the local preschool special education program near their house. After his parents observe the inclusive program, they enroll Corwin. During his first week at school, Corwin’s teachers use a published curriculum-based measure to identify his needs and develop functional goals and objectives for his IEP. Test items list functional skills in predictable developmental sequence. The assessment is conducted within the context of the preschool routines and activities.

When Taiya Stoner, Corwin’s teacher, observes him independently perform items that are on the test, these tasks are noted as “mastered” and listed as his cur- rent levels of performance on his IEP. For example, Corwin mastered one goal—uses simple problem-solving strategies—because he said “NO!” when a child took his crayon. Behaviors he had difficulty displaying or did not display over the course of a few observations, such as initiating play activities with another child, were consid- ered targets for intervention and added as goals for his IEP. After his teachers and therapists provide instruction to Corwin on the identified goals, they administer the assessment again to determine whether their guidance was effective and to establish new goals for Corwin.

In this example, all of the steps of the linked system are in place. First, the teachers use the assessment to determine what the child needs to learn and then they teach the skills identified. Finally, the team reassesses, using the same tool to determine whether Corwin is making progress.

Routines-Based Assessment Another approach for determining goals for a child is called routines-based assessment, which is used to determine which functional skills a child should be taught. In a routines-based assessment, those who know the child well (e.g., family members, teachers) describe how their child participates in the typical routines of daily living (McWilliam, 2010). For example, Gwynneth’s kindergarten teach- er, Tamara Calhoun, is asked by the special education teacher to complete a routines- based assessment of Gwynneth’s performance throughout the day in order to identify some functional learning goals for her. Tamara lists classroom activities in chronological order, such as arrival, circle time, centers, clean up, snack, and so on. She then observes Gwynneth’s behavior during these routines and sets goals to work on with her, such as “Gwynneth will get off bus; walk to the classroom with group; put coat and backpack in cubby.” Using routines-based assessment at home, her parents’ list includes typical daily routines such as wake up, eat breakfast, and get dressed.

To ensure accurate information as well as follow-through, parents of children with special needs must participate in the assessment process. After the team gathers informa- tion to determine the child’s functional goals, the next step is to plan for individualized instruction.

Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies Every early childhood teacher needs a repertoire of teaching strategies to be effective with all children. Sometimes, however, in order to learn new skills, children with special needs require more explicit teaching than do typically developing children. In these instanc- es, teachers use strategies that are carefully planned and implemented more frequently throughout the day. Individualizing instruction involves identifying specific goals, creat- ing learning opportunities, providing teacher support, reinforcing children’s learning, and monitoring their progress.

Identify Goals for Children Either of the assessment approaches described previously can be used to determine learning goals. The ECSE teacher on the team

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can help write objectives that are functional and generative. Generative skills are those that can be used across settings, people, events, and objects. For example, one of the skills identified for Damon is “uses two fingers to pick up objects.” To be gen- erative, Damon needs to learn to use the skill across settings such as during mealtime to pick up Cheerios, or in the bath to pick up the soap. He also needs to use the skill across objects, such as crayons or beads, and under various conditions, such as when the items are mushy or hard. If an identified skill is too limited, such as “uses a finger and thumb grasp to put beads into a bottle,” it is difficult to create enough learning opportunities to be effective and the skill is less likely to be useful in different situations.

Create Learning Opportunities Effective teachers create learning opportuni- ties in daily routines and activities that provide the child with multiple tools for learning a new skill (McWilliam, 2010). These opportunities may be more focused but are not essentially different from those provided for every child. One strategy is to introduce unexpected events, as when the teacher says or does something that the child does not anticipate. These events may be funny or interesting things the adult says. For example, when teaching 6-year-old Miguel to use prepositions, his teacher walks over to where he is sitting and sits backwards next to him. Then she asks, “Miguel, where are you?” Miguel, giggling, says, “Right here.” His teacher says “Right where? Are you behind me or in front of me?”

Use Helping Strategies To help children learn skills, teachers use helping strate- gies called prompts. These are gestural, model, physical, pictorial, or verbal supports that help children use a specific skill (Neitzel & Wolery, 2009; Sandall & Schwartz, 2008):

• Gestural prompts. Movements that teachers use to let children know what behavior is expected. For example, when the teacher wants Julia to ask for more raisins, she waits and looks expectantly at Julia until Julia says, “I want more raisins.”

• Model prompts. Involves the teacher saying or doing the behavior he wants the child to do. The teacher says “please” and “thank you” when he passes food during lunchtime.

generative skills Skills that can be used across settings, people, events, and objects.

prompts Gestural, model, physical, pictorial, or verbal clues that elicit responses from children to assist them in using a specific skill.

All children have different abilities and interests that teachers can use to help them meet learning goals. With minor adaptations, this teacher provides support for every child to learn early literacy skills.

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• Physical prompts. Gentle touching and guiding of children by the teacher to help the children accomplish a skill. When teaching Larisha to wash her hands, the teacher places her hands over Larisha’s hands and helps her to turn on the faucet, get soap, rub her hands together, dry her hands, and turn off the faucet with the towel.

• Pictorial prompts. Visual cues that help children accomplish a skill. To help Owen play independently at center time, his teacher places pictures of each center on a piece of construction paper, and Owen refers to a picture when he moves to another activity area.

• Verbal prompts. Teacher language strategies that help children accomplish a skill. When it is time for Dushawn to come to the group for story time, his teacher gives him a verbal prompt: “Dushawn, please come sit on your carpet square next to me.” This may be enough for Dushawn to learn that he is expected to join the group.

Reinforce Children’s Learning When children receive positive reinforcement following performance of a new skill, they are more likely to try the new skill again. In educational settings, positive reinforcement can be very simple and natural. Naturally occurring reinforcers are consequences that are likely to occur whenever the child per- forms the skill and are therefore highly effective. For example, when Raven puts on her coat independently, the teacher says, “Raven, you zipped up your coat all by yourself. Now you can go outside to play.” Some examples of naturally occurring reinforcers include the child using the paint after making a request to do so; playing with friends after asking to join the group; and being acknowledged by a teacher for trying hard at a difficult task.

Monitor Progress The effectiveness of instruction depends on the team monitoring the child’s progress to determine if the child has met a goal and is ready to move on to learning a new skill, or if the IEP needs modification. Information about children’s prog- ress can be collected in many ways. One data collection system used by many teachers is to observe and document the child’s learning using a checklist of skills or a rating scale of the child’s performance. A rating scale allows the teacher to indicate the level of a child’s skill along a continuum. For example, the lowest level might be “child refuses to perform the skill” and the highest “child performs the skill independently,” with several steps in between.

States must also monitor Early Childhood Outcomes (ECO) for children who receive services for special needs, whether through Part C (Early Intervention) or Part B (Pre- school). They must report the percentage of infants and toddlers with Individualized Fam- ily Service Plans (IFSPs) or preschool children with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) who demonstrate improved:

a. Positive social-emotional skills (including social relationships) b. Acquisition and use of knowledge and skills (including early language/

communication [and early literacy for preschoolers]) c. Use of appropriate behavior to meet needs

Because these outcomes apply to all children, they can help professionals and families communicate effectively regarding children’s goal progress and needs (http://ectacenter. org/eco/pages/faqs.asp).

All early childhood teachers need to learn how to teach children with special needs in inclusive settings. In addition, when general early childhood educators learn some of the important skills of early childhood special education, they can apply these skills to teaching all children. Read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Individualizing Group Time feature for an example of applying this special education knowledge with typically developing children.

naturally occurring reinforcers Consequences that are likely to occur whenever the child performs the skill and are, therefore, highly effective.

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Having explored the topic of individual differences among typically developing children as well as children with special needs, we now see that teachers can draw on a large body of effective practices to achieve their goals for all children. Successful inclu- sion of children with disabilities and special needs involves much more than the children’s presence in the classroom. Teachers need to get to know all of the children and continu- ally assess their learning and development. They must plan and implement individual- ized instructional strategies. Most important, teachers must create a classroom climate in which every child is valued and fully included.

✓ Check Your Understanding 5.6: Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Individualizing Group Time Here’s What Happened Halfway through the kinder- garten year, there was a child in my class, Tasha, who con- tinued to have difficulty with large-group instruction times. She would touch the other children, sometimes even lean- ing her whole body against them and touching their hair or faces. She was easily distracted and stood up to look out the windows several times during story time. She also would leave circle time before it finished and wander around.

So, here is what I did. I gave each child a carpet square to use during circle time, placing Tasha farthest away from the window but closest to me. I started circle time with an active movement song. When the children sat down, I gave Tasha a card to hold that had pictures of the expected be- haviors when sitting in a large group (keep feet and hands to self; look and listen to the action; raise a quiet hand to ask a question). Tasha and I had made the card together. She drew the pictures and I wrote the words for each re- minder. I also used Tasha’s favorite puppet, Whiskers, to greet and excuse children at circle time.

Here’s What I Was Thinking Tasha has difficulty attending in large groups and is easily distracted. Young children in general can have difficulty remembering ex- pected behaviors and directions. I also realized that Tasha wasn’t as motivated as other children were to listen and participate at circle time. At first, I thought that perhaps I should let Tasha wander when she didn’t want to be at circle time. But she is already 6 years old and, although she has some difficulties with attention, her parents and I

believe that she can be success- ful at circle time. Starting with an active song helps get some energy out before sitting. The carpet squares help Tasha, and other children, remember where to keep their bodies during circle time. Placing Ta- sha’s seat away from the windows minimizes distractions, and seating her close to me allows for some gentle remind- ers to pay attention.

I wasn’t completely sure that I should single Tasha out by giving her a “reminder card,” but then I figured Tasha was already being singled out by her peers as the one who al- ways disrupted their story. I could explain to the children that everyone in the class has their individual needs met— for example, children with allergies, special diets, adap- tive pencils, and so on. The reminder card is helping Tasha remember what we all are supposed to be doing at group time. The card also keeps Tasha’s hands busy, making it less likely that she will touch her peers. Beginning and end- ing circle time with Whiskers, the cat puppet, motivates Tasha to come to circle right away and stay through the end. These easy-to-implement modifications help Tasha to learn more and spend more time with her peers.

Reflection Even though all children are not alike, teach- ing in whole group can be an efficient and effective strat- egy at times. Do you think it’s fair that some children are treated differently during group times? What other strate- gies could the teacher use to engage all the children fully?

. . . Ms. Creighton’s Classroom

At the beginning of this chapter, we met some of the children in Lindsay Creighton’s preschool class and

wondered how she could possibly meet the needs of these diverse children. Now that we have explored the

topic of adapting for individual differences, we can see how Lindsay successfully teaches all of the children.

Revisiting the Case Study

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Lindsay’s study of child development helps her to understand that children’s personalities and

behaviors are the result of an interaction between their genetic makeup and their experiences in the

environment. Therefore, she is aware of how important her work is in helping them achieve their full

potential. Lindsay has high goals for each child’s learning. But she realizes that because children are

unique, she needs to use differentiated instruction to help them achieve the goals.

For Cal, whose grandmother does not speak English, Lindsay works with a translator as well

as a team that includes a social worker. Lindsay recognizes that Rohan and Ruby, who both seem

painfully shy, are also very different. They each have different interests and abilities. Because

Rohan likes quiet activities and playing with one other child, Lindsay encourages him in that direc-

tion and he gradually becomes more confident. Ruby is hesitant until she is assured that Lindsay

will protect her from an allergic reaction. The other children soon become comfortable with that

fact as they say, “Ruby’s body was born not liking peanuts.” They all embrace the need to protect

Ruby’s health.

Although at first Lindsay and the other children mix up the twins, Alex and Alice, they soon

become aware that each is an individual. Lindsay focuses on working with each girl separately and

engaging them in different activities so their uniqueness becomes evident to all. Carter’s needs

are more severe and specific. Working as a member of his IEP team and supported by his parents,

Lindsay becomes more confident in her ability to teach Carter and to help him achieve his indi-

vidualized goals.

After several months of working with this class, Lindsay decides that adapting for individual varia-

tion is the most interesting part of her work. At first, she was concerned when confronted with such

diversity. But now, she finds that children’s individuality is what makes her days most interesting and

unpredictable. As she expands her repertoire of skills for working with diverse children, she finds that

seeing individual children’s progress is richly rewarding. ■

• Children differ from one another in many ways, including rate and timing of cognitive and language development, social skills and temperament, and inter- ests. The transactional theory of development explains that development is influenced by both biology and experience, and how they interact with each other.

• Effective early childhood teachers understand the importance of knowing each child as an individual. One of the most useful frameworks for thinking about the variation among children is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

• Differentiating instruction means to create multiple paths so that children of different abilities, interests, or learning needs experience equally appropriate ways to achieve important learning goals.

• All teachers need to be prepared to work with children who have special learning and developmental needs because federal law requires it, effective practices exist to alter the course of children’s learning, and many of these practices can be used with typically developing children.

• Specialized instruction involves teachers matching an individual child’s goals with appropriate teaching methods and materials, deciding what amount of assis- tance is needed by the child, providing the assistance, and determining whether the instruction was effective. Of equal importance to specialized instruction is culti- vating a culture of inclusion, which provides children with disabilities with a sense of belonging and mem- bership in the peer group.

Chapter Summary5

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Key Terms ■■ approaches to learning ■■ autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

■■ children with disabilities ■■ children with special needs

■■ Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

■■ developmental domain ■■ differentiated instruction ■■ Division for Early Childhood (DEC)

■■ eligibility guidelines ■■ exceptional children ■■ free appropriate public education (FAPE)

■■ functional skills ■■ generative skills ■■ individualized education program (IEP)

■■ individualized family service plan (IFSP)

■■ natural learning environments

■■ naturally occurring reinforcers

■■ nature ■■ nurture ■■ person-first language ■■ prompts ■■ protective factors ■■ resilience ■■ Response to Intervention (RTI)

■■ risk factors

■■ specialized instruction ■■ temperament ■■ theory of multiple intelligences

■■ transactional theory of development

■■ universal deign

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

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Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Excep- tional Children. (2014). DEC Recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education. Available on DEC website.

Gadzikowski, A. (2013). Challenging exceptionally bright children in early childhood classrooms. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Sandall, S., & Schwartz, I. (2008). Building blocks for successful early childhood programs: Strategies for including all children (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Center for Response to Intervention in Early Children Visit this website for more information and resources on differentiating instruction for young learners.

Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children On the DEC website, you can find numerous resources, and can also download and read DEC Recommended

practices in early intervention/early childhood special education.

Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) This website at FPG Child Development Institute offers resources about early childhood outcomes, universal design, Response to Intervention, early intervention, Preschool 619 services, and a variety of other topics.

National Professional Development Center on Inclusion At this website at FPG Child Development Institute, you will find research and resources for supporting the inclu- sion of children with disabilities in settings with peers.

Project Zero View the Project Zero website at Harvard University to learn more about application and research studies related to multiple intelligences and learning.

Readings and Websites

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6 Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

6.1 Define culture and explain how cultural contexts influence children’s learning and development.

6.2 Describe how the rules for behavior differ among various cultural groups and how they are similar.

6.3 Describe how your own cultural background influences your thinking and behavior.

6.4 Analyze why teachers need to understand and be sensitive to children’s linguistic and cultural diversity.

6.5 Discuss effective cross-cultural communication strategies.

6.6 Apply principles of culturally responsive, developmentally appropriate practices.

Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World

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171

W ith her newly achieved associate’s degree in early childhood

education, Stacey Griffin is excited about her first job as a teacher

of 18- to 30-month-old children in a child care center. Even though

the center is located in a neighborhood close to where Stacey grew up, the population of the area has changed

considerably in recent years. An influx of immigrants from Latin America is apparent in the number of families

with young children who have displaced the elderly, white, European American, long-term residents, as well as in

the goods available and language spoken in local markets. Despite these changes, Stacey feels confident that she

knows enough about child development and early childhood practice to be a good teacher.

By the end of the first month, however, Stacey is feeling frustrated and less sure of herself. In the mornings,

most of the families arrive late. They continue to carry their children into the classroom even though Stacey has

informed them (gently, she thinks) that the children are capable of walking on their own and need to practice their

developing motor skills. Similarly, she disapproves of the parents’ continuing to spoon-feed the children rather

than giving them finger food that they can manage on their own.

Mrs. Arguenta is unhappy that Stacey isn’t cooperating in toilet training 18-month-old Ilsia. Stacey thinks Ilsia is

too young because she can’t verbalize her need to use the potty. Mrs. Arguenta says that Ilsia is already using the

potty at home and wants Ilsia to be dry. To make matters worse, Mrs. Arguenta sends

Ilsia to child care wearing her best clothes and buckle shoes. Stacey thinks toddlers

need to move about in comfort and should go barefoot to help them with their walking.

Besides, the floor is carpeted.

Stacey tries to build a relationship with Mrs. Arguenta. She asks

Mrs. Arguenta to call her Stacey instead of Miss Griffin, but Mrs. Arguenta

ignores this friendly overture. Every time Stacey tries to meet

with her to discuss Ilsia, Mrs. Arguenta is late or doesn’t come.

One day, Mrs. Arguenta sends Ilsia’s 10-year-old sister to pick

her up, which is a violation of center policies.

Stacey can’t understand why Mrs. Arguenta and

the other families are being so difficult when she

works so hard to communicate with them. ■

Case Study

S ome readers may think that Stacey’s struggles as a new teacher are caused by the fact that she is working with difficult or uninterested parents. Others may think that Stacey is too inflexible to respond to legitimate concerns of families. In fact, Stacey

and Mrs. Arguenta are operating from two different, albeit equally legitimate, cultural perspectives on appropriate child rearing. In the example above, we see the conflicts entirely from Stacey’s perspective. But if the story were told from Mrs. Arguenta’s view or that of other families, we might question Stacey’s skills as a teacher; we might also question her sensitivity to the families’ perspectives. In this situation, whatever appears to be happening on the surface, the underlying reality is an encounter between individuals from different cultural contexts.

The United States is becoming an increasingly diverse country. In the last decade, the number of white students in public schools decreased from 60% to 52%, and the His- panic population of students increased from 17% to 24% (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014c). Most early childhood programs serve children from diverse linguistic and cultural groups or will do so in the future. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to understand and embrace the realities of a culturally and linguistically diverse world.

But culture and its influences are subtle. Moreover, the majority cultural group of the United States—predominantly individuals of Anglo-European descent—tends to define

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach172

culture and linguistic diversity as issues or challenges to be dealt with or solved. In fact, the word diverse means different, which raises the question, “Different from what?” The implication is that people whose cultural identity is not white European American or who are not native speakers of English are different from the norm.

In this book, we talk about the realities of culture and language because these forces influence the learning and development of all children. At the same time, we use the verb embrace when discussing culture and language to create a classroom climate that is cul- turally and linguistically supportive and responsive for all children. We believe that such a perspective is a precursor to helping all children achieve their full potentials.

In this chapter, we define the term culture and identify the basic principles of the role of culture in development and learning. We also describe a framework for thinking about contrasting cultural beliefs, values, and practices. We discuss effective teaching and learn- ing strategies for working with all children, beginning with awareness of one’s own cultural perspective.

Understanding Cultural Diversity The United States has always been a nation of immigrants, its diversity being a hallmark of American society. Recent waves of immigration and higher birth rates among certain groups have made the nation even more diverse. The U.S. Census Bureau projects that by 2020, approximately 51% of the children in the United States will be Latino, Asian, or African American/African (Child Trends, 2014), and 26% of children will be Hispanic. In many parts of the country, the majority of children are members of a so-called “ minority” group. In the future, the concepts of majority and minority status are likely to become confusing if not meaningless.

Given the diversity of children and families served in programs, as well as changing demographics, every teacher will work with diverse groups of children and families. Even if differences are not outwardly apparent, individuals differ from one another in many ways: religion, national heritage, language, traditions, and many more. Therefore, all teachers must be committed to making it part of their ongoing education to learn about the diverse populations of their classrooms.

What Is Culture? Culture refers to explicit and implicit values, beliefs, and patterns of behavior that are passed on from generation to generation (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2009). Culture encompasses customs, rituals, ways of inter- acting and communicating, and expectations for behaviors, roles, and relationships that are shared by members of a group (Olsen, Bhattacharya, & Scharf, 2007).

To understand the concept of culture, it is crucial to understand that culture is a charac- teristic of groups, not an aspect of individual variation. Children learn the values, beliefs,

and expectations for behavior from their cultural group. In Chapter 4, we learned how young children are similar to other children of the same age. In Chapter 5, we dis- cussed how each child is unique and different from every other child. In this chapter, we describe how children share similar characteristics with other children of their cultural group. Although each of these three chapters focuses on a distinct principle of development, it is important to recog- nize that these principles are interrelated. All three of the following statements are equally true:

•  Every child is like all other children in some ways. •   Every child is like some other children in some ways 

(those who are members of the same cultural group). •  Every child is like no other child.

culture Explicit and implicit values, beliefs, and patterns of behavior that are passed on from generation to generation; customs, rituals, ways of in- teracting and communicating, and expectations for behaviors, roles, and relationships that are shared by members of a group.

The population of young children in the United States is becoming ever more diverse. Effective teachers embrace the realities of cultural and linguis- tic diversity to help all children reach their full potentials.

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 173

Sometimes discussions of culture are limited, focusing on superficial characteristics such as those that can be observed. For example, we judge cultural origin based on the clothing that people wear, the holidays they celebrate, the accents with which they speak, or the music they enjoy. Although these external cues reveal something about children and their families, they neglect or ignore the deeper structures of culture—the values and rules—that truly influence behavior and decisions. Figure 6.1 illustrates the reality of culture, in which the surface characteristics are only the “tip of the iceberg” while the fundamental elements tend to be invisible.

The Role of Culture in Development Why is culture so relevant for early childhood educators? The simplest answer to this question is that culture shapes and influences every child’s development and learning (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2004; Trawick-Smith, 2013). In fact, all aspects of human life are touched and affected by people’s cultural contexts. This includes how people communicate, think, behave, solve problems, and organize communities and governments (Lynch, 2011).

Although the biological factors that influence maturation are similar for all human beings, culture has a huge influence on how children experience their growth and

Visible Surface Aspects

Invisible Deep

Structure

Norms

Assumptions

Beliefs

Expectations for Behavior

Values

Rules and Roles

History

Language Foods

Clothing

Material Artifacts

Celebrations

Music

FIGURE 6.1 Model of Culture The complexity of culture is like an iceberg—the visible elements are only a small part while the deeper structures truly influence behavior and decisions.

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development—on how they are nurtured (Trawick-Smith, 2013). In general, cultural rules influence how children behave and how they make sense of their experiences.

Culture Influences Behavior Acculturation is the process whereby children learn expected rules of behavior. From their cultural group, children learn such critical lessons as how to show respect and how to properly greet an older or younger person, a friend, or a stranger (Rogoff, 2003).

Consider the range of child-rearing practices among various cultural groups. Are babies carried on mother’s backs or pushed in strollers? Does the family remain silent during meals or talk openly? Do parents feel comfortable playing with their children or find this behavior embarrassing? Are mothers primarily responsible for a baby’s care or is that care shared among different members of the extended family? These are only a few examples of the many ways cultural practices begin to shape children’s development from the earliest moments of life.

Some cultural rules are explicitly taught, such as “hold the fork in your right hand and the knife in your left,” or vice versa. In most countries, mixing up these rules would be of little consequence. By contrast, in Middle Eastern cultures, people eat with their right hand and use their left hand for toileting. Therefore, offering your left hand to someone is interpreted as a grave insult.

Children learn many cultural rules from adults or other children through modeling. From observation, children learn when to smile or look someone in the eye (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). They also learn when to speak up and when to listen (Ramsey, 2004). They learn whether people shake hands or bow in greeting. In fact, what is considered appropriate behavior, thinking, or problem solving in a given situation is always culturally determined (Lynch, 2011). Consider how different cultural perspectives on appropriate child rearing come into play in the following situation:

Patty Briggs is so excited because she has finally been approved to adopt a child from Costa Rica. She is prepared to stay there for several weeks to get to know her little boy, who is 12 months old, and for his foster family to get to know her. Even though Patty has studied child development and taken care of many young children, after a few days in Costa Rica, she starts to feel uncertain. Whenever she puts the baby down to crawl on the floor, the foster mother frowns and immediately picks him up. Patty is concerned because the baby is always so warmly dressed in a tropical climate. She finds that he has diaper rash and wants to remove some of his warm clothing to help him heal. However, it’s clear that the foster mother thinks he will get cold and become ill. During the time that Patty is in Costa Rica, she respects the foster mother’s mode of caring for the baby, but also treats his diaper rash. After the adoption, she sends photos of him to his foster fam- ily to reassure them that he is well cared for. (P. Briggs, personal communication, 1990)

Culture Creates Meaning Cultural rules determine the meaning attached to par- ticular behaviors. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of how different experiences can carry different meanings for children. Consider the example of physical touch. Touch is an important aspect of human behavior, but different cultural groups attach different inter- pretations to the same kinds of touch (Lynch, 2011). In the United States, it is not unusual for opposite-sex couples to hold hands or lock arms as outward signs of affection. In other parts of the world, these behaviors between men and women might not be tolerated. Simi- larly, in some countries, members of the same sex walk arm in arm as a sign of friendship, but in the United States, same-sex public displays of affection are interpreted as a sign of sexual orientation. Accordingly, we see that the same behavior—holding hands or taking someone’s arm—means something different, depending on the cultural context.

How does this concept affect teachers and children? When the same behaviors mean different things or different behaviors mean the same thing, mixed messages can result, as occurred in Stacey’s classroom at the beginning of this chapter. Stacey thinks that using one’s first name signals a positive relationship, whereas Mrs. Arguenta interprets it as a sign of disrespect.

acculturation The process whereby children learn expected rules of behavior.

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 175

How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind As you continue your professional journey, you will probably find that the more you learn about culture, the more you need to know. This is not a comfortable position for most educators. While you may think that you should know all the answers, this is not realistic; the most effective stance is to acknowledge what you don’t know and remain open to new learning. This will serve you well throughout your teaching career and in all areas of your professional journey.

In the meantime, it is useful to understand several key principles about how culture affects human development. These principles are listed and briefly described here (Day, 2006; Hanson, 2011):

1. Everyone is rooted in one or more cultural groups. This first principle is the founda- tion of all understanding about culture (Head Start, 2010b). Accepting this principle requires going beyond respecting diversity to deeper understanding; it requires that European American teachers reject the tendency to see white, European American children as exhibiting ordinary behaviors, while thinking about children of other ethnic ancestries as exhibiting cultural behaviors (Day, 2006; Head Start, 2010b). Members of the majority cultural group in any country tend to have more difficulty recognizing that their cultural background influences their thinking and behavior.

2. Cultures are dynamic. Culture is not a fixed, static entity. Because it is born of traditions and historical experiences, intervening events can affect and change cul- tural rules. When groups immigrate, they take aspects of their culture with them; however, as they interact with members of other cultural groups, they may change. Similarly, the cultural traditions in the country of origin may diverge as a result of differing circumstances.

New information and changing political situations may also challenge cul- tural assumptions, such as appropriate roles for men and women. In the 1960s, for instance, the women’s movement and other political events led to rapid shifts in expectations for women and men in America. Similarly, female candidates for president and vice president of the United States altered perceptions about women as leaders, especially for young girls.

Because culture is dynamic, teachers need to be careful not to make assump- tions about students’ and families’ behaviors based on outdated information or even prior experience with members of a particular group. A teacher might as- sume, for example, that European American parents reject gender stereotyping, but change that assumption when several families send in princess costumes for their daughters to play with.

3. Culture, language, ethnicity, and race are aspects of experience that influence people’s beliefs and values. Culture is only one determinant, albeit a strong one, of people’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. Ethnicity refers to the shared characteristics and experiences of a group of people, such as nationality, race, history, religion, and language. Ethnicity is usually connected to the geographic origin of a group, as with Greek or Chinese people. Additional factors, including socioeconomic status, educa- tion, occupation, ability/disability, sexual orientation, personality, and events in the larger society influence how people behave and how groups function (Lynch, 2011).

All of these factors interact to influence the values and behavior of various groups and of individuals within groups. History in particular plays a key role. For example, the history of slavery, racism, and discrimination in the United States and other countries has had a significant, differential effect on people’s lives and opportunities and continues to do so. Racism persists as new groups become its target, including Arabic people and immigrants from Spanish-speaking countries. In addition, gay and lesbian people have been and continue to be discriminated against. Although considerable progress has been made toward equality of all groups of Americans, the struggle continues.

ethnicity The shared charac- teristics and experiences of a group of people, such as na- tionality, race, history, religion, and language.

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4. Differences within a cultural group may be as great as, or greater than, differences be- tween cultural groups. Assuming that chil- dren who share the same culture or language are all alike is like assuming that all 3-year- olds are alike. Although there are some sim- ilarities, there are many differences in their skills, abilities, and behaviors. Likewise, children from the same cultural group share some attitudes, beliefs, and values, but there are many that they do not share. Children from one cultural group are both alike and different from children of another. African American children growing up in low-in- come, urban areas will share some but not

all of the culturally determined behaviors of African American children whose fam- ilies have been middle-class professionals for generations. Therefore, it is vitally important not to stereotype individuals who are members of particular groups even while learning some of the common practices, values, or beliefs of those groups.

5. Culture is defined in terms of differences among groups and is complicated by is- sues of power and status. Think for a minute about words like mainstream, domi- nant, majority, and minority. In the United States, each of these words is used to describe group differences in relationship to white European Americans. But to members of other cultural groups such as Latinos, Native Americans, or African Americans, European Americans are the diverse group. When one group, such as European Americans, becomes the reference point against which other groups are compared, that group is the one with the most power and privilege in the society (Delpit, 2006; Lynch & Hanson, 2011).

The practices of the cultural group that has the greatest power and sta- tus become the standard or norm against which other behaviors are judged (Lynch & Hanson, 2011). Cultural groups that have less status and power are perceived as deficient in some way (Delpit, 2006). Understanding how issues of power and privilege affect relationships and communication among cultural groups is critically important.

The election of President Barack Obama was hailed as a significant indi- cator of the nation’s progress toward racial equality. Although that historical event did not negate the continued reality of racism and discrimination in many people’s lives, it did challenge implicit assumptions about power and status in the society—not only for African Americans and other people of color, but for European Americans as well. There can be no question that, to some extent, the face of power was changed.

Relationship of Race and Culture An overview of the principles just dis- cussed reveals that there is a complex relationship between race, ethnicity, and culture that knowledgeable teachers need to understand. Because race is a sensitive topic in the United States, the words culture and race are sometimes inaccurately used synonymous- ly, but they are not the same thing (Wardle, 2008b).

Scientists argue that a person’s race cannot be determined by examining her or his biological makeup (Wardle, 2008a, 2008b). Nevertheless, race is associated with a per- son’s biology and is determined by who their parents are, whereas culture is learned. As evidenced by how census data are collected, racial classifications are complex and, for the most part, politically determined (Banks, 2012). For example, the same person might be considered racially black in the United States, colored in South Africa, and brown in Brazil. Moreover, according to the 2010 U.S. Census, almost 5% of children are multira- cial, mostly likely an underestimate.

Classroom Connection This video describes how experts currently define culture. What are some of the ways that defining culture is a complex task?

Individual children within the same cultural group can be as different from each other as they are from those in other groups. In what ways might these children be similar to each other? How might they differ?

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 177

Teachers need to understand that although a very limited number of racial catego- ries, such as Asian or Caucasian, are identified based on skin color and other physi- cal characteristics, hundreds of cultural/ethnic groups exist. Asian peoples include Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Hmong, and many others, some of which have been historical enemies (Wardle, 2008a). Similarly, Hispanic is not an actual racial, cultural, or even linguistic group, despite its designation as such by census tak- ers. The term Latino/a is currently used to refer to people of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Given these complex realities, the increasing diversity of immi- grants, and the growing number of biracial and multiracial children, it is essential that teachers not make assumptions about children and families’ racial and cultural identi- ties (Wardle, 2008a).

The most useful strategy is for responsive teachers to create a classroom climate in which it is safe to talk about and notice racial and cultural differences (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Reading books such as Colors around Me (Church, 1997) or Shades of People (Rotner & Kelly, 2010) can start a conversation about how people with different shades of black skin are a part of the same race because their ancestors originally came from Africa.

In the previous sections, we described principles for understanding culture and how they interrelate. In the next section, we discuss similarities and differences among diverse cultures and how they govern various cultural groups’ thinking and behavior.

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.1: Understanding Cultural Diversity

A Framework for Thinking About Culture To help you understand the role of culture in the lives of children and families, and your own life, we examine a framework for thinking about values, beliefs, and practices among various cultural groups. In using this framework, it is important that you develop an awareness of similarities and differences among groups (Lynch, 2011).

Different cultural groups have different sets of values and beliefs, but beyond that, they have different ways of connecting with each other and functioning as a group. In some cultural groups, individual members put their needs first before those of the group; other cultures are group-oriented, putting the group’s needs before their own individual needs. This framework classifies cultural groups in terms of two general orientations: (1) individualistic and (2) interdependent (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008).

Individualistic Cultural Orientation The values of individualistic cultural groups include focusing on the needs of the indi- vidual, independence, self-expression, and personal property and choice. In individual- istic cultures, the primary goal is individual achievement and fulfillment. These cultures emphasize the rights of the individual over the rights of the group. With its history of individual rights and focus on personal achievement, this is the dominant cultural orienta- tion in the United States.

Picture an individualistic-oriented classroom. All of the children have their own cub- bies marked with their names in which to store their belongings. Developing indepen- dence in children is an important goal. The children’s individual work is displayed and carefully identified. Children are praised for their achievements and graded in comparison to one another. When parents visit, they look carefully to find their child’s contribution. The focus on individual children and their accomplishments is evident.

individualistic cultural groups Cultural groups that focus on the needs of the individual, inde- pendence, self-expression, and personal property and choice.

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Interdependent Cultural Orientation By contrast, interdependent cultural groups focus on the needs of the group rather than on those of the individual. These cultural groups, also called collectivist, value interdependence, cooperation and mutual assistance, shared property, and social respon- sibility. Interdependent cultures stress respect for tradition and authority over the rights of the individual. Among cultural groups that exhibit an interdependent orientation are Latinos, Asians, and people in West African and Middle Eastern countries. Because the United States is a nation of immigrants, many cultural groups within this country, as well as Native Americans and African Americans, are oriented more toward interdependence than individualism (Hanson, 2011).

In an interdependent-oriented classroom, individual children do not draw attention to themselves. Children readily share their possessions with each other. Group work is displayed. A colorful mural representing the contributions of scores of children adorns the entrance to the school. These two classrooms are described in overly simplistic terms. Most classrooms would evidence both cultural orientations because, in reality, they are not polar opposites but rather points on a continuum.

Continuum of Common Cultural Values Instead of classifying cultural groups as either individualistic or interdependent, a more useful strategy is to think of values that are common across all cultural groups as varying along a continuum. Such a continuum is depicted in Figure 6.2.

Individuals within cultural groups vary all along the continuum; families are more or less inclusive, just as they are more or less traditional rather than either traditional or not. In addition, the ends of the continuum can be seen from a both/and perspec- tive. For example, in the United States, schools and society emphasize both individual achievement and cooperation, working together to solve problems, and taking care of those in need.

Consider how misunderstandings can occur when teachers and family members oper- ate from different points on the interdependent and individualist continuum, as in the following example:

Mr. Wu is late for a team meeting to discuss his son’s IEP. The disabilities coordinator, Ms. Armstrong, impatiently taps her foot, repeatedly looks at her watch, and gets more and more irritated as minutes tick by. Ms. Garcia, the classroom teacher, seems less concerned. When Mr. Wu arrives, he doesn’t apologize for being late, but he does tell Ms. Garcia that his mother is taking care of his son and she has questions to ask about her grandson. Ms. Garcia understands that Mr. Wu’s respect for his mother took precedence over arriving at the meeting on time.

When the meeting ends, Ms. Garcia reviews her notes with Ms. Armstrong. She politely states, “I could see that you were concerned about the meeting running overtime. I know that you are very busy, but I believe that Mr. Wu did not intend to inconvenience us by being late. His greatest priority was to show respect for his mother, and I’m glad he consulted her because with her input we can do a better job of helping her grandson.” In this way, Ms. Garcia did not tell Ms. Armstrong that her cultural views are wrong; instead, she clarified her own cultural views and those of Mr. Wu.

Applying the Continuum in Practice Conceptualizing variations in cultural values along a continuum helps teachers in several ways: (1) It reduces the tendency to stereotype groups; (2) it reduces the likelihood that differences will be categorized as right or wrong, that is, an us versus them mentality; and (3) it has the potential to increase understanding and communication among teachers and families who may differ in their perspectives (Lynch, 2011).

interdependent cultural groups Cultural groups that focus on the needs of the group rather than those of the individual, also called collectivist.

Classroom Connection This video provides some specific examples of the continuum of cultural values and its impact on children’s behavior. How could teachers use this information to teach more effectively?

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 179

Ultimately, cultures may tend toward one end of the continuum or the other, but the values of most people fall somewhere in between. All cultures value families, for instance, but they define family membership differently. Similarly, rigidly categorizing groups is likely to lead to inaccurate assumptions. For example, Japanese cultural values are typically viewed as traditional (on the interdependent end of the continuum) and yet Japan readily embraces new technologies.

Following is an example of what might happen during an encounter between mem- bers of individualist and interdependent cultural groups:

To help children feel comfortable in their new surroundings, kindergarten teacher Alisha Watson created a bulletin board to display photos of children’s families so that there would be something familiar to the children in the room. She asked for children to bring in pictures of themselves with their siblings and parents, and couldn’t understand why some of the families never responded to her request. She thought perhaps families didn’t have cameras or didn’t want to participate in school activities. In frustration, she finally gave up the idea of the family bulletin

Families value the welfare of the group—the extended family—over the achievements of individual members.

Contributions to the community are valued.

Respect for elders, traditions, and the past is a strong focus.

Respect for adult authority is expected; teacher-child relationships are formal.

Time is flexible; people are more important than time.

Extended families—grandparents, aunts, uncles, older siblings— care for and help raise children.

Calling attention to oneself—standing out from the group— may be seen as selfish and rejection of family. Cooperation is valued.

Children are expected to contribute to the family functioning.

Children are encouraged to help each other, older ones help younger.

Activity focuses on relationships, not objects; babies are carried and children engage in daily routines with family members.

Ownership is shared.

Children share family and community spaces, activities, and events.

Gender and age determine rights and roles.

Interdependent Orientation Individualistic Orientation

Families value the welfare of the nuclear family and its individual members.

Individual accomplishments are valued.

The future, youth, and technological advances are valued.

Relationships with adults are relatively informal; children are encouraged to engage in conversation with teachers.

Time is valuable; schedules are important. Being late or wasting time is considered disrespectful.

The nuclear family is primarily responsible for childrearing and may live far away from relatives.

Children’s individual achievement and self-esteem are highly valued. Competition is encouraged.

Children are expected to achieve on their own.

Children are encouraged to do things for themselves such as toileting, feeding, dressing at an early age.

Activities often focus on objects; children play on floor and with own toys and materials.

Individual ownership is valued.

Children have their own separate spaces (for example, their own rooms) and child-centered activities.

Individual freedom and rights are highly valued.

FIGURE 6.2 Continuum of Cultural Values Source: Based on “Perspectives in Childrearing Values,” by J. Bromer, K. Modigliani, and C. Callahan, no date, The Family Child Care Accreditation Project, Boston, MA: Wheelock College; and “Developing Cross-Cultural Competence,” by E. W. Lynch, 2011, in Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with Children and Their Families, 4th edition, edited by E. W. Lynch and M. J. Hanson, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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board. Alisha never imagined that some parents weren’t comfortable limiting the photo to just the immediate family. To many of them the extended family, which includes neighbors and friends, is what matters. One mother was upset that grand- parents would not be included, but didn’t want to alienate the new teacher.

As we can see, Alisha’s concept of “family” represents a more individualistic orienta- tion than that of many families in her classroom. Alisha could have avoided the problem by respecting the families’ own definitions of their members.

The continuum of cultural values (Lynch, 2011) is intended to help you concentrate on common values—how cultural groups are similar as well as different. At the same time, effectively working across cultural groups requires looking inward and analyzing your own cultural perspective, as we describe next.

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.2: A Framework for Thinking about Culture

Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective As you read about interdependent and individualistic cultural values, how did you feel? Did you identify with one end of the continuum or the other? Did you find yourself judg- ing people whose values and practices reflect the other extreme?

Teachers, like all human beings, view the world through their own cultural lenses. To be effective, you will need to overcome any potential biases about children’s behavior in order to establish positive relationships, build on their prior knowledge and current levels of ability, and to help children make sense of their experiences. The first step in accom- plishing this goal is to examine your own cultural perspective. Figure 6.3 will help you focus your reflections.

Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences Begin by reflecting on the origins of your family. Here are some questions to stimulate these reflections (Lynch, 2011):

•   What stories have you heard about your an- cestors or relatives living in other parts of the world?

•   How  do  you  identify  yourself  culturally?  Do you feel a connection to your cultural background?

•   Do  you  or  does  anyone  in  your  family  speak a language other than English? What language(s) do you speak?

•   Are  there  rituals,  traditions,  or  holidays  that  reflect your family’s heritage?

•   How  does  your  family  express  affection  or  disapproval?

•   How do your family members communicate?  Are they more likely to listen and think before speaking, or do they jump into conversation eagerly, even talking over one another?

•   Can you think of advice or sayings that guided  behavior in your family?

Questions like these help you become aware of how your own values, beliefs, and practices affect your behavior. Now think about how your cultural

Interactions and

Communication

Ideas and

Thinking

Culture

Goals

Beliefs and Values

Child Care Practices

Materials

FIGURE 6.3 Reflecting on Your Own Cultural Experiences Source: Based on Revisiting and updating the multicultural prin- ciples for Head Start programs serving children ages birth to five, Office of Head Start, 2010, Washington, DC, retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ tta-system/cultural-linguistic.

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 181

perspective affects your views of appropriate child-rearing practices. Ask yourself the following questions and compare your answers with those of colleagues:

•  What are your thoughts regarding infant feeding practices? Should the goal be for children to learn as toddlers how to independently feed themselves? Or do you believe that adults should feed babies as long as possible?

•  What do you think are appropriate discipline techniques? Should children be given time-outs, spanked, or lose privileges when they misbehave? Should parents ex- plain their reasoning to children?

•  Should young children be directed by adults and their movements controlled? Or should they be allowed to explore and make choices?

•  What behaviors are acceptable for girls? For boys? •  How should children behave around adults?

Finally, examine how your cultural beliefs and biases affect your behavior and emotions. Reflect on these questions:

•  Have you ever felt uncomfortable or surprised in another part of the United States or in another country? What was the situation? Perhaps you felt that people invaded your personal space? Or weren’t respectful of your possessions?

•  Have you ever felt awkward or embarrassed by something you said or did when you were traveling or among another cultural group? Did you think about why you might have felt that way?

•  Have you ever done or said something that was culturally inappropriate? For example, did you fail to offer an appropriate greeting? Did your behavior embarrass or offend other people?

Finding yourself in another group and experiencing what it feels like not to be cer- tain of the rules is an excellent way to gain deeper understanding of your cultural views and those of other groups. I (the author) have had many such experiences when speaking about early childhood education throughout the United States and in other countries. I remember specifically telling a story about the struggles I encountered during my early days of teaching. I often said, “I knew that I was smart, but I also knew that I didn’t know enough about teaching young children and I had a lot to learn.” Much to my surprise (and subsequent embarrassment), I later learned that some audiences were so stunned to hear me call myself smart that they couldn’t hear anything else I said! Pointing out individual achievement even with self-deprecating humor is simply not considered appropriate be- havior in many groups.

A part of reflecting on your own cultural experience includes comparing your per- spective with that of other people. Therefore, the next step is to learn about other cultural groups and how your views and behaviors compare and contrast with theirs.

Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups To fully understand your own cultural perspectives, it is useful to learn as much as possible about how various groups think and respond to different situations and events. This knowledge will help overcome the tendency to impose your values and beliefs on the children that you teach and their families. To learn more about the values of various cultural groups:

•  Read widely about children and families of diverse cultures and backgrounds. •  Seek out and read what has been written about diversity by researchers and theorists

from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds. •  Identify key informants—family members, community elders, neighborhood

leaders—who are willing to talk openly with you about their beliefs, values, and practices. To get as much accurate information as possible and to avoid stereotyp- ing, don’t rely on one person to be your cultural translator.

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•  Read books and magazines, watch movies, or search websites produced by mem- bers of diverse cultural groups.

•  If possible, immerse yourself in another culture and experience the discomfort of not knowing exactly what to say or how to behave.

•  Most important of all, observe carefully and listen closely to learn how various cultural groups communicate and nurture their young.

Learning generalities about cultural groups is a useful starting point, but it can easily lead to stereotyping—making assumptions that all children who appear part of a group share similar backgrounds. For example, a Cuban American father was dismayed to learn that his daughter’s teacher kept telling her what she knew about the young girl’s “His- panic” culture and how the teacher was being responsive to it. None of the teacher’s ac- commodations were meaningful to the little girl, whose family had lived in Minnesota for three generations.

Now that we have discussed the complex concept of culture and identified several key principles that describe how culture functions in children’s development, consider how this knowledge can be applied to the classroom. How will this knowledge inform your teaching?

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.3: Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective

Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World Imagine it is the first day of school. Parents who are dropping off their children are using various dialects and languages that you don’t recognize. Some of the children are crying and clinging to their parent, while others, it is clear, have been told that crying is not al- lowed, so they are standing with quivering chins trying to hold it together. You are making the rounds, introducing yourself to the children, trying to get them excited about the day and the upcoming year.

You may have been through this before, as a student teacher working in a cultur- ally diverse classroom, but every year the dynamic and the ethnic mix change. It will be up to you to find a way to communicate with dual language learners, to be sensitive to the fact that the English language has many idioms that may be foreign to children who are mastering English, and to be sensitive to each child’s home life, whether they live with their parents and siblings, or their extended family, or are from a single- parent home. The key is to learn as much as you can about each of the children, to get to know their families, and to always be culturally and linguistically responsive in the classroom.

Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? Children from diverse language and cultural groups and those from low-income families (who are disproportionately linguistically and culturally diverse) are the very children who are not being well served in our nation’s schools. In fact, federal education policy is often designed to hold schools accountable for educating every child and to close the achievement gap between groups of children.

The underlying causes and remedies for the achievement gap are complex, but part of the solution must be to recognize and build on the competencies that children bring from prior experiences (Oertwig, Gillanders, & Ritchie, 2014). To do so requires that teachers acquire cultural understanding. Without such knowledge, at least three problems can occur: (1) teachers can misunderstand children, (2) teachers can inaccurately assess children’s competence, and (3) teachers can plan incorrectly to promote children’s learn- ing (Barbarin, 2011; Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001).

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Misunderstanding Children Failing to understand the influence of children’s backgrounds on their development can lead to misunderstanding and miscommunication about children and their families, as the following example illustrates (based on Zepeda, Rothstein-Fisch, Gonzalez-Mena, & Trumbull, 2006):

In Carey Foster’s Head Start class, she tries to promote children’s self-concepts and self-esteem by having them make “All About Me” books at the beginning of the year. The children draw pictures and Carey writes down what they say about themselves.

Four-year-old Antonia Rodriguez dictates, “My brothers are big and strong and help me and my mother.”

Carey says, “But this book isn’t about your brothers. It’s about you. Let’s say you have brown eyes and you can write your name.”

Antonia doesn’t respond. She feels unsure because she is proud of how her fam- ily helps each other, but her teacher doesn’t seem to care about that. During the parent open house, Carey proudly displays Antonia’s book for her mother, who doesn’t look impressed. Carey doesn’t realize that Antonia’s mother thinks her daughter is becom- ing conceited and selfish in this school.

Carey’s classroom activity was at odds with the interdependence valued by Antonia’s family. Most likely, this situation would have turned out better if Carey had been sensitive to Antonia’s discomfort initially. Instead of taking over for Antonia, Carey could have said, “Tell me more about your family.” Listening would have helped Carey better under- stand the values of Antonia’s family.

One area where cultural groups often differ is how they approach discipline. If teachers are unaware of these differences, they may be ineffective in guiding chil- dren’s behavior. Furthermore, their methods may prove to be counterproductive. For example, time-out—removing children from the group for misbehavior for a period of time—is a discipline strategy that is widely used by parents and teachers. In general, the strategy is not effective, because it simply stops the children’s negative behavior temporarily without teaching children what to do instead. Nevertheless, some teach- ers continue to use time-out. Let’s consider time-out from a cultural perspective in the following example:

Mark Temple is a new teacher who is struggling to control his first-grade class for reading instruction. His school is in a close-in suburb of a major city, and some people call it the “little United Nations” because it serves so many cultural groups. Today, Mark is reading a story to the group and Yao cannot keep still. He touches and sits very close to the other children, who pull away and are distracted by his behavior. After several warnings, Mark puts Yao in time-out for the duration of the story. Mark notices that Yao is sitting very quietly with his head bowed and a dejected look on his face, trying hard not to cry. Mark assumes that Yao is sorry for disrupting story time and that the time-out was effective.

Mark’s interpretation of Yao’s response to his time-out, however, is uninformed. Mark’s ignorance of Yao’s Chinese cultural values causes him to misunderstand Yao’s behavior. Yao loves school and is excited by the opportunity to sit close to the other children. Being assigned to time-out means being isolated from the group where he feels most comfortable and happy. Yao feels ashamed and guilty, not because he didn’t follow the rules, but because he has been separated from the others. Yao is humiliated because he thinks that the group has rejected him. Mark also fails to rec- ognize that Yao’s desire to belong is a strength that he can build on to engage Yao positively in the group.

Inaccurate Assessment of Children Ignorance of children’s culturally deter- mined behavior can lead teachers to make inaccurate assessments of children’s compe- tence and ability. Language barriers can also lead to incorrect assessments of children’s abilities. Cultural and linguistic differences can lead to errors in identifying and serving children with disabilities.

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Assessing the learning of English language learners or children who speak a varia- tion of English requires special tools and expertise. Too many English language learn- ers are judged to be language delayed when they are actually demonstrating typical second language development (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011). No assumptions about children’s competence should be based on measures in a language in which children are not f luent (Barrueco, Lopez, Ong, & Lozano, 2012). An English lan- guage learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well-developed vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood at school (Espinosa, 2010a).

One of the biggest mistakes that educators and the general public make is to equate cultural differences with disabilities. The fact is that children with disabilities cross all cultural groups. Likewise, cultural and linguistic diversity impact all dimensions of spe- cial education services.

In a classroom of diverse learners, teachers may have a difficult time identifying students who have special needs. In addition, diagnosis and intervention planning for children with disabilities is a challenge when the child is of a different culture or language group than the professionals (Hanson & Lynch, 2004). Read the Including All Children: Diversity and Disability feature for an example of these challenges.

Including All Children Cultural Diversity and Diverse Ability Effective early intervention practices are supposed to be family centered, involving families both in decision making and in implementation. However, cultural dif- ferences can complicate communication and under- standing between families and professionals. These differences can become a challenge in planning inter- vention strategies for children with disabilities, as the following example illustrates:

Little Sparrow is a 3-year-old Native American child who was born with Down syndrome. Her fam- ily believes that such births are natural and that Little Sparrow’s contributions to the community are important, however small. The community’s goal is to maintain harmony among everyone. Little Sparrow is enrolled in Head Start on the reservation. Head Start program standards require that they provide early intervention services for children with disabilities. The teachers are mem- bers of the tribe, but they must work with the dis- abilities coordinator, who is not. Together, they help Little Sparrow improve her functional skills such as feeding and toileting, and she is making progress at school.

The disabilities coordinator meets with the family to ensure that they will follow up on the effec- tive strategies at home. But the family seems nonre- sponsive. They can’t understand why the school is so concerned about changing Little Sparrow when they love her just the way she is. And they don’t want to single her out for special attention among

the other children, which could upset the harmoni- ous relationships in their community.

In this example, we see how a family’s cultural per- spective can be at odds with professional views. The professionals’ intervention goals may not emphasize what is valued by the family, or the intervention may emphasize what they do not value. Such conflicting goals need to be negotiated if children’s best interests are to be served.

In the case of Little Sparrow, the teachers worked with the disabilities coordinator to relinquish control of the situation and meet with elders in the community. They described their goals and how they thought that support- ing Little Sparrow to do more would benefit everyone, actually bringing more harmony to the group. The elders decided that help for Little Sparrow would be shared by many adults and children in the tribe, and that in turn the little girl would help the others as best she could.

Sources: Based on Understanding Families: Approaches to Diversity, Disability, and Risk, by M. J. Hanson and E. W. Lynch, 2004, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes; and “Cross-Cultural Conceptions of Child-Rearing: Implications for Reviewing/Evaluating Intervention Practices,” by J. T. McCollum, T. Yates, M. Ostrosky, and J. Halle, 2001, Chap. 4 in Cross-Cultural Considerations in Early Childhood Special Education (Technical Report #14), by T. Bennett et al., 2001, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services (CLAS), retrieved December 15, 2011, from http://clas.uiuc.edu/ techreport/tech14.html#4b.

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Failure to Promote Children’s Achievement Misunderstanding and inac- curate assessment of children’s competence can lead to ineffective teaching that does not meet the needs of all students. If children’s competence is acquired in a context that does not match that of the teacher or school, several potential problems can arise. Teachers can negatively judge children on the basis of their culturally inf luenced be- haviors. Without accurate assessment, teachers’ expectations for children’s learning can be too low.

If teachers do not recognize what students already know—what they have learned from prior experiences—teachers cannot build on it (Oertwig, Gillanders, & Ritchie, 2014). For example, many early childhood programs encourage and expect children to speak up and share stories of their own experience or background. Yet this may not be a task that all students can do. Consider, for instance, that among many Native American tribes, children are expected to listen to older adults rather than speak themselves ( Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011).

If teachers do not understand these diverse communication styles, they may have trouble assessing what children already know. For example, researchers working with Inuit people in northern Canada (Native Canadians, called First Nations) assumed that children’s language development was delayed because they spoke little in interactions with teachers. But in a play situation with interesting objects and toys and other chil- dren with whom they were comfortable, the children’s vocabulary and grammar were far more complex than what they used with teachers (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011).

As we stated earlier, different cultural groups often make different meanings from the same experience. If new learning is to be meaningful, teachers must help children make connections between what they know and are able to do at home and in their community and what is expected in school. Meaningful learning is more likely when teachers focus on the learning goal rather than on the specific means to the goal. For example, if the goal of a first-grade science curriculum is for children to understand life cycles, studying buffalo, which may be familiar to Native American children in the West, is as effective as learning about cows would be for children in the Midwest.

Misunderstandings, the roots of which are cultural in many cases, can have dire con- sequences. For example, cultural studies of African American children, boys in particular, find that on average they tend to be more physically active and emotive than their European American peers (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012). Teachers may incorrectly judge this exuberance as aggression. As a result, the very behavior that is rewarded and expected in their community may be censored by their teachers in school (Barbarin, 2011). When such negative responses persist, children may become discouraged and, perhaps, more disruptive (Ritchie & Gutman, 2014). African American boys are disproportionately rep- resented in special education and more likely to be expelled, even in preschool. The civil rights division of the U.S. Department of Education (2014) found that African American children represent 18% of preschool enrollment, but 42% of students had been suspended once, and 48% of the students were suspended more than once. To better understand this disturbing phenomenon, read the feature, Promoting Play: African American Children and Play.

In the previous sections, we saw how teachers’ lack of cultural understanding can lead to several errors in supporting children’s learning and development. In the next sec- tion, we focus on the realities of linguistic diversity and its interaction with culture in children’s development and learning.

Embracing Linguistic Diversity The primary goal of this chapter is to encourage you to embrace the realities of cultural and linguistic diversity. Although we have focused much attention on culture, language and culture are inextricably linked (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud, 2013). Language is the lens through which children make sense of the world, and it is a major vehicle for

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transmitting culture. Dual language learners are learning not only two lan- guages, but also two cultures. Children must learn how to use each language in culturally meaningful and appropriate ways (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud, 2013).

If a concept does not exist in a culture, there is no need for a word to represent that concept. Consider a language without a word for privacy. What would that tell you about the culture’s values? Most likely, the cultural group places greater value on the needs and rights of the group than on those of the individual. Also, personal space and private ownership may be less important.

How words are defined and used also reflects cultural differences. For example, in Italian, the verb discutere can mean “to discuss” but can also mean “to argue.” Picture a group of Italians or Italian Americans all talking at once, with raised voices and many gestures. Arguing is just another form of discussion and is much less threatening than in societies where English is spoken and where arguing has negative connotations.

African American Children and Play Early childhood educators consider pretend play to be an integral part of developmentally appropriate practice and beneficial for children’s development and learning. However, there are individual and cul- tural differences in how children play as well as how teachers view children’s play that have important consequences for children, as revealed by recent research.

This study compared a large group of racially mixed preschoolers’ pretend play and their adjustment (self-regulation and cognitive flexibility) as evalu- ated by outside observers in a laboratory setting with teachers’ reports of children’s social and educational adjustment. Teachers rated children’s school readiness, peer relationships, and amount of teacher–child conflict.

The main finding of the study was that preschoolers’ race affected how teachers viewed their play and how they rated their adjustment in the classroom, even after accounting for differences in individual children’s age, IQ, family income, and gender. Moreover, even when the teacher and child were the same race, and the teacher and child knew each other for the same length of time, these dif- ferent evaluations of children based on their race held true. For Black preschoolers, teachers evalu- ated their imaginative and expressive pretend play and rated them as less prepared for school, less

accepted by their peers, and more prone to teacher- child conflict. On the other hand, comparable levels of imagination and expression in pretend play resulted in positive ratings of these same character- istics for non-Black children.

Children in all racial groups—Hispanic, Black, White, and bi/multiracial—played similarly in imaginative and expressive ways. But Black chil- dren’s pretend play skills were evaluated negatively by teachers, while non-Black children with similar play behaviors were evaluated positively. Teachers also rated Black children who demonstrated more negative play behaviors as less prepared for school, less accepted by other children, and involved in more teacher-child conflict than non-Black children whose play behaviors were equally negative.

This study raises significant concerns about teacher bias regarding the play of young African American children. Black children who are imaginative and expressive may be judged and treated differently in early childhood programs. Teachers need to become self-aware about the way they view children based on race and how those judgments can have lasting negative effects for children.

Source: “Through Race-Colored Glasses: Preschoolers’ Pretend Play and Teachers’ Ratings of Preschooler Adjustment,” by T. M. Yates and A. K. Marcelo, 2014, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29, 1–11.

Promoting Play

Classroom Connection This video describes the rela- tionship between language and culture. Note the important ways that teachers can help dual lan- guage learners become bicultural to be successful in school.

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Similarly, some languages may have many words to distinguish subtle variations in meaning that are important to the group. A large vocabulary for types of snow and ice is essential in the Arctic, but unnecessary in more temperate climates. What if English only had one word for blue? How could we communicate clearly without words like turquoise, navy, or periwinkle? The inextricable link between language and culture means that one cannot be embraced without also embracing the other. Language is also strongly conne- cted to emotions. Words can trigger strong emotions in some cultures and not in others. For example, in Arab cultures the word crusade carries a negative connotation dating back to the Middle Ages, while in the United States we regularly have positive crusades to collect money for charity or fight disease.

The United States has always been a country in which many people are bilingual or multilingual. With increasing numbers of children speaking a language other than English at home, opportunity exists to help these children become bilingual. To do so, it is important that teachers support children’s development and maintenance of their home language while helping them acquire proficiency in English. In short, these children are dual language learners—learning two languages at once. In fact, many children are multi-language learners who are learning more than two languages.

All children in our society need to acquire English, but they can become proficient without giving up their home language (Espinosa, 2010c; Tabors, 2008). The key is for teachers to support continued development of the home language and to inform parents that if they encourage their children to speak English both in the home and at school at a very early age, their children may lose their home language. Home language loss can harm children’s long-term academic achievement (Espinosa, 2010c; Slavin & Cheung, 2005). In addition, if parents do not speak English well and their children lose the home language, serious communication and relationship problems between parents and children are likely to occur (Espinosa, 2010c; Wong Filmore, 1991). Therefore, teachers should encourage families to speak to children in whatever language the parent is most proficient, usually their native tongue, to support children’s educational achievement.

In the previous sections, we discussed how educational systems often misunderstand, inaccurately assess, and fail to serve culturally and linguistically diverse children. One key to avoiding these pitfalls is for teachers to become more culturally competent, as we discuss in the next section.

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.4: Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World

Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching To accommodate diverse learners, teachers must integrate students’ diverse backgrounds into the curriculum. A particular kind of ability is required to successfully use this type of effective practice in the classroom: cultural competence. Conflict may arise in situa- tions where families and teachers do not have an inherent understanding of each other. Consider the following example:

Decatur Elementary School, which serves a wide range of cultural groups, has a lending library to encourage primary-grade children to read at home. After a few weeks, the library is bare because the families don’t return the books. The European American teachers make insistent pleas for return of the books. The children begin to feel that their teachers are accusing them of stealing. But the children and their families don’t under- stand; they assumed the books were meant for all the children in the neighborhood.

To resolve a conflict such as this, teachers must be well versed in effective cross-cultural communication. To provide the best education for all children, teachers need to become culturally competent.

dual language learners Chil- dren who are learning to speak two languages at the same time—usually their home lan- guage and English.

multi-language learners Chil- dren who are learning more than two languages.

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Cultural competence is the ability to work effectively across cultural groups (Olsen et al., 2007, p. 2) and to work respectfully with those who are different from oneself. Cultural competence is not a set of skills but is instead a way of being—an openness to continual learning (Olsen et al., 2007). Although various characteristics demonstrate cultural competence, several are particularly applicable to teachers in diverse classrooms (Lynch, 2011; Lynch & Hanson, 2011). Some characteristics of cultural competence fol- low, along with the ways they apply to the teachers at Decatur Elementary School and the lending library situation:

•  An awareness of their own cultural perspectives. Teachers reflect on their own feelings about losing the books. They are mystified and a little upset. They invested time and money in the library and can’t understand why it failed.

•  Appreciation and respect for individuals from other cultures. Teachers do not pre- judge children and families by their standards, realizing that more interdependent cultural groups view ownership of materials differently than do individualistic ones.

•  A belief that cross-cultural interactions should be viewed as learning opportunities rather than challenges. Teachers decide to find out what might have caused the misunderstanding, rather than giving up in frustration.

•  An ability to identify and use cultural resources. Teachers seek the advice of leaders in the community to help them understand what happened.

•  An appreciation for the integrity and value of all cultures. Teachers realize that sharing the books more widely is a valuable although different way of achieving their goal of making reading material available to children.

•  Willingness to continue to try to understand other people’s perspectives. Teachers decide to talk regularly with older children, family, and community members to discuss school happenings.

•  Flexibility and a sense of humor. Teachers look back and laugh at how naïve their expectations were and how rigid their reactions.

•  Comfort with uncertainty. The main lesson the teachers learn is that they aren’t going to be right all the time; there are no simple answers to complex situations.

This list of competencies is prerequisite for becoming a truly suc- cessful teacher. Encompassing all of these characteristics and behaviors is an attitude of cultural humility—the stance that one can “expect to be surprised, to be wrong, and (the need) to ask for help” (Sparrow, 2011, p. 14). Cultural humility assumes that one can never fully comprehend the perspective of another human being and requires the ability to put aside feelings of superiority and the tendency to judge.

Cross-Cultural Communication The foundation of cultural competence is the ability to communicate ef- fectively with members of diverse cultural groups (Lynch, 2011). To fos- ter good communication, teachers must develop an understanding of how various cultural groups use verbal and nonverbal means of communicating. These communication styles are another example of a cultural continuum such as those described earlier in the chapter. In this case, the continuum extends from high-context cultures to low-context cultures.

High-Context and Low-Context Cultures Awareness of different communi- cation styles will help you better appreciate the competence of children whose cultural background is different from your own and avoid misunderstandings in communicating with parents.

Communication among those in high-context cultures relies less on words and more on contextual cues such as facial expressions, gestures, or other physical clues to convey meaning (Lynch, 2011). Examples of groups that are more attuned

cultural competence The ability to work effectively across cultural groups.

high-context culture Culture in which communication relies less on words and more on contextual cues, such as facial expressions, gestures, or other physical clues, to convey meaning.

Classroom Connection In this video, experts describe intercultural communication. Why are such communication skills important and what strate- gies can teachers use to foster cross-cultural communication in the classroom?

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to nonverbal messages include Asian, American Indian, African American, Arab, and Latino groups.

In contrast, low-context cultures focus on direct, logical, precise verbal communication (Lynch, 2011). Low-context cultural groups include European Ameri- cans, Germans, and Scandinavians. Members of low- context cultures often become impatient if the speaker does not come to the point quickly or the communication is not direct (Lynch, 2011). Similarly, low-context com- municators may be confused when they miss the mean- ing of gestures or unstated emotions.

Effective communication across these styles can be challenging. Shirley Brice Heath (1983, 1989) was one of the first to describe the consequences when children of high-context backgrounds encounter low-context schools. Her research identified situations such as the typical sharing time (show-and-tell), during which the teacher asks children what they did over the weekend. A low-context girl might chronologically describe events: “I went to my brother’s soccer game. Then we went to McDonald’s. Then my grandma came for dinner.” This recitation meets the teacher’s expectations of a clear, precise account. On the other hand, a high-context girl uses a more narrative, episodic style, which assumes that the listener can fill in the context. “My brother sang a funny song. Here’s how it goes.” When the child begins to sing, the teacher grows impatient, thinks the little girl’s descrip- tion doesn’t make sense, and asks her to sit down. Think of the conflicting messages these children receive about the value of their experiences and their communication.

Difficulty communicating between low-context and high-context groups is not lim- ited to teachers and children. Adults are even more steeped in their culture’s ways of behaving than children are. Imagine the difficulties that can arise when a high-context teacher attempts to talk to a low-context parent about a child’s behavior problem. Or think of involving a high-context parent in creating an IEP for a child with a disability, which requires very accurate communication.

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication A general description of high- and low-context communication styles only begins to describe the complexity of cross- cultural communication. Virtually every aspect of nonverbal communication can be misinterpreted. Of greater concern is that the failure to understand and respect cultural rules of behavior can offend and insult the very people with whom you are trying to communicate.

A number of nonverbal cues can lead to misunderstandings between people from dif- ferent cultures. For example, allowing or not allowing for personal space, when and why we smile, when we make eye contact or touch, and how we use silence and view time are all culturally relevant (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). We have already discussed some of these, but a few others may be surprising. Consider smiling. Most of us assume that smiling is a universal, human way of communicating—and it is. But like other behaviors, it can mean different things to different cultural groups. Russians, for example, smile when they are happy, not just to be friendly (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). This could account for why Russians are often depicted in American movies as unusually dour. Some Asian groups, on the other hand, smile more often than Americans, even when embarrassed or unhappy (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008).

Silence can communicate volumes, but it is also interpreted through a cultural lens. Some Asian groups pause before speaking as a respectful sign that they are really listening (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). Some European Americans may interpret such periods of silence to mean that the other person isn’t listening or doesn’t have anything to say.

A full discussion of the typical ways of communicating among various cultural groups is beyond the scope of this book. Consult the resources listed at the end of this chapter to learn more about the practices, beliefs, values, and communication styles of various groups. As you encounter diverse, changing groups of children, you will need to

low-context culture Culture that focuses on direct, logical, precise verbal communication.

Culturally competent teachers are able to work effectively across cultural groups. What knowledge and skills do teachers need to be culturally competent?

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continually update your knowledge to improve communication and avoid misunderstand- ings with children and parents. And, most of all, remember not to stereotype individuals based on such general descriptions of cultural expectations.

In the previous sections, we discussed the importance of becoming culturally com- petent. In the upcoming sections, we discuss how the curriculum for children should be culturally responsive. We also look at what kinds of practices are effective for teaching diverse learners.

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.5: Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching

Effective Practices for Diverse Learners Every group of children is diverse on every conceivable dimension of development and learning, including their various cultural backgrounds and languages. It is important to remember that when we speak about teaching diverse learners, we really mean all learn- ers. In the following sections, we discuss culturally and linguistically responsive teaching strategies, and anti-bias educational goals.

Culturally Responsive Teaching Effective practices for working with culturally and linguistically diverse children are best practices for every child. For example, research on human learning demonstrates the critical importance of building on prior knowledge, which is naturally one of the most important principles of culturally responsive teaching (Espinosa, 2010b). The challenge for teachers is to uncover children’s culturally acquired prior knowledge and then use effective strategies to build on it. Read the What Works: Making Education Culturally Compatible feature for a description of such research-based practices.

Linguistically Responsive Teaching Too often, educational discussions tend to lump children into categories such as “low in- come” or “children with special needs.” This also happens frequently with dual language

learners, despite the fact that there is great diversity among these children. Consider these 6-year-olds:

Rosalinda’s father and mother are well educated and speak both English and Spanish f luently. Her parents have read and spoken to her in both languages since birth. The family lives in an upper-middle-class com- munity and they travel to Argentina at least once a year to visit her grandparents.

Manuel lives with his parents, four siblings, and other extended fam- ily members. They speak only Spanish at home. His family is very loving and they tell wonderful long stories but they have few books in their home. They cannot return to the family’s native country because of the political situation and also because they do not have the financial resources.

Clearly, Rosalinda’s and Manuel’s language learning experiences are different in many ways, including the language(s) spoken at home, the ages when they are introduced to English, the family’s resources, and their verbal and written proficiency in either or both languages. In addition to primary and secondary language development, Rosalinda’s and Manuel’s capacities and interests differ in countless ways. For example, she loves to sing and paint, and her best subject is mathematics. Manuel loves soccer

and animals, and his teacher soon discovers that he has great aptitude for reading. They and their families need to be treated as individuals with diverse strengths and needs.

Classroom Connection In this video clip, two teachers plan a science lesson of sorting the different properties of rocks. Listen as the teachers describe some effective teaching practices for linguistically and culturally diverse learners.

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What Works Making Education Culturally Compatible A body of research demonstrates that taking children’s cultural backgrounds into consideration in curriculum and teaching is re- lated to positive learning outcomes for students across age groups. These studies were conducted with elementary school children across many cultural groups: Puerto Ricans, African Americans, Native Hawaiians, Native American Indians, Mexican immigrants, Appalachian urban immigrant whites, Southeast Asian new- comers, Eskimos or Aleuts, and European American gifted and talented children. Based on this research, six key principles of effective practice for culturally diverse learners were gleaned that are also congruent with several aspects of NAEYC’s position on developmentally appropriate practices:

1. Teachers and students work together toward a common goal. Teachers participate with children in activity such as a nature walk near the school.

2. Teachers incorporate language and literacy learning throughout the day and in all areas of the curriculum. For example, chil- dren talk, read, and write about the life cycles of the animals they observe on their walk.

3. Teachers make learning meaningful by connecting school learning to children’s lives. The conversation begins with what children already know about animals.

Following are some effective, research-based practices that help dual language learners achieve at high levels in English (Alanis, 2013; California Department of Education Child Development Division, 2008; Magruder, Hayslip, Espinosa, & Matera, 2013):

•  Directly instruct children on English vocabulary and certain aspects of literacy, such as pointing to objects or pictures as you say the word (“This book is about a bird. See the bird. Say bird.”). Model the language for children, describing what the child is doing (“You put on your coat”) or what you’re doing (“I’m getting the red paint for you”).

•  Give lots of opportunities for children to practice the new language, such as during play and small-group times that require them to speak (rather than just point) to take a turn.

•  Pair children with English-speaking peers for several activities. For example, ask a question in whole group and have children turn to a buddy to talk it over (“What do you plan to do outside today?”).

•  Support continued development in the home language, including teaching in that language as much as possible (at least learning key words and phrases), using qual- ified teachers, family members, or volunteers from the community who fluently speak the home language.

•  Collaborate with families to plan curriculum reflecting children’s cultural back- grounds and language(s), such as rhymes, song, and books children can identify with to help them connect what they already know to what is taught at school.

•  Frequently review skills and concepts, do repeated reading. •  Draw attention to similarities between English words and the word in the home

language, called cognates (mucho/much).

4. Teachers have high expectations for children, challenging their learning, and focusing on complex thinking. Teachers pose problems for children to think about, such as what would happen if the trees were cut down.

5. Teachers and children engage in instructional conversations, discussing the content they are learning. Children are grouped by interest, talk with each other, and meet with the teacher to discuss and share what they have learned and identify new questions.

6. Teachers model language and actions, such as carefully handling a pet, so that children can learn through observation.

7. Teachers provide opportunities for child-initiated learning. Children generate learning topics or brainstorm solutions to problems.

Sources: “From High Chair to High School: Research-Based Principles for Teaching Complex Thinking,” by R. Tharp and S. Entz, 2012, in C. Copple (Ed.), Growing minds: Building strong cognitive foundations in early childhood, edited by C. Copple, pp. 131–136, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children; “Research to Practice. Joint Productive Activity: Collaboration That Builds New Understandings,” by L. A. Yamauchi and R. H. Kuwahara, 2008, Young Children, 63(6), 34–38.

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Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel- op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi- language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.

Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.

Anti-Bias Education The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society but also to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias ( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally responsive, anti-bias education and ways of helping children achieve those goals. The overarching goal of anti-bias education is to help all children reach their full potential. To do so, anti-bias education focuses on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010; Teaching Tolerance, 2012):

1. Identity. Teachers foster and support children’s self-awareness, confidence, and pride in their family and own identity.

anti-bias education Learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society, but also to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups, and to guard against expressions of bias.

Language Lens Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners

With growing numbers of dual and multi-language learn- ers in our classrooms, all teachers need to be prepared to support English language acquisition while also pro- moting continued home language development. Using technology exponentially increases teachers’ options to achieve these goals, as these examples illustrate:

Yao is a Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in preschool. He is isolated from the other children who won’t play with him. His teacher knows that without social interaction, his English skills won’t develop. She loans his family an iPad and with the help of a trans- lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a story about his family with photos and narration in both English and Chinese. When he shares the story with the other children, they realize that Yao has an interesting life and several of them decide to use the app to create stories about themselves.

Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different home languages, some of whom are newly arrived immi- grants. She relies on technology to create an accessible environment for all the children as they acquire sufficient English to navigate the school. Kara posts pictures and labels in various languages (in some cases with phonetic

spellings) to help children learn routines and safety pre- cautions. On the Internet she finds images, songs, and stories that accurately depict children’s homelands, and uses these to spark conversations among small groups of children. She teaches all the children to use iTranslate on classroom tablets to aid communication and support burgeoning friendships. The class uses Skype to com- municate with children’s relatives in other parts of the country or world. Within a few weeks, all the children, including native English speakers, enjoy helping each other explore different languages and learn together.

Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits every child in America if schools take advantage of young children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford- able, technological resources now available.

Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August 27, 2014, from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story- helps-dual-language-learner; “Using Technology as a Teaching Tool for Dual Language Learners in Preschool through Grade 3,” by K. N. Nemeth and F. S. Simon, 2013, Young Children, 68(1), 48–52.

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2. Diversity. Teachers assist children to experience and value human diversity, and use accurate language for differences.

3. Justice. Teachers help children recognize unfairness, stereotypes, and biases (negative expressions toward groups) and their harmful impact on people.

4. Action. Teachers help children to stand up, alone or with others, to counteract unfairness, prejudice, and/or discrimination against others.

Curriculum and teaching practices to help children achieve these goals need to be de- velopmentally appropriate; that is, within the range of what is understandable and achiev- able for children. Let’s look more closely at each of these goals.

Goal 1: Foster Children’s Positive Identity within Their Own Group One of your goals as a teacher working with young children is to foster a positive sense of identity and help them develop a sense of self-worth. Identity refers to the character- istics that individuals recognize as constituting a sense of self and belonging to a group. Consider how important your own name is—it represents you and is a strong part of your identity. Teachers need to ensure that children’s names are spelled and, most im- portant, pronounced correctly. Because membership in a cultural/ethnic group has such a strong inf luence on identity, it is important for teachers to be aware of and support children’s connection to their group. Fostering children’s identity may also involve their bicultural and/or biracial identity; it should not be assumed that these children or their families identify themselves with any particular ethnic, cultural, or racial group (Wardle, 2014).

In classrooms with children from multiple cultural or ethnic groups, teachers some- times try to minimize the differences among students instead of acknowledging them. In an effort to discourage prejudice in the classroom, they may state proudly, “We don’t see differences among children. We’re color-blind here.” Such statements deny the re- ality that children plainly see and experience (Killen, 2012). Teachers may think that talking about differences draws unnecessary attention to them and leads to prejudices. But this attitude, although well intentioned, actually has the opposite effect by deny- ing vitally important aspects of children’s identity (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Consider how you would feel if your significant other said, “I don’t notice that you are a woman (or a man).”

One question European American teachers often ask is, “But what if all the children in the class are white?” This question itself reveals the confusion that exists between race and culture in our society because “white” is not a cultural group, and white-skinned people are members of many different cultural groups. In addition, close examination of this question reveals the perspective, discussed earlier in this chapter, that the white, majority group somehow doesn’t have a culture (Derman- Sparks & Ramsey, 2011). Thus, it is important to help all children become aware of similarities and differences be- tween themselves and others. Society sends countless mes- sages about the superiority of white European Americans. Therefore, in supporting a positive sense of identity among these children, teachers must avoid contributing to feelings of entitlement and superiority to others who are not of the majority culture.

To foster positive identity, teachers must make an ef- fort to ensure that the learning environment is welcoming to every child and reflects the identities and cultures of every child in the class. They can use photos or drawings of children with family members and audiotapes and vid- eos of family member’s voices and activities, as well as books, music, and other materials that reflect children’s cultural identity in a positive way.

identity The collection of characteristics that individuals recognize as constituting their sense of self and belonging to a group.

Culturally responsive curriculum and teaching promotes children’s positive sense of their own identity, valuing of diversity, and critical thinking about stereotyping and bias.

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Goal 2: Experience and Value Human Diversity Just as it is important to have a strong sense of self, it is important to value diversity in others. Related goals are the ability to respectfully ask about and comfortably adapt to differences ( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). The following sections describe how teachers can help children acquire the knowledge and disposition to learn about the similarities and differences among people.

Help Children Learn about Differences As our nation’s history demonstrates, just exposing children to people of different races, cultures, abilities, or backgrounds is not sufficient to help them learn to value diversity. In fact, simple exposure can actually exac- erbate negative reactions (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010).

Research on inclusion of children with disabilities, for example, finds that teachers need to work with all of the children to help a child with special needs be accepted and included in the group (Sandall & Schwartz, 2008). Preschoolers may think that if they talk to or play with a child in a wheelchair, they won’t be able to walk, either. Teachers need to actively support positive interactions among children and intervene when negative reactions occur. Teachers shouldn’t deny differences with statements such as “He’s just like you.” Instead, an honest explanation is best: “You and Justin both like to move around the classroom and playground. You walk and run, while Justin uses his wheelchair to get where he wants to go.”

Similarly, teachers should not admonish children for noticing differences. A teacher who says “It isn’t nice to ask questions about other people” leaves a child without the cor- rect information she or he needs. A child might ask, “Why is Derrick’s skin darker than Deion’s?” A more helpful explanation might be, “Children usually look like their parents, and Derrick’s parents also have dark skin.”

Likewise, dismissing children’s anxieties or fears about differences may lead to avoidance or contribute to the development of prejudices. Consider the situation where 5-year-old Ariel says, “I don’t like Mashiko because she don’t speak English.” Her teacher responds, “Oh, yes, you do. We’re all friends here.” Such a patronizing comment may lead Ariel to avoid or dislike Mashiko even more. Instead, the teacher might say, “ Mashiko can speak Japanese and she’s learning English. Maybe you can help her. And she can teach you some words in her language.”

Avoid Tourist Curriculum In helping children to understand and value diversity, teach- ers need to avoid the “tourist curriculum.” A tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010) is one in which a culture is visited as though it were an exotic destina- tion where people dress, talk, dance, and eat differently before returning to the “normal” place where we all live. Here are some signs of a tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010):

•  Trivializing by organizing activities around food or holidays •  Tokenism, such as having only one book about any cultural group •  Disconnecting diversity from the rest of the curriculum, such as having a

one-week unit on a different culture or only discussing diversity on Martin Luther King Day

•  Stereotyping groups, such as using Native American images only from the past or wearing traditional dress

•  Misrepresenting groups such as using only books about Africa to teach about African Americans

Integrate Diversity into the Curriculum Developing relationships with people from diverse cultural groups and engaging in authentic experiences is the best way to help children experience and value diversity. Such opportunities also help children to under- stand that their perspective on the world is not necessarily the only or the best, but simply different. It is also important for children to understand that there are many languages in the world and no language is better than others. Regardless of the composition of

tourist curriculum An approach in which a culture is visited as though it were an exotic destination where people dress, talk, dance, and eat differently before returning to the “normal” place where we all live.

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their class or school, children today are exposed to diver- sity through the media—for example, seeing an African American president on television or listening to a Latino news anchor. Their wider community may also be more diverse than the immediate neighborhood and serve as a source of study.

Cultural diversity can also be integrated throughout the curriculum. One way to help children experience and learn to value diversity is to teach overriding concepts that cut across cultural groups—we all need shelter, nourishment, friends, families, and exercise, but we meet these needs in various ways. In the primary grades, children begin to study history and the lives of people in their communities and beyond. Through oral histories and reading biogra- phies and autobiographies, children can learn about their own ethnic group and others.

Building each child’s positive identity and helping them appreciate and value diver- sity lays the foundation for them to think critically about fair treatment of all people. This is the third goal of culturally responsive teaching.

Goal 3: Foster Critical Thinking about Justice and Fairness We live in a society in which great strides toward tolerance, understanding, and acceptance have been made; yet racism, classism, sexism, homophobia, ageism, and other negative expres- sions of bias and forms of discrimination persist. As a result, children will often experi- ence these biases and at times express them. Biases are negative feelings and expressions toward groups or individuals. Understanding bias means recognizing that differences are not problematic, but negative reactions to differences are.

Countering bias and stereotypes is an area in which teachers must be ever vigilant. To achieve this goal, teachers must review books, videos, games, toys, and other cur- riculum materials to ensure that they do not perpetuate negative images of any group of people. Teachers must also pay attention to toys or materials that children bring from home.

In addition, teachers need to work with children to establish expectations for behav- ior that prohibit expressions of bias toward other people to ensure that race, gender, age, sexual orientation, appearance, and ability are never the subject of teasing or ridicule. This is an area where teachers must have a zero-tolerance policy. They should intervene immediately when such behavior occurs, reminding children of the rules for how chil- dren are treated in the classroom. They also need to offer comfort to the child who is the target of biased behavior: “Yolanda, it was unfair and unkind for Caleb to say you can’t play because you have brown skin. Caleb, remember that we treat people fairly in this school.”

Following are three important considerations when handling discriminatory or biased behaviors (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010):

1. Don’t ignore. Teachers need to address any signs of bias head on. Ignoring dis- criminatory behaviors implies that they are acceptable. Consequently, the victim feels unsafe and the perpetrator feels supported, the opposite of what is desirable. For example, Ms. Eli is busy helping her first graders with math problems—when she hears Jasmine tell Hiroke that he has funny eyes. Ms. Eli contemplates saying nothing. Instead, she quietly says to Jasmine, “Everyone’s looks are unique and different. Please remember that negative comments about people’s appearance are hurtful and we don’t allow that here.”

2. Don’t excuse. Sometimes teachers will avoid an uncomfortable situation by saying things like “He didn’t really mean it.” Excusing expressions of bias teaches one child that the behavior is okay and the victim of that behavior that he or she will not be protected. Instead, the teacher could have said, “Calling other people names

bias Negative feelings and expressions toward groups or individuals.

Linguistically responsive teach- ing provides the opportunity for all children to become bilingual if schools take advantage of children’s innate ability to learn language and the affordable, technological resources now available.

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hurts them, but it also makes you look mean and not very smart. If you have bad feelings about someone’s behavior, we need to learn better ways for you to express them.”

3. Don’t be afraid to intervene. Fear and ignorance are among the biggest impedi- ments to confronting and eliminating discrimination in our society. Teachers may be afraid that they will say the wrong thing to children, or that parents will be upset if they talk about race, culture, language, or socioeconomic conditions. However, unless they are part of the solution to addressing bias and discrimination in society, teachers must accept the responsibility for being part of the problem. For example, two children in Mr. Pinto’s second-grade class are living in a homeless shelter. The children are teased for coming to school each day wearing the same clothes. Mr. Pinto privately arranges for them to receive clothing donations. He also talks with the teasers about their feelings, and finds out that some of the most verbal children are actually afraid of losing their homes, too.

Goal 4: Take Action to Address Bias and Discrimination Goal 4 builds on Goal 3. As children develop, they become more aware of others’ feelings and ever more sensitive to the concept of fairness. How often have you heard a 4- or 5-year-old say, “That’s not fair” in defense of their own rights? With teacher modeling and supports as described in the previous section, children begin to care about others who are treated unfairly and to do something about it, including telling an adult. This work is essential to address the epidemic of bullying in schools.

In kindergarten and primary grades, children can problem-solve together ways to take action to address situations in the school or community. For example, one school in Washington, D.C., is having a lengthy discussion about the name of the local foot- ball team, the Redskins. Children’s positions on changing the name tend to represent their parents’ point of view; some think the name is offensive to Native Americans, while others think it is a tradition that honors them. The children read books about the his- tory of Native Americans and current articles about why various people think the name should be changed. The children even explore what it feels like to be called, “Whiteskin,” “Blackskin,” “Brownskin,” or “Yellowskin.” After much study, the class takes a vote on whether the name should be changed, with 15 yes votes and 6 voting no. Those who vote for changing the name decide to write letters to the team owner and the local newspaper advocating for a change. They also work together to think of alternative names to suggest.

The goals of anti-bias education do not need to be addressed as separate subject ar- eas or topics of study. Instead, these goals should be integrated throughout the learning environment and curriculum and in all aspects of teachers’ interactions with children and their families.

As we saw in the chapter-opening scenario, contradictions may arise because what professionals think is good for children and what families believe and value might be very different. Finding a middle ground that balances what professionals consider de- velopmentally appropriate practice with what families consider culturally appropriate is paramount to effective teaching.

Developmentally Appropriate and Culturally Responsive Practices In this section, we address the sometimes controversial topic of the congruence of developmentally appropriate and culturally appropriate practices (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Mallory & New, 1994; NAEYC, 2009). Just as we are all products of our cultural upbringings, we are also products of our cultural environments, such as our schools, sum- mer programs we might have attended, and jobs we have held. Professional organizations, including schools and child care programs, also have their own cultures.

When the culture—especially the rules for behavior—of the school or child care center is similar to that of children’s families, their adaptation and ability to make sense of experiences is greatly eased. These children implicitly know much of what is expected even though they need to learn specific information such as the classroom routines.

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On the other hand, when there are cultural differences between the rules imposed at school and those imposed at home, chil- dren have greater difficulty adjusting. Not only do they have to learn the curriculum, but they also have to learn the implicit rules of discourse, such as “Respond promptly” or “Even though the teacher knows the an- swer, he will still expect you to answer the question.”

For culturally diverse children to be successful in school, teachers must explic- itly teach the rules of behavior that children of the majority culture already know. Lisa Delpit (2006), an African American educa- tion professor and recipient of a MacArthur “genius” award, eloquently describes how the school culture is the “culture of power,” and children who have access to its rules are more likely to succeed and gain access to the power in society. Delpit further describes how constructivist teaching, such as the developmentally appropriate practices advocated by NAEYC (2009), may leave children of diverse cultural perspectives at a disadvantage. In her view, constructivism and other progressive education approaches reflect the dominant European American cultural per- spective. For children of other cultural backgrounds, success in school may depend on their ability to become bicultural, that is, to learn the rules of the school culture while holding on to the rules of the home culture.

Like Delpit, many early childhood educators have questioned the cultural appro- priateness of developmentally appropriate practice (Dahlberg, Moss, & Pence, 2007; Gonzalez-Mena, 2008; Graue & Delaney, 2011; Mallory & New, 1994; Sanders, Diehl, & Kyler, 2007). Let’s think about this question in terms of what we’ve learned so far about culture.

The Culture of Early Childhood Education: Revisited Previously we presented a framework contrasting individualistic and interdependent cultures. Even a cursory examination of NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice (NAEYC, 2009) or the association’s accreditation standards (NAEYC, 2007) reveals the degree to which these documents reflect the individualistic cultural orientation. Goals such as promoting independence, self-concept and self-esteem, exploration, verbal communication, and child-initiated activity permeate the standards. Overall, a “child- centered” philosophy underlies the approach.

A clear example of this orientation is the role of play in early childhood education (Zepeda et al., 2006). Children are encouraged to play and explore the environment and materials, and to play with and talk to adults. On the other hand, in interdependent cul- tural groups, learning is directed by adults and depends more on observation of adults than on play, discovery, and child-chosen activity (Zepeda et al., 2006). In these cultures, objects such as toys are less important than social interaction, and play occurs mostly with siblings and other children. Consider that children from these diverse cultural orientations might gravitate toward peers in a free-flowing preschool classroom, instead of making independent choices of materials as expected by the teacher.

Another standard focuses on the importance of warm, nurturing relationships among teachers and children (NAEYC, 2008a, 2009). But the definition of “nurtur- ing” behavior is also culturally inf luenced. For example, white European Americans might think that African American parents and teachers are harsh in the way they talk to or discipline their children (Hale, 1994). This “harshness” may ref lect the need to help children of color navigate in a society that is often hostile to them (Killen, 2012).

When there are cultural differ- ences between what the school defines as developmentally appropriate and the expecta- tions of the family, children are likely to have greater difficulty adjusting.

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Consequently, those who observe this dynamic without this shared cultural perspec- tive may not appreciate the love that is being conveyed. Similarly, African American teachers and parents may value children learning academics more than playing in pre- school because they know these skills are essential for their children to succeed in school (Sanders et al., 2007).

To further illustrate how culturally determined our view of “best practice” is, con- sider a recent effort by Chinese researchers (Li, Hu, Pan, Qin, & Fan, 2013) to adapt a widely used American measure of high quality, the Early Childhood Environment Rat- ing Scale (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2005). The researchers found that the tool did not adequately ref lect their Asian collectivist culture, especially in terms of their emphasis on group activities and whole-group instruction. They found it necessary to develop items measuring the quality of whole-group teaching, which they subsequently found to be highly related to children’s learning outcomes. Another difference was in the way quality outdoor play is defined. Such play is far more restricted in their programs, per- haps due to overprotection by parents because most children are the only child in the family.

The point of this discussion is to acknowledge that the prevailing standards for good practice in early childhood education described throughout this book and taught in most teacher education courses reflect the dominant culture of society. At the same time, these standards require that programs be responsive to cultural and linguistic diversity. Given the diversity of children and families served today, teachers must help children to become bicultural, capable of operating successfully in both their home environment and the culture of the larger world. Accomplishing this goal requires teachers to resolve some of the inevitable contradictions that arise between what is considered developmentally appropriate and what is culturally appropriate.

Resolving Contradictions As you have seen, when you are caring for and edu- cating other people’s children, you are being relied on to do so in a way that adheres to other people’s beliefs and values. In the case of infants and toddlers, for example, how feeding, sleeping, dressing, and toileting are handled is not consistent across cultures. Likewise, with preschoolers and elementary-grade children, teachers and families may disagree fundamentally on appropriate discipline as well as how and what children should be learning. Resolving these differences is an important part of working with children and families. Read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Responding to Cultural Differences feature for an example of how one teacher finds the balance between her ideas and family perspectives.

Professionals tend to think they know the right answers to situations that arise in the classroom. Yet in most situations, no one right answer exists. It is true that some practices, such as spanking children, are prohibited by law and others by licensing standards. In these cases, no compromise is possible. But more often, both/and solutions are more use- ful than either/or choices when such contradictions occur, as illustrated in the following real-life example (adapted from Bredekamp, 1997a, p. 47):

Antonia Lopez was director of a program for Mexican American children and fami- lies in California. One of the program’s primary objectives was to promote cultural congruity. As a relatively interdependent cultural group, Mexican Americans value cooperation over competition, and this value was encouraged in the program. Another accepted cultural practice is the giving of gifts to express respect and appreciation.

During the year, an uncomfortable situation arose. Parents began giving teachers gifts, and over time the gifts became more elaborate. The gift-giving escalated into a competition to see who could give the best gift, a direct contradiction of the pro- gram’s goals. To resolve this dilemma, Antonia and her staff established two rules for dealing with the situation:

Rule 1) You can’t accept the gifts. Rule 2) You can’t reject the gifts.

bicultural Capable of operat- ing successfully in both the home environment and the dominant culture of the larger world.

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 199

With these rules in place, the staff had to arrive at an alternative solution. They agreed that rather than teachers’ accepting gifts for themselves, gifts would be accepted on be- half of the school. Depending on the gift, it was shared by all the children, or displayed in a place of honor for everyone to appreciate. Soon families’ gift-giving became less com- petitive and moved toward the goal of making the program a better place for everyone.

When teachers and families disagree on what is best for children, remembering Antonia’s rules may be a good strategy. If teachers cannot accept the family’s position for some reason, but they also cannot reject it, then they will have to work toward an alterna- tive solution—one that might better serve everyone’s interests.

Although it is true that all children are born ready to learn, it is equally true that their learning takes place within social and cultural contexts. Just as our cultural backgrounds influence our own development, behavior, and learning, developing an understanding of the role of each child’s culture should influence what and how we teach young children. Although overall learning goals may be more or less the same across cultures, different teaching strategies may be required to help children achieve those goals.

To build successful relationships with children, you will need to take into account and learn about each child’s cultural worlds because their experiences and home language are integral components of their identity. As a teacher, you will need to demonstrate respect and support for children’s language and culture. You must also help children make sense of their new experiences in school by making connections to their

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Responding to Cultural Differences Here’s What Happened Before the new group of 3-year-olds started in the fall, I let all of the families know that the children were welcome to bring from home any kind of “comfort object” they would like. Emma brought her favorite bear, Cookie. When she went to get him from her cubby at naptime, Cookie was gone, and when she searched for Cookie, she found Linh curled up and ready for her nap, holding the bear. I explained to Linh that the bear was Emma’s and gently took him from her and returned him to Emma. After this sequence of events repeated itself for several days, I talked to Linh’s mother, Mrs. Pham, and asked for her help in getting her daughter to leave Emma’s bear alone. Although she understands English fairly well, she looked at me with total incomprehension at this request. During the next few weeks, I talked with a few Vietnamese people who had lived in the community for a while. From our discussions, I saw the part of the picture I had been missing. In the Vietnamese and most other Asian cultures, the idea of individual ownership is not as impor- tant as shared ownership and enjoyment of objects.

I went back to Linh’s mom to give her a sense of how Emma’s experiences were different from Linh’s. I also talked with Emma’s mom about Linh’s perspective. At her mother’s encouragement, Linh brought in a toy animal that she and her siblings play with at home. After a few weeks, Linh and Emma sometimes would have their animals play together in the dramatic play area.

Here’s What I Was Thinking Getting the informa- tion from members of the Vietnamese community was very

helpful, as was my own research about “interdependent” cultures. Maybe I could have gotten to this eventually by talking with Linh’s mother, but because I didn’t understand the basis of her response, I didn’t want to risk offending her as a result of my own ignorance. Once I had some understanding of interdependent and individualistic cultural values, I could talk with Mrs. Pham and see if we were communicating clearly. I felt it was important to go beyond just resolving the immediate conflict between the girls.

I think it is important for the families as well as the children to learn about the differences in cultural values and prac- tices. After all, the Vietnamese children will experience the values predominant in European American culture through- out their lives in the United States, and ultimately the goal is for them to become sufficiently “bicultural” so that they can manage well in both worlds. At the same time, I was impressed with the way the Vietnamese children get along and share toys, which is a goal we have for all 3-year-olds. And the families who are natives to our area need to under- stand the new people who are joining our community, too. In fact, because Linh and Emma are so young, I thought their families might gain more cultural knowledge from this situation than they would.

Reflection Rethink this situation from the perspective of a teacher whose own cultural values are interdependent. What might she have been thinking and what would she have done?

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prior knowledge and experiences obtained in their own cultural contexts. Culturally and linguistically appropriate ways of teaching are not “add-ons”; they are integral dimensions of developmentally appropriate practice.

✓ Check Your Understanding 6.6: Effective Practices for Diverse Learners

… Ms. Griffin’s Classroom At the beginning of this chapter, we saw how Stacey struggled in her relationship with families during

her first year of teaching. Now that we have explored the many ways culture influences thinking and

behavior, we can revisit Stacey’s situation and see how it could be improved for everyone involved.

Rather than giving up in frustration, Stacey attends a professional conference and takes workshops

on cultural and linguistic diversity. This motivates her to do some reading and talking with the more

experienced staff members at her center. These experiences cause Stacey to reexamine some of her

prior assumptions and, in turn, change some of the ways she teaches.

Her first step is to alter her daily schedule so the beginning of the day is an informal time for her to

talk and play with small groups or individual children. Before she calls for a group gathering to sing or

tell the children the plans for the day, Stacey waits for all of the children to arrive. This schedule means

that she is no longer frustrated if parents bring their children late.

Stacey reflects on the disagreements she has been having with families over carrying and dressing

their children. She recognizes that these differences are quite minor. Consequently, she decides not to

interfere with close family relationships by imposing her views of what is best for children’s development.

Stacey explains to families that she doesn’t always have time to feed each child individually, so at

times she gives them finger food. In response to parents’ concerns, however, she promises that she will

help feed the children as much as possible. In general, she finds that once their families leave for the

day, the children tend to model each other. In some ways, they function more independently, such as

when they attempt self-help skills. In other ways, they function interdependently by helping each other

often and waiting till Stacey tells them what to do.

In her conflict with Mrs. Arguenta, Stacey realizes that Mrs. Arguenta was showing respect by re-

fusing to call her by her first name. Stacey comes to see that Mrs. Arguenta has a legitimate point of

view about teaching Ilsia to use the toilet. She tries using the skills she learned for resolving conflict.

She agrees to try Mrs. Arguenta’s strategies, while Mrs. Arguenta agrees that they may not be entirely

successful because Stacey has a group of children to supervise.

Finally, Stacey realizes that Mrs. Arguenta sent Ilsia’s 10-year-old sister to pick her up because

within their cultural group, older children naturally look after their younger siblings. Stacey respect-

fully explains to Mrs. Arguenta that because of licensing laws, the center can only release a child to an

adult. This is an issue where compromise is not possible. Mrs. Arguenta presents a list of adult family

members who have permission to pick up Ilsia.

As we see from the encounter between Stacey and Mrs. Arguenta, cultural competence and cross-

cultural communication are key elements of effective practice in early childhood education. ■

Revisiting the Case Study

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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 201

•  Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs, and pat- terns of behavior, both explicit and implicit, that are passed on from generation to generation. All learning and development occur in and are influenced by social and cultural contexts.

•  A framework for studying culture is to understand that the beliefs, values, and behaviors that characterize cultural groups vary along a continuum from individu- alistic to interdependent.

•  Teachers need to become aware of their own cultural perspectives as the first step toward becoming cultur- ally competent.

•  Knowledge of culture is important because without it, teachers can misunderstand children, inaccurately assess children’s competence, and/or fail to promote children’s learning.

•  Cultural competence is the ability to work and commu- nicate effectively, both verbally and nonverbally, with members of various cultural groups.

•  Culturally responsive learning goals for children are to foster and support children’s development and sense of identity within their own cultural group, to assist children to experience and value diversity, to foster children’s critical thinking, and to counter stereotypes and biases (negative expressions toward groups).

•  Given the diversity of children and families served to- day, teachers must help children to become bicultural, capable of operating successfully in both their home environment and the larger world. Helping children become bicultural requires teachers to resolve some of the inevitable contradictions that arise between what is considered developmentally appropriate and what is culturally appropriate.

Chapter Summary6

Key Terms ■■ acculturation ■■ anti-bias education ■■ bias ■■ bicultural ■■ culture

■■ cultural competence ■■ dual language learners ■■ multi-language learners ■■ ethnicity ■■ high-context culture

■■ identity ■■ individualistic cultural groups

■■ interdependent cultural groups

■■ low-context culture ■■ tourist curriculum

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

✓

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (Eds.). (2011). Develop- ing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with children and their families (4th ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

National Black Child Development Institute. (2013). Being Black is not a risk factor: A strengths-based look at the state of the Black child. Washington, DC: National

Black Child Development Institute. Retrieved from http:// www.nbcdi.org/resource.

Nemeth, K. N. (2012). Basics of supporting dual lan- guage learners: An introduction for educators of children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Souto-Manning, M. (2013). Multicultural teaching in the early childhood classroom: Approaches, strategies and tools preschool–2nd grade. New York: Teachers College Press.

Readings and Websites

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Head Start National Center on Cultural and Linguis- tic Responsiveness This federally funded center provides online practi- cal resources to guide programs serving culturally and linguistically diverse children and families, including materials in Spanish and other languages.

Multicultural Children’s Literature A number of sites offer multicultural children’s books, but searching for one that has “multiculturalchildrenslit”

in the online address will lead you to a site with a large selection of books representing many diverse groups and in many languages.

Teaching Tolerance: A Project of the Southern Poverty Law Center This website has a wealth of classroom resources includ- ing sample lessons designed for different age groups on all aspects of diversity and anti-bias education.

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7 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

7.1 Distinguish characteristics of contemporary families and describe the role of families in their children’s development, including how social, economic, and cultural contexts affect family functioning.

7.2 Discuss how reciprocal relationships develop with families and apply prin- ciples of family-centered practice.

7.3 Explain effective strategies for maintaining two-way communication with families.

7.4 Elaborate on how teachers can productively involve families in their children’s care and education.

7.5 Apply what you have learned about families to build partnerships that achieve both teachers’ and parents’ goals for children.

Building Effective Partnerships with Families

Learning Outcomes

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205

V ilma Suarez has worked as a toddler teacher in an Early Head Start center for 3 years. She loves her job, but her days can be exhausting. Today was one of those days. Before the children even arrived, Vilma had a meeting with the early intervention team to discuss Aiya’s individualized family service plan (IFSP). Aiya is deaf,

and the team wants Vilma to begin signing with her. Aiya’s mother is silent throughout the meeting. She is a new

immigrant and feels threatened by this powerful group of professionals. Vilma is patiently working to gain her trust,

beginning with being available to talk about other things besides Aiya’s hearing impairment.

When Mrs. Vacaro drops 2-year-old Tomas off, he sobs and clings to her, and Mrs. Vacaro is clearly torn about

leaving him. Vilma speaks softly to Tomas and gets his attention with his favorite stacking toy. Finally, Mrs. Vacaro

is able to pry him loose and reluctantly departs. Vilma tries to call and text her during the day to reassure her, but

Mrs. Vacaro attends school and must have turned off the sound on her phone.

The assistant teacher supervises the children’s naptime while Vilma conducts a parent conference. The

conference is difficult because she has to talk to Mr. Henderson about his son’s out-of-control biting. Mr. Henderson

angrily says, “Just smack him. That’s what I do.” Vilma realizes that this situation will have to be negotiated

carefully.

At 5:00 p.m., when Mrs. Vacaro comes in clearly dreading the worst, Vilma greets her with the news that Tomas

had great fun today playing with his friends, ate well, and even said two new words. As Vilma reassures her about

how well Tomas is doing, Mrs. Vacaro sighs and fights back tears. She stoops to cuddle Tomas, and Vilma turns to

talk with Marcy’s grandmother and David’s father, who have just arrived.

During her bus ride home, Vilma reflects on her day. She remembers that when she

began her career, she was excited about working with very young children. Because

she has three children of her own and helped parent her younger siblings,

she felt confident working with babies and toddlers and was relieved to

have a job where she didn’t have to work with adults. Vilma shakes her

head, remembering how naïve she was. She now knows that

working with children is only one part of her job. Working with

their families is the bigger challenge. But doing so is also very

rewarding. She understands that by learning

from and with families, her contributions to

children’s lives will last long after they leave her

classroom. ■

Case Study

W hatever your age, if someone asked you to picture the most important people in your life, images of your family members would likely come to mind. Perhaps you would picture the people you grew up with, or your spouse/partner and

children. Some of you might picture both your nuclear family of parents and siblings and your extended family of cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. Families play essential roles in every aspect of human development through the life span. During early child- hood, however, families are the primary context for children’s development and learning, with child care and early education settings playing a secondary, albeit critically impor- tant, role. Given that these two contexts—families and early childhood programs—are the two main environments in which children develop and learn, it is essential for teachers and parents to work in concert if children are to develop to their fullest potential.

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Because young children are inherently connected to their families, early childhood teachers work with children and families. The younger the child, the stronger the connec- tion to family and, therefore, the closer the relationship between teacher and parent must be. Most early childhood educators enter the field because of their interest in teaching young children; initially, they may not grasp the importance of developing skills to work with families. In fact, teachers report that working with families is among the areas where they feel least prepared and need the most help (Early & Winton, 2001). Throughout this book, we use the terms families and parents to mean those people who are primarily responsible for the children you teach, whoever they are—parents, stepparents, grandpar- ents, guardians, foster families, or other household members.

This chapter describes how teachers establish reciprocal relationships with fami- lies. We begin by painting a picture of today’s families, their exquisite diversity, and the challenges they face in providing for their children. Next, we describe the principles of family-centered practice as well as the nature of productive, reciprocal partnerships between teachers and families. We describe effective strategies for communicating with families and involving them in their children’s education. We also acknowledge that some strategies are not effective in all situations; relationships with families are not always smooth. Therefore, the chapter provides a framework for building partnerships that is ef- fective in resolving the inevitable conflicts that arise when working with families.

Today’s Families One can hardly read a newspaper or watch a television program today without hearing dire warnings about the state of the American family and the myriad threats it faces. Although it is true that families in the 21st century confront many challenges, it is equally true that the family is and has always been a dynamic, resilient, and effective institution for nurturing and acculturating each new generation.

What is a family? This may seem like a fairly easy question to answer, but it is not. Each of you, no doubt, has your own definition of family based on your own experiences. Throughout your career as a teacher, you will work with children who experience a wide range of family configurations, as discussed next.

Families today come in all shapes and sizes. How would you describe the membership in your family? How does it compare with the family your parents or grandparents grew up in?

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Welcoming Diverse Families Louise’s child care class consists of fifteen 3- to 5-year-olds. Four of the children live with their biological mothers and fathers; Blake and Debra are only children, Madeline is the youngest of four, and Stephen is the eldest of three. Five children live with their mothers only, but among them Joseph and Lauren are in shared custody arrangements and split days of the week living with their fathers. Both Joseph and Lauren have stepmothers as well as stepsiblings. Lauren also has a baby half-brother. Of the other three children who live with their mothers, Marin doesn’t know her father at all, and Jackson has infrequent contact with his biological father. Jeanine’s mom is serving in the military overseas. Marta lives with her two dads, and Logan lives with his two moms. Kim lives with his parents and siblings and also his paternal grandparents, aunt, and one cousin. David has lived with his grandmother and two brothers since his mother died, and his father is in prison. The diverse family configurations represented in Louise’s class are typical of America today: two-parent, single-parent, families of divorce, blended/stepfamilies, LGBT (lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender) families, and extended families.

Despite statistics and experience to the contrary, many people still think of the family as consisting of two first-time married parents and their biological or adopted children, known as the nuclear family. In looking at how children grow up today, however, as de- picted in Figure 7.1, we see that about two-thirds (64%) of all children live with two mar- ried parents, but considerable variation exists among these families. About 1 in 8 of these children lives in a family with a stepparent or adoptive parent (Kreider & Ellis, 2011). Mother-only families account for 24%, and 4% of children live with their fathers only (Child Trends, 2014a). Another 4% of children live with neither parent but rather with other family members, usually grandparents, or nonrelatives.

A significant trend is the difference in children’s living arrangements by race and ethnicity (Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2011). More than half of African American children live with their mothers only, as do about 28% of Latino children (Child Trends, 2014a). By contrast, 15% of white children and only 11% of Asian children live in mother-only households. In addition, more than twice as many African American children (6%) as white children do not live with either parent (Child Trends, 2014a).

Increasing numbers of children live in extended families, which are defined as a family unit where two or more generations of close family relatives live together in one household. Here again we see racial and ethnic diversity, with about 9% of white, 17% of African American, and 14% of Latino children living with at least one grandparent (Ellis & Simmons, 2014).

Families form and re-form over time. At various times, children may live with only one or even no parents because of divorce, separation, remarriage, death, or other circumstances. In early childhood programs, conversations and curriculum often focus on children’s families, but because families today are so diverse, teachers need to be careful not to make assumptions.

Contrary to popular belief, there has never been a “typi- cal” or “traditional” family structure in America (Welch, 2011). Various factors contribute to changing family structures over time. For example, until quite recently in history, women died in childbirth at alarming rates, and men also died young in wars or of disease. Therefore, although divorce was less common, many children grew up in single-parent families or blended families. Consider for a moment your own experiences of fam- ily, and those of your parents and grandparents. While some grow up in a “traditional” nuclear family with married parents of different sexes, many children grow up in single-parent, grandparent, or same-sex parent households.

Two parents including

biological, adoptive, and step-parents

63%

Mother only 23%

Father only 4%

Extended family 8%

Grandparents 2%

FIGURE 7.1 Living Arrangements for All Children Today, children’s living arrangements vary widely depending on their family backgrounds, circumstances, and configurations.

Source: Family Structure, Child Trends Data Bank, from Child Trends, 2014, retrieved from http:// www.childtrendsdatabank.org.

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Regardless of your own family experiences or values, as a teacher you will encounter many different family configurations. The likelihood of successfully working with fami- lies will increase if you accept the following assumptions:

• Families are diverse in many ways: composition, culture, religion, economic status, work, mobility, and sexual orientation.

• Families are not good or bad; they are different and unique. • Families, with rare exceptions, want the best for their children, regardless of the

difficult circumstances they may be trying to overcome. • All families have strengths and resources, hopes and dreams for their children, just

as all families face challenges. • It is not your right to pass judgment on families. You do not need to agree with

families at all times, but you cannot reject a child’s family and at the same time successfully care for and educate the child.

The more you know about the intricacies of family functioning, the more likely you will be able to put the above assumptions into practice. In the next section, we describe the theoretical perspectives that help explain how families function and change.

Family Dynamics Joelynn and Jeff Robeson already have 18-month-old twins when their third child, Eric, is born with spina bifida, a physical disability that requires repeated hospitalizations and considerable care. Just when Joelynn and Jeff are beginning to adjust to the strain on their marriage of caring for three young children, including one with special needs, the factory where Jeff works closes down and he loses his job. Suffering from depression and alcohol abuse, Jeff leaves Joelynn without child support, forcing her to seek public assistance. After a while, however, the rules for continuing on public assistance require Joelynn to work full time, and she must leave her three young children in the care of her sister, who also has two preschool-age children. Joelynn suffers from the stresses of caring for her children and supporting them on her minimum wage salary.

As is true for every family, the development of each member of the Robeson family is affected by many different factors, both internal and external to the family. Two theo- retical perspectives are helpful for thinking about families: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of human development and family systems theory. Each of these frameworks helps explain the complex interactions known as family dynamics.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Human Development As we learned in Chapter 4, ecological theory is a useful model for understanding the influence of social and cultural contexts on human development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006), and especially the important influence of family. At the center of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the individual child, whose development is influenced by biology, and by the proximal processes of daily interactions in the family microsystem. In the Robeson family, Eric’s disability at birth is a biological contributor to his development, but other variables also contribute to his development and mediate his disability. For example, Eric’s personal characteristics, such as his above-average intelligence and his lively personality, attract the positive attention of everyone he meets.

In the Robeson family, Eric was born into a family that was already caring for very young twins. His siblings’ existence was part of the context into which he was born, but his birth and his disability dramatically changed the family’s context. As a result, Eric’s aunt provided child care; this event occurs within the microsystem in which experiences interact and affect each other. The interactions that Eric has with his parents, siblings, and extended family—proximal processes, or daily routines—bear the most influence on his development.

Other aspects of the systems surrounding Eric also matter for his development. Interactions between his family and his aunt, doctors, and early intervention profes- sionals represent the mesosystems—the interactions among Eric’s microsystems. For

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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 209

the Robeson family, the exosystem includes economic factors beyond their control that seriously affected the family. Jeff’s unemployment led to the family’s requiring pub- lic assistance. The laws governing eligibility for public support necessitated Joelynn’s employment and the children’s enrollment in child care.

Consider how changes in various elements of the exosystem could alter outcomes for the Robeson family and their children, especially Eric. With Jeff out of work and Joelynn working for minimum wage, the family’s income is below poverty level, making them eligible for Early Head Start. This federal program provides child care for children from birth to age 3, early intervention services for Eric, and family support. The early interven- tion team helps Joelynn learn how to support Eric’s development at home. They put Jeff in touch with mental health counselors to help him deal with his depression, and they also connect him to Alcoholics Anonymous and career retraining. Through the counseling of- fered by Early Head Start, Jeff gets a maintenance job while he attends computer school. Joelynn begins training as a nurse’s aide, inspired by her newfound abilities to care for Eric’s health. The twins thrive in the social atmosphere at the child care center. The family reunites, and its emotional as well as financial security improves. The changes in Eric’s family will have lasting benefits for his development as well.

When aspects of the child and family systems provide substantive supports outside of their home life, families have what they need to have positive interactions inside their home—and children benefit. Now that you have seen how various ecological systems interact to influence the family and children’s development, we focus on family systems theory, which explains more about the internal workings of family dynamics.

Family Systems Theory Understanding family dynamics is an important aspect of working with children of any age, but of young children in particular because they don’t always have the language to describe their emotions and needs. Rodney may be angry because his father was just deployed, which makes his mother sad and nervous and his big sister silent. To describe how this one event impacts the entire family, family systems theory views family members as interconnected parts, with each member influencing the others in predictable and recurring ways (Welch, 2011). Family systems theory focuses on explaining family behavior—that is, why individual family members behave as they do in relation to one another and to those outside the family. Understanding how families function as systems can help teachers serve diverse children and build family partnerships more effectively.

Family systems theory describes some common characteristics of families, includ- ing boundaries, roles, rules, hierarchy, climate, and equilibrium (Christian, 2006). Each of these characteristics can be described on a continuum. For example, all families have rules regarding the acceptable behavior of members; some families operate according to strict and inflexible rules, whereas others have few rules or apply rules inconsistently. Table 7.1 presents characteristics of family systems, what they mean, and implications for effective teaching practice. Because each dimension of family functioning is particularly influenced by the cultural beliefs and practices of the family and community, teachers need to view family variability on these dimensions as differences rather than positives or negatives (Christian, 2006).

In the previous sections, we have seen how families influence and are influenced by social, cultural, and political contexts. We have also seen how different families’ char- acteristics influence their behavior toward their children and in relation to teachers and school. In the next section, we describe some of the challenges confronting America’s families today.

Family Circumstances and Challenges Families today face many challenges in providing the best care and education for their children. We regularly hear dire predictions about children at risk. This term is widely used, typically to refer to children who have characteristics (such as a disability) or life circumstances (such as poverty) that increase the likelihood that they will experience

family systems theory Views family members as intercon- nected parts, with each mem- ber influencing the others in predictable and recurring ways.

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Dimension Explanation Implication and Example

Boundaries Limitations on what or who is considered in or out of the family. Some families are open to new people and new ideas, whereas others tend to be more closed and restrictive. Families at one extreme may share too much information about the private workings of the family, whereas extremely closed families may conceal information such as domestic violence or substance abuse.

Respecting a family’s boundaries is an important skill of effective early childhood professionals. When the Robeson family enrolled in the Early Head Start pro- gram, the staff found that Joelynn was open to sharing her problems and seeking help, but Jeff at first felt the program was too intrusive into his personal business.

Roles In every family, individual members have roles—the parts that individuals typically play in relation to oth- ers. Most of us readily remember our role in the family. Were you the baby, the peacemaker, or the rescuer?

These roles have powerful lasting effects on develop- ment that are often played out in school as well. For example, 7-year-old Deon’s parents have addiction problems. From a young age, he has felt responsible for taking care of them and his younger sister. Deon’s teacher values his serious attitude toward his work, but wishes that he didn’t worry so much about his parents and could be more carefree.

Rules The standards or traditions that dictate correct be- havior in various situations and how we relate to one another. Defining and passing on rules for behavior is the major function of cultural groups; therefore, rules are, by definition, culturally determined.

Differences in teachers’ and parents’ expectations about rules often require negotiation. Deon’s parents think he should act like a man and contribute to the family rather than play outside or spend time with friends.

Hierarchy The decision making, control, and power within the family, who is in charge, and how power is distributed and used. Like rules, hierarchy is strongly influenced by culture. In some families, parents share responsibil- ity equitably; in others, hierarchy is determined by gen- der, with fathers and mothers making decisions about different aspects of parenting. In some groups, power is vested in elders. Hierarchies change over time.

Teachers need to be aware of family hierarchy because so many interactions involve decisions, and effective family partnerships and family-centered practice require the sharing of power. In the Robeson family, Jeff was the one in charge during the early years of the marriage, but when he lost his job, power shifted to Joelynn as the breadwinner and single parent. Power shifts can also occur when a military parent is deployed.

Climate The emotional and physical environment in which a child grows up. Emotionally close families can compensate to some extent for threatening physical environments.

The classroom climate needs to be emotionally safe and secure for all children. The Robeson family lived in a physically safe neighborhood, but the tensions between the parents created a hostile emotional climate in the home for a time.

Equilibrium The sense of balance or consistency that family mem- bers experience. Growth and change, both positive and negative, are inevitable aspects of human develop- ment, but too much inconsistency creates confusion and resentment.

Teachers can help work with families during times of change to maintain stability and consistency. For example, at the Early Head Start center, the Robeson twins were kept in the same class with the same teachers for 2 years during the period of upheaval in their family. Then the staff worked with the Head Start program to transition the twins smoothly to preschool.

Table 7.1 Characteristics of Family Systems

Source: Based on “Understanding Families: Applying Family Systems Theory to Early Childhood Practice,” by L. G. Christian, 2006, Young Children, 61(1), 12–20.

negative developmental and learning outcomes, such as dropping out of school. However, the term “at risk” has no consistent definition and often tends to stigmatize children, fami- lies, and/or communities by oversimplifying the strengths and challenges of children and families with a label that does not help address their needs (Moore, 2006).

Because families are the most critical setting for children’s development, risk factors affecting families, such as poverty, single parenthood, and low levels of parental educa- tion (which tend to co-occur), are found to be related to poor outcomes for children. Other

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factors that place families at risk include family dysfunction, abuse, parental mental illness, substance abuse, and illness (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.). Community risk factors create challenges for families as well; these include poverty, crime, unemployment, and high levels of teen parenthood.

Challenges for Families The largest risk factor for poor child out- comes is poverty, which the federal government defines as less than $22,050 per year for a family of four. Because research shows that almost twice this income is required to adequately cover expenses, the National Center for Children in Poverty (2014) estimates that almost 45% of children live in low- income families. In 2012, almost 25% of children under the age of 6 were living in poverty or extreme poverty (less than half the poverty level)—an increase of 33% in the first decade of the 21st century (Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2014). Growing up in poverty is related to many negative out- comes for children, including increased likelihood of abuse, neglect, school failure, delinquency, and violence.

Child poverty continues to grow despite the fact that most poor children live in work- ing families (CDF, 2014). Moreover, a disproportionate number of children of color live in poverty (CDF, 2014). Compared to 12% of white children, 40% of African American, 34% of Hispanic, and 37% of American Indian children under age 5 are poor (CDF, 2014).

Children living in poverty are at risk for poor physical and dental health, more likely to experience hunger and malnutrition, and less likely to have access to health care (CDF, 2014). African American children are more than twice as likely as white children not to have medical insurance. In addition, homelessness is on the rise; in fact, families with children, including many preschoolers, are the fastest growing group of homeless people (CDF, 2014).

Cumulative risk factors increase the likelihood of poor outcomes for children. Pov- erty coupled with other factors such as low level of parent education (less than high school), single-parent family, or teen parent multiplies risk. Economic stress also affects two-parent families. Almost 60% of mothers of children under age 5 are in the workforce, which adds the cost of child care for many financially strapped families.

Classroom Connection Watch this video about the Campsey family, and analyze how family experiences, in this case the birth of a child with disabili- ties, can change family dynamics and circumstances in challenging ways.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =exaWw4hPzwE&index=34& list=PLK1JOJxrAG2E-BE- CoAk15nr190X3Sw8ZI

Programs such as Head Start and Early Head Start serve our nation’s neediest families. Early child- hood teachers work closely with families and can be resources to help strengthen and build resilience in families facing challenges.

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Resilient Families Despite difficult family circumstances and challenges, it is im- portant to note that poverty, neglect, and discrimination do not necessarily set children up for failure. Families’ assets or strengths—their protective factors—can counter the poten- tial negative effects of risks (Cabrera, 2013). Although public attention tends to focus on all that is wrong with the American family, compelling evidence exists that many families— including those living in the most difficult circumstances—have inner strengths that counter risk factors and predict positive results for children (Iruka, 2013).

Contemporary families have high levels of important family strengths: closeness, concern, caring, and interaction (Moore, Chalk, Scarpa, & Vandivere, 2002). Moreover, a positive, caring relationship with a parent can mitigate many risk factors (Bandy & Moore, 2008). Similarly, ongoing positive relationships with other adults, especially caregivers and teachers, are important protective factors (Driscoll, Wang, Mashburn, & Pianta, 2011).

Child Trends (2007) finds that about 10% of children growing up in two-parent, low- conflict families have problems, whereas 20% of all other children experience problems. Their conclusion is somewhat contrary to the popular images of at-risk children and fami- lies today: Most kids do fine. Some children with highly stable families will have prob- lems; more children whose families experience several risk factors will struggle. The takeaway message with regard to risk and protective factors is that there are no guaran- tees. Poor outcomes are not inevitable for children placed at risk, just as low risk is not a guarantee of success in life. Given the critical role of families in children’s development and learning, the simple conclusion is that anything we can do to strengthen families is a good idea (Child Trends, 2007). Later in this chapter, we discuss family-centered practice, which includes research-based, effective strategies to support families.

Because they work directly with families as well as children, early childhood educa- tors have the opportunity as well as the responsibility to strengthen families. In the next section, we address ways teachers can build reciprocal relationships with families toward the goal of achieving better outcomes for all children.

✓ Check Your Understanding 7.1: Today’s Families

Reciprocal Relationships with Families In her book on partnerships with parents, Janis Keyser (2006, p. xi) describes her develop- ment as an early childhood professional as progressing through three stages of relationship with parents: save the child, save the parents, and draw on parents’ expertise. These stages are identical to my own experience and that of many other early childhood teachers.

Like many others in the early childhood profession, Keyser chose this field because of her love of children. In the earliest days of her practice, when she encountered a child whose needs were great, she entered the first stage: “save the child.” Inevitably there would be several children whom she thought if only she could save them from their parents, their lives would be better. She quickly realized the futility of this approach and moved on to the next stage of her development, which she calls “save the parents.” Realizing that it would be impossible to save all of the children from their parents, she determined to fix the parents. She thought that if she taught them everything early childhood professionals know, they would become better parents. Soon, however, she realized that this notion fails to recognize that families bring funds of knowledge—experiences, traditions, goals, resources, and rich culture to their roles. In fact, she concluded that families add unique value to the knowledge of early childhood teachers (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Iruka, 2013). In the final stage of development in her relationships with families, she rejected both goals of saving children and saving parents in favor of drawing on parents’ expertise to work in partnerships with them in ways that are in the children’s best interests.

funds of knowledge Expe- riences, traditions, goals, resources, and rich culture that families bring to their roles.

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Keyser’s story about her own development as a teacher mirrors how the profes- sion’s views of parent-teacher relationships have evolved over time (Powell & Gerde, 2006; Powell & O’Leary, 2009). In the past, and even today in some educational set- tings, teachers thought that they could care for and educate children almost in spite of their parents. Today, however, the prevailing view of effective practice requires recip- rocal relationships and partnerships between teachers and families (Olsen & Fuller, 2012; Iruka, 2013). Reciprocal relationships are two-way relationships in which in- formation and power are shared. Before describing the elements of effective partner- ships, it is important to clarify the distinct roles of teachers and parents in the lives of young children.

Roles of Teachers and Parents One of the challenges to building effective partnerships for early childhood teachers is that the younger the child in their care, the more blurred the lines become between fami- lies and teachers. Nevertheless, there are definite distinctions between the roles of parent and teacher. Children’s relationships with their family members often last a lifetime. They view their children’s development and learning more emotionally. Their relationships are often intense, and culturally embedded. While family members are considered children’s “first teacher,” they typically have no training in how to care for and educate their child. While teachers’ relationships with children are very important for their learning and development they typically have short-term relationships with children and find it easier to be objective. Furthermore, teachers benefit from formal education related to supporting children’s learning and development. These distinctions help explain why both perspec- tives are essential in providing high-quality care and education for each child (Baker & Manfredi-Pettit, 2004).

Understanding these different but complementary roles reminds teachers of the im- portant boundaries between their roles and those of parents. Children benefit greatly from the lasting unconditional love of at least one adult, usually a parent (Brazelton & Greenspan, 2000). At the same time, children benefit from the more objective view that

reciprocal relationships Two-way relationships in which information and power are shared; based on mutual respect, trust, cooperation, and shared responsibility.

Young children are integrally connected to their families. Effective early childhood programs depend on positive relationships between teachers and parents.

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teachers can bring when they evaluate the children’s needs and strengths. To help all of their students, teachers can draw on their experience from observing many children’s development and knowing how to effectively support children’s social and academic development in group situations such as that of the school or child care center. By con- trast, parents are the most knowledgeable sources of information about their child’s development and experience in settings outside the school. Moreover, parents are the most accurate, key informants about children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Once teachers are clear about what they and parents bring to the table, the opportunity exists to build reciprocal relationships with families.

Family-Centered Practice Reciprocal relationships can develop only in an atmosphere of mutual respect, trust, cooperation, and shared responsibility. These are the elements of what is now called family-centered care or family-centered practice (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2014).

Family-centered practice is a term that originated in the early childhood special education community. According to special educators, family-centered practice provides to families the resources and supports that promote children’s development and learning and, at the same time, strengthen the competence of families in their roles and improve family well-being (Dunst, 2011). Professionals may provide parent education to sup- port parents’ competence, confidence, and enjoyment of interactions with their child. To achieve these goals, professionals must actively involve families, be responsive to their requests, and treat them with dignity and respect.

Considerable research documents the benefits of family-centered practice for chil- dren and families, especially for children with disabilities and special needs (Trivette, Dunst, & Hamby, 2010). The Including All Children feature demonstrates the value of family-centered practice for children and their families. Although family-centered prac- tices have been at the heart of early childhood special education, they are also now rec- ognized as essential elements of all high-quality early childhood programs (NAEYC, 2014).

Family-centered practice is interpreted slightly differently by general educators than by special educators because the needs of the families they work with are differ- ent, and because of the child’s specific needs. For general educators, family-centered practice focuses on building partnerships with families. These partnerships are char- acterized by several key principles: mutual respect and trust; regular, frequent two- way communication; collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power; and negotiation of conf licts toward win-win solutions (Bredekamp, 1997a, 1997b). When working with families who are racial and ethnic minorities, Iruka (2013) suggests that professionals employ a bi-directional approach, which integrates the families’ cul- ture and perspectives, and capitalize on a strengths-based approach. What this means for teachers is that efforts to increase family engagement should include extensive, meaningful input from families on their family traditions, interaction preferences, and individual needs.

Mutual trust and respect develop gradually after numerous interactions. Although teachers and parents may initially disagree on certain issues, the goal is to recognize and respect one another’s knowledge and expertise (Keyser, 2006). If parents feel respected, they are more likely to share information that teachers need to know.

Differences of opinion and goals are inevitable when working with other people’s children. If mutual trust and respect are to be maintained and parents are to continue to be empowered, such conflicts must be negotiated toward win-win solutions (discussed later in this chapter). There are instances, however, when negotiation is not an option, such as in cases of suspected child abuse or neglect. Policies regarding teachers’ responsibilities for reporting child abuse should be clearly communicated to families as well as teachers (National Research Council [NRC], 2014).

family-centered practice Providing resources and sup- ports to families that promote children’s development and learning and, at the same time, strengthen the competency of families in their role.

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Collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power can be difficult to negoti- ate for inexperienced teachers. Many early childhood educators fail to grasp the extent of their actual and perceived power in relationships with families. In addition, cultural differences may be a complicating factor in supporting family engagement in school com- munity and activities. The Culture Lens feature describes research that sheds light on how Latino mothers may view engagement in their child’s education differently than mothers of other cultures—and how building on cultural strengths can support the family and child in the educational process.

Teachers’ skill in using family-centered practices is essential to the success of programs for children with special needs. Family-centered practices reflect the belief that the more time, energy, knowledge, and skills families have, the more likely the child’s development will thrive, as we see in the following example.

Jennifer, the family service worker from the Beginnings Child Development Center, works with Carolyn and Bill’s son Ben. Three-year-old Ben is diagnosed with language and social skills delays and also demonstrates challenging behaviors. Jennifer alternates her visits between Ben’s preschool classroom and family home. She visits Ben’s home in the evening so Bill and Carolyn can both be there. When she arrives, Jennifer spies Ben behind a chair, kneels down, and pulls some cars and race track pieces out of her bag. As Ben comes closer, Jennifer suggests to Bill that he might enjoy playing with his son. Bill moves to the floor and begins assembling the pieces. Jennifer models how to provide a choice for Ben to get him to use his words. With a toy in each hand, Jennifer brings them close to her face, and asks, “Ben, do you want the bus or the car?” Ben reaches for the bus, and Jennifer responds, “I want the . . .” and looks at expectantly. Ben points and says, “Bus.” Jennifer smiles and gives him the bus. She turns to Bill and asks, “Want to try?” She moves to let Bill play with Ben.

Jennifer’s tablet rings, and she answers a video call from Ben’s teacher, Rashida, who would like to join Jennifer in her home visit, but must be home in the evening. She—and Ben’s family—are happy to meet using Skype, and share successes and ideas for Ben’s progress. Rashida has posted a video of Ben and another child playing at the sand table to- gether on their secure school website. She plays the video for Bill and Carolyn, highlighting Ben’s coop- erative play, as the other child and Ben take turns pouring sand into a bucket, and laughing together when they dump it out. Rashida points out how well Ben’s social skills and friendships have developed,

and they chat about some ideas for having success- ful play dates with a friend outside of school. Before she hangs up, Rashida tells them to look out for a surprise text the next day.

Carolyn notices Ben enjoying the cars and comments on how he is using more words. Jen- nifer shows Carolyn how she can use a paper towel roll to make a “track” for small cars. Carolyn loves the idea and decides to tape the track to the side of the refrigerator. “This way, he can play and we can talk while I am making dinner.” Jennifer is pleased because she knows dinnertime has been very stressful for Ben’s family. Jennifer will check back in a couple of days to see how the new ideas are working. As she packs to go, Jennifer gives Bill information about the “dads’ support group” he is interested in and gives Carolyn a list of respite care providers.

The next day, Bill and Carolyn are surprised when they see that Ben used a tablet at school to take a picture of the big sand structure with cars around it. With Rashida’s help, Ben sent the picture and a voice message “big garage” via text message. Since they cannot visit Ben’s school of- ten, Bill and Carolyn find these text messages and Skype visits very valuable for keeping in touch with Ben’s teacher. That day, Ben comes home from school with a printed picture of his “big garage,” and they hang it on the refrigerator next to his tube track.

Although Jennifer spends only a little time interacting directly with Ben during this visit, she provides supports to his family that will enable them to be true partners in Ben’s development and learning. She provides opportunities for teacher–parent connections using technology, and connects family members with resources such as support groups. Jennifer coaches the family on how to use learning strategies used in Ben’s therapy sessions and preschool activities. Thus, by partnering with Ben’s family and classroom teacher, Jennifer supports important relationships that will benefit Ben far beyond the one hour of her visit.

Including All Children Family-Centered Practice

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If you, like many of your colleagues, think early childhood education involves just working with children, you might feel intimidated by the idea of developing reciprocal re- lationships with families. In the next section, we address the fundamental skill of two-way communication with families.

✓ Check Your Understanding 7.2: Reciprocal Relationships with Families

Communication with Families Building relationships with families requires effective communication—one of the big- gest challenges teachers face. Before we describe positive ways of communicating with families, we begin with considering some of the most common barriers to effective com- munication.

Barriers to Effective Communication Effective communication between teachers and families means more than sharing infor- mation; it means developing shared understanding about who the child is, each party’s goals, and how to achieve them. Early childhood education covers a broad age span— from birth through age 8. During the earliest years, children are most likely to be served in some form of child care while parents work. At the other end of the age continuum,

Teachers are sometimes frustrated when families don’t participate in the parent involvement activities offered. Some families don’t attend back-to-school night, rarely return paperwork, or fail to volunteer for school activities. Research shows that children develop and learn best when families are engaged in their children’s education. Developing productive relationships and partnerships with families can be challenging. Just as with children, a teacher cannot assume a “one-size-fits-all” approach toward building family partnerships. When families’ cul- ture and language are different from the school culture, it can be even more challenging.

Families’ cultural perspective impacts how they engage in the school community, and in their children’s educa- tional activities. Taking a perspective of capitalizing on family strengths and funds of knowledge, Manica Ramos interviewed immigrant Latino mothers about how cul- ture impacted their involvement in their preschool-aged children’s education. Ramos found that Latino mothers were very invested in their children’s education, and that they expressed this investment in ways that were similar to and different from non-Latino families. For example, Latino mothers in Ramos’s study reported attending student–teacher conferences and reading to their chil- dren, similar to school expectations. However, they also discussed forms of involvement in their children’s educa- tion that were more culturally specific to Latino families,

including sacrificios (sacrifices), consejos (advice), and apoyo (moral support).

Most mothers shared that they believed in making sacri- fices (sacrificios) to support their children’s education and took great pride in working hard to support their children’s education. They described how they gave advice (consejos) to their children to support their education, which for these Latino mothers included academic and social education. Finally, they described how they saw their role related to supporting their children’s motivation to learn, morale and confidence, and respect (respeto) related to learning.

Ramos translated her findings to important implica- tions for teachers working with immigrant families and non–European American families, in addition to Latino families. She recommends that teachers learn about the family cultures of the children in the classroom and school—from the families themselves. Ramos encour- ages teachers to think creatively about what constitutes family engagement opportunities, and consult with fami- lies on how they would like to be engaged. To understand different family values and beliefs, Ramos recommends visiting families regularly in their homes to develop warm and productive relationships.

Source: The Strengths of Latina Mothers in Supporting their Children’s Education: A Cultural Perspective, by M. Ramos, 2014, Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, retrieved November 1, 2014, from http://www.childtrends.org.

Developing Partnerships with Latino Families

Culture Lens

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children are in school and perhaps child care for part of the day. In each of these situations, communication problems can arise.

Communication Problems in Child Care Settings In child care programs for infants, toddlers, and young preschoolers, deep emotions can consume parents as they leave their children in someone else’s care, which can create tension with teachers. Fol- lowing are examples of typical situations that arise over the care of young children and the feelings they may generate in parents:

• Competition. Parents may feel jealous if the child becomes attached to another adult. Three-year-old Madison has been in child care for 1 month. Her mother feels conflicted about it and threatened by the growing relationship between Madison and her teacher. She tells her husband, “I’m afraid Madison loves her teacher more than me. When I left the center, Madison called her teacher ‘Mommy’ and I cried all the way to work.”

• Guilt and loss. At times, parents feel a sense of loss over missed experiences. Jacob is 11 months old. His mother is torn between her desire to spend more time with him and her rewarding but demanding career. She worked very hard to earn her law degree, and her job is stressful. At the same time, she feels guilty about neglecting Jacob. She thinks, “I’m going to miss seeing my baby’s first steps.”

• Differing child-rearing goals. Disagreements between parents and teachers, both large and small, are inevitable. Tawanna, who is 4½ years old, enrolled in a new center recently, and her father has concerns about the informality and lack of em- phasis on academic skills. He tells his wife, “I don’t like Tawanna getting dirty at school. And I want her to learn to read to be ready for school, but they say that’s not important yet. And they let the children call them by their first names in that school. I want Tawanna to learn good manners.”

• Power struggles. Parents may feel that they are losing control over their child’s up- bringing. Sonya is turning 6, a milestone event in her family. Her grandmother is in- censed, however, because she wants to hold a party at school, and the teachers won’t let her control it. She tells her friend, “They say I can’t send cupcakes for Sonya’s birthday because they’re not healthy food, but she wants cupcakes and so do I.”

Infant/toddler teachers sometimes find that parents may feel threatened or unsure about sharing their child’s care with another person. How can this teacher build a positive relationship that will benefit the baby and the family?

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These parents’ feelings illustrate that sharing their children with other adults is diffi- cult and can be threatening to the close parent–child relationship. When other people have considerable influence over their children’s lives, parents can feel powerless.

Communication Problems in School Schools and parents can encounter a number of obstacles in their efforts to communicate. Following are examples of some common barriers to communication:

• Confusion about regulations and policies. Parents may lack the information they need about the school’s goals, procedures, and policies. For example, Summit School has a policy that parents need to be alerted in the middle of first grade about whether their children’s reading is below grade level so that an intervention plan can be set up. Shelley’s mother becomes very anxious: “It’s only January, and the teacher thinks that Shelley will have to stay back in first grade because she’s not reading at grade level. I don’t want my little girl to f lunk, but what can I do?”

• Lack of flexibility. The school may not be sensitive to parents’ individual needs and concerns. Mr. Jenkins is a concerned father who wants to be involved in his chil- dren’s education, but he is frustrated: “That school always has meetings and events during the day, but I can’t take off work.”

• Lack of attention to individual children. At times, parents’ concerns arise from fears that teachers don’t really know and understand their children. Parents may feel that teachers’ expectations for their children are too low because of the child’s socioeconomic status, disability, or race, as in these examples: • Seven-year-old Abigail has Down syndrome. Her two mothers believe that the

teachers don’t think Abigail can learn, so they don’t teach her anything. • Ms. Rice tells her mother, “I think that teacher is racist. She assigned all the

black boys to the lowest reading group.”

Communication problems can arise when parents don’t understand how the school functions and how they can influence decisions. They may feel powerless to alter a policy or the teacher’s perceptions about their child. Teachers may think they provide adequate information, but if the parent doesn’t understand the message, considerable anxiety and confusion may result for the parents and the child as well.

At other times, power struggles can ensue due to conflicting goals. Some families have very high expectations for their children’s success in school, so they may pressure teachers and children to ensure academic achievement. The term helicopter parent de- scribes parents who “hover over” their children and try to control everything in their lives. Some parents will come forward and complain often, whereas others are too intimidated to voice even the gentlest concerns.

To address these communication problems openly and honestly, teachers can use a variety of strategies, discussed next, that will benefit both the child and the family.

Effective Communication Strategies Communication is the basis of all relationships. Positive relationships begin when parents feel welcome in the school.

A Welcoming Environment On entering a school or child care center, parents can usually tell how welcome they are. The environment communicates messages about whether families are expected to be regular participants, infrequent guests, or simple agents of transmittal. Is there a sign greeting children and families? Do teachers greet them at the door? Is there an area where they can gather and visit with each other? Are there adult-sized chairs? Is there a bulletin board stocked with cur- rent information? Can parents easily find their children’s work and space for their belongings?

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The physical environment plays an important role in welcoming families. However, face-to-face communication between teachers and parents is more important.

Types of Messages Substantive communication is possible and more effective when it is built on a strong base of casual, routine conversation. Think of the messages that teachers need to send to parents as basically two kinds: tennis balls and slippery eggs (NAEYC, 1998).

Picture yourself tossing a tennis ball back and forth from hand to hand. Tennis ball messages are easily “tossed” and easily received. These messag- es help form the foundation of a relationship. Tennis ball messages constitute the everyday chitchat between teachers and parents. This kind of back-and- forth communication helps each party in the relationship to learn and become comfortable with the other’s style.

Teacher: Hello, Mr. Watkins, it’s good to see Neil back at school today. I hope your family enjoyed the visit with his grandparents. Parent: We had a great time. They live so far away that Neil only sees them a few times a year. They had to leave this morning, so we are all a little down.

Now picture yourself tossing a slippery egg to another person. You would hold the egg carefully and toss it very gingerly, assuming that the other person is prepared to catch it with equal care. If the egg were tossed carelessly or too abruptly, a mess would result. The same is true of slippery egg messages. They are more difficult to toss and catch, and must be tossed gently to be sure that the catcher receives the communication as intended (NAEYC, 1998). Even the best of relationships requires slippery egg messages at times. Some relationships seem to consist almost entirely of slippery egg communications. How these messages are sent—the style of communication—determines how well they are received, as we see in the next section.

Communication Styles There are at least three styles of communication: passive, aggressive, and assertive (NAEYC, 1998). Passive communication is sensitive to the

slippery egg messages Communications that are difficult to “toss” (send) and “catch” (receive), and must be expressed gently to be sure that the “catcher” receives the com- munication as intended.

tennis ball messages Communications that are easily “tossed” and easily received and that help form the founda- tion of a relationship; they con- stitute the everyday chitchat between teachers and parents.

Classroom Connection This video shows the start of the school day in a typical preschool classroom. As you watch, reflect on how these teachers use everyday conversations to build positive, reciprocal relationships with families and help children transition from home to school.

passive communication Speaking in a way that is sensi- tive to the listener’s feelings, but so vague that the message is easily misunderstood.

Reciprocal relationships with parents begin in everyday chit chat—casual conversation about children that builds trust and respect.

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listener’s feelings, but so vague that the message is easily misunderstood. The listener be- comes confused about expectations and loses trust. Aggressive communication is truth- ful, but the delivery is hurtful. The listener feels angry and resentful, and the relationship is damaged. Assertive communication—telling the truth in a thoughtful and considerate way—is the most effective form of communication (NAEYC, 1998). Assertive commu- nication strengthens relationships and increases the likelihood of successfully resolving problems.

The goal in sending a slippery egg message—the kind that is difficult to send as well as to receive—is to use assertive communication. Compared to passive or aggressive styles of communication, assertive communication succeeds in delivering the difficult message while also maintaining and perhaps deepening the relationship.

Following is an example of these three communication styles in action. First-grade teacher Julia Sykes is concerned that one of her students, DeShawn Jameson, is not mak- ing progress in reading. Julia sets up a meeting with DeShawn’s mother to discuss the problem. They chat comfortably for a few minutes, but Ms. Jameson is clearly nervous, anticipating bad news. Here are three ways that Julia might present the situation:

• Passive communication. “I know you are worried about how DeShawn is doing in school, and so am I. All the children take time to get settled and he’ll come around as soon as he’s ready.” With such a passive statement, Julia demonstrates caring for the parent and child, but fails to convey the seriousness of the situation. Ms. Jameson is confused and a little angry because she doesn’t understand why she took off work for this meeting.

• Aggressive communication. “We’ve got a problem with DeShawn. He is so far be- hind in reading, he’ll probably have to repeat first grade.” Julia dreaded delivering this bad news, so she blurted it out with little concern for Ms. Jameson’s feelings. Ms. Jameson immediately becomes defensive: “What do you mean? Why aren’t you teaching him right?”

• Assertive communication. “Ms. Jameson, during the first three months of school, I’ve found that DeShawn isn’t making the reading progress that he should be. We don’t expect all the children to learn to read at the same time. But I’m concerned that if he falls further behind, he will really have a hard time catching up. What I’d like to do is have a reading specialist evaluate him to see if he would benefit from tutoring, which is provided free by the school. I wanted you to come in today so we could talk about how DeShawn is doing at home and what options we have to help him.” In this communication, Julia conveys caring for DeShawn and his mother, but she also tells the truth—that there is a problem and there are possible solutions to work on together.

Assertive communication is often effective when the teacher is working with chal- lenging situations and distraught or angry parents. As the Becoming an Intentional Teacher feature reveals, it is important to be open and really listen to parents’ concerns and complaints. Teachers use many different vehicles to accomplish clear, honest, regu- lar communication. In the sections that follow, we describe some of these strategies.

Informal Communication In programs for infants and toddlers, families and teachers must communicate daily, both morning and evening, to ensure that children re- ceive optimum care. Morning drop-off and afternoon pickup times are good for engaging in the kind of chitchat, or tennis ball back-and-forth, communication that builds relation- ships between teachers and parents.

For example, “How are you this morning, Ms. Kelly? I can see that Monique doesn’t look too happy. Is there something I should know to help her get settled?”

Two-year-old Monique’s mom might say, “She wouldn’t eat her breakfast and I had to leave or I’d be late for work.” “No problem. We’ll feed her here, and don’t worry or you’ll be late,” the teacher replies.

aggressive communication Speaking the truth in a hurtful way.

assertive communication Telling the truth in a thoughtful and considerate way; consid- ered the most effective form of communication.

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In another circumstance, Ms. Kelly looks distraught and responds, “Monique’s father left last night and I’ve been up all night crying.”

Here is an entirely different situation, calling for an entirely different response. “I can see you are upset. I’ll take Monique now so you can go to work and I’ll call to let you know how she’s doing. If you would like, we can talk privately later.”

Moments of informal conversation are so important for building trust and mutual respect. At the same time, teachers need to make sure that children are supervised during these conversations, and that it is clear who is responsible for this duty. Any confidential conversation should be scheduled for another time.

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Responding to Parents: Welcoming “Complainers” Here’s What Happened I taught 3- and 4-year-olds in an NAEYC-accredited child care center. Our program was well known in the community as a high-quality center. I taught there for 10 years and we enjoyed good relation- ships with our families. One mother, Mrs. Mayer, became a constant complainer, however, when her little boy, Noah, kept getting sick. I knew that Noah had asthma, so I wasn’t surprised when he missed days at the center. I was sur- prised, however, by how much Mrs. Mayer blamed me for Noah’s repeated illnesses. At first, I tried to explain to her that increased illness is not unusual for children when they are in group care. When my explanation met with resis- tance, I started to become defensive. I assured Mrs. Mayer that our program was licensed and accredited, which means that we meet all required health standards.

One day, when Noah returned after an absence, his mother looked particularly weary. I asked my assistant teacher to take over the group while I spoke with Mrs. Mayer privately. She explained that she had spent the night with Noah in the emergency room. As we talked, I realized that due to Noah’s chronic illness, colds and other seemingly innocu- ous childhood sicknesses are life-threatening experiences. I gave Mrs. Mayer a copy of our center’s health policy hand- book and asked her to review it and give me feedback. We set up a time to meet again.

Mrs. Mayer came back to me 2 days later with sugges- tions for ways we could focus everyone’s attention on ill- ness prevention. For example, to accommodate parents so they wouldn’t have to miss school or work, we often allowed sick children to attend the center when perhaps they should have stayed home. We had a policy that required children to remain home when ill. When children arrived at school with symptoms of illness, our policy said we should take the child’s temperature and exclude chil- dren who had a fever. We also had a policy that stated if children were heavily sneezing and coughing, or required one-on-one care for their symptoms, that they should not attend the program until their symptoms remitted. And though our program worked hard to teach and attend to

staff and child handwashing, we didn’t teach them to cough or sneeze into their elbows.

To address Mrs. Mayer’s concerns and to figure out a reasonable solution, I spoke with our director and asked Mrs. Mayer to join me in speaking with staff and parents. At first, some of the other parents believed that we were enforcing policy changes to accommodate just one child; however, once they heard Noah’s story, most parents were sympathetic. Together we agreed to enforce the policies in place and examine their effectiveness in reducing illness overall. After a few months, Noah’s asthma attacks were much less frequent. In addition, other parents reported that their children were sick less often.

Here’s What I Was Thinking Months before school begins, I work hard to build a relationship with my chil- dren’s families. I make home visits, hold open houses, and write letters or e-mails to families to introduce myself and the school—everything I can think of. When Mrs. Mayer began to complain about Noah’s getting sick at school, I wondered if she was just a negative person or if she should find another program. As I spoke more with her, I came to realize that her complaints were evidence of her commit- ment as a parent. In meeting with Mrs. Mayer, I learned that her experience as the parent of a chronically ill child provided valuable knowledge and a perspective that could help our program be better. I realized that it wouldn’t work if I was the only one who changed health procedures, so I had to get the other parents and staff involved. The out- come was improved health for all the children and for the teachers, too.

Reflection What issues or situations in child care pro- grams or schools might parents frequently complain about? In the above situation, the teacher almost automatically felt defensive and initially attributed blame to the “complain- ing” parent. How do you think you would feel if the same parent consistently complained about your teaching? What could you do in response?

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Following are strategies for ensuring that messages are delivered:

• Information logs. Daily messages must be relayed about children’s eating, sleep- ing, toileting, signs of change in mood, and changes in developmental status. For example, last night baby Maggie stood up and tried to climb out of her crib—a first in her skill achievement. When her dad drops her off at child care, he needs to let the staff know about Maggie’s new skill so they can take steps to prevent accidents and ensure her safety. Given that several different people are responsible for Mag- gie’s care throughout the day, the staff keep written logs about each child’s needs and development, and pass them along to each other.

• Daily notes “About My Day.” This message delivery system is important for all young children, but it is essential for babies and toddlers. Very young children can’t communicate for themselves to families and teachers, so daily communication can’t be left to chance conversations. Written notes, text messages, or e-mails that take little time to complete are essential. Ms. Evans sends a message to 2½-year- old Gabriel’s mother: Gabriel had a hard time waking up from nap this afternoon. He doesn’t seem to be sick, but didn’t eat as much as usual.

• Daily chitchat. For teachers and parents of preschoolers, regular communication— the daily chitchat—is still important for building and maintaining the relationship. Teachers need to know about events at home that may affect a child, and parents love to hear about interesting or funny things their children have said or done. Teachers should be very careful to keep this informal conversation light and save talking about more difficult issues until private, scheduled times.

• Weekly updates. For preschoolers and older children, regular reporting of activities, such as the topic of study or upcoming events, is sufficient. Technology such as classroom websites or blogs greatly increases the opportunities for family com- munication and involvement.

Children’s learning and development is supported best when schools and families work together. Traditional parent meetings can be combined with the latest technology to achieve goals of both teachers and families. For example, in the Promoting Play feature, Get Outside and Play, a primary-school teacher enlists families’ support in promoting active play to improve her young students’ health and learning.

Use Technology Technology has transformed all communication in the 21st cen- tury. Parents are more accessible than ever because of handheld mobile devices. Indi- vidual e-mails, texts, or voice-mail messages can be used to share information about a child’s daily activity or progress. Teachers, along with children, can create and maintain a classroom or school website where they post photos and samples of children’s work. The potential is limited only by their imaginations and the technological resources available. Kaldor (2015) recommends many ways that teachers can use technology to strengthen relationships with families and increase family engagement in the school community, such as:

• Use video e-introduction before the school year begins. By posting on YouTube or a secure website, and e-mailing the link, children and family members can see the classroom and learn about their child’s teacher.

• Use video from the classroom to demonstrate daily routines, and tips for transitions and guiding children’s positive behavior.

• Use the Message from Me online feature. Children can use tablets and cameras to take photos or videos of classroom activities and send with an audio message to their family.

• Create e-books to share with families. Children can use photos, text, and audio recordings to document classroom experiences and produce e-books that can be shared online or printed, and read at home with family.

• Use messaging technology, such as instant message, Twitter, or WhatsApp to send messages and images (photos or videos) of special happenings during the school day.

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Arguing that technology devices should be used responsibly and respectfully, Kaldor (2015) provides guidelines for how to do a BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) Night. Rather than leaving devices behind, families bring their devices and learn how to connect with their child’s classroom and school, and see demonstrations of children’s technol- ogy use in the classroom. Families learn how to respect boundaries around technological communication, and sign a digital contract.

Families may turn to early childhood professionals to learn about using technol- ogy with their children. Teachers can provide important information regarding how chil- dren use technology and how much they use it. Children under 3 years old should have few, short periods of screen time, combined with lively interaction with family members (Lerner & Barr, 2014). Early Connections (http://www.commonsensemedia.org/educators/ early-connections) provides guidelines and ideas for families to use technology to enhance social relationships and learning.

Technology can make communication with families much more efficient. For ex- ample, listservs can be used to inform parents of logistical information such as reminders about school closings. Technology also addresses the challenge presented by the fact that many children go back and forth between the homes of divorced parents or extended fam- ily (Mitchell, Foulger, & Wetzel, 2009). However, it is also important to recognize limita- tions of technology. For example, sensitive information should typically not be shared by text or e-mail—telephone conversations or in-person meetings are much better for dis- cussing behavior concerns and for problem solving (Kaldor, 2015). Teachers should set clear boundaries on communicating with families, and families’ preferences for commu- nication should be respected. For example, teachers may not be willing to answer e-mails in the evening while they are with family, but will answer the next day. These boundaries and expectations should be clearly stated in the digital contract.

Get Outside and Play! With the demands of the elementary curriculum and restrictions on recess in her school district, Lucia is concerned that her students are not getting enough active play time during the day. During the day at school, children have recess for only 20 minutes after lunch.

Realizing that she cannot take on the full responsi- bility of her students’ health, Lucia enlists families as partners to support children’s active play. Lucia holds a Get Active parent meeting. Because many of her students’ families work evening shifts at the local restaurants, Lucia videotapes the meeting for those who cannot attend and posts it on a secure YouTube site. Using resources from the Centers for Disease Control and the Internet, Lucia illus- trates for families the importance of active play for children’s health, development, and learning. She explains the research that children need 60 minutes

or more of daily, active play, and they discuss many ways children could reach that goal.

Families brainstorm and generate many ideas for ac- tive play, including turning on music and dancing in the home, making an obstacle course in the house or backyard, sport activities, and going to the neighbor- hood playground with an older sibling. After generat- ing many ideas, Lucia turns their attention to safety, and they discuss bicycle and scooter safety (including helmets), supervision, and following safety rules. Lucia shares resources for limiting screen time, and explains how adults’ modeling of activity is also important for children. The evening ends with a healthy snack, while families share their plans for building more active play in every day. Following the encouragement of families, Lucia agrees to send text messages several times a week, reminding them to support their child’s active play and sharing some good ideas of how to do so.

Promoting Play

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Websites need to be password secured to limit access. Interactive sites are labor in- tensive, needing to be checked and responded to regularly and monitored for inappro- priate content. Some families might not have access to the Internet. For families that do not speak or read English, teachers should be prepared to enlist the assistance of a bilingual colleague or an online translator application (Nemeth, 2015). Finally, e-mail and especially texting may foster the use of incorrect grammar and spelling. Teachers should always be accurate in written communication, electronic or otherwise.

Conferencing In addition to their everyday, routine communication with families, teachers and parents need to meet for more formal regular conferences. Traditionally, the purpose of parent-teacher conferences has been for teachers to report on children’s progress. These conferences are usually a one-way communication, with teachers providing informa- tion to parents, who serve as the passive audience. With one-way communications, however, parents might feel as though the teachers are issuing a report card on their parenting.

More effective conferences promote two-way communication (Hanhan & Kartosh- kina, 2012). Teachers not only provide parents with information about their child’s prog- ress but also listen to what parents say about their child’s development and learning. In this setting, parents and teachers have a conversation and ask as well as answer questions.

Because families have diverse needs and schedules, arranging conference times can be tricky. Consider Noreen Hayes, a kindergarten teacher in a large, urban school district. Three months into the school year, she is preparing for her first set of formal family conferences. Because many of the families work two jobs or odd hours, she is concerned that scheduling conferences will be difficult. To ease the stress for families, she offers a full week of times for them to sign up, including early morning, evening, and weekend hours. To make sure she can accommodate these families, she arranges for community volunteers to provide babysitting and translation services as needed. She also arranges for snacks to be available for parents arriving after work. She organizes the seating arrangement with adult-sized chairs comfortably facing each other. Before conferences, she carefully collects samples of drawings, writing, and photos of projects and other work to share with each child’s parents. Consider this scenario:

When Jillian’s mother arrives, looking nervous, Noreen offers her coffee. After they are comfortable, Noreen begins by saying, “Jillian is such a curious little girl. Every

Formal parent-teacher conferences are important times to communicate about children’s progress and potential problems. But for conferences to be effective, teachers need to make parents as comfortable as possible and listen as much as they talk.

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day, her questions keep me on my toes. Last week, before we visited the aquarium, she wanted to know how the fish breathe.”

Jillian’s mother smiles and says, “She drives us crazy with her why, why, why.” “Let me show you some of the things she’s been learning,” Noreen replies, “and

how she’s discovering ways to get answers to her questions.” When Noreen describes some of the literacy goals, Jillian’s mother says, “Oh,

I know. At home she is always rhyming words and retelling me the stories you read.” Noreen makes a note about what she’s learned from this parent because Jillian

has not yet demonstrated these skills at school.

As children get older, three-way conferencing becomes more possible and desirable. Kia is a third grader whose parents are surprised to find that during the “parent–teacher” conference, their role is primarily to observe while Kia and her teacher, Mr. Colbert, have a conversation about her work. Kia reports on how well she thinks she’s doing and sets a goal for next term: to read 8 chapter books. He then asks what she wants to be when she grows up. “A chef!” she replies. He asks her to pretend she is interviewing for a job and convince him that she would make a good chef. Kia proceeds to describe how she helps her mom cook, reads cookbooks, and makes up her own recipes—exhibiting her language and literacy skills, general knowledge, and reasoning ability as well as her confidence and competence. Kia’s parents watch in wonder as their usually soft-spoken and shy daughter becomes increasingly animated. Privately, her Dad questions Mr. Colbert about whether reading 8 books will be too hard for her. “Trust her,” replies Mr. Colbert.

These two examples include many key points to keep in mind when pre- paring and conducting conferences with families. Table 7.2 summarizes prin- ciples for planning and conducting family conferences. Formal conferences take considerable time to plan and carry out effectively. This time is well spent, however, when it is used to build partnerships and solve problems.

Home Visiting In home visiting, a teacher goes to the child’s home on a regular basis to exchange information with parents. Home visiting has a long tradition in early childhood education. Since its inception, Head Start has required regular home visits. The large majority (71%) of Early Head Start programs combine home visiting with center-based child care (Cohen, Vogel, & the Baby FACES Team, 2011). In addition, the model early childhood programs that demonstrated lasting effects, such as the Perry Preschool Project and the Abecedarian Project, included weekly home visits. Two types of home visiting exist—teacher home visits and home-based programs.

Teacher Home Visits Home visits are an excellent way for every teacher to establish more comfortable relationships with families, and children usually love the idea of their teacher visiting them at home. Conferences are typically held at school or in the child care center— on the teacher’s turf. As a result, a disproportionate amount of power is attributed to the professionals, putting parents at somewhat of a disadvantage. Home visits by teachers can be effective in creating a more reciprocal relationship and enhancing children’s learning. Even middle schools are now discovering the power of home visiting to increase student achievement and motivation. Following are some guidelines for successful home visits:

• Be available for a home visit. Let families know that you would like to visit the children at home to make them more comfortable with you and to learn more about their interests. Do not be offended if families decline the opportunity.

• Set a time for the visit and stick to it. Visits should last from 15 to 30 minutes. • Reassure families in advance about the visit’s purpose. Families need to know that

you do not expect them to entertain you, feed you, or clean up for your visit. Never- theless, teachers should be respectful of diverse cultural perspectives; for example, some cultural groups would be hurt or insulted if a guest refused food.

home visiting Visits made by a teacher to the child’s home on a regular basis to exchange information with parents.

Classroom Connection In this video, observe how the teacher shares information with Kayla’s mother and learns some new ways to work with Kayla in the classroom.

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• Include the child in the visit. Ask children to share something they like to do at home or in the community.

• If you take a photo, ask permission first, and perhaps pose the family together at the front door to protect their privacy. Use a digital camera so the family can see the photo that you will display at school.

Home-Based Programs Child development programs based on visits to families— home-based programs—are designed to support parents in the parenting role, fully involve them in their children’s education, and help them achieve their own life goals (Council for Professional Recognition, 2012). In recent years, research demonstrating the lasting benefits of home-visiting programs for expectant and new parents, infants, and toddlers has led to significant expansion and increases in funding. In 2010, states invested $1.4 billion in home-visiting programs (Pew Center on the States, 2010a). Home-visiting

home-based programs Programs based on visits to families designed to support parents in the parenting role, involve them in their children’s education, and help them achieve their own life goals.

Principles of Effective Conferences Strategies for Implementing Conferences

Prepare families in advance. Notify families in writing about the purpose of the conference. Ask families to think about what goals they have for the conference and for their children, what information they want to share, and what questions they want to ask.

Schedule the conferences at times convenient for parents as well as teachers.

Accommodate parents’ work schedules as much as possible. Set a specific time limit for the conference, 20 to 30 minutes, so parents can plan accordingly.

Provide appropriate space for the conference. The space should be private to ensure confidential conversations. The furniture arrangement should communicate openness and comfort; use adult-sized chairs around a table or in front of a desk. There should be no physical barrier between teachers and families, such as a desk that sets up an artificial power relationship.

Collect children’s portfolios or samples of their work.

Use examples of children’s work as a springboard for discussion. Involve children themselves in this process.

Plan the conference agenda. Make sure to include time to talk about children’s progress and ask questions of each other.

Always begin on a positive note. Begin your discussion about the child by sharing a specific comment about the child’s strengths, interests, or abilities. An anxious parent can then relax, become less defensive, and be more able to listen and talk freely.

Plan in advance how to deliver a slippery egg message.

When you have difficult information or a problem about the child to discuss, think in advance how you would phrase the concern and what suggestions or solutions you would offer. “Four-year-olds are just learning how to make friends. I have observed that Kenny often plays alone, and sometimes when he tries to join in, he gets aggressive. I thought maybe he could bring something interesting from home to get the other children’s attention in a positive way. I’m also going to give him some phrases to say when he wants to play. I wondered if he has had any difficulty like this at home or in the neighborhood, or if you have any ideas for me to help Kenny make friends.”

Give and receive information about children’s progress.

Use open-ended questions as much as possible. Two-way communication, shared power, and collaborative decision making build true partnerships with families. “Reshia loves the construction center and is learning words for all the tools and equipment. What does she like to talk about at home?”

Set goals together for next steps. Strive to identify a common goal and create a plan to work together. “I hear you saying that you want Garrett to learn to use the toilet on his own as soon as pos- sible, before the new baby is born. That’s a goal we share. But he hasn’t shown any interest at the center yet. What’s he doing at home? Maybe we could try to be consistent in how we work with him.”

Source: Based on Families, Schools, and Communities: Building Partnerships for Educating Children, 3rd edition, by C. Barbour, N. H. Barbour, and P. A. Scully, 2005, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson; and From Parents to Partners: Building a Family-Centered Early Childhood Program, by J. Keyser, 2006, St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Table 7.2 Planning and Conducting Family Conferences

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programs enhance mother and child health, strengthen parenting skills, reduce child abuse, increase children’s achievement, and have lasting economic benefits for parents by decreasing unemployment and welfare dependence (Pew Center on the States, 2010b).

The most effective home visiting programs employ qualified early childhood profes- sionals who actively engage parents with their children. Parents stay in close proximity to the child and home visitor, interact and play with their child, and learn how to use daily activities of life to promote children’s development (Roggman, 2011).

Meeting on Neutral Ground In recent years, teacher home visits have become more challenging for several reasons. They are time consuming, and union contracts may discourage them. Because children do not live in self-contained communities and take transportation to school, home visits become logistically difficult. Teachers may feel un- safe visiting communities where there have been incidents involving violence or drugs. Likewise, some families may be uncomfortable about teachers’ visiting for reasons of poverty or differences in language and cultural background.

Given that home visiting and conferencing at school can be threatening or difficult, some teachers find that meeting families on neutral ground such as a local coffee shop or fast-food restaurant may be the best strategy (Powell, 2013). Talking in a less formal setting over a cup of coffee, parents and teachers may be more relaxed and able to work out solutions to difficult problems.

Early childhood education is most effective when there is regular two-way commu- nication between families and teachers. Truly effective programs go beyond communica- tion to active engagement of families in their children’s education, a topic addressed in the next section.

✓ Check Your Understanding 7.3: Communication with Families

Family Engagement in Programs and Schools More than 40 years of research confirms that family engagement has a positive impact on children’s achievement in school (Powell, 2013; Sheldon, 2009). The benefits are so well established that they are written into public law. For example, the Head Start program requires parent involvement at all levels, from classroom interaction with children to rep- resentation on policy-making boards. Special education laws also dictate specific roles for families as decision makers about services for their children. In the sections that follow, we examine research on the benefits of family involvement and then describe ways to engage families meaningfully in their children’s education.

Benefits of Family Involvement A thorough review of research (Sheldon, 2009) summarizes the impact of family involve- ment on children’s achievement in school. The more frequently and actively families are engaged, the more likely children are to:

• Earn higher grades and score better on achievement tests • Perform better in reading and mathematics • Be promoted • Have better school attendance • Have fewer behavior problems, better social skills, and adapt well to school • Benefit from long-term positive consequences such as completing high school and

seeking postsecondary education

Further, engaging families can reduce family risk, increase resilience, and be an espe- cially effective deterrent to child abuse (Lim, 2012). Research shows that children prosper

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when families of all income and education levels and of diverse cultural backgrounds support their children’s learning at home (Cowan, Cowan, Pruett, Pruett, & Wong, 2009; Halgunseth, Peterson, Stark, & Moodie, 2009).

Family involvement in school has the greatest benefit for children at risk of school failure (Dearing, Kreider, Simpkins, & Weiss, 2007). When low-income families become more involved in school from kindergarten to fifth grade, children’s literacy performance increases significantly (Dearing et al., 2007). Typically there is an achievement gap in literacy performance between children of more- and less-educated mothers, but this gap is nonexistent when family involvement levels are high (Dearing et al., 2007). However, white, middle-class families are more likely to be involved in school and to be better informed about how to help their children at home (Swick, Head-Reeves, & Barbarin, 2006). Therefore, schools need to make extra effort to involve all families because this would be an effective way to address the achievement gap between children of color growing up in poverty and their more affluent, white peers.

Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement As we have seen, the benefits of family involvement for children’s success in school and life are well documented (Epstein et al., 2009; Halgunseth et al., 2009; Powell, 2013). In addition, family engagement has significant benefits for schools, including increased job satisfaction among teachers and principals, despite the necessary additional work (Lim, 2012). Some effective strategies for engaging families in centers and schools are described in Table 7.3.

Meaningful family engagement requires effort on the part of teachers and parents. For instance, volunteering is one of the most common ways of involving parents. Some- times, however, volunteers are used only to wipe tables, clean playgrounds, or bake cook- ies for bake sales. These may be necessary tasks, but more meaningful opportunities are available. If the school prepares parents in advance, classroom volunteers can provide

Type of Engagement Effective Strategies

Positive Relationships between Teachers and Families

Teachers focus on family strengths as opposed to deficits. Relationships between teachers and families are characterized by mutual trust, respect, and power sharing.

Two-Way Communication Teachers and families use informal and formal—face-to-face, written, and technological—ways to communicate frequently about children’s progress and experiences in school and at home.

Learning in School and at Home

Teachers and parents share information about ways to promote and extend children’s learning at home and effective parenting practices. Teachers learn about families’ cultural values and childrearing practices.

Home-School Connections Schools provide a welcoming environment for all families. Families observe and participate in the life of the classroom by volunteering, or sharing a skill or cultural experience. Teachers conduct home visits.

Decision Making and Advocacy Families participate in decisions affecting their children and assume leadership and policy- making roles in the school. Families act as advocates to improve children’s educational and life experiences.

Collaboration between Schools, Families, and Communities

Schools connect families to community resources, services, and social networks. Schools provide services to families and community.

Sources: Based on The Head Start Parent, Family, and Community Engagement Framework: Promoting Family Engagement and School Readiness from Prenatal to Age 8, by Office of Head Start, 2011, Washington, DC; and PTA National Standards for Family-School Partnerships: An Implementation Guide, by National Parent Teacher Association, 2009, Alexandria, VA.

Table 7.3 Strategies for Engaging Families

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one-on-one conversation or small-group reading for young children. If families engage in such learning experiences with children at school, they are more likely to do these things at home with their children.

Too often, “parent” involvement is based on the assumption that the engaged parent will be the mother. However, there are distinct benefits to fathers’ engagement in chil- dren’s education (Minnesota Fathers & Families Network, 2013). To learn more about involving fathers, read the What Works: Father-Friendly Practices feature.

What Works Father-Friendly Practices Fathers play a critical role in the healthy development of young children. When fathers are involved in their children’s education, children of all ages perform better academically, demonstrate more empathy, and exhibit healthier behavior. Although moth- ers as well as fathers have close emotional bonds with their chil- dren, in general fathers tend to interact physically, and mothers are more verbally soothing. For example, fathers are more likely to engage children in risk-taking and rough-and-tumble play. Perhaps this is why research finds that children who have involved fathers demonstrate greater curiosity, problem-solving ability, so- cial skills, and confidence. Regrettably, fathers, especially those from low-income backgrounds, are much less likely to be involved in schools than are mothers and therefore need more targeted encouragement.

A main barrier to fathers’ involvement is time and work schedules that conflict with school hours. But subtle barriers can be even more powerful. Fathers may perceive that involvement in school is not part of their role, but rather the mothers’ job. They may feel awkward and unwelcome entering a female-dominated environment. Female teachers may hesitate to encourage father participation for fear their actions will be misinterpreted. Because a large number of children do not live with their fathers, programs are often hesitant to promote father involvement for fear of harm- ing children’s self-esteem or offending single mothers and lesbian mothers. In addition, programs may be legitimately concerned about perpetuating gender stereotyping or disrespecting cultur- al groups for whom the machismo role of fathers is particularly important.

Although these barriers are justifiable, they need not be in- surmountable. Research shows that the following father-friendly practices not only increase father involvement in schools but also improve family functioning and relationships and outcomes for children:

• Make father involvement a priority by designating a male teacher, administrator, community leader, or parent volunteer to organize a father initiative. Fathers are more likely to partici- pate when they see other men doing so.

• Be clear that your definition of “father” includes non-resident fathers as well as father figures such as grandfathers, uncles,

older siblings, foster fathers, or mother’s boyfriends.

• Create a father-friendly school environment. Greet fathers with a sign, “Dads Welcome Here!” Post pictures of positive images of diverse men engaged in various occupations and activities with and without children.

• Invite fathers explicitly and personally to participate in school so they know they are welcome and expected. Often fathers don’t feel that invitations to “parents” apply to them.

• Provide opportunities related to fathers’ interests and skills such as sports or afterschool tutoring in science or math. Draw on fathers’ real interests—such as woodworking or motorcycles— even if the activity may seem to reflect a stereotype of male abilities.

• Provide fathers-only events (such as discussion groups) or father–child experiences such as a Father’s Breakfast or play- ground repair day—not only on Father’s Day.

• Be sensitive to fathers’ literacy levels. For example, provide wordless picture books so fathers who do not feel comfortable reading can talk about the pictures with children.

• Be responsive to cultural values. For example, Hispanic groups value familismo (relationships and distinct gender roles) and respeto (respect for elders and extended family).

• Be flexible and schedule events around fathers’ schedules as much as possible.

• Provide bigger chairs!

Most important is to focus on fathers’ strengths. Too often, fa- thers are portrayed in a negative light as absent or irresponsible. Every father has unique strengths and abilities. Engaged fathers are likely to be major contributors to the well-being of all children, schools, and communities.

Sources: Based on “Fathering, Schools, and Schooling: What Fathers Con- tribute and Why It Is Important” by C. B. Hennon, G. Palm, and G. Olsen, 2012, in Home and School Relations: Teachers and Parents Working Together, 4th edition, edited by G. Olsen and M. L. Fuller, pp. 284–323, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Dad Stats, by National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse, retrieved January 4, 2011, from http://fatherhood .gov/library/dad-stats#Research.

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Community Partnerships As we see in Table 7.3, one effective form of family engagement is community collabora- tion. Just as partnerships between teachers and families contribute to positive outcomes for children, early childhood programs and schools function most effectively when they build reciprocal partnerships in the broader community (NAEYC, 2008c). For example, a Head Start program, with its comprehensive services for families, may serve as a focal point for positive change in a poverty-stricken community. Likewise, a community organization might adopt a neighborhood school, clean up and equip its playground, or provide literacy volunteers and other services that improve school performance.

Teachers, especially beginning teachers, may feel overwhelmed by the idea of build- ing partnerships with communities in addition to carrying out their other responsibilities. However, community linkages can enhance their work and make it more effective. All communities have unique individuals with talents to share. A local orchestra might have musicians who are willing to visit and perform for the children. Artists of all kinds can enrich children’s experiences with demonstrations and skill instruction. Doctors, nurses, dentists, or hygienists can demonstrate healthy practices for children. One preschool has an annual Truck Touch as a community experience and fund-raiser in which the nearby International Harvester company lends giant tractor trailers for the children to see and explore under careful supervision. The Truck Touch is open to all children in the com- munity for free, and an accompanying snack bar raises funds for the preschool’s library.

Schools can also inform families about child-related events or activities in the com- munity such as concerts, puppet shows, museum exhibits, storytelling, and the like. Con- necting families, including siblings, through such community events can help create a network of family support, which is especially helpful for single or teen parents. Such a network can serve as a protective factor for families in communities at risk (Bryant, Maxwell, & Burchinal, 1999).

In addition, teachers can use knowledge of the community in planning curriculum. For example, a town has an ongoing project to clean up the environment around a creek area that was once a beaver dam. Each class in the local primary school takes on an aspect of the project and expands its study of ecology over several years. When early child- hood programs fully integrate into the community by inviting participation and by taking advantage of what the community has to offer, positive outcomes result for everyone involved.

Throughout this chapter, we have discussed the importance of relationships with families. In the next section, we provide a conceptual framework—a “how to” guide—for building partnerships with families and describe specific skills for negotiating conflicts.

✓ Check Your Understanding 7.4: Family Engagement in Programs and Schools

A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families Denyce Lyons is nearing the end of her first year teaching 4-year-olds in Head Start. She has enjoyed the children, but continues to struggle at times in her relationships with parents. Now she’s facing one of the biggest challenges of the year. The program where Denyce works traditionally holds a graduation ceremony, complete with caps, gowns, and diplomas and lengthy performances by the children to mark the year’s end. Denyce feels strongly that such programs are not developmentally appropriate. She also thinks they are a waste of time and money that could be used more effectively. When she announces that there will be no graduation ceremony this year, several parents become very angry and go to the director, who threatens to fire Denyce if she doesn’t change her mind. Such drastic breakdowns in relationships between teachers and families are all too common in pro- grams for young children. In this section, we present a framework for building effective

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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 231

partnerships with families. This framework is designed to prevent crises such as Denyce’s and to address them when they do arise.

Effective partnerships with families involve four key strategies: clarity about preferences, ability to communicate, ability to negoti- ate, and willingness to learn and change (NAEYC, 1998). Figure 7.2 presents this partnership model visually. Each of these building blocks of partnership is described in the sections that follow and then used to address Denyce’s graduation ceremony dilemma.

Clarify Preferences Teachers and families have preferences about all aspects of chil- dren’s learning and development. Sometimes these preferences are shared. For example, most people prefer that children dress warmly in cold weather. However, in other cases, parents and teachers may have conf licting preferences in their child-rearing practices or edu- cational goals. Areas where teacher and family preferences may be strong and at odds include napping, snacking and meal structure, tasks children should do for themselves, learning to use the toilet and bathroom habits, talking and listening, cleanliness, discipline techniques, roles of girls and boys, and traditions and holidays. There are various sources and reasons for these different preferences:

• Cultural backgrounds • Personal experiences as members of families both as children and as

parents • Outside influences such as information gained from the media • Education and training

Teachers as well as parents are influenced by all of these factors. To understand and negotiate these differences, teachers must clarify their prefer- ences and reflect on the sources of their beliefs. Is a strong preference for children learning to feed themselves at an early age the result of studying child development or being the mother of five children? Does a teacher be- lieve that children should take turns based on research about social skills or a cultural judgment about good manners?

Revisiting the Head Start graduation dilemma presented earlier, Denyce needs to reflect on why she feels so strongly about preschool graduation ceremonies. She recalls that one of her professors at the community college stated unequivocally that requiring preschoolers to perform for adults is not developmentally appropriate. Denyce reasons that such events are inappropriate because they last too long, straining children’s attention spans and self-control. She also objects to a few children being singled out for “star” treat- ment. She thinks that valuable class time is spent unproductively in rehearsals and teach- ing children how to march in line. Upon reflection, Denyce believes that the money spent on props such as caps and gowns would be better used to buy books or other educational materials for the school. Denyce also recognizes that she is worried that the children will misbehave and she will be judged a poor teacher. On closer analysis, Denyce has to admit to herself that she thinks graduating from preschool is not much of an accomplish- ment and the ceremonial trappings should be saved for greater achievements such as high school graduation.

Communicate Preferences The next step in building partnerships is communicating with families about preferences. In situations such as Denyce’s where a difference of opinion exists, clear and honest com- munication is vital. Denyce needs to begin by listening to parents’ preferences for hold- ing a graduation ceremony. She does this by organizing a meeting to which she invites

Communicate preferences

Negotiate differences

Identify your own

preferences

Learn and

change

Classroom Connection In this video, learn how these teachers build productive part- nerships with diverse children and families.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vNdwJTKuHDw

FIGURE 7.2 Framework for Partnerships with Families Effective partnerships with families involve four key strategies that connect to and build on each other as depicted in this framework.

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the disgruntled families. Rather than beginning with her viewpoint, Denyce encourages parents to air their concerns:

“We’ve always had graduations here. My two older kids have their diplomas and I want this for Dedra, too,” says one mother.

“We want to have this big party so we can let the kids know how proud we are,” says one of the fathers.

After several parents express their feelings, a grandmother sighs and says, “This may be the only graduation I get to go to. My other grandkids dropped out of school.”

Having listened carefully and respectfully to each one’s concerns, Denyce states her interpretation of what the parents have said. “I think you want me to understand how much you value your children’s accomplishments in Head Start, and how important this experience has been for the children and for you. I can tell from your comments that you really value education, and it sounds like you think it’s a really important thing to celebrate.” Several parents nod, and agree that Denyce’s summary reflects their feelings.

Denyce then explains her own concerns about the graduation. “I value learning, too, but I am concerned that spending time getting ready for the ceremony will take away time that the children could be learning skills they’ll need in kindergarten. I also think that the money we spend could be used for classroom supplies such as books that would last longer.”

This opportunity to communicate identifies differences in the parents’ and Denyce’s perspectives. If Denyce continues to insist she is right, the parents will probably feel disrespected and lose power in the relationship. The children will see their parents’ anger at the teacher. If the parents “win” and the director forces Denyce to hold graduation, she will do so begrudgingly and the children will sense her lack of commitment. In both cases, whether teachers win and parents lose or parents win and teachers lose, the real losers are the children. The next step to build and maintain a partnership is to negotiate the conflict toward a win-win solution (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 2011).

Negotiate Successfully Collaborating and sharing power with families requires negotiation skills. There are certain characteristics of power relationships that determine successful or unsuccessful negotia- tions. Figure 7.3 illustrates these characteristics and shows that neither exercising power

No Power or Avoidance Shared Power or Negotiation Power or Fighting

Characterized by: Characterized by: Characterized by:

Walking away Talking about the problem Put downs

Giving up Communicating Threats

Holding in feelings and opinions Seeking solutions Punishment

Changing the subject Arbitrary action

Gets these results: Gets these results: Gets these results:

Problem is still there Both sides can win One winner

No one is satisfied Real solutions Doubts and fears

Ongoing discomfort All are satisfied Revenge

FIGURE 7.3 Understanding Shared Power Understanding power relationships is essential for successful collaboration and negotiation of differences.

Source: Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org.

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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 233

unilaterally nor avoiding a power struggle results in a positive outcome. Shared power requires win-win negotiation.

The Five-Step Negotiation Process Successful negotiations that result in a win-win solution to a conflict involve several steps (Fisher et al., 2011). Figure 7.4 depicts the five-step negotiation process, which is described next and illustrated using the conflict over the graduation.

Step 1: Express preferences, interests, and concerns. As a teacher, when you are expressing preferences, you will find it useful to focus on what you value rather than taking a rigid position. Denyce might have stated her strongly held position: “I’m against graduations for young children because they’re developmentally inap- propriate.” Instead, Denyce expressed her preferred value for her students: “I would like to use the money for classroom materials and I don’t want to take time away from teaching.” Similarly, the families made their interests known by pointing out that they value education and that graduation marks an important milestone in their children’s lives.

Step 2: Find common ground. Successful negotiation requires compromise. Sometimes people view compromise as a loss, a sign of weakness, or as giving in. Compromise is actually an effective strategy for achieving a win-win negotiated solution to a conflict. To achieve a satisfactory compromise, parties need to identify their common ground: their fundamental agreements, as well as the areas where they disagree. Denyce and the parents agree on the value of education and their desire to communicate their pride in the children. The areas they don’t agree on are wearing caps and gowns and allowing time for rehearsals and a ceremony.

Step 3: Identify areas of flexibility. The next step in the negotiation process is to iden- tify areas of potential flexibility. These might include ways of varying timing, frequency,

Step 5 – Try for a while and then re-evaluate if necessary

Step 4 – Brainstorm wins for all

Step 3 – Identify areas of flexibility

Step 2 – Find common ground

Step 1 – Express preferences, interests, and concerns

FIGURE 7.4 Five-Step Negotiation Process This 5-step negotiation process is designed to ensure a win-win resolution to the inevitable conflicts that arise between teachers and families.

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or quantity. For example, the time designated for preparing for graduation and for the performance are negotiable areas. In addition, the amount of money available and how it is used are areas that could be flexibly negotiated. The parents’ expectations of the cer- emony could also be negotiable.

Step 4: Brainstorm wins for all. Having identified areas of flexibility, Denyce and the parents can brainstorm possible solutions that would be agreeable to all concerned. One possible solution is having a party for everyone, during which the children sing some of the songs and recite some of the poems they have learned this year. Other possibilities include using the money that would have been spent on caps and gowns to buy books for the center and creating “diplomas” on the computer rather than buying them. Other suggestions are that parents provide refreshments and that all of the children wear white shirts during the party.

Step 5: Try for a while and then reevaluate if necessary. Negotiated solutions should be tried and evaluated to make sure that all parties are satisfied. During and after the “graduation” party, Denyce talked with the parents to get their reactions. Some of the parents still missed the caps and gowns, but they were pleased when the children took such interest and pride in the new books. Several parents thought the program was actually more fun because it was less rehearsed and funnier than in previous years. One parent pointed out that he was glad that there weren’t any stars of the show and all the children performed the same thing. Perhaps because the program was only 15 minutes long, none of the children misbehaved and all seemed to enjoy themselves, including Denyce. Because some parents didn’t like the white shirts and wanted their children to dress up in their best clothes, Denyce agreed to try that idea next year.

The final building block of successful partnerships is the willingness to learn and change, described next.

Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change We can see from the negotiation between Denyce and the parents in her classroom that effective partnerships with families depend on the willingness to learn and change. In Denyce’s case, she was willing to listen to the parents’ concerns respectfully and, as a result, she learned how much they value education for their children and why the graduation ceremony was meaningful for them. On the other hand, the fami- lies learned about Denyce’s concerns for their children’s readiness for kindergarten and, hence, were willing to change their expectations regarding appropriate ways to celebrate the children’s achievements. True partnerships occur only when teachers as well as families are willing to learn from one another and to grow and change as a result.

The five-step negotiation process outlined here does not involve a quick fix; it re- quires time and respect for the other parties’ interests, strengths, and abilities. Win-win negotiation depends on appreciating the importance of everyone’s interests, particularly parents’ perceptions about what is important for their children. Denyce could easily have erred by trivializing the parents’ desire to see their children “graduate.” Instead, she ac- curately perceived that graduation represented an underlying value of education rather than the actual ceremony.

As we have seen, teaching young children requires working with families, which requires good communication and negotiation skills. Throughout this chapter, we exam- ined the various aspects of building effective partnerships with families and communi- ties. These include establishing reciprocal relationships, communicating effectively, and negotiating conflicts. We conclude with a return visit to Vilma Suarez’s Early Head Start program where we began.

✓ Check Your Understanding 7.5: A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families

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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 235

• Families are diverse in many ways: composition, culture, religion, economic status, work, mobility, and sexual orientation.

• Along with reciprocal relationships and partnerships between teachers and families, family-centered prac- tice is characterized by several key principles: mutual respect and trust; regular, frequent two-way com- munication; collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power; and negotiation of conflicts toward win-win situations.

• Effective two-way communication is the basis for positive relationships with families. Communication strategies include teachers’ creating a welcoming

environment; informal conversation; sharing important information on a daily and/or weekly basis, depending on the age of the child; using an assertive communica- tion style, especially when discussing delicate issues; conferencing; home visiting; and using technology.

• More than 40 years of research confirms that family engagement in schools and early childhood programs has a positive impact on children’s success in school and life.

• Effective partnerships with families involve four key strategies: clarity about preferences, ability to commu- nicate, ability to negotiate, and willingness to change and learn.

Chapter Summary7

. . . Ms. Suarez’s Classroom

Now that we have explored the many ways in which teachers build effective partnerships with families,

we can see how well Vilma Suarez fulfills this important responsibility. She plays a key role in imple-

menting Aiya’s IFSP plan, but she also respects and supports Aiya’s mother and works to gain her trust.

She helps Tomas and Mrs. Vacaro through difficult daily transitions and takes time to communicate with

her throughout the day.

Her biggest challenge will be resolving the conflict with Mr. Henderson over his son’s biting. She

needs to employ all of her skills of effective communication and negotiation. She begins by saying,

“Mr. Henderson, I know how upsetting it is when children bite, but the law prohibits hitting children

at the center. I would like to talk with you about other ways we can work together on this problem.”

Thus begins the complex negotiation process that Vilma knows from experience may take one meeting

or many.

As the families arrive the next morning, Vilma notices that Mrs. Vacaro is even more anxious than

she was the night before when she picked up Tomas. Feeling that she has gained Mrs. Vacaro’s trust

over the many months they have known each other, Vilma carefully asks, “Is everything all right?”

Mrs. Vacaro’s eyes well up and she whispers, “I’m pregnant again, and I don’t have health insurance.”

Vilma calmly replies, “Tomas will make a wonderful brother. He’s so loving. I’m sure you’re feeling

a lot of stress. But our Early Head Start program can help you. With your permission, I’ll check with the

director during the day about the resources we have to offer you and the help we can find in the com-

munity. If you have time, we can meet this evening or I’ll phone you at home.” Mrs. Vacaro exhales with

relief and promises to check back at the end of the day. She calls goodbye to Tomas, who is already

eating his breakfast with the other children. ■

Revisiting the Case Study

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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach236

Key Terms ■■ aggressive communication

■■ assertive communication

■■ family-centered practice ■■ family systems theory ■■ funds of knowledge

■■ home-based■programs ■■ home visiting ■■ passive communication

■■ reciprocal relationships ■■ slippery egg messages ■■ tennis ball messages

Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.

✓

Ernst, J. D. (2014). The welcoming classroom: Build- ing strong home-school connections for early learning. Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2014). 50 strategies for communicat- ing and working with diverse families (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Schweikert, G. (2011). Partnering with families: Winning ways for early childhood professionals. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Harvard Family Research Project This website has information and strategies for involving families in children’s learning and development.

National Center on Parent, Family, and Community Engagement A center of Office of Head Start, the NCPFCE website has many resources for engaging families in their chil- dren’s learning, engaging fathers, safety and health, and learning games.

National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education This website offers resources and guidance for develop- ing partnerships with families and offers resources for

families, educators, and administrators. The NCPIE also provides resources for families and professionals related to disabilities.

CONNECT Module 4: Family-Professional Partnerships This web-based module, from FPG Child Development Institute, offers learning opportunities and strategies for building partnerships with families, including videos, handouts, and activities.

National Black Child Development Institute (NBCDI) Among a variety of helpful resources for engaging with families of color, the NBCDI website offers a Classroom Family Engagement Rubric that teachers can use to iden- tify their strengths and needs related to engaging families around children’s learning and development.

Common Sense Education On this website, Common Sense Media offers “Early Connections: A Parent Education Toolkit for Early Childhood Providers.” Teachers can share materials with families to build partnerships and support family activi- ties around children’s learning.

Readings and Websites

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8 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

8.1 Explain the value of a caring community of learners and how the Teaching Pyramid model helps teachers create such a classroom community.

8.2 Review ways teachers can build positive relationships with young children.

8.3 Discuss how teachers can organize daily routines and experiences to support children’s positive behavior and learning, and prevent behavior problems.

8.4 Outline strategies for how teachers can effectively guide children’s behavior toward the goal of promoting positive social-emotional development in each child.

8.5 Describe individualized interventions that can be used with children who exhibit persistent challenging behaviors.

8.6 Apply the Teaching Pyramid model to specific situations such as teaching boys, addressing biting and alleviating bullying.

Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children Learning Outcomes

© Jamie Grill/Getty Images

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239

T oday is the first day of school for Sue Brady, a teacher of 20 four-year-olds in a child care center. She and her co-teacher, Elly Donahue, are both inexperienced teachers responsible for a group of children for the first time. Sue and Elly spent the last week preparing their classroom. They are a little worried that there are not

enough toys to keep children’s interest and have requested more from the director. The room has a sink, but it is

located in the pathway from the front door to the closet so it is not possible to put the paint easels near it. There

is no book rack, and the books are stacked on an open shelf near the blocks. There is one large open area with a

rug that they plan to use for group time and block building next to a table for toys. Tables are lined up along the

far side of the room.

As soon as the children begin to arrive, things go wrong. Playtime becomes disorganized and the children

dump materials all over the floor rather than use them constructively. The teachers give so much attention to the

children who are out of control that they neglect the others who are behaving well, such as Edie, who is absorbed

in her painting. Over the course of the day, the teachers’ voices become louder as they try to restore order while

the noise level in the room becomes almost unbearable. No one cooperates during cleanup time.

At lunch, Ricky blows milk at his friends through his straw and the others soon emulate his skill. Sue

asks Paula and Aimee, “Would you like to go outside now?” and they simply say,

“No,” leaving her unsure about what to do since she can’t leave them alone inside.

On the playground, Booth punches Elijah hard in the stomach, seemingly for no

reason. Furious but feeling totally incompetent, Sue grabs Booth by

the arms and repeatedly says, “Say you’re sorry!” while Booth just

smirks and Elijah cries loudly. Both teachers can’t wait for naptime, but

when they turn out the lights, the ensuing chaos becomes

overwhelming. Children refuse to stay on their cots, grab toys

off the shelves, talk loudly, and make it impossible for even

the most exhausted to sleep. Sue will remember

this day vividly because it is one of the longest

days of her life, and unfortunately the next day

will be all too similar. ■

Case Study

T his glimpse into Sue’s classroom is not a fictional account. It is actually what hap- pened to me on my first day of teaching many years ago. I learned very quickly that teaching young children is hard work. I also discovered that there was a lot more

that I needed to know to become an effective teacher. The goal of this chapter is to help ensure that you and the children you teach do

not experience days like the one described above. This chapter describes research-based practices—ways of creating a caring community of learners—that make teaching young children more effective and enjoyable. To help you learn how to promote children’s social competence and address challenging behaviors, we will describe a conceptual frame- work—the Teaching Pyramid (Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of Early Learning, n.d.; Fox, Carta, Strain, Dunlap, & Hemmeter, 2009). Applying this framework will help you create a caring community of learners in which young children thrive. Using these research-based, positive guidance strategies will not prevent all of the challenges you face as a teacher, but it will help you become more effective in your work with all children.

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A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model A caring community of learners is a group or classroom in which children and adults engage in warm, positive relationships; treat each other with respect; and learn from and with each other. The late Jim Greenman (2005a), one of the foremost experts on chil- dren’s environments, described early childhood programs as “caring spaces, learning places.” This phrase is apt because it emphasizes a fundamental principle of early child- hood education: children’s care and education are interrelated.

Wherever children are served, they are always learning and being cared for. In other words, both/and thinking is required. Effective early childhood programs provide both nurturing, responsive relationships and stimulating, interesting educational experiences. If children’s needs for either care or learning are neglected, the program will be ineffective.

The Value of a Caring Community of Learners Children learn and develop best in the context of a caring community of learners. Research provides strong evidence that this is the case. One tool for evaluating the qual- ity and effectiveness of early childhood programs is the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), which assesses the social-emotional climate and the instructional cli- mate of preschool or primary-grade classrooms through detailed observations of teachers’ behaviors (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008). Research using the CLASS has found that high-quality emotional and instructional classroom climates uniquely predict children’s academic achievement and improve social and emotional outcomes (Curby, Brock, & Hamre, 2013). Teachers who provide high-quality emotional support are aware of and respond to children’s individual needs, rarely display intense negative emotion, and engage in positive, respectful interactions with children (Hamre, 2014). This chapter is dedicated to providing information for how teachers can provide classroom climates that support children’s emotional and social development.

Equally important, if not more so, is that the emotional climate not be negative—that there is little or no aggression or hostility among children and teachers (Hamre, 2014). Most of us have observed classrooms or been students in them in which it is obvious which children are the “bad kids.” They may be sitting at a desk by themselves or their names may be the ones you hear over and over. They may be waving their hands in the air while the teacher continues to ignore them. Young children are very perceptive. They know whether teachers like them and which kids are the favorites (Janson & King, 2010). Imagine figuring out within a few days after school starts that your teacher doesn’t like you very much and facing 9 months of being in that person’s control with no choice to stay home or switch to another teacher. Children soon begin to act the way they are per- ceived and live up to low or negative expectations.

Building a caring community of learners requires effort on the part of teachers and children, but the effort pays off in short- and long-term benefits. In the present, the class- room will be a more harmonious, pleasant environment in which children are more likely to learn successfully. In addition, experiencing a caring community helps achieve three essential, long-term goals for children:

1. To develop positive social skills and emotional self-regulation, which are essential tasks during the first 5 to 8 years of life

2. To prevent future social and behavioral difficulties, which is more efficient, effec- tive, and humane than later remediation

3. To build a foundation of learning for later success in school and in life.

Develop Social Skills and Self-Regulation A major developmental accom- plishment of the first 5 years of life is the development of self-regulation in all spheres of

caring community of learners A group or classroom in which children and adults engage in warm, positive relationships; treat each other with respect; and learn from and with each other.

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behavior. This process begins early as babies learn to regulate their sleeping, crying, and other behavior patterns, and expands during the preschool years to more complex self- regulation. During these years children develop the ability to control emotions, to learn to delay gratification, and to build relationships with other people—all key factors essential for healthy development (Riley, San Juan, Klinkner, & Ramminger, 2008).

Children’s ability to regulate their emotional responses is associated with successful learning and social relationships (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg & Walberg, 2007). Chil- dren who regulate their emotions can work collaboratively, play with others, seek help, and offer help to others. Children who have difficulty regulating their emotions exhibit more frustration in school and often have trouble focusing their attention, completing tasks and working with other children (Raver, Garner, & Smith-Donald, 2007). Because learning to regulate one’s emotions involves acquiring a complex set of skills, children need support from adults in order to be successful.

Other important goals of the early years are the development of self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept, which forms rapidly during the preschool years, refers to chil- dren’s stable perceptions about themselves despite variations in their behavior. Children’s self-esteem, or perception of their own worth, is also in its formative stages during these years and can be fragile. Similarly, children gradually acquire a sense of efficacy, a belief in their own ability to accomplish what they set out to do. Positive self-concept, self- esteem, and feelings of efficacy don’t develop by people telling children how special and talented they are, but rather as children take initiative and master challenges with a lot of adult encouragement (Galinsky, 2010).

Prevent Social and Behavioral Difficulties Teachers today report a larger percentage of children who exhibit extremely challenging behaviors, such as excessive aggression, anger, and hostility (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). These children take up most of the teacher’s attention, yet fail to improve. In worst case scenarios, some children may be expelled from child care or preschool, experiencing failure before their educational experiences have even begun (Gilliam, 2008). During the last few decades, since fed- eral laws began requiring child care programs and schools to fully include children with disabilities and special needs, the number of children with challenging behaviors may have increased. Some disabilities such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism may adversely affect children’s social behavior (Lieber, 2009). To success- fully teach in these increasingly complex classrooms, teachers must have knowledge of effective, research-based early intervention strategies before they encounter these difficult situations. Children who exhibit persistent challenging behaviors are those most in need of good teaching.

Building positive social skills and healthy emotional relationships during the early years is more effective than trying to remedy problems later. Research demonstrates that preschool children who lack self-regulation and/or fail to develop positive relationships with peers are likely to encounter significant difficulties in school and in life (Diamond, 2012; Moffitt et al., 2011). Children who don’t acquire minimal social com- petence and thus are unable to make friends are at significant risk of dropping out of school, becom- ing delinquent, or experiencing mental health prob- lems in adolescence or adulthood (Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006; Moffitt et al., 2011).

Even when children are 3 or 4 years old, it is possible to observe which children are socially iso- lated and do not make friends easily. Even adults sometimes find these children difficult to interact with, and may want to avoid them. Yet teachers must recognize that socially isolated children need

self-concept Children’s stable perceptions about themselves despite variations in their behavior.

self-esteem Children’s percep- tion of their own worth.

efficacy Children’s belief in their own ability to accomplish what they set out to do.

Teachers today report that more children are exhibiting chal- lenging behaviors than in the past. Why might this be true? What might account for this perception?

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their help the most. With systematic support and intentional teaching, teachers can pro- mote children’s development of social competence.

If children’s problems are ignored or set aside because teachers hope “they’ll grow out of it,” the problems only get worse as children get older. Teachers can instead adopt a proactive approach, such as this one:

Preschool teacher Karen Hagey observed that every time 3½-year-old Marcus tried to push his way into the block corner, the other children shouted, “Get out, Marcus! You can’t play.” She thought about forcing the children to accept Marcus, but realized that they would resent him and he would be humiliated by her interference. Instead, Karen quietly coached Marcus on strategies for entering play: “Let’s sit next to Jason and see if you and I can build a tall tower.” Marcus’s tower soon eclipsed that of his peers, who started to pay attention to his skill. After a few days of this kind of assistance from Karen, Marcus entered the play area more calmly and Jason said, “Hey, Marcus, help me make my building as tall as me.”

Promote Academic Success Social-emotional competence is clearly linked to academic success throughout all the years of school (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). Children in preschool and the primary grades perform better on measures of academic achievement, language, and social-emotional development when they have positive, sensitive, trusting relationships with their teachers (Hamre, 2014). Re- lationships with teachers predict children’s later relationships with their peers, behavior problems, school satisfaction, and learning (Diamond, 2012; Howes & Ritchie, 2002).

Vygotsky’s theory of learning as a social construction of knowledge emphasizes that much of our understanding occurs as we talk with and listen to other people’s ideas. This give and take of conversation and debate with other people plays a major role in learn- ing. Promoting social construction of knowledge requires that children learn not just as individuals but also in the context of small and large groups—as part of a community of learners. We now have a large body of research to guide teachers in this important work.

The Teaching Pyramid Model The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (http://www. vanderbilt.edu/csefel) disseminates resources to teachers that translate research on social- emotional development into best practice. The center developed a model—the Teach- ing Pyramid—for promoting social competence and preventing challenging behavior in young children, which is depicted in Figure 8.1. Challenging behavior is defined as “any behavior that interferes with children’s learning, development, and success at play; is harmful to the child, other children, or adults; and/or puts a child at high risk for later social problems or school failure” (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017).

Pyramid Components The Teaching Pyramid is composed of four parts: (1) posi- tive relationships with children, (2) high-quality supportive environments, (3) social and emotional teaching strategies, and (4) intensive individualized interventions. The base of the pyramid is the largest portion because it represents the foundation of positive relationships on which everything else depends. Each subsequent topic on the pyramid builds on the ones below, and represents a proportionately smaller amount of teachers’ time and effort. This model indicates that if teachers effectively provide these supports, children will learn social competence, their positive behaviors will increase and challenging behaviors will diminish.

When teachers encounter children who exhibit negative behaviors such as aggression or hostility, their first inclination is to try to “fix” that child. As teachers, we naturally assume that if we could just quickly change that child’s behavior, everything would be well and our job would be so much easier. The truth is that there are no quick fixes; in fact, the more effec- tive strategy is not to try to fix the child at first. It is always more difficult to change another person’s behavior, even if that person is only 3 years old, than to change our own behavior.

The Teaching Pyramid turns our prior assumptions on their head. Rather than try- ing to change children first, we begin by changing ourselves—that is, we examine our

challenging behavior Any behavior that interferes with children’s learning, develop- ment, and success at play; is harmful to the child, other children, or adults; or puts a child at high risk for later social problems or school failure.

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behavior in order to focus on establishing a positive relationship with each child. We recognize that more difficult children will take more effort, but we also acknowledge that the effort will pay off greatly. Next, we evaluate teaching environments and routines and determine what changes need to be made to support children’s positive behavior. How can we support routines that help children do their best? How can we teach social skills and emotional self-regulation? By asking these questions and exploring solutions, we attempt to directly address individual children’s challenging behaviors.

The Pyramid’s Effectiveness Research demonstrates that when teachers con- sistently apply the strategies described in the Pyramid Model, positive social interactions among children increase and behavior problems decrease (Hemmeter, Snyder, Fox, & Algina, 2011). Research suggests that fewer than 4% of children require the more intensive level of interventions (Fox, Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, & Strain, 2003). In a group of 20 children, that equates to only one child. In a center serving 100 children, about 4 children might require this level of intensive assistance. In the following sections, we discuss each level of the Teaching Pyramid and provide examples of effective teaching practices.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.1: A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model

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FIGURE 8.1 Teaching Pyramid Model for Promoting Children’s Social and Emotional Competence The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based, effective framework to help teachers support children’s social-emotional learning and reduce challenging behaviors in the classroom.

Source: From Promoting Social and Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children. The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu. Reprinted by permission.

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Positive Relationships with Children A key premise of the Teaching Pyramid is that the most fundamental way to promote healthy development and learning in young children is for teachers to build and sustain positive relationships with children.

The Importance of Relationships From the earliest moments of life, children’s development—who they become—is influ- enced by the nurturance and care that they receive from adults—first their parents, then members of the extended family and other caregivers. In the next sections, we describe the importance of relationships in the family, and then with teachers and other children.

Family Relationships: Attachment Theory Decades of research on mother- child interactions support the concept that children’s ability to learn depends on their developing trusting relationships with caregivers—what is called attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969/2000). Much of the research was conducted by Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978). They observed how young children interacted with their mothers when they were brought into a novel or strange situation (such as being presented with new or unusual materials to explore). They identified kinds of attachments between mothers and children that have varying effects on children’s development. It is important to note, how- ever, that attachment is influenced by cultural contexts and will look and mean different things to diverse cultural groups.

Secure Attachment All children develop attachments to their primary caregivers. They rely on their caregivers’ protection and nurturing and base their understanding of rela- tionships on their early experiences. Based on the quality of care infants receive from caregivers, they develop secure or insecure attachments. According to attachment theory (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1969/2000; Scroufe, 1996), when children’s caregiv- ers are responsive and sensitive to their needs, children develop secure attachment relationships. Securely attached children rely on their caregivers for support, yet com- fortably explore their surroundings. Children who are securely attached to their caregivers have a strong foundation not only for building relationships with other people, but also for learning (Watson, 2003). They see their caregivers as trustworthy and, in turn, see themselves as competent and worthy of attention.

What does secure attachment look like? Consider Matthew, a 2½-year-old who en- joys a warm, loving relationship with his mother. When his mother enrolls him in a child care center, she stays with him for almost an hour while he becomes acclimated. At first he clings to her leg and eyes the toys and other children. Gradually, however, he ventures a few steps toward an enticing ramp that the other kids are sliding down, but quickly runs back to his mother. After a few more attempts, he hesitantly joins in the fun by rolling a ball down the incline, all the while seeking regular eye contact with his mother. After a while, he begins to explore the classroom, occasionally returning to her side for reas- surance. Matthew relies on his mother as a secure base from which to explore his new environment. During the next few days, his mother stays with him for shorter periods of time, until one day he joyfully waves goodbye to her at the door. He no longer needs her actual presence as a physical base from which to explore because he has internalized the sense of trust and confidence that she provides. Teachers can help children make such transitions from the secure attachments of home to child care settings. Read the Becom- ing an Intentional Teacher: Easing Separation Woes feature for a classroom example.

Insecure Attachment By contrast, some children grow up in families that, for a variety of reasons, are unable or unwilling to provide reasonably consistent, sensitive, responsive

attachment theory The theory that children’s ability to learn depends on their developing trusting relationships with caregivers.

secure attachment relationship A responsive and sensitive re- lationship with caregivers that allows children to venture forth and comfortably explore and learn about the world.

secure base An attachment figure (mother or caregiver) who serves as an anchor for children to rely on and from which children can safely venture out and explore.

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care. Mothers or other caregivers may be depressed, ill, or stressed by economic or other conditions that lead them to be neglectful, punitive, or hostile to their young children. Some children grow up in very difficult circumstances in which they may have been abused, neglected, or exposed to drugs and violence. Children growing up in such an environment may be unable to trust caregivers to keep them safe, and as a result, they develop poor social skills. Such insecurely attached children may often have difficulty developing positive social relationships and may exhibit disruptive behavior in child care centers or schools (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

Various patterns of insecure attachment exist, depending on children’s experienc- es, which are related to different patterns of behavior (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowl- by, 1969/2000). Children who have experienced rejection and insensitivity from adult caregivers may demonstrate insecure-avoidant attachment. These children tend to turn away from or avoid adults and do not seek their comfort; in fact, they may become hostile in order to avoid rejection before it occurs.

Other insecurely attached children who have experienced confusing and inconsistent nurturing from adults are said to be experiencing insecure-ambivalent/resistant attach- ment. Because they are unsure whether adults will be there for them, these children may appear to seek comfort but then reject it when it is offered. They may be irritable and fussy, easily frustrated, and difficult to manage in a group.

In more extreme circumstances, when children have experienced neglect, abuse, or violence in the home, they may exhibit disorganized/disoriented attachment (Main & Solomon, 1990). Because their past experiences with adults have left them without secure attachments, they have not developed useful strategies for seeking comfort or attention or for handling difficulties. Their behavior can be very unpredictable and confusing to teach- ers and negatively affect the children’s ability to learn.

insecure-avoidant attachment Rejection and insensitivity from adult caregiv- ers that causes children to turn away from or avoid adults and not seek their comfort.

insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment Children’s inabil- ity to trust adults to keep them safe due to neglect, abuse, or other difficult circumstances that results in a lack of social competence.

disorganized/disoriented attachment Seen in children who lack secure attachments with adults due to having experienced neglect, abuse, or violence in the home, who have not developed useful strategies for seeking comfort or attention or handling difficulties.

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Easing Separation Woes Here’s What Happened A month before a new group of 1- and 2-year-olds entered our child care center, I con- tacted the families to learn about the daily routines at home. I encouraged the parents to have the child bring a favorite blanket or toy to the center. I also asked if there were snapshots of family members or maybe a pet that they could share so I could make a little photo book for each child. I suggested to parents that, if possible with their work schedules, children stay for a shorter time for a few days rather than a full day.

On the first day, Sasha’s mom whispered to me that she was going to sneak out so her 2-year-old son wouldn’t get upset at seeing her go. I told her I thought it would help Sasha if she said goodbye and told him when she would be back.

Here’s What I Was Thinking From 10 months to about 2 years of age, the typically developing child learns that separations from parents are not permanent and be- gins to cope with short periods of time apart. The child’s increasing representational abilities—remembering people and situations—help this understanding to develop. Thus, bringing a favorite toy or photo from home often provides comfort and reminds the child that home is still a part of his day. Transitioning to the program with a shorter day

also allows children to hold on to the idea that a parent is coming back and then gradually extend that to a longer period of time.

Parents sometimes want to leave without saying goodbye, and that’s understandable. They think the child will be less upset, and that this may be less stressful for teachers. How- ever, sneaking away actually creates mistrust in children; it sends the message that the child cannot rely on the parent. One- and 2-year-olds fare better when a parent tells them, “I’m leaving now and I’ll be back after you eat lunch.” I try to reassure the parents, and tell them not to worry or feel guilty if their child is crying and having difficulty with the separation for a while. It means their child feels a bond and is learning to cope with strong emotions. During the day, I also try to call or text parents to ease their anxiety.

Reflection More than one-third of mothers of Head Start children report symptoms of depression, including 9% who are severely depressed (Malone, Hulsey, Aikens, West, & Tarullo, 2010). How might the teacher or child react dif- ferently in this situation if the mother is depressed and the mother–child attachment appears to be less secure? What might a teacher do to support this parent?

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Classroom Connection How does the teacher in this video foster a warm, caring relationship with the infants and toddlers in her care?

Attachment to Teachers Although earlier attachment studies fo- cused on mother–child attachment, current research also applies the theory to teacher–child relationships (Hamre, 2014; Howes & Ritchie, 2002). This research demonstrates that across the full age span of infancy through the primary grades, a caring, sensitive relationship with a teacher is related to positive social and academic development. For example, in one study, first graders who were at high risk for school failure but who had emotionally sup- portive teachers had achievement scores and relationships with teachers com- parable to those of children who were not at risk (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). By contrast, children whose teachers were not emotionally supportive had lower achievement and more conflict with their teachers and peers. Other studies demonstrate that when teachers have positive relationships with children and are sensitive to their needs, children develop better self-regulation and social skills (Johnson, Seidenfeld, Izard, & Kobak, 2013; Williford, Vick Whittaker, Vitiello, & Downer, 2013).

In addition, attachment relationships with parents may not predict attachment rela- tionships with teachers (Howes & Ritchie, 2002). Just as a child who is securely attached to parents may be insecurely attached to teachers, a child who is insecurely attached to parents may develop a secure attachment to a teacher. In this way, teachers know that they can make a positive difference for all children, even those who have troubled family relationships.

Although building relationships with insecurely attached children can be challeng- ing for teachers, these children are most in need of such support if they are to succeed in school and life. Research shows that teachers have more conflict in their relationships with children with behavior challenges, with boys, and with children of color (Gallagher, Kainz, White, & Vernon-Feagans, 2013). Most likely related to this research finding is the fact that: (1) although African American children make up only 18% of preschoolers, they account for 48% of multiple pre-K suspensions; and (2) more than 75% of preschool suspensions are boys (U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, 2014).

Responsive teachers observe children carefully and notice when children need extra attention or support, and children respond by growing in their social and academic com- petence (Hamre, 2014). Although the attachment literature tends to focus on individual relationships between parents or teachers and children, it does not focus on children’s roles as members of groups, which we discuss next.

Relationships with Other Children Across the age span of birth through age 8, teachers create a caring community by promoting positive interactions among young chil- dren (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2008c, 2009). Such a community is essential not only for social-emotional development but for learning in every area. Teaching that supports children’s peer relationships depends, in part, on the age of the children served.

Infants and Toddlers Building relationships with babies and toddlers takes time, sensi- tive touch, talking, and playful learning experiences (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers create a climate of respect by listening and responding to babies’ verbal and nonverbal cues, such as their cries or coos, their facial expressions, and body movements. These behaviors send signals about the baby’s wants and needs, such as “I’m hungry” or “I’m bored and want to do something else.” When adults respond appropriately to their cues, babies begin to develop a sense of trust and efficacy.

Teachers also model the kind of warmth and caring that they want children to de- velop. Even very young infants and toddlers demonstrate empathic behaviors toward their peers (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers can promote empathy by labeling children’s feelings and helping them comfort one another—for instance, “Claudia is crying because she dropped her binky. Let’s help her.” Finally, teachers can engage in conversations with infants and toddlers that focus on discussions of their peers. They

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can point out to Felix that Anna chose the same color for her painting, and that Amir is waiting for them to finish painting for his turn. To Amir, the teacher can say, “Look, Felix and Anna are painting with green, I wonder what color you will choose when it is your turn.”

Preschoolers and School-Age Children As children get older, their understanding of relationships and need of friendship increases. Teachers set the tone for a harmonious classroom by organizing cooperative learning experiences so that children can play and work together on projects or in small groups. In preschool and even more so in the prima- ry grades, achieving a harmonious classroom involves the entire group working together (Durlak et al., 2011). To foster such harmony, encouraging children to talk about potential or actual social problems, offer solutions, and reflect on the outcomes during class meet- ings can be effective (Vance, 2013). In the Promoting Play: All Can Play feature, learn how Tasha creates a context for children to build a strong community.

All Can Play Tasha teaches in a combined kindergarten–first grade classroom in a diverse, urban school. Her stu- dents enjoy periods of intensive learning balanced with rambunctious dramatic play over the course of their daily routines and lessons. An intentional teacher, Tasha has mindfully prepared the classroom and schedule to meet children’s group and individu- al needs. She includes the children in planning and enforcing class rules, and teaches emotional literacy and social skills as part of her curriculum. So Tasha is surprised when she realizes that a group of older children—mostly first graders—has created a sort of “members-only club” in the class. They have rules for participation and dictate who can play and who cannot. They give out-of-school privileges to their “members” such as play and party invitations.

Because the “club” children (who call themselves the Dinosaur Kings) are not visibly mean to other children, Tasha initially just observes their interac- tions. Eventually, however, she notices that their exclusion of peers has been somewhat systematic. In addition to excluding younger children from their activities, they have prohibited membership to sev- eral other first graders: Thu, a recent immigrant who speaks little English; Alphonse, a boy with intellec- tual disabilities; and Rita, a shy child who wears the same clothing almost every day.

Tasha shares her concerns with a colleague, who recommends reading Vivian Paley’s classic book, You

Can’t Say You Can’t Play (1992). In Paley’s book, she describes her journey with kindergarten and elementary-school children in learning how to create a classroom community that espouses inclusion. Using stories and daily group discussion, Paley leads the children to view inclusion as social justice, and exclusion as unacceptable. Like Paley, Tasha begins to use morning meeting as a time to teach children about inclusion and differences, and supports ex- cluded children to advocate for themselves. Children bring daily stories of their playground interactions to the group, and no child (even the excluders) is shamed for their perspective. Because Tasha has de- veloped positive relationships with all children in her group, the children feel safe sharing their stories.

Eventually, Tasha’s group reaches the same decision as Paley’s children did: “You can’t say you can’t play” becomes a classroom rule. To support this rule, Tasha is available to help children join group activities, and to provide ideas for how play and co- operative activities can go well, even if one or more children struggle. Before children head to the free choice activities each day, Tasha has the children proactively plan for how their chosen activities can be expanded to include peers. Her perspective is, “not IF, but HOW” when she thinks about including children who want to play.

Reference: You Can’t Say You Can’t Play, by V. Paley, 1992, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Promoting Play

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Beyond focusing on children’s social “skills,” teachers also need to promote positive interactions among children and be attentive to supporting children’s close, reciprocal friendships (Gallagher, 2013). Teachers can identify potential friends for children, and arrange for them to work together on a project or be placed at the same table. Teachers can make cooperative games part of their learning centers, and assign classroom duties to pairs of children. They can include families in their planning, and suggest play dates or shared activities after school. Teachers can make a point of communicating with parents about relationships among children as they emerge, and share photos or stories of children sharing each other’s company.

Children need to share space and activities with all of the children in their group; however, only a few of the children may actually be chosen as friends. Friends are a type of relationship that is special and intimate—and chosen by the child. There is a current trend in early childhood to refer to all children in a group as “friends” and to call and refer to children as “friends” (as when a teacher says, “Your friend is waiting for her turn.” However, teachers should be mindful of the use of the word “friend.” While all children can play, only children can choose with whom to be friends.

Teachers play an important role in children’s relationship development at all ages, and they can play an essential role in making sure that children develop friendships (Gal- lagher, 2013; Gallagher & Sylvester, 2009). Friendships are a specific and complex type of relationship and are important for lifelong health and well-being. When children are mutual friends, they share interests and affection for each other. When teachers learn how important friendships are for children’s well-being, they can use the Teaching Pyra- mid to organize classroom environments, routines, and experiences to support children’s friendship development (Gallagher, 2013). A teacher can pair preschoolers with similar interests. She can teach them how to enter group activities by observing and commenting on the play. Elementary-school teachers can use board games (with some adult guidance) and playing games that require teamwork. American classrooms often emphasize the im- portance of independence, but children fare much better, socially and academically, when we shift our attention to relationships and interdependence in the classroom.

Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships Teachers who have positive relationships with children are significantly more likely to influence their behavior because children pay more attention to responsive, caring adults (Fox et al., 2003). In addition, caring relationships help children develop positive self-concept, confidence, and a sense of safety, which in turn reduces the incidence of

Effective teachers develop warm, responsive, positive relationships with each child. From infancy through primary grades, the quality of teacher–child relationships is related to positive learning and developmental outcomes for children.

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challenging behavior. In fact, “the time spent building a strong relationship is probably less than the time required to implement more elaborate and time-consuming strategies” to address challenging behaviors (Fox et al., 2003, p. 49).

A sage piece of advice comes from Kaiser and Rasminsky (2017): “Start fresh every day.” This seems simple, but sometimes teachers find themselves storing up grievances against children for past transgressions, creating resentment in both parties. One proven effective strategy is called “banking time” (Driscoll & Pianta, 2010). Just as saving money for unexpected expenses helps in an emergency, taking 5 to 15 minutes a week to focus in- dividually on each child—playing with them or talking about something interesting unre- lated to academics or the child’s behavior—can pay dividends in building a relationship.

An important but often overlooked aspect of creating a caring community of learners is the health and well-being of the leaders of the classroom—the teachers. Just as healthy parents raise healthy children, well teachers create and support a high-quality social- emotional climate. Teachers who experience more work stress have more conflict in their relationships with children (Whitaker et al., 2014). In order to calmly and effectively respond to the demands and stresses of working daily and intensively with young children and their families, effective early childhood teachers find it necessary to practice self- care. Teachers can do this by taking care of their physical health (eating well, sleeping, and exercising) as well as making sure to stay socially connected. Friendships are important for teachers, too. Some teachers find that practicing mindfulness, or noticing present moments without judgment, helps them to regulate their emotions and respond to stressful situations more effectively (Jennings, 2014).

That said, the effectiveness of any strategy will vary with individual children. For this reason, it is important for teachers to have a large repertoire of strategies to use as they build relationships with each child. Table 8.1 describes a caring community from the points of view of both of the children and the teachers.

mindfulness The practice of purposefully and nonjudg- mentally noticing sensations (bodily, mentally, emotionally) in the present moment.

To create a true caring community of learners, teachers need to consider the child’s point of view as well as their own, as described in this table.

From a Child’s Point of View From a Teacher’s Point of View

My teacher cares about me, really listens to me, and likes me.

Shows respect and warmth to all children through physical affection, using a soothing tone of voice, smiles, and laughter. Listens carefully to children’s feelings and ideas with attention and respect.

My teacher knows me well—my abili- ties, strengths, interests, and needs.

Engages in individual conversations with children throughout the day. Gets to know children by carefully observing them and developing a relationship with their families.

I feel safe, secure, and happy. Holds a child’s hand, smiles, or pats a child lightly on the shoulder.

I’m not scared, no one bullies me. Is sure to protect every child and has zero tolerance for bullying.

I feel like I belong. My identity, language, and culture are valued.

Greets children personally each day when they arrive, calls each child by his or her name, and talks with children at their eye level. Learns key phrases in the child’s home language.

I feel proud of my family and they are welcome in my school.

Greets families warmly. Displays family photos. Conducts home visits or, if parents prefer, meets privately with them at a comfortable site such as a library or local community center.

I have friends. Helps children who are isolated or lonely connect with at least one other child.

I am challenged and I am learning. Expects children to succeed, acknowledges effort and accomplishments with nods, smiles, hugs, high-fives, or thumbs-up.

My teacher still likes me even if I don’t always remember the rules or if I sometimes do the wrong thing.

Acknowledges and supports children’s positive behavior, especially those children who tend to demonstrate challenging behavior. Takes time to nurture individual relationships each day.

I experience joy. Begins each day anew, genuinely enjoys children, and delights in their accomplishments.

Source: Based on Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children’s Social-Emotional Competence, by the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning and WestEd San Marcos, 2011, retrieved from http://cainclusion.org/camap/pdfs/CACSEFEL/ InventoryOfPractice_AUG11.pdf.

Table 8.1 What a Caring Community Looks Like

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Human relationships are complex, two-way interactions, and children’s behavior in- fluences adults’ reactions and behaviors just as much as adults influence children. There- fore, it is important for teachers to spend time reflecting on the basis for their expectations and judgments about children’s behavior.

Personal, Family, and Cultural Views of Children’s Behavior Each of us has her own views about the acceptability of specific behaviors in children based on personal, family, and cultural experiences (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). For example, some adults welcome children’s exuberance, whereas others see rambunctious play as misbehavior. Some children are hypersensitive to touch. With 3-year-old Shisuko, pats or hugs would not be welcome, but sitting nearby and talking quietly would. Relationship building, like all other aspects of teaching, requires individualizing.

Because what is considered acceptable behavior in one family, community, or cultural group may be frowned on or prohibited in another (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017), teachers should help children learn the kinds of behaviors that predict success in school. In doing so, they can help young children learn that there are different rules of behavior for different environments. Children make these distinctions all the time. Early on, they learn that what is accepted and safe behavior in their own home is not acceptable behavior in the neighborhood. Read the Culture Lens: Helping Children Adapt to School feature for an example of what teachers can do to help children feel comfortable at school.

Culture Lens Helping Each Child Adapt to School

Children from diverse cultural backgrounds may face challenges adapting to unfamiliar environments, and school can be the most daunting. On the first morning of kindergarten, Miguel Hernandez sets in motion a plan to build a sense of community among the children. His class includes children from many different countries and cultural backgrounds. Miguel greets the children, most of whom arrived by bus, at the door. He hasn’t had a chance to meet their families.

He begins the day with a morning meeting and wants the children to introduce themselves. Quickly, however, he changes his plan. In gathering the group and observing them, he realizes how uncomfortable and awkward many of the children would feel if he asked them to speak up in the group. Instead, he introduces himself and reassures them by talking briefly about what will happen today and what they can expect.

Even though Miguel has lived and worked in many dif- ferent contexts in his life, he remembers vividly his first day of kindergarten. His mother had given him some last- minute instructions so that he would be successful in school. She told him to do three things: stand tall, show respect to his teacher, and speak only in English. When he arrived at school, the teacher said, “Look at me. Now what’s your name?” He was nervous and confused then because he wanted to do what the teacher had told him, but he also wanted to follow his mother’s instructions.

He knew that looking into the teacher’s eyes would be disrespectful, and he was unsure of how to say his name in English. On his first day of school, differing cultural expectations clashed and he was caught in the middle.

Fortunately for the children in Miguel’s class, he knows not to make assumptions and is sensitive to their needs. He will continue to work toward his goal—to create a car- ing community of learners—but he also knows that to achieve it, he will have to learn as much as possible about the children’s families, their values, and their behavioral repertoires. Although it would have been better for this to happen before the first day, he will find ways to talk with families to discover areas where school and home expectations might differ. Once these are revealed, he will be able to propose some options to make things easier for each child and to offer a chance to talk about the dif- ferences. For example, “At home you remove your shoes before entering the house. At school we keep shoes on.”

Teachers can use the same principle when problems arise over differing expectations about appropriate be- havior, which may be more sensitive to discuss with par- ents, such as the use of profanity. Children may hear and use language at home that is prohibited at school. Help- ing children adapt to the expectations of school without criticizing their family or community can be a tricky bal- ancing act for teachers, but is likely to be in the child’s best interest.

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Examine Your Own Attitudes toward Challenging Behavior An es- sential part of your development as a teacher is to examine your own attitudes toward children’s challenging behavior. These attitudes are based in your own upbringing, your personal values, your cultural practices, and many other aspects of your prior experi- ences. Which behaviors do you find most unacceptable? Which behaviors “push your buttons”? Spitting, hitting, name-calling, bullying? Are they equally unacceptable? Do you see challenging behavior as characteristic of the child or something that is learned?

It is also important for you to consider your personal beliefs about the causes of spe- cific types of unacceptable child behavior. Do you attribute motives to certain children but not to others? Do you find yourself thinking that a particularly aggressive child is mean-spirited, or do you think that she wants your attention and is willing to get it any way she can?

Mistaken Behavior, Not Misbehavior Considering the causes for children’s behavior is an important part of the reflection process. Dan Gartrell (2011), an expert on guiding children’s behavior, prefers the term mistaken behavior to misbehavior. Young children are still learning acceptable behavior and are bound to make mistakes, just as they make mistakes when learning to tie their shoes or write their names. We not only tolerate, but we expect mistaken behavior as part of the learning process. Why, then, are we so much less tolerant of mistakes in children’s social behavior?

Some aspects of children’s behavior that disturb adults are actually reflections of children’s typical development. For example, toddlers come to love and overuse the word no and may accompany their insistent “No!” with temper tantrums. These behaviors dem- onstrate children’s growing independence from adults, their beginning knowledge of the power of language, and frustration over not being able to do everything they would like. Most of the time, children grow out of these oppositional behaviors if given appropriate support and nurturance.

Behavior Is Functional All behavior is a form of communication; it serves a function (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Teachers need to understand that even challenging behaviors—those behaviors that are potentially harmful in the short or long term—are conveying some type of message. Experts who study children’s behavior have found that most challenging behavior serves one of three functions: It helps children get something, avoid something, or change the level of stimulation (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). For example, Brian wants Tonia’s truck, so he pushes her down. Tray doesn’t want to clean up, so he throws the toys at Emma. Lala is bored waiting in line for the bathroom, so she pinches Mona. As undesirable as these behaviors may be, to effectively handle the children’s frustration, the teacher must determine what each behavior is conveying and provide the appropriate support and guidance.

If teachers think about children’s challenging behavior as either a mistake on the path to learning or a message they are trying to send, it is likely that their attitudes toward challenging behaviors will change. Instead of blaming children or rejecting them, teach- ers are more likely to embrace these challenges as problems to solve. Of course, the most effective strategy is to prevent problems in the first place, which is the second step on the Teaching Pyramid.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.2: Positive Relationships with Children

High-Quality Supportive Environments The quality of the learning environment is also very important in creating a caring com- munity of learners and enabling children to do their best. Teachers’ work begins before they meet the children in their group. The physical environment, the schedule including

mistaken behavior Alternative term for children’s misbehavior, recognizing the fact that young children are still learning ac- ceptable behavior and that they are bound to make mistakes.

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use of routines and transitions, and curriculum plan are all important factors in promoting children’s posi- tive outcomes, preventing negative behaviors, and cre- ating a caring community. As discussed in Chapter 3, the arrangement of the physical space and materials provides the framework to support children’s positive behavior. When the classroom is well organized and predictable, children’s behavior reflects that. In addi- tion, the classroom literally communicates to children what is acceptable. In a wide open space, children may become boisterous or unruly as compared to a quiet, cozy nook where they are more likely to calmly peruse a book.

To ensure the best possible outcomes, teachers need to plan engaging daily routines with smooth tran-

sitions. Teachers can establish clear expectations for classroom behavior and make sure supports are in place so that children can develop warm relationships, demonstrate their best behavior, and engage productively in learning.

Ensure Smooth Transitions Young children’s care and education involves nu- merous changes in activity and relocation of their physical space. They move from group time to learning centers, eat regularly, wash their hands, use the bathroom, take naps, and go outdoors and return. Primary-grade children move between special classes such as music, art, or physical education in addition to lunch and recess, or switch subject matter teachers. Each of these situations involves transitions.

Transitions are the changes from one activity or place to another. Although inevi- table, transitions can be difficult for young children who are not particularly good at waiting or who do not adapt well to change. Children who exhibit challenging behaviors tend to display oppositional behavior during transitions. Following are principles to keep in mind to ease transitions:

•   Prepare ahead of time for the next activity so children do not spend exces- sive amounts of time waiting. For instance, have several children setting up for snack while the others are cleaning up centers so the transition to snack time is smooth.

•   Give  children  a  5-minute  warning  before  a  transition  happens,  such  as  “Five more minutes till cleanup time.” Point out the numbers on a digital clock (which becomes a math/addition learning experience) or the hands of the clock to help children grasp the concept of 5 minutes.

•   For  those  children  who  have  particular  difficulty  with  transitions,  give  them an individual warning and explanation of what is to come, or perhaps a pictorial cue.

•   Make transitions learning experiences by singing songs, reciting rhymes  or poems, counting steps, following the leader’s motions, doing movement exercises, or following specific directions such as “If your name starts with a K, get your coat.”

•   Minimize the number of transitions between activities and the amount of  time children spend in transitions.

Use Engaging Routines The early childhood day is governed by routines of daily living, which, if planned well, can provide children with excellent learning experiences. A large-scale study of 652 prekindergartens in 11 states found that, on average, children spent more than one-third of their time in routines and transitions, but during 87% of that time they were waiting idly and/or uninvolved in any learning activity (Early et al., 2010). These regular, informal moments of the day provide valuable learning opportunities that should not be wasted.

transitions Changes from one activity or place to another.

Environments send messages to children about what behavior is acceptable and what is val- ued. What messages does this classroom environment send to children?

Classroom Connection Teachers often struggle with guid- ing children’s behavior during the difficult transition to nap- time. What effective strategies does this teacher use to ease the transition and turn a daily routine into a learning opportunity?

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Routines—snacks and mealtimes, cleaning up, washing hands, dressing for out- doors—all provide opportunities for children to practice newly acquired skills and to engage in conversation essential for developing language. In addition, teachers can use routines as times for individual interactions such as sitting and talking with children dur- ing snacks and meals.

Teachers should establish routines that allow children to do as much as possible for themselves. When adults do things for children that they can already do themselves, they rob children of important learning experiences. Routines such as dressing or cleaning up also provide many chances for children to practice fine motor skills as well as cognitive abilities such as categorization (for example, the long blocks go together and the short blocks go together).

Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior Just as children thrive in predictable physical and temporal environments, they also thrive when the expectations for behavior are clear and predictable. Therefore, it is essential that teachers involve children early on in establishing clear rules, limits, and consequences for behavior. It is equally important that teachers consistently and fairly enforce these rules in order for children to feel safe and secure.

In establishing classroom rules or guidelines for behavior, as Gartrell (2011) calls them, teachers need to engage children in discussing and enforcing a manageable number (three to six) of positively stated classroom rules. These discussions should take place during times of calm and quiet reflection. Some teachers may be tempted to focus chil- dren’s attention on what not to do—don’t hit, or don’t throw toys. However, a more effec- tive approach is to positively state what children should do. Virtually all situations can be covered by these three rules:

1. We take care of ourselves. 2. We take care of other people. 3. We take care of our school.

When we say “Don’t run” to young children, their brains might process only the word run; they don’t process the prohibition. Therefore, it is always more effective to state expectations clearly and positively: “Keep the food on the table” or “Walk inside.” It is also important to provide reasons for the expected behavior: “If you run, someone might get knocked over.”

Support Children to Do Their Best Earlier, we identified several reasons why children behave as they do: to get something, to avoid something, or to change the level of stimulation. When it comes to “getting something,” the object of desire is usually the teacher’s attention. Children are willing to do almost anything to attract adults’ attention, and they tend not to discriminate between positive and negative attention. To guide children toward using positive strategies to at- tract attention, teachers must keep in mind that because they have the power to control only their own behavior, they can determine which behaviors of children they give at- tention to and when. Teachers can ignore mistaken behavior, redirect behavior, and give positive feedback and encouragement.

Ignore When Appropriate Behaviors that are not reinforced will be extinguished or eliminated. If the reinforcement that children are seeking is the teacher’s attention— and they are behaving inappropriately to receive that attention—then ignoring the inap- propriate behavior can be an effective way of extinguishing it. When teachers react to these behaviors, they continue.

Consider, for example, 3½-year-old Curt, who has daily temper tantrums and lies on the floor kicking and screaming. His teacher, Janine, knows that he is too old for this

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behavior and believes that it is a cry for her attention. She decides to ignore the tantrums by physically removing herself to the other side of the room, but as soon as Curt tires from his explosion and quiets, she returns and invites him to sit by her and read a story. It takes several days during which she has to remind the other children not to pay attention to Curt during these episodes, but gradually Curt’s tantrums disappear.

To be effective, teachers must be careful to give more attention to children’s positive behaviors than to their negative ones. Teachers can identify a select few negative behav- iors to ignore and also identify prosocial or positive behaviors to acknowledge that are the opposite of the ones they are trying to ignore. It may also be necessary to teach the other children to ignore a peer’s undesirable behavior since the child may desire the attention of his or her peers as well as the teacher’s.

Redirect Behavior Another strategy for supporting children to do their best is redirection, which is the drawing of a child’s attention or behavior toward a more desir- able alternative. Redirection is especially effective with very young children whose at- tention is easily distracted. For instance, 18-month-old Jamie appears ready to bite Erika because she has the toy train he covets. His teacher has anticipated this situation and heads it off by offering him an identical engine and turning his attention toward her and away from where Erika is playing.

Redirecting children toward more productive activities is a useful strat- egy for toddlers who have yet to learn language or other problem-solving strategies and for children who are wandering or withdrawn. As children get older and become more competent problem solvers, adults should rely less on redirection and more on intentionally teaching children to get along with others. Because adults won’t always be available to redirect behavior, it is important to use this strategy sparingly.

Give Positive Feedback and Encouragement One of the most powerful ways teachers have for supporting children’s prosocial behavior is to give positive attention when children behave in desirable ways. When teachers use positive feedback and encouragement related to

children’s appropriate behavior, children feel supported and are more likely to continue to behave acceptably.

If a teacher wants a behavior to continue, it is necessary to provide positive feedback or encouragement. It is important for teachers not to give empty praise such as “Good girl” or “Nice job,” but rather to enthusiastically encourage and describe the desired behavior or ac- knowledge the effort. “Heath, thank you for telling me why you were angry,” says his teacher, Jane. “Next time, I’ll make sure you get a turn on the balance beam.” At times, encourage- ment will be nonverbal, offering a child a smile, a nod, or a thumbs-up for an achievement.

For positive feedback and encourage- ment to be effective, teachers need to recog- nize that there are individual differences in the forms of acknowledgment that children find positive. Communicating with families about what kinds of feedback work for their chil- dren may be necessary. One might prefer to sit by the teacher, while another prefers to be given a task to do. When teachers frequently give positive support for appropriate behavior, children will often pick up on their lead, giv- ing positive feedback to each other. Repeating words she has heard her teacher use, 5-year- old Karena says to her friend Darla, “Thanks for helping me clean up this mess. I’ll help you next time.”

redirection Drawing a child’s attention or behavior toward a more desirable alternative than the one on which the child is currently focusing.

Classroom Connection Redirection is a powerful tool for guiding young children’s behavior. This video, designed for parents, explains why and how to use redirection.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=kR0uuaLM15g

Intentional teachers encourage young children’s positive be- havior. Sometimes, just a smile or nod is enough to communi- cate that you noticed a child’s effort or success.

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Let’s think about how a teacher might use all of these ways of supporting children to do their best when confronted with a challenging situation. Andy picks his nose and it definitely irritates his teacher. She finds this behavior disgusting, but realizes after reflec- tion that she overreacts every time he does it, and the frequency of the behavior is actually increasing, especially during snack times. She decides to encourage more appropriate behavior by giving him his own box of tissues and reminding him in advance how to use them. At first, Andy’s nose picking increases, but his teacher decides to ignore it. Instead, when he does anything with the tissue box, even if he simply picks it up, she gives him at- tention and encouragement. She also gives him positive attention unrelated to the negative behavior: “Andy, thanks for helping me bring the tricycles inside.” Over time, his teacher finds much to enjoy in Andy and the nose picking becomes a rare event.

As we have seen, there are many effective strategies teachers can use to support chil- dren to do their best and prevent problem behaviors. In addition to preventing negative behaviors, however, adults have key roles to play in teaching children appropriate behav- ior, which we examine next.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.3: High-Quality Supportive Environments

Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior Children aren’t born with the ability to get along well with other people and regulate their own strong emotions. These social and emotional skills are learned gradually over the first years of life, and they are among the most important accomplishments of children’s lives.

Guiding children to function well in a caring community of learners, however, de- pends on three key aspects of teaching practice: fostering emotional literacy, teaching social skills, and teaching conflict negotiation. Before addressing each of these dimen- sions of teaching practice, it is important to clarify the distinction between guidance and punishment.

Guidance and Punishment When children display unacceptable or inappropriate behavior, which is a natural part of growing up, adults’ automatic response is often to discipline them. Consider that the word disciple means “to learn.” Often when teachers and adults discipline, however, they do so not to teach, but rather to punish. However, children do not learn positive behaviors from punishment. Although punishment may stop a negative behavior temporarily, it does not teach the child what to do instead. Consequently, teachers may find that using the same punishment repeatedly with a child (which they often do) doesn’t deter the negative behavior.

One discipline strategy teachers and parents too often use is time-out. Time-out is removing a child to a specified chair or area of the room for a period of time following an unacceptable behavior. Many adults think that time-out is a good way to get children to stop their unacceptable behavior. Removing a child from a situation for a period of time, however, can be a form of punishment and, if so, it is unlikely that the child is reflecting on righteousness in this situation. Time-out does not teach the child what to do instead of the negative behavior and, in fact, may achieve the child’s purpose by removing him from the situation he sought to avoid, such as helping to clean up. On the other hand, occasionally giving children a brief time away to calm down before negative behavior escalates may be helpful, if the child feels supported by the teacher in this situation and if the child’s culture does not consider isolation from the group as humiliation (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017).

Guidance is the process of teaching children the life skills they need to func- tion productively. Instead of punishments, children need adults to actively teach them

time-out Removing a child to a specified chair or area of the room for a period of time following an unacceptable behavior.

guidance The process of teaching children the life skills they need to function produc- tively with other children.

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positive behaviors to replace negative, ineffective behaviors. Children must be taught important life skills, such as appropriate expression of negative emotions, getting along with others, and conf lict resolution, using a variety of developmentally appropriate learning experiences and teaching strategies. In the busy classroom atmosphere, teach- ers often guide children’s behavior very publicly, calling attention to children who struggle more with self-regulation. For Micah, hearing that the teacher “likes the way” other children are sitting, and hearing his name called out by the teacher, “We’re wait- ing for you, Micah,” convinces Micah over time that he is not very good at keeping up with the demands of school.

Sometimes teachers adopt shortcut techniques that seem to simplify child guidance in the classroom, such as the often used “Traffic Light” technique. In this method, each child has three cards, a green (for positive behavior), yellow (for a “warning”) and red (for chal- lenging behavior). The teacher assigns colors to individual children, based on their behav- ior, often publicly displaying children’s traffic light status. For children who struggle, and whose cards are often yellow or red, this technique can bring shame and frustration. Sadly for those children, there’s no card for trying hard. The Traffic Light behavior control method is frequently used school- or district-wide, which is surprising given that it is not an effective strategy for teaching children positive behavior. The same children receive a red card repeatedly and, as is true of punishment in general, their behavior often worsens. In the next sections, you’ll learn strategies for supporting children’s positive behavior and responding to their challenging behavior in respectful ways.

Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills When children grapple over a toy, hit, or bite, teachers often suggest, “Use your words.” This is an effective strategy if, and only if, children have the vocabulary to describe their emotions and the language proficiency to articulate their wants and needs. Emotional literacy is “the ability to identify, understand, and respond to emotions in oneself and oth- ers in a healthy manner” (Joseph, Strain, & Ostrosky, 2006). Children who have a strong foundation in emotional literacy are more likely to tolerate frustration and to fight less, and are less lonely and impulsive. They also are more focused and have greater academic

achievement. Developing a vocabulary for expressing feelings is an essential aspect of emotional literacy because the larger a child’s emotional vocabulary, the finer the distinctions she can make when expressing her feelings to other people (Kusché & Greenberg, 2012).

Think about the number of words you know related to feeling bad: angry, mad, furious, upset, anxious, unhappy, distraught, disturbed, disappointed, depressed, disgusted, dismayed, frustrated—we could empty a thesaurus. The same could be said for other emotional states. Being frustrated, however, is not the same as being furious. Children’s behavior may be communicating frustration or fury and, without knowing which, we may be more or less ef- fective in helping them.

An important aspect of emotional literacy is being able to reflect on one’s own emotions. Read the What Works: Teaching Emotional Literacy feature for examples of effective strategies to promote emotional literacy in young children.

Just as children need adults to teach them how to regulate and express emotions constructively, children need adults to explicitly teach them social

skills such as cooperation, social problem solving, and interacting with peers. In addition, children with disabilities may need particular help from adults in forming friendships with typically developing peers (Joseph & Strain, 2003a, 2003b).

One important decision facing teachers is when to teach social skills. Some moments in time are more effective than others to teach social skills. Teachers often try to teach problem solving in the middle of a crisis situation, when intervention is least effective. Read the Including All Children: When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills feature to learn timely ways to teach social skills.

emotional literacy Children’s ability to identify their own and others’ emotions and to express emotions in a healthy way.

Classroom Connection In this video, the teacher and oc- cupational therapist work togeth- er to support a preschooler with autism play in block play with peers. Why might this strategy be more beneficial than removing the child for a therapy session?

https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=jHD7uEra- Kc&list=PL818D7E62353903 B4&index=15

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Conflict Resolution Organizing the environment and routines, and establishing classroom expec- tations and structure around respect will prevent much classroom conflict. However, conflict is an inevitable part of social interaction, especially with young children who are just developing their ability to get along with other people. In fact, episodes of conflict should be considered learning opportuni- ties. Teaching children specific steps in conflict resolution before problems occur and trusting them to solve their own problems are important steps in children’s social-emotional development.

During conflicts between students, when teachers remain calm and in control of their own emotions, children feel assured and safe. It is important to acknowledge children’s strong feelings and help them learn to describe their feelings and perceptions of the conflict to each other. Rather than asking a question that children will not be able to answer such as “How do you think that made him feel?” ask the child, “What happened? How do you feel?” Like adults, children experiencing strong negative emotions are less able to “use their words” or use perspective-taking to think about how other children

What Works Teaching Emotional Literacy Teaching emotional literacy is a proven strategy for promoting chil- dren’s self-regulation and social skills and preventing challenging behavior. Here are some research-based ways teachers can help children become more emotionally literate.

• Express your own feelings. “I’m frustrated because this is the third time I tried to open the paint jar and it’s stuck. I’m going to take a deep breath and then try again.”

• Label children’s feelings and your own emotions. “You look disappointed that Micah didn’t come to school today. I miss him, too.”

• Help children talk about their own and others’ emotions and discuss acceptable ways of expressing strong feelings. “I think you and Rashid are angry because you both want to paint. Can you ask how much longer it will be before you can have a turn at the easel?”

• Use or adapt songs and rhymes, games, and stories that intro- duce and expand feeling words. “If you’re happy and you know it, clap your hands. If you’re excited and you know it, jump up high. If you’re frustrated and you know it, take a breath.”

• Narrate and describe ongoing interactions to help children de- velop vocabulary related to prosocial behaviors. “Gregory and Keisha, you are working so well together at the computer. You look pleased and proud of the book you’ve created.”

• Draw children’s attention to the feelings or experiences of oth- ers, at times using pictures or photos of people’s faces. “Look at this face. Can you tell how this person feels?”

• Help children develop empathy by reminding them of their own similar feelings or experiences. “You know what it feels like when someone says you can’t play.”

• Model caring, positive regard for others. When a child is sick, have children make cards or send e-mails.

Emotional literacy helps children calm down when they are feeling very strong emotions. Teachers can use an emotion ther- mometer to help children monitor their own feelings. The children decorate the thermometer with pictures of feeling faces from “hap- py” and “relaxed” in the blue, cool section of the thermometer all the way up to “angry” or “stressed out” in the red, hot section of the thermometer. The teacher then asks children to describe a recent conflict and together they retrace the steps that led to the angry outburst. Then the teacher discusses with the child the thoughts, actions, and words that the child can use to reduce her anger.

As the teacher retraces the steps of the angry outburst, the children identify the time or situation that began the episode. This is marked as the “Danger Point” on the thermometer. Once chil- dren have established their danger points, they name the zone, such as “Think Calm Thoughts,” “Cool Down,” or “Code Red.” Then, the teacher and children can use this code word as a signal that anger or stress has reached the threshold. This in turn can trigger the use of a calming strategy such as taking three deep breaths or visualizing happy and calming places.

Sources: Based on Fostering Emotional Literacy in Young Children: Label- ing Emotions (What Works Brief 21), by G. Joseph, P. Strain, and M. M. Os- trosky, 2006, Urbana-Champaign, IL: Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning; and Fostering Social and Emotional Com- petence: Implementing Dina Dinosaur’s Social Skills and Problem Solving Curriculum in Inclusive Early Childhood Programs, by G. E. Joseph, C. Webster-Stratton, and M. Reid, 2006.

Classroom Connection Young children often need guid- ance and support to learn how to get along with other people. What are some of the strategies the teacher in this video uses to help the children resolve their conflict and avoid future conflicts?

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Including All Children

The figure below illustrates the cycle of challenging be- havior as it typically occurs in early childhood settings. It depicts the point at which teachers are most effective in supporting children’s social-emotional development and in preventing challenging behaviors. Consider how the cycle unfolds in the following scenario.

At choice time, Jessie moves to the block corner, sits down, and begins constructing a boat with the unit blocks. He is serious about his project, but calm and content. His teacher, Sarah, looks around the room and notices that all of the children are happily playing and learning. A few minutes pass and more children are now in the block corner. There are fewer blocks to go around, and it is get- ting crowded. Still, Jessie is busy concentrating and enjoying his creation.

Fifteen minutes later, Jessie has an idea and searches for the Y-shaped block. He sees a child using it and demands it with angry words, but the other boy continues to claim it.

Sarah hears a scream and rushes to see what happened. Jessie has attacked the boy with the Y-shaped block, who is badly hurt and cries loudly.

At precisely this point—marked by the red arrow— many teachers try to teach Jessie a social skills lesson. For example, teachers might say any of the following: “Use your words!” “Hitting is not okay.” “We share our toys.” “Say you’re sorry!” “You need to calm down. Go to the thinking chair.”

It is true that preschoolers need to use words to re- solve conflict, to understand that aggression is not okay, to share materials, to know how and when to use an apology, and how to regulate their emotions. How- ever, teaching these skills is ineffective if teachers try to do so at the wrong time. The crisis moment (red arrow) is not a teachable moment for several reasons: (1) The challenging behavior has already occurred. (2) The child who engages in aggression is likely to be upset and agitated and not responsive to a lesson highlighting his or her mistakes. (3) The time and at- tention the teacher spends trying to teach the child what to do instead (even if it is negative attention) may serve to reinforce the challenging behavior. (4) If the teacher uses these crisis moments only as times to teach social-emotional skills, the child will never receive enough positive learning and practice opportu- nities to effectively alter his or her behavior.

The most effective teachable moments happen before problems occur, when the teacher and children are calm and engaged in appropriate behavior—green ar- rows. At these times, teachers can build positive rela- tionships and teach key social-emotional skills, such as identifying emotions and resolving conflict.

Source: Based on “‘You Got It!’ Teaching Social and Emotional Skills,” by L. Fox & R. H. Lentini, 2006, Young Children, 61(6), 36–42. Based on information from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), http://www.naeyc.org.

Cycle of Challenging Behavior

feel. Think about the last time you were very angry, and how effectively you were able to describe your feelings or consider the other person’s perspective. By giving each child the opportunity to offer solutions to the conflict and by offering their own only if needed, teachers help children become better negotiators and communicators. Table 8.2 describes strategies for teaching conflict resolution.

Helping children learn conflict negotiation skills takes time and practice. Sometimes a conflict does not warrant a full-scale negotiation because one child is not as vested in the

When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills

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issue. But equipping all children with conflict negotiation skills helps ensure that rules are fairly and equitably applied and that the classroom is truly a caring community of learners.

Applying the first three parts of the Teaching Pyramid—establishing positive relation- ships, organizing high-quality supportive environments, and teaching social and emotional skills and positively guiding behavior—will go a long way toward creating a caring com- munity of learners. Nevertheless, a few children will require more individualized interven- tions to successfully navigate the classroom and learn optimally, as we discuss next.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.4: Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior

Intensive Individualized Interventions In most classrooms, it is likely that there will be a few children who demonstrate persis- tent challenging behaviors. To effectively reach these students, it may be necessary to use individualized intervention, which is a systematically planned and implemented set of actions designed to alter the course of a child’s development or learning.

individualized intervention A systematically planned and implemented set of actions designed to alter the course of a child’s development or learning.

Effective strategies exist for teaching children to solve their own conflicts, as illustrated here in the examples.

Strategy Example

Acknowledge, accept, and validate all children’s feelings and perceptions of the conflict.

Use “I messages”—sentences that describe your own observa- tions or perceptions about a situation, such as “Katie, I think you are angry because Ally took the blocks you wanted.”

Help children verbalize feelings and desires to each other and listen to one another. Use active listening, which reflects what you are hearing so the child can agree or disagree.

The teacher says, “Katie, it sounds like you wanted all the big blocks for your bridge.” Katie responds, “No, I just want the two biggest and Ally took them.”

Clarify and state the problem. “Katie and Ally, you both want the two biggest blocks.”

Give children the opportunity to suggest solutions. The teacher says, “How could we solve this problem?” Katie says, “I get to have the blocks because I was here first.” Ally says, “You have been playing with them the whole time. I want a turn.” Katie replies, “I could play with them today and you can have them next week.” Ally ponders for a while and says, “Okay, but only if you promise.”

Propose solutions when children do not have ideas or if their ideas are too extreme or punitive.

“Next week seems like a long time away,” the teacher says. “Maybe tomorrow would be a fairer solution.”

Uphold the value of mutual agreement and give children the opportunity to reject proposed solutions. That is, both parties in the conflict must mutually agree on the solution. When both children lose interest in the conflict, do not pursue it.

“Do you both agree that tomorrow Ally can have the two biggest blocks? If so, we’ll write it down so we remember.”

Help children recognize their responsibility in a conflict situation.

“Ally, I know you wanted the blocks, but Katie got angry when you took them without asking.”

Help children repair the relationships, but do not force children to be insincere.

“Ally, you usually like to build with Katie. And I know Katie is your friend.”

Encourage children to resolve their conflict by themselves. “Katie, I know that you and Ally built a hospital together last week so I think you can solve this problem together.”

Sources: Based on Guidance Matters, by D. Gartrell, 2006, in Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web, retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200603/GuidanceBTJ.pdf; Moral Classrooms, Moral Children: Creating a Constructivist Atmosphere in Early Education, 2nd edition, by R. DeVries and B. Zan, 2012, New York: Teachers College Press; and Conflict Resolution in Early Childhood: Helping Children Understand and Resolve Conflicts, by E. Wheeler, 2004, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Table 8.2 Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution

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Research demonstrates that positive behavior support (PBS) is a highly effective, humane interven- tion approach for working with children with severe and persistent challenging behaviors (Fox et al., 2009; Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Positive behavior support is a method of identifying the causes and functions of problem behaviors in order to develop support strategies that prevent such behaviors and teach new, more appro- priate skills. In the following sections, we identify and describe challenging behaviors and then explain each of the elements of positive behavior support.

Understand Challenging Behaviors A formal definition of challenging behaviors is “behav- iors that are dangerous, disruptive, or disgusting; cause

injury to the child or others; damage the physical environment; interfere with learning; or cause the child to be isolated from peers” (Neilsen, Olive, Donovan, & McEvoy, 1999). However, each of us defines challenging behaviors according to our own values, experi- ences, and cultural perspectives. Strain and Hemmeter (1999) take a more pragmatic view in their definition: “Challenging behavior is any behavior that is disturbing to you and you wish to see stopped”(p. 17).

Strain and Hemmeter (1999) also offer some practical advice for anyone working with children with challenging behaviors (and that’s everyone who works with children!). They advise early childhood professionals to become more “comfortable” with challeng- ing behavior; they emphasize how important it is to recognize that when stressed, em- barrassed, disturbed, or feeling hopeless, it is difficult to be effective. They suggest that teachers need to acknowledge these feelings and serve as mutual support for each other. Then, if a child loses control and a teacher begins to feel herself losing control as a result, she can seek help from a colleague. These researchers (Strain & Hemmeter, 1999) also suggest that teachers avoid blaming parents or other uncontrollable events, and focus on small successes. For example, instead of lamenting that Andy picks his nose, celebrate that he picked his nose only once today instead of 10 times.

Positive behavior support involves several steps. The first, and perhaps most impor- tant, is determining the function of the child’s behavior.

Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior Functional assessment, also called functional analysis, is the process of determining why a child is behaving in a certain way. “Any challenging behavior that persists over time is ‘working’ for the child” (Strain & Hemmeter 1999, p. 19) and is an attempt to communicate a message such as “You’re asking me to do something that is too difficult” (e.g., when a teacher expects preschoolers to sit still for a 30-minute group time) or “I’m bored; pay attention to me.”

Acknowledging that children’s behavior serves a function and communicates a mes- sage helps teachers focus on teaching alternative ways of interacting with other people. Remember Tray, who didn’t want to clean up and threw the toys at Emma? If his teacher puts him in time-out, Tray will most likely throw toys again tomorrow because he suc- ceeded in avoiding cleanup time.

Functional assessment is a process of systematic observation and documentation of children’s behavior over time involving three steps that are easily remembered using the letters A, B, C (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017):

•  A = Antecedents. This step is observing what usually occurs before the negative behavior or what conditions trigger the behavior, such as a whole-group time.

positive behavior support (PBS) A method of identifying the causes and functions of problem behaviors in order to develop support strategies that prevent challenging behaviors and teach new, more appropri- ate skills.

functional assessment or functional analysis The process of determining why a child is behaving a certain way, based on the principle that all behavior serves a function or purpose.

Conflicts are inevitable when children are together in group situations. Effective teachers do not solve problems for chil- dren. They teach children the skills they need to resolve their own conflicts.

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•  B = Behavior. During this step, teachers systematically document what the behavior is and how frequently it occurs.

•  C = Consequences. During the third step, the teacher or child care provider at- tempts to determine the function the behavior serves; that is, what does the child get, avoid, and/or change as a result of the behavior?

Identify Antecedents Assessing the antecedents (A) of the behavior requires a teacher to carefully observe to determine the conditions or situations that most often trig- ger the behavior. By identifying key triggers, the teacher can change the conditions to prevent the behavior or redirect the child before the occasion arises. For example, observ- ing that Lala’s behavior usually deteriorates during transitions, such as when she pinched Mona while standing in line, her teacher uses a rhyming game to keep her engaged.

Document Behavior The next step is documenting the behavior (B). In using func- tional assessment, it is important to carefully define and count the frequency (how often) of the behavior to be changed. For example, in the midst of working with a particularly disturbing behavior such as spitting or biting, sometimes teachers lament, “He spits con- stantly,” or “He bites all the time.” In fact, a child could not spit or bite “all the time”; even the most avid spitter or biter must come up for air occasionally. Systematic observation and recording of the actual number of unacceptable behaviors is required for successful intervention. In doing so, Andy’s teacher finds that he picks his nose 10 times a day and sets out to intervene to decrease this behavior.

Observe Consequences Objectively observing the consequences (C) of the be- havior is essential to form a hypothesis about the function of the child’s behavior. What usually happens after the behavior occurs? Does Hans get the Legos after pushing Nata- sha away from the table? Does Manny avoid reading group because he cries and insists he has a stomachache?

Once antecedents, behavior, and consequences are documented, teachers can assess possible functions that the behavior is serving. What does the child appear to be getting or avoiding? Children most often exhibit challenging behavior to get attention from adults or peers. At times, however, a child wants power, the ability to control what is happening to him or others. This may be the case for a child who is experiencing some kind of disruption that is beyond his power to control, such as his parents’ divorce or an abusive relationship. Avoiding power struggles with children is always advisable. Adults often lose, and there is nothing scarier to a child than having too much power. If a child is trying to get power, it is best to give him choices and power over manageable things, such as what book to read or who to play with and where.

Objective documentation describes behaviors without adding judgmental com- ments. Using a form such as the one shown in Figure 8.2 facilitates a teacher’s objective documentation of an ABC analysis. With children whose challenging behaviors are se- vere and persistent, it is especially important to involve a team of people in the process of functional assessment and developing a plan.

Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans Too often teachers, especially new teachers, feel alone and helpless when confronted by children who display challenging behaviors. They can find strength and knowledge in a team for several reasons. Children benefit from consistent, clear messages about expec- tations for their behavior from the significant adults in their lives. Teachers and parents need support to both endure and transform children’s challenging behavior. Finally, some children have problems that are more serious and need the support of a mental health spe- cialist. While this can be difficult for family members to understand and accept, address- ing serious problems early on prevents much more serious difficulties later (Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University, http://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/ briefs/inbrief).

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Although it can be difficult to get some parents involved, intervention is more likely to be successful if family members are engaged. Understanding how children behave at home and communicating to parents how their children behave in school is an essential part of the process.

Creating and implementing individualized intervention plans require the expertise of professionals beyond classroom teachers. Early childhood special educators, mental health professionals, social workers, and therapists play key roles in developing the plan. Every state has such resources available to families and child care programs through its public school system and is required by law to provide this assistance to children with disabilities and special needs.

Use Positive Behavior Support Once a team has been established and a functional assessment completed, the next step is to develop and implement a behavior intervention plan, which describes the behavior to be changed and the strategies adults will use to prevent the negative behavior and to teach more acceptable behavior. For example, once a teacher better understands what triggers the behavior, she can prevent or redirect the child before events escalate. In addition, understanding the consequences of a behavior enables the teacher to ensure that the behavior is not effective in achieving its goals.

Although one goal of the behavior plan is to diminish negative behaviors, a more important goal is to teach replacement behaviors, which are the prosocial behaviors you want the child to exhibit instead of the problem behaviors. To replace negative, challeng- ing behaviors with prosocial behavior, teachers can use the teaching strategies described previously in this chapter as well as more explicit instruction and reinforcement of accept- able alternatives. Replacement skills should be taught throughout the day, particularly during times when the problem behavior is not occurring.

behavior intervention plan Describes the strategies adults will use to prevent a child’s negative behavior and to teach more acceptable behavior.

replacement behaviors Desirable prosocial behaviors that replace problem behaviors.

Child’s Name Duncan Date: 9/25

Time & Activity Antecedent Behavior Consequences

Perceived Function

9:00 Arrival

Duncan arrives and refuses to take off his coat. The teacher tells him he can’t play unless he takes off his coat.

Duncan yells, “No! I won’t.”

The teacher offers Duncan the container of race cars. He takes off his coat and begins to play.

Gets to play with his favorite toy.

10:30 Clean-up

The teacher announces that it is time to clean up for lunch.

Duncan falls to the fl oor and starts crying.

The teacher says, “Duncan, why don’t you help me set the table.”

Avoids cleanup time and gets to set the table, which he enjoys.

11:00 Circle time

The teacher tells the children it is time for class meeting. The teacher walks toward Duncan.

Duncan starts crying and says, “No! I don’t want to!”

The teacher says, “Duncan, everyone has to sit down for meeting time. Go to time-out.” Duncan sits in a chair away from the rest of the children.

Avoids meeting time and looks out the window at the construction going on.

FIGURE 8.2 Functional Assessment for 4-Year-Old Duncan A form such as this is useful in con- ducting a functional assessment of a child’s behavior—the first step in implementing a positive behavior support plan.

Source: Based on Challenging Behavior in Young Children: Understanding, Preventing, and Responding Effec- tively, 3rd edition, by B. Kaiser and J. S. Rasminsky, 2017, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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The last stage of the behavior plan is to carefully monitor and document the child’s progress and make adjustments as needed. Teachers should not become discouraged if results are not immediately positive. The fact is that when interventions are first initiated, children’s behavior often gets worse before it improves. As a result, teachers or parents often abandon the intervention too soon. Teachers and team members must continue to observe children’s behavior over time and change strategies that are not successful.

Working with children with challenging behaviors can be a humbling experience, but the ultimate result can be tremendously rewarding for everyone involved, particularly the child. In the following sections, we demonstrate how to apply the Teaching Pyramid in specific circumstances that teachers are likely to encounter in practice.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.5: Intensive Individualized Interventions

Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model Using the Teaching Pyramid to guide teaching practice every day will improve the quality of the educational experience for all children and teachers. In this section we illustrate how the Teaching Pyramid can be used to teach more effectively in commonly encoun- tered situations—teaching boys, working with children who bite, and preventing and re- sponding to bullying.

Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys Darlene is the sole kindergarten teacher in a group of 23, 15 of whom are boys. During center time, a fight breaks out in the block corner. When Darlene tries to intervene, Jamie screams at her, “You’re stupid!” and the other four boys cover their ears and laugh. For 20 minutes at a time, four of the girls happily play in the grocery store Darlene has set up, but Darryl and Jason rush in and knock over the food stands as they race with the shopping carts. At story time, a group of boys start tickling each other or pushing one another over while Darlene tries to read. Despite years of expe- rience as a teacher, Darlene finds herself struggling to control her emotions, speaking harshly to the boys, and putting them in time-out repeatedly—but to no avail.

Perhaps fearing the label of gender biased, many educators avoid discussing boys’ be- havior in the classroom. However, many teachers, who are often female themselves, may find active, energetic boys difficult to manage. Denying this fact does not help teachers any more than it helps boys function more successfully in school. One could speculate that increasing the presence of male teachers in early education might alleviate the prob- lem because males might be more understanding and tolerant of boys’ typical behavior. However, as of 2012, fewer than 6% of child care teachers and 2% of prekindergarten and kindergarten teachers were male (MenTeach, 2012).

We realize that addressing the behavior of boys as a group runs the risk of stereo- typing. Of course, all boys are not alike, any more than all girls are alike. Most boys do not exhibit challenging behaviors and many girls do. However, there are some observable gender differences in the behavior of young children. Boys are more likely than girls to engage in off-task behavior, rough-and-tumble play, and physical aggression, whereas girls are more often verbally aggressive during conflicts (Sprung, Froschl, & Gropper, 2010).

Boys are described as socially immature and developmentally young more often than girls are. As a result, boys are more likely to be held back in preschool or kindergar- ten. In addition, boys are disproportionately labeled as having ADHD, are assigned to special education, and/or are expelled from school, especially African American boys (Barbarin, 2013; King & Janson, 2010; U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, 2014). In fact, there is some evidence that African American boys are more often stigmatized as troublemakers and singled out for harsh punishment (Barbarin, 2013).

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While prekindergarten teachers are likely to describe African American and Latino boys as socially competent as white boys, by the time they reach second grade, teachers de- scribe them as less socially and academically competent. Do boys’ social-emotional skills decrease during this time? Not likely, but the contexts of early elementary classrooms and expectations may be a poor match for the strengths of boys of color (Barbarin et al., 2013).

In the sections that follow, we discuss strategies from the Teaching Pyramid model to build positive, encouraging relationships with boys; rethink the environment and routines to prevent boys’ challenging behaviors; and adapt teaching and intervention strategies for boys.

Build Positive Relationships with Boys All children need nurturing to thrive. This statement is no less true for boys than for girls. Because girls tend to be more verbal, less active, and more comfortable with emotional expression, teachers may find it easier to establish warm, positive relationships with them. Boys need physical affection, kind words, and emotional support just as much as girls do. However, preschool boys may be more likely to demonstrate warmth by jostling a teachers’ leg or climbing over her back than curling in her lap—behaviors that some female teachers may misinterpret. And primary-grade boys may feel the need to demonstrate their “manliness” even if it manifests as emotional withdrawal.

Relationships enable teachers to get to know boys as individuals and to learn their abilities and interests, whether insects or robots. This information is especially important for teachers to use in planning the environment and activities to prevent problem behav- iors in boys.

Rethink the Environment for Boys The following classroom modifications, based on research and observations of the activity level of boys, are designed to prevent problems and support boys to do their best (Barbarin, 2011; King & Gartrell, 2004; King & Janson, 2010):

1. Increase indoor and outdoor large-motor and whole-body experiences such as allowing rough-and-tumble play, and regularly alternating active and quiet learn- ing experiences.

2. Provide opportunities for children to communi- cate and interact through movement rather than rewarding only verbal communication.

3. Add sensory exploration and experimentation, such as digging a garden or science investigation both indoors and outdoors.

4. Provide active experiences and technology that uses larger muscles as an alternative to quiet seat- work requiring fine motor skill and focusing on handwriting.

5. Enlarge and enrich construction and block build- ing areas with props such as hard hats, and add a woodworking center with real tools, lumber, and safety goggles.

6. Increase variety by adding novel dramatic play ex- periences such as space travel and boating.

7. Use materials such as books, comic books, and games on topics of interest to boys such as sports, dinosaurs, or space travel, and those that include male role models.

Rethinking the environment with boys in mind will go a long way toward preventing many of the challenging behaviors of boys, especially those that result from their trying to change the level of stimula- tion. Boys who are engaged in stimulating activities

Effective teachers can apply the Teaching Pyramid to help active boys succeed in school and prevent challenging behav- iors. These same strategies will work with girls as well.

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are less likely to be bored and uninvolved and, thus, less disruptive. The next two levels of the Teaching Pyramid—teaching social and emotional skills, and individualized inter- ventions—should also be adapted to ensure successful experiences for boys.

Adapt Teaching and Intervention Strategies for Boys The Teaching Pyramid strategies described earlier apply to all children; however, researchers who study boys’ behavior in school offer several adaptations to increase the likelihood of their success (Barbarin, 2013; Gartrell, 2011; King & Janson, 2010; Sprung et al., 2010). These suggestions are based on the fact that boys tend to have a strong sense of justice and fair play and may feel humiliated or unfairly treated by a teacher. With boys, what teachers don’t do may be more important than what they do. Table 8.3 lists effective as well as ineffective teaching and intervention strategies for boys. It is important to note that these strategies are important for working with boys and girls.

With these adaptations for boys in mind, kindergarten teacher Darlene rethinks her classroom environment:

Darlene realizes that with so many boys trying to build, the construction area is too small. By removing some of the puzzles and other table toys that are not used, she creates more space for building. She also obtains additional blocks from one of the other kindergartens where they are not being used. Darlene teaches prosocial behav- iors and steps to conflict resolution. “If someone takes the block you’re using, Jake, what could you say to him?” When Jake and the other boys suggest silly things like “Tell him he’s a butthead,” Darlene laughs with them. She calmly says, “That sounds funny now, but I don’t think Marco will laugh. What else could you say?”

These teaching strategies and examples support positive behavior and school success in boys, but are also effective for girls.

What Works What Doesn’t Work

Speaking privately before or after a difficult situation or conflict arises

Publicly shaming, humiliating, or embarrassing a boy

Observing carefully and downplaying a conflict before it happens (“Rodney didn’t mean to knock over your building. It was an accident.”)

Waiting until a situation escalates out of control

Providing a space for “time away” where a child can calm down before a situation escalates

Separating the boy from the group by putting the child’s desk in a corner or frequently using time-out

Reflecting on your own behavior and how it may be perceived by the boy and the other children

Stigmatizing to the point that the other children in the group can readily identify the “bad boy” or the troublemaker

Appealing to boys’ sense of justice and fair play Issuing threats that create a power struggle

Following through with logical consequences (“If you throw the sand, you have to leave the sand table.”)

Inflicting harsh discipline or punishment (“If you throw the sand, you can’t go out to recess.”)

Offering boys’ choices to help them feel in control Attempting to overly control boys’ impulses

Teaching boys to think before they act and offering them alterna- tives to physical aggression.

Waiting until boys behave impulsively and punishing them afterwards

Allowing for movement during all learning activities: fidget toys for group time, standing to do writing and fine motor activities.

Punishing boys for fidgeting or requiring them to sit “criss-cross applesauce” for more than a few minutes.

Encouraging boys to move without disturbing other children; teaching all children to have a little extra “body space” in group activities, lines, and circle time.

Publicly chastising boys for touching others, bumping in line or getting too close to peers.

Sources: Based on “Guidance with Boys,” by M. King with D. Gartrell, in The Power of Guidance: Teaching Social-Emotional Skills in Early Childhood Classrooms, edited by D. Gartrell, 2004, Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning; Supporting Boys’ Learning: Strategies for Teacher Practice, Pre-K–Grade3, by B. Sprung, M. Froschl, & N. Gropper, 2010, New York: Teachers College Press; and Wired to Move: Facts and Strategies for Nurturing Boys in an Early Childhood Setting, by R. H. Morhard, 2013, Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.

Table 8.3 Effective Teaching and Intervention Strategies for Boys

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Darlene also finds the boys are interested in playing ambulance, so she trans- forms the grocery store into a hospital, which the girls enjoy as well. Instead of read- ing to the whole group, which invites the boys to act up, Darlene, in smaller groups of eight, reads more books with male characters to actively involve all of the children in talking about the story or acting it out.

Having applied the Teaching Pyramid to working with boys, in the next section we demonstrate its applicability to one of the most common but challenging behaviors teach- ers confront that cuts across gender lines—biting.

Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting Experienced teachers of toddlers tend to think of dealing with biting as one of the occu- pational hazards of group care for this age group. Biting is viewed as an aspect of typical development in all children, like separation anxiety or oppositional behavior. Neverthe- less, biting is a very emotional experience for the biter, the victim, their parents, and their teachers (Greenman, Stonehouse, & Schweikert, 2007). Parents of children who are bit- ten often become very upset and demand better supervision of their children. Parents of biters may feel they are somehow responsible and fear that if the situation continues, the child care center will demand they remove their child.

As we learned from the Teaching Pyramid, teachers in groups where biting occurs need to assume responsibility for the safety and nurturance of all of the children while also taking steps to prevent biting, teach alternative behaviors, and intervene when it persists. Biting is not a behavior to ignore; once biting starts in a group of toddlers, others may imitate the behavior, leading to an epidemic of biting that is very hard to control. Biting, like other challenging behaviors, serves a function. There are actually two kinds of biting. The first is a communication strategy, which usually responds to prevention strategies. The second occurs when a child persists in using biting because biting is successful in getting the child what she wants. The persistent form of biting requires systematic intervention.

Prevent Biting Applying the levels of the Teaching Pyramid to biting begins with making sure that toddlers feel nurtured, loved, and cared for. Having close relationships with very young children and their families enables caregivers to be aware of situations that may contribute to biting, such as the stress of a new baby or divorce, or a develop- mental transition such as beginning to eat solid food. Children tend to treat others the way they are treated. Therefore, it is important for caregivers to speak softly and be gentle and kind.

One theory relates biting to children’s sensory and oral development (Ramming, Kyger, & Thompson, 2006). During the earliest years of life, “the mouth is the quickest route for providing sensory information to the brain” and children are literally hungry to experience and make sense of their world (Ramming et al., 2006, p. 21). The hypothesis is that biting may occur because the foods children are offered do not meet their needs for tactile stimulation and do not sufficiently stimulate their senses.

To prevent this type of biting, researchers recommend that caregivers offer toddlers foods with a variety of textures, tastes, and temperatures to suck, gum, munch, or crunch and chew (Ramming et al., 2006). Of course, caregivers must supervise children while the children are eating and make sure foods are the right size to prevent choking. Varying the textures and types of foods, as well as when children are fed, is found to be effective in reducing biting in child care settings (Ramming et al., 2006).

Most biting is preventable if children are closely supervised. When child care groups are too large (as happens when licensing standards are weak), or classrooms are very small, it is more difficult to prevent biting. In such cases, teachers should separate the large group into smaller groups as much as possible, especially if there is a second adult. In a smaller group, a child is less likely to bite when a peer invades his space. The teacher also has more opportunity to play and talk with children and redirect those who frequently have conflicts.

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One of the best ways to prevent biting is to minimize frustration. Programs need to provide enough developmentally appropriate toys so children do not fight over them and do not become frustrated if the toy requires skills they do not yet have. For example, large cardboard blocks are lightweight and easily moved by toddlers, whereas smaller toys may be too difficult to manipulate.

Teach Alternatives to Biting Because most children who bite are under the age of 3 and have not yet developed language, biting is often used as a powerful form of communication. The biter may be saying, “You are too close to me,” “I want that toy,” or “I’m tired.” Biting may occur as a self-defense mechanism by the child who feels  threatened.

Biting may occur more frequently when children are feeling stress due to changes in their development or the environment, or lack of attention from caregivers (Greenman et al., 2007). When children are undergoing periods of rapid development, such as when they first learn to walk or talk, they can easily become frustrated if their emerg- ing skills do not match their desires for locomotion or communication (Greenman et al., 2007). Some toddlers begin to bite when their family (often at the recommendation of the pediatrician) weans them from their pacifier. Others begin biting after the birth of a sibling. It is common to see biting among children who develop language more slowly than their peers; it must be very frustrating to want to communicate, but unable to generate the words. Initially, biting may relieve the stress or enable the child to get what she wants.

An important dimension of responding to biting is to teach children how to express their feelings and desires. In working with very young children who are just learning language, it is important to give them the words, or use signs or visual images to support their communication. Teachers should model specific language: “Say ‘I want it,’” rather than an unhelpful phrase, such as “Use your words.”

It is very important that teachers and families respond to this biting in ways that do not escalate the biting behavior. This is difficult, because biting is seen as a dangerous behavior; a bite that breaks the skin of the victim can have serious health consequences. But biting needs only a little reinforcement to become a big problem. When a bite occurs, the victim should quietly and quickly be attended to and comforted. The biter should be quickly and quietly redirected to an activity. Remembering that there often was a per- ceived offense that preceded the bite (“You’re too close to me” or “You took my toy”), direct the offender to another activity (not the toy he was trying to get) with a reminder such as “We need to be gentle.” When a teacher or parent exclaims, “No, we don’t bite our friends” or placing the child in a time-out, it is practically guaranteeing a repeat of the behavior.

Teachers can be very helpful in sharing this information and strategy with parents. Once a child has bit another, it is a good idea to increase the level of prevention. Teachers should observe when and under what circumstances the toddler tends to bite, and increase teacher presence during those times. Many teachers find it helpful to use books with chil- dren about biting (and hitting)—but not close to the time the biting has occurred.

Intervene with Persistent Biters If biting persists over time, or if children continue to bite beyond the toddler years, then the behavior is working for them in some way. In this situation, caregivers need to apply the fourth level of the pyramid and use functional assessment to determine what conditions tend to trigger the behavior and what function biting is serving for the child. Then a behavior plan can be implemented involv- ing parents and other staff members to eliminate the biting and replace it with more so- cially acceptable behaviors.

We have seen how the Teaching Pyramid relates to addressing the common phe- nomenon of biting among young children in groups. In the final section, we apply the framework to one of the most disturbing and potentially destructive of all challenging behaviors—bullying.

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Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying Tragic events such as high school shootings and teen suicides have drawn public atten- tion to an age-old societal problem—bullying. Bullying occurs when a person repeatedly commits aggressive acts that intend to harm, and an imbalance of power makes it hard for the victim to defend himself or herself (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Despite media atten- tion that would suggest the contrary, bullying among children in the United States is not epidemic and is harmful for both bully and bullied (Temkin, 2014). In recent years, school personnel and mental health experts have become much more attuned to the long-term damage that bullying can inflict on bullies and their victims, as well as on the bystanders who may assist or incite bullying behavior.

Every teacher needs to be alert to the existence of bullying, take steps to prevent it, and intervene immediately when bullying occurs. Although bullying usually begins to appear during the primary grades of school, there is evidence that the roots of bullying behavior are evident during preschool. However, little research has addressed bullying with young children (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). Earlier in this chapter, we cautioned teachers to be alert for children who are socially isolated or neglected by peers, as these children may be more likely to bully or be bullied.

Prevent Bullying Bullying is a learned behavior, and can be minimized and pre- vented (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). As with other, less volatile aspects of challenging behavior, solutions to bullying can be found in the framework of the Teaching Pyramid, beginning with the foundation level of relationships.

Research suggests that programs using a whole-school awareness approach that in- volves teachers, administrators, children, counselors, and families, have the most impact in reducing bullying and its effects in school settings (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). The goal is to prevent bullying by restructuring the environment so that there are fewer opportu- nities for bullying to occur, more reinforcement of positive behavior, and assurance of protection for all children.

Intervene in Bullying Research on specific programs targeting bullying in ear- ly childhood suggests that no quick-fix curriculum can be used to solve the problem (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). Preventing and addressing bullying relies on establishing the high-quality environment and supports that have been addressed throughout the chapter. Responding to bullying would be an example of the more intensive strategies discussed

bullying Occurs when a person repeatedly commits aggressive acts that intend to harm, and an imbalance of power makes it hard for the victim to defend himself or herself.

Children who need intensive, individualized intervention for persistent, challenging behaviors benefit from a team approach. In these situations, it is essential to involve not only teachers and other professionals but family members as well.

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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 269

earlier. Among the most important and effective tools teachers, families, and schools can use are (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017):

•  A school-wide commitment to Positive Behavior Support •  Integrating anti-bullying content into the curriculum, including the important roles

that bystanders play •  Sensitive, responsive, and involved relationships with children •  Clear rules about unacceptable behavior •  Close monitoring and supervision, including secluded areas where bullying is like-

ly to occur •  Modeling the positive use of power and problem-solving techniques •  A cooperative classroom climate—what we call a caring community of learners

Regular class meetings are an effective strategy to involve children in setting limits and establishing clear rules: Don’t bully other children, help children who are bullied, and include children who are left out (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Children can discuss and analyze complex topics such as empathy, peer pressure, courage, and the difference between teasing and bullying.

Children also need to learn the difference between tattling, the purpose of which is to get someone in trouble, and telling to get someone out of trouble, which is necessary when bullying is observed or experienced. Useful strategies include helping children re- port where they don’t feel safe and, in primary grades, providing a box for anonymous reporting of bullying. Meeting times can then be used to discuss prosocial skills such as cooperation and to practice responses.

In this chapter, we discussed the importance of creating a caring community of learn- ers, as well as strategies for positively guiding children’s behavior and promoting their social and emotional development. With this information in mind, we return to Sue and Elly’s classroom, where we began this chapter.

✓ Check Your Understanding 8.6: Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model

. . . Ms. Brady and Ms. Donahue’s Classroom

At the beginning of this chapter, Sue, Elly, and the children in their classroom were having a very bad

day. The director of their program worked with them to help them learn about the Teaching Pyramid—

encouraging them to start with the foundation of their classroom and integrate practices that supported

creating a caring community of learners. Let’s revisit their classroom now that these two teachers have

begun to implement many of these research-based strategies.

The day begins with Sue and Elly greeting each child individually and talking briefly with their family

members. The two teachers have been doing home visits and making phone calls to parents so that

they could get to know the children and their interests much better. In addition, they have put prac-

tices into place that support building warm, nurturing relationships with each child in the class (level

1 of the pyramid). They make sure to touch base with each child every day, even if for only a moment.

They create a safe environment for children by arriving each day rested, healthy, and mindful that their

interactions with children are important for children’s well-being.

They reorganize their classroom to support positive behavior by making signs, labeling bins, or-

ganizing shelves, and designating specific areas where materials belong. They also create learning

centers where children can comfortably work and play. They’ve been holding group meetings each

Revisiting the Case Study

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morning to talk with children about the class routines and making choices during Center Time, and the

children are playing more productively.

Sue and Elly also remember to use calm and quiet voices themselves at all times; when they re-

ally want to be heard, they whisper. The noise level is now much more tolerable. When it’s time to go

outside, they offer Aimee and Paula the choice of what they’d like to carry. The teachers focus a lot

of attention on transitions, such as preparing for naptime and cleanup because these are times when

children have struggled in the past. They now give warnings before transitions and assign children dif-

ferent responsibilities at cleanup time. At naptime, they play soothing music, turn out the lights, and

rub the backs of children who are slow to relax. These changes to the environment and adult–child

interactions have made a world of difference for the teachers and children because they are preventing

many problems and helping children to do their best (level 2).

Sue and Elly also teach social skills and emotional self-regulation to all the children. For those children

who need extra help, however, they use more individualized instruction. For example, Ricky so wants to

have friends that he will do anything to get the children’s attention. Sue and Elly coach him in acceptable

ways to play with others and strategies for joining in a group. Ricky likes Aimee, and she has a calming effect

on him, so the teachers encourage the two of them to play together. They also suggest to his mother that he

bring something interesting from home to gain attention from the other children in a positive way (level 3).

Having attended to the first three levels of the Teaching Pyramid, Sue and Elly have solved almost all

of their behavior challenges. However, Booth’s physical aggression and unprovoked attacks continue to be

a serious problem. The director is aware of the federally funded early intervention services provided by the

state. She contacts the school district, which coordinates mental health consultation to child care centers.

The director and Sue initiate a meeting with a consultant and Booth’s family to develop an individualized in-

tervention plan (level 4). Sue and Elly are pleased to see that the consultant uses strategies that include the

Teaching Pyramid ones that they have become familiar with. The consultant helps them to organize their

interactions to support Booth. Sue and Elly now realize that although there are no quick fixes to children’s

challenging behavior, there are many effective ways to create a caring community of learners. ■

•  A caring community of learners is a group or class- room in which children and adults engage in warm, positive relationships; treat each other with respect; and learn from and with each other.

•  Teachers have a significant role to play in promoting children’s social competence, helping them acquire emotional and cognitive self-regulation and preventing later difficulties.

•  The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based framework for promoting social competence and addressing chil- dren’s challenging behaviors.

•  The foundation level of the Teaching Pyramid is teachers’ positive relationships with children. Young

children learn best when they experience warm, posi- tive, responsive relationships with adults—parents, teachers, and caregivers.

•  Level 2 of the pyramid describes high-quality supportive environments that help promote posi- tive outcomes for children and prevent challeng- ing behaviors, including the physical space and organizing routines and schedules. A critical aspect of high-quality supportive environments is how teachers support children’s engagement in play and learning.

•  Level 3 of the pyramid describes positive ways to guide children’s behavior and effective strategies

Chapter Summary8

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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 271

such as teaching emotional literacy, social skills, and conflict negotiation.

•  Level 4 describes intensive individualized interven- tions to address persistent, severe, challenging behav- iors. Intervention includes functional assessment, a team approach involving families and specialists, and

a behavior plan that includes teaching replacement skills.

•  The Teaching Pyramid can be applied to more effectively teach in many diverse situations including teaching boys, addressing biting, and alleviating bullying.

Key Terms ■■ attachment theory ■■ behavior intervention plan

■■ bullying ■■ caring community of learners

■■ challenging behavior ■■ disorganized/disoriented attachment

■■ efficacy ■■ emotional literacy ■■ functional assessment or functional analysis

■■ guidance ■■ individualized intervention

■■ insecure-ambivalent/ resistant attachment

■■ insecure-avoidant attachment

■■ learning centers ■■ mindfulness ■■ mistaken behavior ■■ positive behavior support (PBS)

■■ redirection ■■ replacement behaviors

■■ secure attachment relationship

■■ secure base ■■ self-concept ■■ self-esteem ■■ time-out ■■ transitions

Bruce, N., & Cairone, K. B. (2011). Socially strong, emotionally secure: 50 activities to promote resilience in young children. Silver Spring, MD: Gryphon House.

Forrester, M. M., & Albrecht, K. M. (2014). SET for life: An early childhood teacher’s guide to supporting strong emotional foundations and successful social relation- ships. Houston, TX: Innovations in ECE Press.

Kaiser, B., & Rasminsky, J. S. (2017). Challenging be- havior in young children: Understanding, preventing, and responding effectively (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Morhard, R. H. (2013). Wired to move: Facts and strate- gies for nurturing boys in an early childhood setting. Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.

Friendship Resources and Websites Resources to support friendships among children can be found on several websites:

1. Center on Social Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL) has “Superfriend” social stories (Super Friend) and booklists (Being a Friend).

2. Bucketfillers has a story and resources related to friendship and kindness.

3. The Head Start Center for Inclusion has a Friendship Kit that includes activities and printable resources.

Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning This website offers research and resources for supporting social and emotional learning for children in elementary school.

Devereux Center for Resilient Children This website offers resources for supporting children’s social development and building resilience, and for the social-emotional well-being of the adults who care for them.

Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of Early Learning This website offers a variety of resources for supporting children’s positive behavior and relationships.

Readings and Websites

✓ Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you've learned the content in this chapter.

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9 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

9.1 Discuss ways in which teaching is both a science and an art.

9.2 Identify effective teaching strategies for helping children achieve learning and developmental goals.

9.3 Explain how specific strategies are effective for connecting teaching with broad learning goals such as helping children make meaning, develop concepts, and acquire higher-order thinking skills.

9.4 Demonstrate how effective teachers use grouping as an instructional approach.

9.5 Analyze how teachers use play as a context for teaching and learning.

9.6 Evaluate the most effective uses of digital media for teaching young children.

Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development

Learning Outcomes

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273

Sally Hanson is a kindergarten teacher in a large, urban school district. Her class of 23 children includes several children whose home language is not English and two children with IEPs. Some of the children have been in child care since they were infants, but five did not attend any early childhood program before entering school.

The children’s skills and abilities are at different levels. In short, Sally’s class is typical, with a wide range of

individual variation in the children’s development and learning and in their preparedness to tackle the demands

of the curriculum.

Sally’s school district uses the Common Core English language arts standards. Among the goals for kindergartners

are: “with prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key features in a text; retell familiar stories;

and identify characters, settings, and major events.” Children also need to “know all upper- and lowercase letters,

and use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing to express an opinion about a topic or a book they are

reading, e.g., My favorite book is . . . ” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a). Sally has been teaching for many years and was concerned at first that the Common Core standards were not

developmentally appropriate for kindergarten. As she began working with the standards, she found that most of

the children were capable of achieving the standards through a combination of her integrated curriculum and

diverse teaching strategies.

When the children arrive each morning, they immediately go to the library area and choose a book to look at or

read, depending on their skills. Children often choose to revisit books that Sally has read previously to the group.

Elena has only recently arrived from Guatemala and speaks little English. Sally kneels next to her and offers an

e-book that has print and audio versions of the same story in both Spanish and English. Soon they are joined by

the other children whose home language is Spanish. Sally then encourages Lucy, who has Down syndrome, to

find the book that Sally made for her with photos and words about her family. Sally says, “Lucy, I see you found

the L in your name.” Logan’s reading skills are advanced. He picks up a book that he hasn’t seen before and begins to decode it

himself along with his friend Gabe. When they finish, Sally asks, “Logan, why did you pick this book?” Logan

explains, “It’s about pirates and the story was scary.” She turns to Gabe and says, “I haven’t read this book yet,

can you tell me what happened in the story?”

Marguerite is still working on identifying letters. She has a long name, struggles to remember the order of

the letters, and usually forgets the E in the middle. Sally gives her a name card with the middle E written in red to draw her attention to the correct order of the letters. With this assistance and

reminder, Marguerite spells her name correctly. Some children are not interested in

reading, so Sally directs them to their journals to begin drawing and writing about the

books they read yesterday. A few children need more direct instruction

and practice in writing letters. “Tommy, when you write your T, make a straight line down. That’s right.” Pointing to the left side of the paper,

Sally says, “Now begin on the left and draw a shorter line

across the top.” Because Amanda needs practice on letters

but is easily distracted, Sally suggests several

letter-learning apps on the tablet. Sally sits with

the children, offering assistance as needed and

using strategies adapted to each child’s skill

level. ■

Case Study

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A s we see in Sally’s interactions with each child in her classroom, the early child- hood teacher’s role is complex. Engaging in developmentally appropriate practice involves knowing the learner, knowing what to teach, and knowing how to teach.

Teachers are always teaching something to someone. In this chapter, we focus on knowing how to teach to help children reach challenging and achievable learning goals. Becoming an intentional teacher requires an understanding of the range of effective teaching strate- gies and how and when they are most useful (Ritchie & Willer, 2008c; NAEYC, 2009). Armed with this knowledge, teachers can intentionally choose the strategies that work best with each learner or group of learners in a given situation.

Because many teaching behaviors in early childhood classrooms are subtle or take place in the context of play or child-initiated learning, the novice may be uncertain of what “effective teaching” entails and how to do it. Without knowledge of research-based teaching practices, inexperienced or ill-informed teachers may be too passive and miss important opportunities to promote children’s learning. On the other hand, they may err in assuming that the only time they are “teaching” is when they are talking. The fact is that good teaching is a complex interplay of both science and art.

Teaching: Both a Science and an Art This chapter is about teaching—also known as pedagogy—which is what a teacher says or does that engages children and contributes to their learning and development. In this book, we emphasize effective teaching, which is the use of an approach that has proven to be successful based on research evidence and that has a high probability of enhancing student achievement (Reutzel, 2013). Using knowledge of research to inform planning and decisions about practice is essential to becoming an intentional teacher.

pedagogy What a teacher says or does that engages children and contributes to their learn- ing and development.

effective teaching The use of approaches that are proven to be successful based on scien- tific evidence and that have a high probability of enhancing children’s learning and development.

Intentional teachers use research-based teaching strategies, and they get to know each child to provide just the right kind and amount of assistance.

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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 275

The Science of Teaching Since the 1990s and in response to federal laws, the emphasis in education has been on scientifically based practice (McCardle & Chhabra, 2004). Such practice is informed by at least three areas of research: the science of child development, including neuroscience; cognitive science, or the study of how people learn; and research on effective instructional strategies and contexts.

Scientific Research Research is used to answer two sets of questions: (1) What skills and abilities predict children’s later outcomes in important areas like reading, writ- ing, and mathematics? and (2) What teaching behaviors, curriculum, and other educa- tional interventions contribute to or inhibit gains in children’s skills and abilities in these areas? Reviews of research by experts, such as the National Reading Panel (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), the National Early Literacy Panel (2008), and the National Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics (National Research Council [NRC], 2009) have been particularly influential.

Classroom Research Although debate is ongoing about various aspects of practice, the strong consensus is that the daily interaction among teachers and children is the most important determinant of the quality and effectiveness of programs from infancy through primary grades (Hamre, Hatfield, Pianta, & Jamil, 2014; Hamre & Pianta, 2007, 2010; Ritchie & Willer, 2008b, 2008c). Regardless of the specific curriculum used or the materials in the environment, everything that happens in the classroom is influenced by the teacher’s interactions with children.

This conclusion is supported by several large-scale studies of prekin- dergarten, kindergarten, and primary-grade classrooms that used a teacher observation tool called the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) (Early et al., 2010; Hamre & Pianta, 2010). The CLASS assesses three di- mensions of classroom quality: emotional climate, classroom organization, and instructional climate (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008).

Emotional Climate A high score on emotional climate on the CLASS means that teach- ers are sensitive and responsive and have positive relationships with children. In class- rooms where teachers score high on emotional climate, children’s language improves and they have fewer behavior problems in preschool, kindergarten, and primary grades (Hamre et al., 2014; Pianta et al., 2008).

Classroom Organization In well-organized classrooms, teachers use positive strategies to guide children’s behavior. They are well prepared in advance and manage time produc- tively, maximizing opportunities for learning. For example, they don’t waste children’s time during routines or transitions. Teachers who score high on classroom organization also use a variety of materials, teaching strategies, and learning formats to engage chil- dren and activate their interest.

Instructional Climate The CLASS instructional climate score indicates how well teach- ers use a variety of teaching strategies to promote children’s concept development and higher-order thinking. The classroom’s instructional climate has been found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of children’s learning over time (Hamre et al., 2014; Hamre & Pianta, 2010). Researchers have found that children gain more from a learning experience when a teacher interacts with them in an intentional way or when the teacher has prepared the environment and supports children’s learning during play and other child-initiated activity (Sammons et al., 2008).

Research Results Large-scale studies conducted by the National Center on Early Development and Learning (NCEDL) (Early et al., 2005, 2010) found that, on average, the emotional climate of classrooms rated around 5 on a 7-point scale, which indicates

Classroom Connection In this video well-known researchers describe and illustrate the many studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of positive teacher–child interac- tions for children’s development and learning.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=2Hw0DbxOmJQ

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that they are generally positive, supportive environments for children. However, research- ers also found poor-quality instructional climates in the early childhood classrooms stud- ied, with an average score of about 2 on the 7-point scale. Teachers in these classrooms either provided very little instruction at all or tended to rely on worksheets or whole- group repetitive lessons.

The study also examined how children spend their time in prekindergarten. Almost 30% of children’s time is spent in free choice and about 37% engaged with a teacher- assigned activity (Early et al., 2010). However, observers found that no specific learning activity occurred during 19% of free choice time, 23% of teacher-assigned time, and 87% of meal and routine time (Early et al., 2010). Therefore, almost half of preschool children’s day did not involve experiences to promote their social or academic learning. The researchers concluded that most of these classrooms were pleasant places in which there were many missed opportunities for learning. Moreover, classrooms with higher percentages of Latino and African American children were less educationally stimulating.

In recent years, Head Start has used the CLASS to improve the quality of teaching and evaluate the effectiveness of its programs. In 2013, the national average scores were: 5.99 for Emotional Climate, 5.63 for Classroom Organization, and 2.72 for Instructional Climate. Despite the fact that Instructional Climate scores continue to trail the other di- mensions of quality, Head Start’s scores are higher than most typical early childhood programs.

These studies provide a window through which we can assess the quality of teaching practices occurring in early childhood classrooms today. Similar results were found for primary-grade classrooms as well (Hamre & Pianta, 2010). In Chapter 8, we described how you as a teacher can provide a positive emotional climate in your classroom. The goal of this chapter is to prepare you to create an effective instructional climate to help all children achieve their learning potential.

The Limits of Research Early childhood education has a large and growing re- search base to guide practice. Where research evidence is strong, teachers have a profes- sional responsibility to adhere to its guidance. However, research on effective teaching is an evolving science. Although a great deal of work has been done, we still need answers to questions about which practices work best with which learners.

With classrooms increasingly serving children with diverse language and cultural backgrounds, teachers need to adapt for individual variation of all kinds. Consequently, valid research is not always available to guide practice. In these instances, teachers need to supplement the evidence base with practical wisdom and information obtained from families (Buysse & Wesley, 2006). Even when research is available, applying evidence- based practice in unique classroom situations with diverse groups of children requires considerable skill. Teachers need to respond to situations as they happen, which often requires creativity—more art than science.

The Art of Teaching Although effective teaching is informed and guided by research, teaching is also an art in that it requires vision, creativity, and decision making. What makes good science is controlling as many variables as possible to be able to determine cause and effect. But in classrooms, there are simply too many variables to control. Effective teaching requires creatively adapting to individual children and to the situations that arise (Beneke & Ostrosky, 2013; Gadzikowski, 2013b).

Consider the following analogy, comparing the work of a painter to the work of a teacher: Skilled painters are knowledgeable about theories of art, composition, color, and perspective. But each artist, like each teacher, applies her or his knowledge in creative ways. One of the painter’s most powerful tools is the use of color, and knowl- edge of how the myriad colors in nature can be created by mixing a few basic colors. For example, given the three primary colors—red, yellow, and blue—a skilled painter can create virtually every color of the spectrum. Think of those basic colors as the

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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 277

basic strategies from which teachers cre- ate innumerable variations in interactions with individual children and groups. If we add to the color wheel the many grada- tions of gray—ranging between white and black—and mix these with our primary colors, we have an almost infinite vari- ety of options from which to “color” the world of experiences for children.

We begin our exploration of the science and art of teaching by examining research- based teaching strategies. This discussion will demonstrate how art and science can coexist to create an enriching classroom filled with color, creativity, and a variety of options for teachers as well as children.

✓ Check Your Understanding 9.1: Teaching: Both an Art and a Science

A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of teaching strategies that they use as situations present themselves. Teachers must first become familiar with the many options. In practice, there is no one teaching strategy that will address all situations.

Children’s development and learning are complex processes. Therefore, the more strategies teachers know how to use, the more ways they will be able to meet the needs of diverse learners. Throughout your career as a teacher, you will continue to add to and refine your repertoire of effective teaching tools.

What Are Teaching Strategies? A teaching strategy is a behavior or activity that a teacher deliberately selects and flex- ibly applies to help students construct meaning (Mehigan, 2005, p. 557). Applying teach- ing strategies demands conscious thought and flexible decision making, which are the es- sence of intentional teaching. Earlier, for example, we saw how Sally Hanson encouraged some of the children to practice their writing but also demonstrated how to write a letter for those who needed more help.

Because the processes of teaching and learning are linked, the most effective teaching strategies parallel learning strategies. A learning strategy refers to how children con- struct meaning in every context or situation. As later examples illustrate, some of the most effective teaching strategies are designed to develop students’ own learning strategies.

Strategies as Tools Education is often plagued by either/or debates that pit one practice against another, or that dichotomize complex decisions into either/or choices, such as “Which is better, direct instruction or active learning?” As teaching becomes more scientific, we realize that these are the wrong questions. Asking which teaching technique is best is like asking whether a hammer is better than pliers. The answer, of course, depends on what the carpenter needs to do. In teaching, as in carpentry, the selec- tion of tools depends on what the teacher is trying to accomplish and with which child; there is no one best teaching practice (NRC, 2000).

The Right Tools You may have heard the statement—in fact, I’ve written it myself— that young children are not miniature adults and do not think and learn the way adults or

Effective teaching is both an art and a science. Intentional teachers ensure that children’s experiences in the classroom are as creative and colorful as the world around them.

teaching strategy A behavior or activity that a teacher deliberately selects and flexibly applies to help students construct meaning.

learning strategy How chil- dren construct meaning in any context or situation.

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older children do. Although this statement is essentially true, it is equally true that some practices that are inappropriate for young children, such as listening in a whole group for an extended period of time, are not effective for older students, either (Dean, Hubbell, Pitler, & Stone, 2012; NAEYC, 2009).

In fact, many of the most effective teaching practices for young children—such as connecting new learning to what students already know and can do—are also effective with college students. The particular strategies teachers use to help children build on prior learning will vary with the age and ability of the learner (that is, if the strategies are developmentally appropriate). All of these strategies can be used in the context of teacher- initiated or child-initiated experiences, which we discuss next.

Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences Early childhood practices are often described as either teacher-initiated or child-initiated experiences. However, both contexts are effective for learning and should be used con- currently depending on the teachers’ goals (Graue, Clements, Reynolds, & Niles, 2004; Hong & Diamond, 2012). During teacher-initiated experiences, teachers take the lead by providing explicit information and modeling or demonstrating skills. Teacher-initiated learning experiences are determined by the teacher’s goals and direction, but children should be actively engaged (Epstein, 2014). Under these conditions, focused, teacher- guided instruction can contribute significantly to children’s learning (Hamre & Pianta, 2010; Hong & Diamond, 2012).

By contrast, during child-initiated experiences, children acquire knowledge and skills through their own exploration and interactions with objects and other children (Epstein, 2014). Child-initiated experiences grow out of children’s interests. However, teachers or- ganize the environment and materials and provide the learning opportunities from which children make choices (Epstein, 2014). Teachers observe children during child-initiated activities and interact with them to support their continued learning and development. Dur- ing child-initiated experiences, teachers as well as children should be actively involved.

Using an Array of Teaching Strategies Many different strategies are effective in supporting children’s learning and development. Understanding when and how to apply each strategy gives teachers the tools necessary to be thoughtful, purposeful, and intentional (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Epstein, 2014).

Note, however, that in practice, strategies are used in combination. Observe a skilled teacher at work and you will find it almost impossible to isolate an example of a teach- ing strategy, even explicit instruction, that doesn’t also include some other strategy such as encouragement, modeling, or questioning. For example, a preschool teacher may ac- knowledge a child’s accomplishment by saying, “Luca, you found the two shapes that match.” Then she immediately provides specific information, “They have eight sides and they are called octagons,” while quickly adding challenge to the task, “Can you find an- other octagon in our room?”

One particularly effective strategy, which is called scaffolding, draws on many differ- ent strategies at once; therefore, we discuss it following our description of the individual strategies. In the sections that follow, we define and give examples of a variety of teaching strategies, which are listed in Table 9.1.

Acknowledging and Encouraging Acknowledging is the positive attention a teacher gives to a child that tells the child that the teacher noticed what the child did. Teach- ers often use this strategy without conscious awareness. Acknowledging is particularly ef- fective in keeping children engaged in desirable behaviors. For example, after observing 3-year-old Keily while she serves as the snack helper, her teacher says, “I see you gave each person a napkin, Keily. Now we’re ready for our snack.” Noting 2-year-old Bailey’s empathic behavior, her teacher says, “Thank you, Bailey, for sitting with Kayla. She was sad that her

teacher-initiated experiences Learning experiences in which teachers take the lead by providing explicit information and modeling or demonstrating a skill, as determined by the teacher’s goals and direction.

child-initiated experiences Experiences that allow children to gain knowledge and skills through their own exploration and interactions with objects and other children.

acknowledging Giving positive verbal or nonverbal attention that promotes the child’s persistence and effort.

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Effective teachers have a large repertoire of teaching strategies to use depending on their goals for children, as described and illustrated in this table.

Teaching Strategy Definition Most Effective Uses Acknowledging and encouraging Giving positive verbal or nonverbal atten-

tion that promotes a child’s persistence and effort

Teachers influence children to stay engaged; demonstrate desired behaviors; and help children master skills, complete tasks, and solve complex problems.

Giving quality feedback Providing specific information on a child’s performance or responding to questions and comments

Teachers expand learning and under- standing (how children come to solve a problem) rather than focusing only on the correct answer or end product.

Modeling Displaying or showing children a skill or desirable way of behaving or speaking

Teachers portray positive social skills and self-regulation. Teachers model language— repeating and extending children’s verbal responses, describing their own and children’s actions, and using advanced vocabulary.

Demonstrating Showing the correct way to perform a skill or procedure while children observe the outcome

Teachers teach skills that require particu- lar steps in a certain order.

Giving cues, hints, and offering assistance Reminding children of what they already know and can do, and helping them to use that knowledge for new learning

Teachers help children build on prior knowledge to gain new skills and understanding.

Creating and adding challenges Making learning situations harder by generating a problem, or adding difficulty to a task so that it is a bit beyond what children have already mastered

Teachers add challenges to interest chil- dren and motivate them to learn, but not so much that they become frustrated or repeatedly fail. Children continue to make learning and developmental progress.

Questioning Eliciting different types of responses and promoting different types of thinking

Teachers ask open-ended questions that require children to analyze information or engage in higher-order thinking.

Co-constructing Thinking with different points of view; working collaboratively to solve a problem or clarify a concept

Teachers and children think and talk together during a joint activity such as a project, and both parties learn from the exchange.

Giving direct or explicit instruction Explicitly giving directions for completing a task; providing facts, verbal labels, or other specific information; or providing in- structions for a child’s action or behavior

Teachers transmit knowledge that can be learned only from one person telling another, that is, social-conventional or procedural knowledge.

Scaffolding—using the above strategies in combination

Supporting children’s ability to accom- plish learning tasks that they could not otherwise accomplish independently; using strategies such as cues, hints, assistance, questions, and so on to help children work “on the edge” of their current level of competence.

Teachers adapt instruction for individual children of different skill levels, cultural backgrounds, personalities, and talents toward new, achievable goals. Teachers help children acquire the skills to eventu- ally achieve the same task independently.

Sources: Based on Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children 3 to 6, by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2006, Washington, DC: NAEYC; and Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Table 9.1 Effective Teaching Strategies

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mommy left.” By understanding the power of their acknowledgment of children’s competence and performance, teachers are able to influence children to demonstrate desired behaviors.

Encouragement can be conveyed through verbal comments or nonverbal signs such as pats or high fives that promote the child’s persistence and effort. Although encouragement doesn’t di- rectly enhance a child’s understanding or skill, it is most valuable in helping children realize that effort is necessary for mastering skills, complet- ing tasks, and solving complex problems. For example, second-grader Jushawn struggles with writing a funny story about his dog. His teacher encourages him to persist by making comments such as “I really laughed when you told me how

he spilled his food.” When Jushawn finishes, she points out, “You worked hard writing your story and I enjoyed reading it, and I laughed again at your dog’s antics.”

Giving Quality Feedback Feedback, in which teachers provide specific informa- tion on a child’s performance or respond to questions, helps focus the child’s attention on the process of learning. Effective feedback helps children expand their learning and understanding, rather than focusing on correct answers (Pianta et al., 2008). Research finds that such instructional feedback helps improve literacy and language in preschool and kindergarten children (Howes et al., 2008) and helps close the achievement gap for children in first grade and up (Hamre & Pianta, 2001, 2005).

Effective feedback often involves back-and-forth exchanges between teachers and students. This exchange is called a feedback loop and involves a teacher and a child or small group of children communicating in an effort to reach deeper understanding. Con- sider the following example of a feedback loop that occurred in a preschool class where the teacher and children were discussing a book about shadows:

Teacher points to a picture in book: What do you think made this shadow? Various children call out: An animal. A dog. A cat. Teacher: Kami, why do you think it’s a cat? Kami: The tail. Teacher: What makes you think that it’s a cat’s tail? Kami: Well, it looks like a long tail. Connor: But dogs have tails, too. It could be a wolf. Teacher to class: What do you notice about the tail? Kami: It’s a cat’s tail. It’s skinny, and it has a curl on the end. Teacher: Oh, so you’re sure it’s a cat. Let’s find out.

Modeling Teachers are especially powerful models for children with whom they have built positive relationships. Modeling is a technique teachers use to show children a skill or desirable way of behaving or speaking.

Language modeling is among the most effective instructional strategies teach- ers can use. A large body of research demonstrates that teacher’s language model- ing strongly predicts children’s achievement in all areas of learning and development (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Neuman & Wright, 2013). Effective language modeling includes:

• Engaging children in frequent, extended one-on-one conversations—called “serve and return” as in a tennis game, where teachers and children take turns speaking in response to what the other has said

• Listening carefully, waiting for a response, minimizing questions, and gauging comments to children’s remarks

modeling Showing children a skill or desirable way of behaving or speaking.

encouragement Verbal com- ments or nonverbal signs such as pats or high fives that promote the child’s persistence and effort.

Positive feedback provides chil- dren with specific information and helps focus their attention. Back-and-forth exchanges in small groups help everyone learn more.

feedback loop Back-and-forth communication between a teacher and a child or small group of children in an effort to reach deeper understanding.

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• Using open-ended questions to stimulate and extend discussions, such as “What do you think will happen if . . . ? Why do you think that?” and “How did that happen?”

• Repeating and expanding on what children say • Using new and advanced words that children may not know or use in everyday

speech • Supporting children’s conversations with each other

Adult–child language interactions are especially important because the most com- petent language user in the classroom is the teacher. One of the most effective strategies for developing young children’s language is to engage them in conversations during their play without being too intrusive (Dickinson, 2011; Meacham, Vukelich, Han, & Buell, 2014). In the following example, preschool teacher Ms. Lawry models language with children who are pretending to cook in the dramatic play center:

Child: Here’s your dinner. It’s hot. Ms. Lawry: Thank you. This soup must be boiling hot. I think I can see steam rising

up. I’ll just sip it slowly. I don’t want it to scald me. Child: Huh? Scald? Ms. Lawry: Yes. I don’t want it to burn my lips.

During this pretend scenario, the teacher modeled advanced vocabulary words like boil- ing, rising, sip, steam, and scald, and introduced some science concepts at the same time. In some respect, teachers are always engaged in modeling because children pay attention to what teachers do as much as to what they say.

Demonstrating An effective strategy for teaching skills that require performing par- ticular steps in a certain order is demonstrating. When teachers show the correct way to perform a skill or procedure, children are able to observe the outcome. Similar to modeling, demonstrating is more formal and directive, with the adult drawing children’s attention to the correct steps necessary to complete a task, as in the following examples:

Irene demonstrates for her 3-year-olds how to wash their hands thoroughly to prevent the spread of infection. As she washes her own hands, she says, “See? Now I’m dry- ing my hands with the paper towel. Before I throw the towel away, I use it to turn off the faucet. That way, my hands stay really clean. Now you try it.”

In the art area, kindergarten teacher Max introduces potter’s clay to the group. As he demonstrates, he says, “Watch how I pinch off a little piece of clay and use a small amount of water to make the little piece stick to the bigger piece.”

Children often learn by observing not only adults but also more accomplished peers performing tasks. Such learning has been called apprenticeship, and researchers have observed it across cultural groups (Rogoff, 1990, 2003). When young children watch others perform basic skills of living such as dressing, feeding, or tying shoes, they gradu- ally learn how to accomplish these skills themselves. For demonstrating to be effective, children’s observations must be followed by opportunities for them to practice the skills themselves with adult guidance and support.

Giving Cues, Hints, and Assistance Giving cues or hints are ways of remind- ing children what they already know and helping them use that knowledge to build new skills. For example, when a child is reading and is stuck on a word, the teacher may say, “That word has ‘ch’ at the beginning like another one you know.” In this case, the teacher is cueing the beginning reader to compare the new word to one she already knows.

Other common teaching strategies fall in the general category of facilitating or supporting learning. When teachers facilitate, they provide short-term, temporary as- sistance to help a child achieve the next level of functioning, such as when the teacher gently holds a preschooler’s hand as he walks across the balance beam. When teachers support learning, they provide a more fixed-form of assistance such as providing a word wall (displaying frequently used words) for kindergartners to refer to as they work in their

demonstrating Showing the correct way to perform a skill or procedure while children observe the outcome.

apprenticeship The process of children learning by observing adults and more accomplished peers performing tasks and by practicing the skills themselves with adult guidance and support.

facilitating Providing short- term, temporary assistance to help a child achieve the next level of functioning.

supporting Providing assistance that helps the child to accom- plish a difficult task by making it easier.

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journals. In both facilitating and supporting learning, the teacher provides assistance that helps the child to accomplish a difficult task by making it easier.

Creating and Adding Challenges Although cues, hints, and other assistance make children’s learning tasks easier, effec- tive teachers also intentionally make learn- ing situations harder at times by creating challenge, generating a problem, or adding difficulty to a task so that it is a bit beyond what children have already mastered. For example, Hiroki is especially adept at do- ing puzzles and quickly completes all that are available in his preschool classroom. His teacher, Keith, brings in an alphabet puzzle

with 26 pieces, one for every letter, challenging Hiroki’s skill with puzzles to help him learn the alphabet.

In her second-grade classroom, Catarina determines that although most of the children are reading at or below grade level, two of them are much more advanced. She provides fourth- and fifth-grade-level reading materials to ensure that they are challenged to continue their reading growth. In addition, she adapts her writing assignments to add challenge. For example, if the other children’s assignment is to describe their own experiences over the weekend, to add challenge for the more advanced children, Catarina asks them to write a different ending for a story they’ve read, requiring higher-level comprehension and analysis.

Questioning One of the most frequently used teaching strategies, questioning is used to elicit different types of responses and to promote different types of thinking. Re- search on questioning finds that higher-level, open-ended questions—those that require children to analyze information in some way—are more effective learning tools than lower-level questions are (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Meacham et al., 2014). Lower-level or closed questions have one right answer, usually requiring children to recall information or facts. Closed questions, which are often the type used on tests, may reveal what a child knows, but they do not propel further learning. Open-ended questions, on the other hand, have many possible answers. Indeed, a truly open-ended question is one for which the teacher does not have an answer in mind.

To understand how different types of questions elicit different types of responses, compare the following two questions, asked after a reading of Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit:

Question 1: Where did Peter Rabbit get lost? Question 2: How would you feel if you were lost like Peter?

Question 1 has one right answer—Mr. McGregor’s garden. This question offers little opportunity to generate further conversation. Conversely, question 2 would most like- ly evoke many different responses from children with various adjectives describing feelings—scared, nervous, afraid, unhappy, sad, tired, or hungry—as well as opportu- nities for follow-up questions that would extend the conversation. For example, “What would you do?” or “How could you get help?” would elicit a host of responses. Even more beneficial, the open-ended questions would enable children to connect the story to their own experience beyond the classroom, making the reading even more meaningful.

Questions That Promote Problem Solving Teachers often use questions as ways to cue or prompt children to take the next step in solving a problem or performing a skill. In addition, they may use questions to remind children of what they already know before introducing new information, as well as to focus their attention and thinking in advance.

questioning Eliciting different types of responses and promot- ing different types of thinking.

Effective teachers have a large repertoire of strategies to use in different situations. When there is a specific skill that children need to learn, a teacher may intentionally demonstrate it for children.

open-ended questions Ques- tions that require children to analyze information in some way and that have many pos- sible answers.

closed questions Lower-level questions that have one right answer and usually require children to recall information or facts.

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In the following example, before reading Caps for Sale, by E. Slobodkina, to a group of preschoolers, Carol holds up the book cover and begins a conversation with a question:

Teacher: What do you see in this picture? Mark: A man with lotsa hats on his head. Tory: He looks funny. The hats are all different colors. Teacher: So you think this will be a funny story, Tory? Tory: I don’t know. How can those hats stay on his head? I bet they fall off. Teacher: Let’s read the story and find out.

By asking questions before she reads the book to the children, Carol engages their inter- est. As soon as Carol begins reading, the children are observing and analyzing the pictures and making predictions about the story. After the story, Carol and the children will discuss whether their predictions were correct.

Quality of Questioning Research on questioning demonstrates its effectiveness as a teaching strategy. However, research also finds that although questions are by far the most frequent verbal interaction among teachers and children, teachers most often ask low- level questions (Justice, Mashburn, Hamre, & Pianta, 2008; Meacham et al., 2014). One observational study of preschool classrooms in England (Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2010) found that even in good programs, only about 5% of teachers’ questions were open ended. More than 34% of their questions were closed (one-right-answer, low-level questions), and more than 60% were related to controlling behavior and not directly related to pedagogy.

Despite the scarcity of open-ended questions, however, when open-ended questions were asked, they provoked rich conversations and thoughtful speculation and extended children’s imaginations. The researchers concluded that given their potential effective- ness, increasing the use of open-ended questions could greatly improve outcomes for children, especially children who are at risk of school failure (Sylva et al., 2010).

Wait Time An important aspect of questioning is wait time, the length of time that a teacher waits for a response after asking a question. Research reveals that when teachers pause or wait briefly—about 5 seconds—for responses from children, it increases the frequency and depth of children’s responses (Cohrssen, Church, & Tayler, 2014; Tharp & Entz, 2012;).

wait time The length of time that a teacher waits for a re- sponse after asking a question or responding to a comment.

As you see in this situation, activities such as a digital table provide rich opportunities for children and teachers to talk and think together—what is called co-construction.

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Wait time is especially valuable for young children who are just beginning to master verbal communication and also for children who are learning a second language (Espinosa, 2010c).

Wait time also helps extend conversations with children and among groups of chil- dren. Sometimes, when children do not immediately respond to adult questions or com- ments, adults might impatiently talk for them or over them. For teachers who are patient and recognize the beauty of wait time, however, it becomes a highly useful strategy to add to their repertoire.

Co-Constructing Learning and Understanding One of the most impor- tant ways children learn is by constructing their own understanding of concepts as they actively try to make sense of their experiences. The process of co-construction often happens when children work collaboratively with teachers and/or other children on a joint project or activity (Tharp & Entz, 2012). This strategy of working collaboratively to solve a problem or clarify a concept is called co-construction, because both parties in the task think and talk together and each learns from it. The value of this strategy was demonstrated in a large-scale observational study in England. The researchers found that in the most effective classrooms, teachers encouraged co-construction during chil- dren’s play activities, which they called sustained shared thinking (Sylva et al., 2010), as in this example:

Four-year-old James is watching various objects floating in the water table. “Look at the toys. The blocks are sinking. I don’t like that.” he observes. Modeling curios- ity and extending the interaction, his teacher says, “Why do you think they’re sink- ing?” James responds, “Because they’re too big.” The teacher picks up a bigger block and shows the children how two blocks compare in size. Another child, Kathy, says, “That’s going to sink too.” When the block floats, the children look astonished. The teacher asks “Why do you think that happened?” and the children begin to share many different explanations.

This process of co-construction, or sustained shared thinking, proved to be so pre- dictive of positive outcomes for young children that the researchers concluded that it is a prerequisite of effective preschool education. Co-construction is also one of the most frequently used strategies in the schools in Reggio Emilia, Italy. Although open-ended questioning is one way to initiate co-construction during children’s play, teachers need to sustain the back-and-forth conversation and think along with the children to help them construct their understanding of new concepts.

Giving Direct or Explicit Instruction Direct instruction occurs when a teacher gives explicit directions for completing a task; provides facts, verbal labels, or other spe- cific information; or provides instructions for a child’s action or behavior. Direct or explicit instruction is used for transmitting knowledge that can be learned only from one person telling another the culturally agreed-on labels for objects, events, and experiences, which is called social-conventional knowledge. For example, the days of the week, letters, or punc- tuation symbols have conventionally agreed-on names that children learn more easily and efficiently through direct instruction. Writing a question mark on chart paper, first-grade teacher Lydia uses direct instruction when she points out, “This is a question mark, and we write it at the end of a sentence that is asking a question or making a request.”

Teachers also use direct instruction during child-initiated activities and when work- ing with small groups. For example, when working with a group of 4-year-olds building with blocks, the teacher points to a block and says, “This rounded block is called a cylin- der. You used four cylinder blocks to hold up your bridge.”

Uses and Misuses of Direct Instruction Direct instruction can be the most efficient and effective way of conveying information and introducing new concepts, procedures, or vocabulary. Like every other strategy, however, it should not be overused. Studies of chil- dren’s experiences in the primary grades have found that direct instruction in the whole

co-construction Teaching strategy that involves thinking and working collaboratively to solve a problem.

direct instruction Explicitly giving directions for complet- ing a task; providing facts, verbal labels, or other specific information; or providing in- structions for a child’s action or behavior.

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group is the most frequently used teaching strategy (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002, 2003). In addition, whole-group, direct teach- ing is used much more often in kindergarten than in preschool (Hamre  & Pianta, 2007; Oertwig & Holland, 2014).

Direct instruction is the easiest and most efficient way to present new knowledge, such as agreed-on names for tools, and some skills, such as tying shoes. However, this type of instruction is only one part of help- ing children learn concepts. For example, children can learn aspects of mathematical computation through direct instruction, but they need many additional experiences to understand the complex concepts of number and operations.

Although the list of teaching strategies presented so far is not exhaustive, it provides a basic overview of options teachers can use to become inten- tional, effective teachers. Next, we turn to a particularly effective teaching strategy, scaffolding, that draws on the strengths of several different strate- gies at once.

The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach We have now discussed a number of effective strategies that will help you create an ef- fective classroom. Yet how do you best guide children of different skill levels, cultural backgrounds, personalities, and talents toward new, achievable goals? Scaffolding is the most effective teaching strategy for such a challenging task.

What Is Scaffolding? Scaffolding is a metaphor for a series of teacher behaviors that support children’s ability to accomplish learning tasks or solve a problem that they could not otherwise accomplish independently (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This strat- egy not only allows children to progress toward challenging goals but also gives them the skills to eventually achieve the same task on their own. Scaffolding may be such an effective teaching practice because it actually draws on the strengths of many of the other teaching strategies all at once.

Literally, scaffolding is a temporary structure, usually an elevated platform, that builders or painters stand on to reach otherwise inaccessible parts of a building. Like the painter’s platform, the scaffold used in the classroom is the right amount of teacher sup- port for the learner to achieve a task or accomplish an objective that would be beyond his or her reach without the assistance.

Scaffolding assists a child to work in his or her zone of proximal development—the area just beyond a child’s current level of understanding or ability to achieve (Vygotsky, 1978). What makes scaffolding effective is that it presents learners with just the right amount of challenge—enough so they don’t give up or fail, but not so much that they aren’t solving the problem themselves (Clark & Graves, 2005). Scaffolding also gives children the opportunity to practice skills they couldn’t do on their own. Despite the dem- onstrated effectiveness of scaffolding as a teaching strategy, it is used all too seldom. In the NCEDL prekindergarten study, teachers supported children’s learning by scaffolding less than 10% of the time (Early et al., 2010).

The Teacher’s Role The process of scaffolding, which is depicted in Figure 9.1, begins with the teacher having responsibility for the learning and gradually releasing more and more of it to the learner until the child is capable of assuming full responsi- bility for the task. At that point, a new zone of proximal development is created, and a new challenge can be presented, starting the process once again. Alternatively, scaf- folding may occur in a situation where a child is close to mastering a task and therefore the teacher provides just a little assistance. For example, 7-year-old Barry loves jigsaw puzzles but he is working on a very difficult one. He has completed the outside border

Classroom Connection This video shows teachers using a variety of strategies to guide children’s learning about differ- ent kinds of birds. How do these intentional teachers artfully scaf- fold children’s learning?

scaffolding Using a variety of strategies to support children’s ability to accomplish learning tasks that they could not other- wise accomplish independently.

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but he is struggling with the middle. His family child care provider suggests that he put all the pieces that are the same color together and match the colors first, and then try to match the shapes. He finds this suggestion works well and is able to complete the puzzle on his own.

The process of scaffolding comes to life in the following example, in which Ms. Ri- ley, a kindergarten teacher, gradually releases responsibility for learning to the students as she teaches writing and social studies content.

During morning meeting, after a visit to the classroom by a local dentist, Ms. Riley leads a discussion of what the children learned. Ms. Riley writes their ideas on chart paper as they watch. Then she suggests that the children write thank-you notes and models for them how to begin a letter. “Dear Dr. Martinez,” she writes, pointing out how she uses capital letters for the dentist’s name and a period after “Dr.” During choice time, children visit the writing center and work on writing their thank-you letters. Ms. Riley sits down with a small group. She prompts their memories about the visit. They were impressed by the big brush and set of teeth and the kinds of food, such as apples, that help clean teeth. Ms. Riley places the chart the children dictated where they can see it for reference. With Ms. Riley’s help, the children take turns copying some of the words on the chart. She is available as they use their own invented spelling to sound out the words they want to write. Occasionally she draws attention to the cor- rect spelling of Dr. Martinez’s name. Gradually, the children take more responsibility, creating drawings to include in their letters. On their own, some children make a chart with pictures and words of how to brush teeth, which they post in the bathroom.

Intentional teachers use scaffolding and the other teaching strategies described previ- ously to teach all children. However, additional specific adaptations and modifications may be necessary to help children with disabilities make progress toward their individu- alized learning goals. The Including All Children feature provides examples of research- based strategies for teaching children with autism spectrum disorders. These adaptations are helpful for working with children with other disabilities, any child who is not making expected progress, and for dual language learners as well.

In the previous sections, we described an array of research-based effective strategies. In the following section, we illustrate how intentional teachers apply these strategies in practice to help individual children reach developmentally appropriate goals.

High level of teacher support for child’s

learning

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child’s learning

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FIGURE 9.1 Scaffolding in Action Scaffolding involves using multiple teaching strategies to assist children to move from learning with assistance to learning on their own.

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Including All Children Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive Early Intervention Program for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders The need for a high-quality early childhood education- al experience is a need shared by all children, regard- less of whether they have an identified disability. Rec- ommended practices for early childhood environments highlight the importance of the physical aspects of a learning environment, including the availability of developmentally appropriate materials, the use of a consistent schedule of routines, and the availability of responsive adults and peers. Because children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are children first, it follows that the components of high-quality early edu- cation for all children are necessary but may not be sufficient in an environment for children with ASD. The important role early childhood educators play in providing the necessary supports for children with ASD to participate in general early childhood activi- ties makes them critical members of the educational team.

An example of a program that integrates the compo- nents of a high-quality early childhood educational program with other specialized techniques is called Project DATA (Developmentally Appropriate Treatment for Autism). A unique feature of this model is the cen- tral role of an integrated early childhood program. The core element of the model is the classroom experi- ence. The goal is for every child with ASD to have opportunities to interact successfully with typically developing children. To make the interactions suc- cessful, they may need to be planned and supported systematically. This component is not just about being with other children; it is about interacting with and developing relationships among all children.

In addition to a high-quality environment, other ele- ments should be included to provide opportunities for the children with ASD to interact successfully with their peers.

To achieve this, toddlers and preschoolers in Project DATA attend an integrated classroom as part of their comprehensive educational program. The model in- corporates the following elements into early childhood environment.

• Structuring the classroom environment to promote independence, participation, and successful inter- actions with typically developing peers. This can be accomplished by providing visual cues (i.e., signs

or pictures) about what the expectations are for a routine or activity.

• Developing a consistent schedule and following it. It is helpful to display the schedule in a child- friendly manner (pictures or line drawings).

• Creating the need to communicate with adults and peers. This element includes such strategies as “forgetting” important components of an activity so that children need to comment to continue the activity.

• Using preferred materials and activities to promote engagement. For a child with ASD, this could mean incorporating unexpected materials in an activ- ity such as toy cars or trains in the art area for painting.

• Providing embedded and explicit instruction on valued skills. Children with ASD need to know very clearly what we are trying to teach them. Showing and role playing how to do something can be effec- tive strategies.

• Providing frequent reinforcement and developing effective motivation systems. Encouraging chil- dren with ASD to participate in difficult activities or routines can be a challenge; incorporating praise and using preferred materials can help increase the child’s motivation to stay engaged long enough for learning to occur.

Many recommendations are available regarding the best way to support the development of a young child with ASD, some of which are based on sound research and others that are not. Project DATA is an ef- fective program, based on Division for Early Childhood (DEC) recommended practices, that includes extend- ed, intensive instruction for children, strong supports for families, transition planning as children move to the next setting, and collaboration and coordination with team members.

Sources: Based on “Getting a Good Start: Effective Practices in Early Intervention” by I. Schwartz & B. McBride, 2008, in Educating Learners on the Autism Spectrum: Translating Theory into Meaningful Practice, edited by K. D. Buron and P. Wolfberg, pp. 66–91, Kansas City, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company; and “Project DATA for Toddlers: An Inclusive Approach to Very Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” by G. L. Boulware, I. S. Schwartz, S. Sandall, and B. J. McBride, 2006, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 26(2), 94–105.

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Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals As you are starting to see, various teaching strategies accommodate different types of knowledge and different ways of learning. Teachers, therefore, must always be open to different ways of teaching. In the volume Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers (Bowman et al., 2001), experts reviewed the research on young children’s cognitive de- velopment and its implications for teaching. They identified three key principles of early childhood teaching and learning:

1. Effective teachers make learning meaningful by building on what children already know and can do.

2. Effective teachers develop children’s conceptual understanding by teaching topics in depth, using many examples, and making connections to children’s everyday experiences. For example, learning knowledge and skills (such as identifying let- ters and numbers) must be framed within the larger, key concepts involved in each domain of learning (such as the written language system in literacy or the concept of quantity in mathematics).

3. Effective teachers promote children’s higher-level thinking and problem solving. They encourage development of children’s metacognitive skills such as reflecting, predicting, questioning, and hypothesizing.

The above three principles of learning apply to people of all ages (NRC, 2000). Consider what these three principles mean to you as a college student or as a professional who is expanding your knowledge of teaching.

Reflect on Your Own Learning During the course of your schooling and from your work experiences, you have probably identified subjects that you are more interested in than others and that you are likely to pursue as a major or minor. Whenever you take an additional course in your major or in an area you have studied thoroughly before, it becomes easier for you to understand and learn the material because you already know a great deal about the subject. In short, you begin by activating your prior knowledge by connecting new learning to what you already know. An additional advantage to you as a learner is that in your preferred subject area, you are gradually building conceptual frameworks, or mental models, to which you can integrate new information, thereby deepening your understanding.

These types of conceptual frameworks serve as memory aids when you need to recall something you’ve learned or apply knowledge to a new situation. In fact, the more you know about a topic, the more necessary these mental models become in helping you organize, re- trieve, and use your knowledge. Finally, when you have that level of understanding, you can begin to analyze your thinking, engaging in metacognitive strategies such as reflecting on what you know and don’t know, and apply your knowledge to solve new problems.

By contrast, consider some of the general electives you were required to take. You might have very little prior knowledge about those subjects—and perhaps even less inter- est. If you are like many other students, you may resort to memorizing the facts for a test without developing a deep understanding. Without a mental framework of concepts to which you can connect and, therefore, retain new information, you soon forget everything you have “learned.” In addition, you cannot engage metacognitively in this subject area because you don’t know enough about what you know to reflect on it, analyze it, make predictions about it, or evaluate your own thinking in regard to it.

Now that we have introduced teaching strategies and discussed the importance of ac- commodating each child’s needs, we will show how teachers can use these strategies to make learning meaningful for children, to help them develop conceptual understanding, and to build higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills.

conceptual frameworks Mental models that connect new learning to prior knowl- edge, enhance memory, and deepen understanding.

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Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful According to the principles identified previously, effective teaching draws out and builds on children’s preexisting understandings (Bowman et al., 2001; NRC, 2000). Several strategies are effective in activating and building on children’s prior knowledge, including cueing, questioning, and using some form of advance organizer (Ausubel, 1978; Cameron & Morrison, 2011).

Cues and Questions A straightforward way of activating children’s prior knowl- edge is to provide cues that will spark a connection (Dean et al., 2012). Another strategy is to ask questions. For example, before reading Caps for Sale, Carol continues to engage children’s prior knowledge to help make the story meaningful:

Teacher: Our story is called Caps for Sale: A Tale of a Peddler, Some Monkeys, and Their Monkey Business. You already know what caps are, don’t you Jason?

Jason: Yeah. I wore a baseball cap to school today. Teacher: That’s right. It’s a kind of hat.

[Pressing on with more pointed questions, the teacher continues:]

Teacher: What do you think the author means when he says the story is about “mon- key business”? Have you ever heard that before?

Marly: When my grandma babysits us, she always tells my mommy that she won’t allow any monkey business, but she is smiling when she says it.

Teacher: So what is Marly’s grandma talking about, do you think? Ricardo: I guess she means she won’t let anybody act silly.

Prior to reading the story, the teacher used cues and questions to tap into what the children already know and understand. As she reads the story, she connects the antics of the mon- keys to children’s ideas and effectively builds on their prior knowledge.

Advance Organizers Another way teachers help children build on their background knowledge to engage new learning is to use advance organizers. Advance organizers are used before introducing new information and serve as a bridge between what the student already knows and the new learning (Ausubel, 1978; Dean et al., 2012). A widely used ad- vance organizer strategy is known as K-W-L (Ogle, 1986), an example of which appears as Figure 9.2. In using K-W-L, teachers first ask children what they already know (K) about the topic of study. Then they ask children what they want (W) to know or what questions they have about the topic. One early childhood educator uses the “W” to stand for “What I wonder about . . .” (McDermott, 2012). After the study is complete, these responses are compared to the answers children provide to the third question, “What did you learn (L)”? Sometimes teachers use a K-W-H-L chart, with H standing for “How will I find information?” In other words, which resources, web pages, books, observations, or people will I consult?

K-W-L is a useful strategy to build reading comprehension or to organize learning about a science or social studies topic. Consider the following example:

In his second-grade classroom, Mr. Ivey uses K-W-L to launch a study on wolves with a small group of children:

Mr. Ivey: Today we’re going to read a book about wolves. What do you already know (K) about wolves?

Children’s responses include these: They live in the forest. They kill other animals. They are scary.

Mr. Ivey: What do you want to find out about wolves? (W)

The children raise many questions: What do they eat? Where do they sleep? Do they sleep all winter like bears? How big do they grow? How do they take care of their babies? Mr. Ivey writes each question on chart paper.

advance organizers Ways of introducing new information that serve as a bridge between what the student already knows and the new learning.

K-W-L An advance organizer strategy in which teachers ask children what they already know (K) about the topic of study, what they want (W) to know, and then what they learned (L).

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Mr. Ivey: Let’s read this book and afterward we’ll write down what we’ve learned.

Following the reading, the children have learned many facts about wolves, but they still don’t know if they hibernate.

Mr. Ivey: How could you find out if wolves hibernate? Melinda: We could Google it or we could e-mail the zookeeper.

This process of building on prior knowledge is easier when teachers and children share a common language and similar cultural background. When children’s prior knowl- edge is acquired in a language and/or cultural context that is different from that of the teacher, the task of building on the children’s prior knowledge becomes more difficult but no less important. Teachers of dual language learners must become aware of children’s abilities and how to build on them.

Cueing, questioning, and using advance organizers are all effective approaches to activate children’s prior knowledge, which, in turn, enhances their understanding and re- tention of what they learn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Next, we identify some strategies for building concept development.

What do I know What do I want to �nd our? What did I learn?

K W L Eg gs are white. my mommy cooks eg gs. I like eg gs sometimes but not when the yellow part is runny. We get eg gs at the store. We play with eg g cartons. Chi ckens lay eg gs. A robin made a nest with eg gs in it. Birds hatch out of eg gs.

Why do animals lay eg gs? What other animals come from eg gs? Do butterflies lay eg gs? How long does a chi cken have to sit on an eg g to make it crack open with a little chi ck inside? How do you cook eg gs? What shape is the eg g? Are eg gs good for you?

Eg gs come out of a chi cken’s behind. It pops out of the bird. You have to wash your hands after holding or touching an eg g. Eg gs are oval like a head. Eg gs are white, oval, hard outside. Cracked eg gs are yellow and wet inside. If you drop eg gs, they break. Birds lay them in the nest & sit on them to keep them warm. A chi ck comes from eg gs. Eg gs come from cro codiles, fish, and turtles. Snakes and fro gs lay eg gs. Cats don’t lay eg gs. I like to eat eg gs. I can share them with my family. You can crack thm to make s crambled eg gs

FIGURE 9.2 Example of K-W-L Chart This K-W-L chart from an egg-hatching project reminds children of their prior knowledge and encourages them to reflect on what they have learned.

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Strategies That Develop Concepts The second principle of teaching and learning emphasizes the need for children to learn topics in depth rather than amassing a large number of unrelated facts. Such understand- ing is enhanced when children’s factual knowledge is organized into conceptual frame- works with many examples and apparent connections. To help children build conceptual frameworks, teachers can engage them in classification and representation activities.

Classify and Identify Similarities and Differences Teachers can help children build concepts by engaging them in forming classification systems that identify similarities and differences or compare and contrast objects and ideas (Dean et al., 2012). These cognitive activities begin early for young children.

When interacting with babies, adults continually use comparative language: “Look how big you are! You’re bigger than the teddy bear now, but Scruffy is the biggest.” Like- wise, children learn many mathematical concepts through building classification systems. With her group of 2- and 3-year-olds, Jeanne helps the children learn the concept of the number 2 by matching pairs of shoes and socks. They soon apply this new concept to their body parts, singing a song while pointing out their two feet, two hands, two legs, two ears, and on and on.

Create Graphic Representations “A picture is worth a thousand words” may be a hackneyed cliché, but when it comes to developing children’s conceptual understand- ing, the phrase is true. In fact, it is also true for college students. You’ve probably experi- enced seemingly endless pages of text or hours of lecture that become clear to you only after you’ve seen a chart, graph, or Venn diagram. This teaching strategy, called graphic representation, is the process of depicting thoughts and ideas through drawing, model- ing, or using other media.

Teachers can use representation is many ways. For instance, when learning about “quantity,” first graders create a graph showing their preference: basketball or soccer. The higher bar, soccer, is the one with “more” votes, providing a visual representation of the concept for the children. They then create a graph comparing the votes of boys and girls.

Teachers’ use of graphic representations is an effective way to teach concepts and to engage children. Another powerful use of representation is to engage children in creating their own representations. This activity is a defining characteristic of the Reggio Emilia approach and one of their many contributions to the knowledge base of early childhood.

Loris Malaguzzi (1998) described the purpose of representation as clarifying chil- dren’s understanding. George Forman, one of the earliest disseminators of the Reggio approach in America, described children’s use of graphic representation in Reggio as “not learning to draw, but drawing to learn” (Forman, 1994). Reggio educators (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2012) view graphic representation as a communication tool that is simpler and clearer than words and, therefore, an invaluable way to help children clarify and extend their thinking—that is, deepen their conceptual understanding. Because chil- dren are trying to communicate with others through their drawings, clay models, or other representations, they often pause to clarify their ideas before putting them down on paper and making them visible to other people. Important thinking is going on at such moments.

One example of how representation reveals and challenges a child’s thinking is re- lated to a study of rain (from the Hundred Languages of Children exhibit, Commune of Reggio Emilia, Italy, cited in Landry & Forman, 1999). After many days of rain, teach- ers asked children, “Where do you think rain comes from?” Children expressed various theories, such as “the Lord makes the rain.” But Simone, age 5½, explained, “The sun heats the rain that has fallen and that’s how it goes away afterwards. It goes back into the clouds and then it starts to rain again.” From her explanation, it seems that Simone has a good understanding of the rain cycle.

After writing down (representing) children’s theories in words, their teacher asked them to draw pictures of where the rain comes from. Simone’s detailed drawing included

classification systems Systems teachers use to help children build concepts by identifying similarities and dif- ferences or by comparing and contrasting objects and ideas.

graphic representation The process of depicting thoughts and ideas through drawing, modeling, or other media.

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pipes or tubes going up from the ground to the sky to convey the water. Thus, when asked to represent her theory, the child had to further elaborate on it. By engaging children in graphic representation of their theories, the teacher got a much clearer picture of Sim- one’s understanding—somewhat different from her seemingly accurate verbal representa- tion. Additionally, other children might challenge her theory—“Look outside, I don’t see any pipes”—causing her to reflect on and probably rethink her ideas.

Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving Strategies that are effective in building higher-level thinking and problem solving are those that integrate teaching of metacognitive skills. Metacognitive activities engage children in thinking and reflecting about their own learning. Early childhood education has a long tradition of incorporating these strategies in effective ways (Copple, Sigel, & Saunders, 1984; Hohmann & Weikart, 2002). We next describe three strategies that not only engage children’s metacognition but also contribute to their achievement in school and life.

Planning and Reflection Many early childhood programs offer children choices during center time, but planning is more than making choices. Planning requires children to make intentional choices and encourages them to identify their goals, consider the op- tions for achieving them, make predictions, and anticipate consequences (Epstein, 2012).

Reflection is remembering with analysis, which is more than just memory and re- call of events (Epstein, 2012). Teachers help children go beyond remembering what they did to becoming aware of what they learned, what was interesting, how they felt about the experience, and what they can do to build on and extend the experience. Planning and reflection promote intentionality and metacognition among teachers as well as children.

Reciprocal Teaching One of the best-researched strategies available to primary grade teachers is reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching in- volves teachers working with groups of children to enhance their reading comprehension (Oczkus, 2010). The learning strategies that children develop make them better readers but can also be applied to other areas of the curriculum such as social studies or science. For an example of this effective practice in action, read the feature titled What Works: Reciprocal Teaching.

Generate and Test Hypotheses Tisha, a second grader, stares up at the sky for a long time and announces, “I think we’re going to have a bad storm. It was hot but now it’s cold, and see those cumulus clouds.” Impressed, her grandma asks her where she learned all that. “We’re studying weather all year in my class. We go outside every day.”

At least once a week, Tisha’s class looks at the weather map online, discusses what has been happening during the last 24 hours, and then goes outside and observes the sky in the morning and again in the afternoon. The children make predictions about what they think will happen before the next school day, explaining the reasoning behind their predictions. The next morning, they discuss their hypotheses and the extent to which they were correct. If their predictions were accurate, they identify the observations that were the most helpful. If their predictions were not accurate, they try to figure out what they missed or misunderstood (adapted from Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p. 103).

In the above scenario, Tisha’s teacher uses a strategy that draws on children’s meta- cognitive abilities. Hypothesis generating and testing is the strategy of applying previ- ously acquired knowledge to a new situation by making a prediction and then observing and reflecting on the outcome. Using this strategy, learners activate prior knowledge, gather new information, and expand and deepen their understanding of concepts. The greatest benefit of hypothesis testing comes when learners explain their thinking, which deepens understanding (Dean et al., 2012).

hypothesis generating and testing Applying previously acquired knowledge to a new situation by making a predic- tion and then observing and reflecting on the outcome.

metacognitive activities Activities that engage children in thinking and reflecting about their own learning.

planning Requires children to make intentional choices and encourages them to identify their goals, consider the op- tions for achieving them, make predictions, and anticipate consequences; helps build children’s higher-level thinking and problem solving.

reflection Teaching strategy in which teachers help children go beyond remembering what they did to becoming aware of what they learned, what was interesting, how they felt about the experience, and what they can do to build on and extend the experience.

reciprocal teaching A strategy that promotes’ children’s read- ing comprehension and higher- order thinking by engaging them in summarizing, question- ing, clarifying, and predicting.

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What Works Reciprocal Teaching Reciprocal teaching engages children in summarizing, question- ing, clarifying, and predicting—all metacognitive strategies and higher-level thinking skills. Reciprocal teaching is also a good example of scaffolding because, at first, the teacher models the use of effective strategies, such as summarizing a passage that is read and asking questions, and then she gradually turns over those tasks to individual children, as seen in the example that follows.

Ms. Leon, a second-grade teacher, works with five children as they read the tale The Emperor’s New Clothes. Having pre- viously modeled the strategies of summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting, Ms. Leon chooses a student leader to take on these tasks with the group.

Summarizing After the children silently read a short passage, she asks Christopher, acting as the student leader, to summarize what they read. Christopher says, “The emperor is like the king of the country. He’s kind of ugly but he always wants to look good by getting new clothes.” Ms. Leon gives cues to help Christopher elaborate on the story, “What did the emperor do to get new clothes?” “Oh, yeah, he hired some tailors,” Christopher says.

Questioning Next, the student leader asks the other children some questions to identify important information in the passage.

Christopher asks, “Were those guys really tailors?” The other children try to answer the question based on their recollec- tion of what they read.

Clarifying Then, the student leader tries to clarify confusing parts in the passage or asks the other children for clarification. “How did the tailors trick the emperor?” Ermalinda answers, “They weren’t really tailors, and they just pretended to sew new clothes to cheat the emperor.”

Predicting The student leader asks the other children to predict what will happen in the next section, “What do you think will happen when the emperor walks down the street in his underwear?”

From this brief example, we see that reciprocal teaching engages children in assuming the role of teacher and involves them in higher-level thinking processes and metacognitive strategies.

Source: Based on Reciprocal Teaching at Work: Powerful Strategies and Lessons for Improving Reading Comprehension (2nd ed.), by L. D. Oczkus, 2010, Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Hypothesis testing is used in science curricula because it actively engages children in applying the scientific method: Begin with a hypothesis, test it with an experiment, make observations and gather data, and then confirm or disconfirm the initial hypothesis. However, hypothesis testing is not exclusively used for science; in fact, it is used in all kinds of problem-solving situations, such as those encountered in mathematics or social studies or when negotiating social problems among peers. Consider how hypothesis test- ing is used in the following example:

A small group of preschoolers wants to construct model cars to use on the race track they have built. Their teacher asks them to hypothesize about what kinds of materials they could use to get the wheels to turn, and the children offer suggestions:

Mary: Straws with buttons glued on the ends. Damon: Donuts. (Several children laugh.) Teacher: Why do you think donuts wouldn’t work? Gina: We’d eat them before we finished the car! Damon: But maybe something like a donut because a wheel needs to have a hole in

the middle.

Damon and his friend Jaleel search for objects among the collage art materials that might work to test their hypothesis, while Mary and her friend glue the buttons. Later the teacher and children describe what happened with their experiments and whether their hypotheses were accurate. The girls admit that although the buttons are round, the glue makes them stationary and, therefore, not very good wheels.

In the previous sections, we described an array of teaching strategies and how teach- ers apply them to make learning meaningful for children, to help them learn concepts, and

scientific method Method of beginning with a hypothesis, testing it with an experiment, making observations and gath- ering data, and then confirming or disconfirming the initial hypothesis.

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to engage them in higher-level thinking. To be an effective teacher, you will need to have all of these strategies in your repertoire and know when and how to use them.

Grouping as an Instructional Approach In Chapter 8, we described how the environment influences children’s behavior and helps teachers create caring communities. At the same time, the environment provides a pow- erful context for learning. Environments communicate messages to children about what kind of learning is valued and what their role is in the process. For example, a classroom with rows of individual desks and the teacher’s desk in the front sends the message that children work only as individuals and teachers control the dissemination of knowledge.

On the other hand, a classroom with tables that encourage groups of children to work together, an open space for class meetings and discussions, and learning centers for chil- dren to choose where they will work and play sends an entirely different message. In the latter environment, the expectation is clear that the teacher and children will work together in various learning contexts.

The Learning Environment Appropriate learning environments for children will vary depending on the age of the children, the time of the year, and the topic of study. Child-centered environments are organized so that many materials are accessible to children. In preschools, children have access to blocks, dramatic play props, puzzles and other manipulative toys, art materials, and books. In primary-grade classrooms, children might have books to read, science tools to explore and investigate, math games, computer centers, and other learning materials. Table 9.2 lists the types of centers available in a challenging, engaging preschool and kindergarten learning environments and materials that they might include.

Learning in the Whole Group Whole group, which is also called circle time or class meeting time, provides a valuable context for class discussions, music and move- ment, planning for the day or for special experiences such as visitors or field trips, and for children to share their experiences and ideas. Whole group is a time to build a sense of community and shared purpose.

Children benefit most from whole group time when a teacher uses it to orient them to upcoming activity that will occur during center time or projects. One research study found that, although rarely done, when preschool teachers model or demonstrate an activity in advance and explain the rationale for it, children’s general knowledge, mathematics, liter- acy, vocabulary, and self-regulation significantly improved (Cameron & Morrison, 2011).

Research with preschoolers demonstrates that during large-group times, teachers’ ex- planations and use of challenging vocabulary is related to improving learning outcomes for children (Dickinson, 2001), as in this example:

Prior to a visit by a local police officer, Margo gathers her whole class of preschoolers on the rug. She explains, “Officer Gardner is coming tomorrow. She will be wearing her uniform and her badge that identify her to everyone as a police officer. She wants to tell you some ways to stay safe because keeping people safe is the main job of the police. I’ll write on our chart some questions you want to ask her.” During this brief introduction, Margo provided the children with a concise explanation of what to expect. She also clarified the meanings of the vocabulary she used, such as uniform, badge, and identify.

Teachers may also engage the whole group in discussion, using questions to prompt and sustain the interaction. For example, a teacher might have her third-grade children

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Classroom Connection Watch this video to see how a first-grade teacher effectively uses grouping and various instructional strategies to teach important content and skills. What do you observe about the children’s en- gagement in each context? What are the benefits for children’s learning of using different ways of grouping for instruction?

http://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg. com/_blue-top_640x360_ccv2/ab/ streaming/myeducationlab/WSO_ Vignettes/G1_Dana-Surveys.mp4

Table 9.2 Learning Centers and Suggested Materials

Developmentally appropriate learning environments include a wide variety of materials organized in centers to promote child-chosen experiences as well as small- and large-group instruction.

Learning Center Examples of Materials

Library area Culturally and linguistically appropriate books and literacy materials of all kinds (storybooks, informa- tion, poetry, wordless, leveled readers), listening center with earphones and CDs, puppets and puppet theater, flannel board

Writing center All types of paper, envelopes, blank notebooks and journals, variety of pencils, pens, markers, word walls, letter stamps, alphabet cards, computers with writing software and Internet, mobile digital devices

Mathematics Variety of objects to count, sort, and order (buttons, bottle caps), manipulatives (peg boards, Legos), tangrams, pattern blocks, number cards, interlocking cubes, attribute games, cuisinare rods, graphing mats, dice, card and board games, puzzles, gaming apps

Science Plants, pets, fish tank, natural objects (shells, rocks, leaves, soil), tools for investigating and recording (magnifying glasses, stethoscope, magnets, funnels, lenses, balance scales, journals, clipboards)

Music and movement Musical recordings from diverse cultural groups for listening and dancing, rhythm instruments, picture songbooks, props for movement (scarves, flags, streamers), CD player and headsets

Art Many different kinds of paper; large variety and many colors of crayons, markers, pencils, chalks, and paint; easel; clay, playdough, and tools for sculpting; scissors, paste, glue, collage materials; construction materials (foam pieces, wood scraps, wire, pipe cleaners, recyclable materials); water and sand table; art and photograph books from diverse cultural groups, posters, light table, overhead or LCD projector

Dramatic play Dress-up clothes, mirrors, home-like materials reflecting children’s cultures, child-sized furniture, phone, empty food containers, cookbooks, junk mail, calendars, culturally sensitive dolls and acces- sories, props for pretending various occupations or settings such as store, restaurant or doctor’s office, cash registers, measuring cups and spoons, store coupons, magazines, books, paper; open-ended materials (large pieces of fabric, cardboard boxes)

Blocks Unit blocks, large hollow blocks, props (people and animal figures, transportation vehicles, dress-up clothes), open-ended materials (cardboard boxes, plastic tubing), literacy materials (writing tools and paper, signs, books about transportation and architecture)

Technology Computers, digital media (iPad, tablets, smartphone), printers, Web cam, digital camera, scanners, digital microscope, whiteboard

Sources: Based on “Teaching in the Kindergarten Year,” by C. Heroman and C. Copple, 2006, in K Today: Teaching and Learning in the Kindergarten Year, edited by D. F. Gullo, Washington, DC: NAEYC; and The Right Stuff for Children Birth through Age 8: Selecting Play Materials to Support Development, by M. B. Bronson, 1995, Washington, DC: NAEYC.

working in small groups on an investigation of batteries and electricity. Each group will share their theories about how electricity works with the rest of the class.

In general, the younger the child, the shorter the length of time she or he should spend in whole-group experience. Young children are easily distracted, and the context is less effective if overused (Montie, Xiang, & Schweinhart, 2006). Nevertheless, if children are actively engaged in a large group, mentally and/or physically, this setting can be an effective learning context where chil- dren have the opportunity to express themselves, to hear the opinions of others, and to feel part of the larger learning community. The important caveat is that teachers need to take their cue from the children. If interest wanes during whole group, it is best to bring the group time to a close and move on to another activ- ity setting or actively engage all the children in singing or movement.

Learning in Small Groups Small groups, usually composed of four to six children, are especially valuable learning contexts for two reasons. First, they provide the opportunity for more focused attention and individualized

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Becoming an Intentional Teacher Working in Small Groups Here’s What Happened With my kindergarten class, I decided to play a marble game to engage them in thinking about measurement and also the processes of predicting, observing, and recording results. After explaining the game, I organized children into groups of three or four. Each had a hollow piece of plumbing pipe and a marble. With one end of the pipe on the ground, a child held the other end. Each group dropped a marble down the pipe to see how far it would travel out the other end. After the initial try, the children held the pipe at different angles to see if the angle affected the distance the marble traveled. The children re- corded how far the marble went in an initial try and then tried to get it to roll farther based on where they were hold- ing the other end of the pipe. I asked each group questions as the game proceeded to engage them in thinking about and predicting what would happen.

Here’s What I Was Thinking I planned the marble game as a small-group activity for several reasons. Small groups of children are better than large groups for focusing their atten- tion on an idea. When each child can participate more active- ly in investigating, predicting, and recording measurements, they care more about the outcome—in this case, making the marble go farther than it has before. They pay attention to what affects the distance it rolls, and they are motivated to work out a way to measure if they’ve succeeded in improving their previous results. Small groups allow the children to par- ticipate and, at the same time, allow me to observe what each child does and does not understand and engage each child in the learning experience at his or her own level.

I typically put together these small groups during center time. I invited a group of children to work with me; if there was something else the chil- dren really wanted to do instead, I allowed them to choose. It was rare, however, for them to pass up this opportunity— they loved the extra interaction of small groups, and I worked hard to make these experiences engaging.

I formed groups that were mixed with respect to the chil- dren’s developmental levels, or what I thought their abil- ity would be on this task. I thought that five children were starting to grasp the general idea of standard units in measurement—a big breakthrough that many children don’t make until age 7 or 8. I dispersed those children among the five groups I worked with. I encouraged these five children to explain their ideas to the others because it helps them get a firmer understanding of the concepts. And the exposure the less advanced children get gives them a new idea to chew on.

Reflection A large body of research supports the ben- efits of teaching children in small groups, yet most teachers rarely use this approach. Why do you think this is so? What conditions might make teachers more likely to decrease time spent in whole-group instruction and increase small- group experiences for children?

Source: Based on The Young Child and Mathematics, by J. V. Copley, 2000, pp. 103–104, Washington, DC: NAEYC.

instruction from the teacher. Teachers can give children immediate, high-quality feedback and also evaluate their performance more accurately (Abou-Sayed, 2011). Second, small groups give children the opportunity to interact with and learn from peers and also engage in hands-on experiences (Wasik, 2008). Teachers also use small groups for a focused learning experience such as introducing a new skill or concept.

Small groups are highly effective for learning vocabulary, literacy, and mathemat- ics (Dickinson & Smith, 1993; Morrow & Smith, 1990; NRC, 2009). Reading a story to a small group makes it easier for teachers to engage children in conversation before, during, and after reading, which has been found to be especially beneficial for build- ing vocabulary and other literacy skills (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Despite a great deal of research supporting the positive effects of small group instruction, only 6% of preschoolers’ day is spent in small group interaction (Early et al., 2005).

One of the greatest benefits of small-group interaction is the back-and-forth ex- changes among children, which can scaffold children’s learning just as teacher inter- actions can. Small groups also provide the opportunity for active engagement in the learning experience. Without such active involvement, the benefit of small groups goes unrealized. Children should have the opportunity to participate in more than one small group each day, depending on the instructional goals, and should work with peers of varying ability levels (Bates, 2013). For an example of grouping as an instructional strategy, read the feature titled Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Working in Small Groups.

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Teaching in Learning Centers Effective early childhood classrooms provide an extended period of time, from 45 to 90 minutes, for children to engage in child-initiated experiences in learning centers (Epstein, 2013; Sylva et al., 2010). These defined areas of the classroom have particular purposes. The library area promotes book reading and listening. A block area provides for building, pretending, and learning mathematics con- cepts. Art and writing centers promote creative expression, symbolic representation, and development of fine-motor skills. Manipulative toys such as peg boards, beads, and Legos offer opportunities to practice fine-motor skills and solve problems. The dramatic play area promotes symbolic pretend play, self-regulation, and language interaction.

During learning center time, children have opportunities to plan, initiate, and make choices and to practice their developing skills, which is essential for mastery. Learning centers provide natural laboratories for children to work out social problems with other children and to practice their language. Center time also promotes decision-making skills because children make choices about how they will spend their time, what they will do, and with whom they will play.

Effective teachers use center time to engage children in one-on-one, extended con- versations (Dickinson, 2011). During this period in which children are engaged with various tasks, such as writing, doing a puzzle, or pouring water, teachers are available to scaffold individual children’s learning as needed. Finally, center time also provides an

Language Lens Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners

For children who are learning English, every moment in the classroom is a teaching and learning opportunity. They may be wearing winter clothes for the first time, riding a school bus, and meeting people who do not look or sound like them. Learning a new language takes time, effort, and intentional teaching. Teachers need to take advantage of every teachable moment. Here are some points for teachers to keep in mind:

• As a role model of the language, speak slowly but not loudly, simplifying your vocabulary and sentence structure as you might for a younger child. Over time, work toward more challenging vocabulary, sentences, and short conversation.

• Use your body and facial expressions to communicate. For instance, to emphasize words like under, through, around, or on top, play with children around a table to physically demonstrate these words and concepts.

• Use repetition. Be as clear as possible in pronuncia- tion and diction, which may mean opening the mouth wider because children look for facial clues.

• Use large-group time to engage children in the joy of group movement and exercise, singing and choral rep- etition, preparing children in advance for upcoming activities.

• Use small-group time, which is especially effective for dual language learners because it allows for active par- ticipation, individual attention, and experiences with objects. For example, if children are learning about vegetables, have real broccoli, carrots, and squash for them to see, touch, and taste.

• Use small groups of children with the same home lan- guage to introduce new concepts in the home language first.

• Vary the composition of groups, at times bringing to- gether learners who speak the same language and, at other times, children from two or more language groups.

• Provide a visually rich environment with pictures and words in multiple languages.

• Organize centers with language learning in mind, in- cluding spaces for individuals such as a listening center with tapes in the home language, tablets or smartphones with translation apps, or a computer with programs in both languages.

• Provide private, quiet spaces for children to de-stress— being surrounded by an unfamiliar language for long periods of time can be overwhelming for anyone.

• Outdoor playtime is a great venue for children to learn new English words for physical actions and social in- teractions. Create games that repeat words like run, kick, walk, jump, throw over, or throw under. Making friends and playing together motivate children to learn a new language.

• Give special attention to particular sounds that may not exist in the child’s home language. For some Spanish-speaking children, it may be the /ch/ or /sh/ or /w/ pronunciations; for some Asian children, it may be the /r/ or /th/ sounds.

• Encourage children’s efforts at speaking the new lan- guage; avoid correcting children by simply rephrasing and repeating.

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excellent opportunity for teachers to observe and assess children’s developing capabilities in various contexts.

All of the grouping approaches described previously—the arrangement of the learn- ing environment and materials, centers, large group, small groups, and individual ac- tivities—provide excellent opportunities for teachers to support dual language learners. Read the Language Lens: Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners feature for suggested strategies.

In the previous sections, we described the various contexts commonly found in early childhood classrooms: whole group, small group, and learning centers. Center time is  an excellent opportunity for children to engage in their favorite activity—play (Wiltz & Klein, 2001). Play is also a highly effective context for learning and teaching, as described next.

Play as a Context for Learning The word play is used to describe different types of activities, including constructive play and games with rules as well as pretend play. In the previous discussion of learning centers, we saw how teachers’ behaviors support learning during various forms of play. In this section, we explore teachers’ roles during sociodramatic play, a particularly effective form of play for developing children’s self-regulation, problem-solving, and language and literacy skills (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Diamond & Lee, 2011; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990).

Rarely is play thought of as a teaching strategy. Researchers define play as child- initiated experience, and, in fact, children themselves see play as something they control (Singer, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2006; Sutton-Smith, 1980). Nevertheless, decades of research on play demonstrates that teachers have important roles in children’s play and they can help play achieve its full potential as an effective learning experience for children (Singer et al., 2006; Zigler, Singer, & Bishop-Josef, 2004). The key is not to take over or turn play into a formal lesson.

During sociodramatic play, children pretend, create a theme, use props, develop roles, and follow rules related to the roles. Moreover, sociodramatic play involves language in- teraction (Bodrova & Leong, 2007), as we see in this example:

In her Head Start classroom, Marita Lewis sets up a grocery store with food boxes, plastic fruit and vegetables, shopping carts, a cash register, and check-out counter. She adds paper and pencils for writing shopping lists, play money, and paper receipts. As 4-year-old Carey pushes her cart up to the counter, the “cashier” Angela, her classmate, asks, “Paper or plastic?” After Carey selects, “Paper,” Angela, continues to recite the script of a cashier to the best of her recollection, “Credit card or money?” Meanwhile, sitting nearby, Marita is approached by LaToya who needs help writing her shopping list. She wants to add bananas. Marita says, “BBBBananas” drawing out the /b/ sound at the beginning of the word. “What letter does it start with?” “B!” shouts LaToya, who quickly starts to write a B on her list.

Teachers’ Involvement during Play Research reveals that teachers play a variety of roles during children’s play that can be placed on a continuum from minimal to maximum teacher involvement (Jones & Reynolds, 2011). Figure 9.3 depicts the continuum of teacher roles in play (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005). As the figure illustrates, the effective facilitating roles are the ones in the middle of the continuum.

The two extremes of teacher behavior, either uninvolved or overly directive, have a nega- tive effect on play. If teachers are uninvolved and ignore children during play, using playtime

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to do paperwork or housekeeping tasks, children’s pretend play tends to become simplis- tic, repetitive, and raucous, featuring themes like monsters and superheroes (Johnson et al., 2005). In these situations, the play often turns into a disciplinary situation with the teacher only stepping in to police behavior. Consequently, the learning potential of play is lost.

At the other end of the continuum, teachers are ineffective if they take too much control of children’s play, either by trying to direct what children do from the sidelines or by redi- recting the play away from what the children are doing toward the teacher’s goal. Situations where teachers are maximally involved cease to be child-initiated play, and most of the time, children will simply withdraw mentally from the pretend scenario or leave the scene entirely.

So we see that using play as a context for teaching and learning requires teachers to walk a fine line between doing too little and doing too much. Next, we discuss several effective roles of teachers during play.

Teachers’ Role during Play The four roles in the midrange of the continuum are onlooker, stage manager, co-player, and play leader. These roles are all effective in helping children get involved and stay engaged in play situations. In each of these roles, the teacher becomes more involved in the play scene. At the same time, the teacher adapts her role as the children play, depend- ing on their interests and needs.

Onlooker In the onlooker role, teachers act as the audience for children’s play. They position themselves nearby, acknowledging and encouraging children’s play by nodding, smiling, or making positive comments. The onlooker role lets children know that play is valued and important, and encourages them to persist. In the onlooker role, teachers ob- serve and assess children’s competencies exhibited during their play interactions. Based on these observations, the teacher intentionally decides whether and how to become more involved in the play (Jones & Reynolds, 2011).

Stage Manager As the name implies, stage managers do not actively enter the play; they instead set the stage by providing the props and theme. They are also available to respond to children’s requests for materials or assistance. In the grocery store play de- scribed previously, Marita acted as a stage manager, having prepared the setting, which encouraged children’s involvement. Stage managers scaffold children’s learning, as when Marita helped LaToya with her shopping list. Teachers as stage managers also make sug- gestions to help extend the play. For example, if LaToya began to lose interest, Marita might ask, “What else do you need for your dinner tonight?”

Co-Player As co-players, teachers actually join in and take an active role in the play. Co-players are equal play partners with children, but it is best if teachers take the

Uninvolved

Minimum involvement

Maximum involvement

Effective facilitative roles

LEAST instrusive Tends to have negative effect

MOST instrusive Tends to have negative effect

Onlooker Stage manager Co-player Play leader Director Re-Director

onlooker Teachers act as the audience for children’s play.

stage manager Teachers set the stage for children’s play by providing the props and theme and being available to respond to children’s requests.

co-player Teachers actually join in and take an active role in children’s play.

FIGURE 9.3 Continuum of Teacher Roles in Play Teachers can use various strategies to support children’s play—from minimal to maximum involvement—as depicted on this continuum.

Source: From Johnson, James E.; Christie, James F.; Wardle, Francis. Play, Development and Early Education, 1st Ed., © 2005. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Play is a valuable context for children’s learning. But children don’t automatically play productively. How can teachers support play to benefit children without taking over?

subordinate role in the drama, such as the patient in the doctor’s office or the passenger on the airplane, leaving the prime roles of doctor or pilot for the children. As a co- player, the teacher is careful to let the children take the lead. This role provides ample opportunity, however, for the teacher to model play skills, including pretending with objects and roles, turn-taking, ways to enter an ongoing scene, and vocabulary (Johnson et al., 2005, p. 272). Consider how the teacher accomplishes all of these goals in the following play situation:

In Sascha Britt’s preschool classroom, the children are playing pet store as part of their study of domestic animals. Sascha arrives cradling a stuffed dog and says, “I just got a brand new puppy. I don’t know what I’m going to need to take care of him. Can you help me?” The children scramble about looking for supplies on the shelves of their store. Martha says, “He’ll be hungry. Here’s some dog food.” Dominic chimes in, “He has to take walks. You better get him a leash.” “I think he needs a nice soft bed,” says Emory, who looks around but can’t find anything to fit the bill. Instead, he picks up the pillow off the doll bed and hands it to his teacher. Sascha replies, “I’m glad I came to this store. You have lots of supplies. How much will this cost?”

Play Leader This role involves teachers’ direct participation in children’s play, but exerts more influence than the co-player’s role. As the play leader, the teacher deliber- ately attempts to enrich and extend the play episode, suggesting a theme and introducing new props or plot elements. Teachers become play leaders when children have difficulty beginning sociodramatic play or when play breaks down:

After several days playing in the grocery store, the children’s play becomes repetitive and fewer children choose to play there. To spark some interest, Marita puts herself in the role of store manager.

Marita: This store is losing business. I think it needs some new attractions for shop- pers. What if we reduce the prices on everything and have a sale?

Josh: We’ll have to change all the signs. Marita: What else could we do to get more customers? Toby: We could put in a McDonald’s like they have at the mall.

play leader Teachers participate in children’s play; includes making deliberate attempts to enrich and extend the play episode.

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The children quickly embrace Toby’s idea. Josh starts to draw a big “M” for the McDonald’s sign, while other children start gathering props for the food. Toby’s sug- gestion leads to many changes in the dramatic play episode with new roles such as cook that extend the play over several days.

Because sociodramatic play is such an effective learning context, teach- ers need to be aware of and use the full range of roles and strategies available to them in supporting children’s make-believe play. Although some educators believe that pretend play comes naturally to children and that adults are not needed, this is a misperception. In fact, children who are skilled “ players” during preschool most likely had parents or caregivers who played with them beginning as babies and toddlers (Elias & Berk, 2002).

Today’s teachers report that many children, often children from low-in- come backgrounds but also their middle-class peers, are unskilled at pre- tend play when they come to early childhood programs. Their play tends to be repetitive and immature. In situations such as these, teachers in the role of stage manager can coach children from the sidelines to improve play behaviors or, as co-players or leaders, they can model and scaffold appropriate play behavior.

Research demonstrates that participation in sociodramatic play has posi- tive effects on children’s language, social, and cognitive development (Barnett et al., 2008; Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Diamond, 2012). To be effective, however, teachers must be intentional in their role in children’s play. Play has a long tradition in early child- hood programs as well as a thorough, although sometimes contradictory, research base. In the next section, we discuss a more recent educational phenomenon, digital media in schools and child care centers.

Teaching with Digital Media At a very young age, most children today are expert users of every type of technologi- cal device and application—digital media, smartphones, touch tablets and apps, e-books, social networking, whiteboards, video games, computers, Internet, digital cameras, and video camcorders. As these words are written, new and emerging technologies are being developed at lightning speed.

Research on Digital Media Digital media is ubiquitous in children’s lives. A survey by Common Sense Media (2013) found that increasing numbers of children are using mobile devices at younger and younger ages, and for longer periods of time. In 2013, about 80% of children used a mo- bile device for playing games or apps compared to 38% just two years before, and 38% of children under 2 used them (Common Sense Media, 2013). More than 75% of all children under age 8 have access to smartphones or tablets at home.

Although a digital divide and an “app gap” continue to exist, access is increasing for lower-income families (Common Sense Media, 2013). Within 2 years among lower-income families, smartphone ownership went from 27% to 51%, and tablet ownership increased from 2% to 20%. Despite this increase, the gaps remain large. For example, although 20% of lower-income children have a tablet device at home, 63% of higher-income children do. And about one-third of lower-income parents have downloaded educational apps compared to 75% in higher-income families. Lack of technological opportunity is one more potential contributor to the achievement gap, leaving large numbers of children unprepared for suc- cess (NAEYC & Fred Rogers Center on Early Learning and Children’s Media, 2012).

✓ Check Your Understanding 9.5: Play as a Context for Learning

Classroom Connection The children in this video are pre- tending to run a restaurant. What roles does the teacher play in the restaurant scenario? How does she support children’s engage- ment in sociodramatic play?

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Although we know that young children spend a considerable amount of time using mobile devices, research on the effects on their development is relatively slim. One study examined preschoolers’ use of iPads and three types of apps—gaming apps that children often enjoy and master quickly, creating apps with which children can build or draw something, and e-books (Cohen Group, 2011). The researchers found that children em- braced the apps that share characteristics with all effective early childhood experiences: learning by doing, building on interests and prior skills, self-pacing, and offering “a no-fail environment and endless possibilities and outcomes” (Cohen Group, 2011, p. 2).

Although research on the effects and benefits of mobile digital media is limited, stud- ies on the use of desktop computers demonstrate that they can be highly effective in pro- moting children’s learning as long as software is developmentally appropriate and children are in control (NRC, 2009; Sarama & Clements, 2002, 2004). Unlike adults, who tend to work at computers in isolation, preschool and primary-grade children willingly seek peer involvement and conversation if the software is engaging and interactive. Placing two seats in front of a computer or having two or more children share a tablet encourages interaction.

Using technology in early childhood programs is not without controversy. Much of the criticism focuses on the negative effects of passive television viewing; promotion of violence, sexuality, and commercialism; and the importance of limiting children’s screen time for their physical health and overall development (Levin, 2013). The debate becomes complicated, however, because all “screens” are not equal (Kleeman, 2010; Lerner & Barr, 2014). Television often becomes background noise that harms language develop- ment and social interaction (Lerner & Barr, 2014). The quality of television content also matters. Nevertheless, decades of evidence exists demonstrating the educational bene- fits of programs such as Sesame Street and Super Why! (Linebarger, McMenamin, & Wainwright, n.d.; Wainwright, 2006).

Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach Digital media, mobile devices, and Web 2.0 tools for education, communication, social networking, and user-generated content have transformed every aspect of children’s lives, including how teachers use technology in the classroom and how teacher education is delivered. The early childhood technology market is vast and growing, with tens of thou- sands of apps available. Of the 100 top-selling education apps in Apple’s iTunes App store, almost three quarters are aimed at preschoolers and primary-grade children (Shuler, 2012).

Bombarded by an ever-changing technological landscape, teachers must make informed decisions about effective uses of technology and also teach children to be critical thinkers and consumers of media. NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learn- ing and Children’s Media (2012) take the position that “technology and interactive media are learning tools that, when used in intentional and developmentally appropriate ways and in conjunction with other traditional tools and materials, can support the development and learning of young children”(p. 1). (This statement focuses on interactive media, not television.)

In the past, conversations have focused on how much time children should spend with screens, which remains a critical issue. But the NAEYC–Fred Rogers Center posi- tion raises the most challenging question for early educators: What is developmentally appropriate digital media, and how can it contribute to children’s learning? Research by the RAND Corporation (Daugherty, Dossani, Johnson, & Wright, 2014) identifies these considerations:

• Technology use should be well integrated into the larger curriculum. • Most of the time, children should use technology in collaboration with peers and/

or adults. • Apps and other software should be engaging and interactive, but also have clear

educational goals that are achievable by children in the targeted age group.

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• Devices should be sturdy, and easy for children to operate and manipulate; for ex- ample, tablets can be adapted and help develop fine-motor skills.

• Digital media should promote active experiences rather than sedentary activity.

Mobile devices have the potential advantage of being incorporated into children’s ac- tive play. Read the feature Promoting Play: Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play for some examples.

Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play Early childhood professionals sometimes view technology and play as an either/or choice. They are concerned that mobile digital devices take valuable time away from children’s self-initiated, social play. One solution that addresses both children’s need to learn through play and their motivation to engage with the newest technologies is transmedia play. Transmedia simply means “across media.” Thinking creatively across digital media tools and applica- tions and how they can be integrated in a play-rich curriculum leads to exciting, new possibilities, as in the following example.

With funding from the U.S. Department of Educa- tion’s Ready to Learn initiative, the Early Learning Collaborative of the Hispanic Information Televi- sion Network (HITN) launched an initiative for 3- to 5-year-old children to help prepare them for success in school and later life. The Collaborative developed research-based digital media applications, known as the Pocoyo® PlaySet™, in collaboration with Zinkia Entertainment. Pocoyo is a delightful little character who, along with his friends, teaches English lan- guage vocabulary while having fun adventures. Each PlaySet is presented as a playground with lots of options for playful engagement, organized around a theme to help children learn concepts as well as tar- get vocabulary words. PlaySets are designed to meet Head Start Learning Outcomes and Common Core State Standards. They focus on English language development, early literacy, and math skills in an integrated curriculum approach.

One English language development theme, Things That Go, teaches vocabulary related to transpor- tation and also positional words to describe ob- jects (above, under, behind). Children also learn to compare and sort objects by attributes (which

objects go together). Another English language development theme is Grow It! which teaches target vocabulary and science concepts related to plants and food.

The Playgrounds are transmedia because they combine interactive games, songs, and bilingual story books in engaging instructional applications. Both native English speakers and dual language learners enjoy playing and learning with Pocoyo and acting out Pocoyo’s adventures. The Early Learning Collaborative also distributes education- al materials to parents, teachers, and other adults to interact with the child around the PlaySet content.

Transmedia initiatives for primary-grade children often build off storytelling applications. These go beyond traditional reading experiences in the early grades to creating stories using various forms of digital media and engaging children in writing and telling their own stories.

Playing with interactive media is now a major activ- ity in the lives of young children. What’s impor- tant is to ensure that such experiences maintain the benefits of open-ended play while achieving the potential of the latest technologies to expand children’s worlds and their learning.

Sources: T is for Transmedia: Learning through Transmedia Play, by B. Herr-Stephenson, M. Alper, E. Reilly, and H. Jenkins, 2013, Los Angeles and New York: USC Annenberg Innovation Lab and The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.annenberglab.com/ viewresearch/46; “Initiative,” by HITN Early Learning Collaborative, 2014, retrieved November 15, 2014, from http://earlylearningcollaborative.org/products/.

Promoting Play

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Classroom Connection As you watch this video, reflect on the many ways first-grade teacher Eric Crouch, uses digital media in his classroom. What appear to be the benefits for children’s learning of integrat- ing technology in curriculum and instruction?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IzSNdxsfk0Q

Use of assistive technology may be part of a child’s IEP. Well- designed assistive technology can be valuable for children with and without disabilities.

Effective teachers integrate interactive media into curriculum and in- struction throughout the day. For example, children can use e-books inde- pendently and do online research for projects or research on topics of study. Teachers as well as children use digital cameras regularly to document chil- dren’s progress and products. Children can use a program to create their own story by clicking on the characters and events of their choosing. In addi- tion, the Internet allows communication with other children or adults, such as favorite authors, in other cities, states, or countries. Through technology, a second-grade class can take an electronic field trip and regularly monitor the growth of the baby panda at the National Zoo via the zoo’s website. In turn, during an actual field trip to the zoo, children can use a mobile device to view the native environments of pandas in China and access information about other species of bears.

Numerous digital media resources are available that make learning mean- ingful, promote concept development, and engage children in higher-level thinking and problem solving. For example, the International Children’s Digital Library (http://www. childrenslibrary.org) provides access to children’s books in diverse languages including Spanish, Arabic, Swahili, Chinese, Thai, Farsi, and many more. The digital format makes it possible for books to be projected onto large screens for whole-group reading or by an individual child to build on home language and culture. Imagine the pride on children’s faces upon seeing their home language shown so much respect.

Other software is designed primarily for children to practice basic skills such as pho- nics or counting. A teacher might introduce a concept like rhyming in whole-group time, and then during center time, the children can play a rhyming game on a tablet or lap- top. Choosing appropriate digital media is like choosing books or any other educational resource. Educators making decisions about technology need to carefully evaluate the philosophy and purpose as well as the developmental, individual, and cultural appropri- ateness of the resource. For example, providing bilingual software may be an excellent decision.

Just as digital media has created limitless options for social in- teraction and information dissemination, the use of technology in classrooms has endless possibilities. These possibilities are achieved, however, only if intentional teachers make good choices about de- velopmentally appropriate interactive media and teach children how to use these resources well. Interactions with media should be play- ful and creative, promoting exploration, problem-solving, pretend, physical activity as with Wii or Kinect, and social interaction. The key is for children and teachers to jointly engage with media. All experts in children’s digital media agree on one major criterion—to the extent possible, children themselves should be in control of the medium (Donohue, 2015). The most innovative and effective tech- nological devices and apps empower children to take charge of their learning (Bailey & Blagojevic, 2015).

Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities One of the most valuable uses of technology is that it can empower children with disabilities to participate more fully and successfully in inclusive classrooms. The Individuals with Disabilities Educa- tion Act (IDEA) defines assistive technology as “any item, piece of equipment, or product system whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.”

assistive technology A piece of equipment or product that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

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Assistive technology incorporates a wide range of options designed for many differ- ent purposes, offering various benefits to children with special needs. Technology can be essential for successful inclusion by not only ensuring children access to a setting, but facilitating their participation and providing the supports they need (DEC & NAEYC, 2009).

For example, a child with cerebral palsy can use a device that supports him to stand at an easel or another device to help him grip a pencil. A girl with attention deficit disorder can use headphones at a computer to decrease distractions from the classroom. Assis- tive technologies such as these help children to function independently and support their inclusion in classrooms with their peers (Hooper & Umansky, 2010). Such technology is valuable for children without disabilities as well.

Many assistive technology devices are available, ranging from low-tech toys to com- plex communication systems (Heward, 2013). Children who lack the physical ability to write can use voice-activated computer software to express their ideas and feelings. Chil- dren who cannot speak can use communication boards that they touch with a hand, foot, or other body part to activate a voice that speaks for them. The options are considerable, depending on the creativity of individuals and the resources available.

If appropriate, the use of assistive technology will be part of a child’s individual education plan (IEP). Teachers working in inclusive settings need to be prepared to use whatever technology is required to successfully include children with disabilities and special needs and help them achieve individualized learning goals.

✓ Check Your Understanding 9.6: Teaching with Digital Media

. . . Ms. Hanson’s Classroom

In this chapter, we provided a conceptual framework that enables teachers to build a repertoire of ef-

fective teaching strategies. We also cited research demonstrating that current practices in preschool

and primary-grade classrooms could be improved to reflect what is known about effective teaching. At

the outset, we visited Sally Hanson’s kindergarten class, where she used various strategies to help the

children achieve literacy goals. Having now explored the array of effective strategies that make up a

teacher’s repertoire, we can analyze what Sally was doing and why.

Sally’s goal was for all of the children to make progress on some of the Common Core standards. Be-

cause the children have differing skill levels and prior knowledge, however, she adapted her teaching to

match their needs. She used encouragement, cueing, and questioning as needed for different children. She provided scaffolding for Elena and Lucy, adapting her instruction to help them do tasks that they could not do independently. Homemade books and posted words helped several children to function

with less of her direct support. Sally provided a more fixed form of support for Marguerite to focus her attention on the order of the letters in her name. Sally activated prior knowledge for Logan and Gabe and added challenge to extend their learning. She used direct instruction with Tommy, who was struggling to form the letter T. Any one of these strategies would have been less effective if used with every child.

Intentional teachers know the children in their classroom as well as their curriculum goals. They

flexibly draw on their professional knowledge of teaching strategies to effectively promote children’s

learning and development. ■

Revisiting the Case Study

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Key Terms ■ acknowledging ■ advance organizers ■ apprenticeship ■ assistive technology ■ child-initiated

experiences ■ classification systems ■ closed questions ■ co-construction ■ conceptual frameworks

■ co-player ■ demonstrating ■ direct instruction ■ encouragement ■ effective teaching ■ facilitating ■ feedback loop ■ graphic representation ■ hypothesis generating

and testing

■ K-W-L ■ learning strategy ■ metacognitive activities ■ modeling ■ onlooker ■ open-ended questions ■ pedagogy ■ planning ■ play leader ■ questioning

■ reciprocal teaching ■ reflection ■ scaffolding ■ scientific method ■ stage manager ■ supporting ■ teacher-initiated

experiences ■ teaching strategy ■ wait time

Dombro, A. L., Jablon, J., & Stetson, C. (2011). Powerful interactions: How to connect with children to extend their learning. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Donohue, C. (Ed.). (2015). Technology and digital media in the early years: Tools for teaching and learning. New York: Routledge.

Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Jacobs, G., & Crowley, K. (2014). Supporting students, meeting standards: Best practices for engaged learn- ing in first, second, and third grades. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Children’s Technology Review Edited by Dr. Warren Buckleitner, an expert on early education and technology, CTR is both a website and an annual e-book publication that provides detailed reviews of thousands of apps as well as reviews of new techno- logical devices and their utility for young children.

Readings and Websites

• Effective teaching is a science, informed and guided by research. Teaching, however, is also an art because it requires vision, creativity, and decision making.

• The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of research-based teaching strategies, including acknowl- edging and encouraging, giving quality feedback, modeling, demonstrating, giving cues and hints, add- ing challenge, questioning, co-constructing learning, giving direct instruction, and scaffolding.

• Children learn best when teaching strategies build on their prior knowledge (make learning meaningful), build conceptual understanding, and promote higher- order thinking and problem solving.

• An intellectually engaging learning environment pro- vides various contexts that offer different opportunities for learning and types of teacher–child interactions: individual interactions, whole-group meetings, small groups, center choice time, and opportunities for play.

• Teachers use play as a teaching strategy by taking on various roles—onlooker, stage manager, co-player, and play leader—to help children get involved and stay engaged in play situations.

• Digital media can be effective in supporting all children’s learning and development. Assistive technology can en- able children with and without disabilities to participate more fully and successfully in inclusive classrooms.

Chapter Summary9

✓ Demonstrate Your Learning Click here to assess how well you've learned the content in this chapter.

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Common Sense Media Go to this website and click on “Best Apps and Games” for up-to-date reviews of apps by age group. The criteria these experts use to rate apps are useful lenses for teachers to use in selecting apps on their own. The organization also conducts and disseminates research on educational media.

National Center for Quality Teaching and Learning Sponsored by the Office of Head Star, this Center’s website provides videos of effective instructional prac-

tices, Webinars, written resources, and a library of visual supports and classroom activity suggestions based on the latest research.

TEC Center at Erikson Institute On Erikson’s Technology in Early Childhood website, you will find videos, webinars, and other resources on the most effective, current practices for using technology to teach young children.

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10 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

10.1 Define curriculum.

10.2 Describe the components of an effective curriculum.

10.3 Explain how standards influence curriculum planning.

10.4 Evaluate how various approaches to curriculum planning engage children’s interest and promote their learning.

10.5 Compare the focus and goals of various comprehensive curriculum models.

10.6 Apply content standards and child development knowledge to planning e ffective curriculum.

Planning Effective Curriculum

Learning Outcomes

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309

This is an exciting week at Ross Elementary School, a public school serving prekindergarten through fifth-grade students. All the classes are engaged in a school-wide project called Career Explorations: What Do I Want to Be When I Grow Up? The project is designed to help children achieve the following goals: learn about a variety of careers and occupations; build their self-concepts about the world of work; understand that

what they are studying now is preparing them for their future careers; connect character and careers; and set high

expectations and goals for themselves.

To begin the project, parents and community members are invited to spend about 30 minutes in each of the

classrooms explaining their work. The younger children eagerly await their visits with a police officer, doctor, and

veterinarian. The primary-grade classes are thrilled to meet a real pilot. Among their other visitors are a librarian,

chef, author, and artist/illustrator. Prior to the visits, teachers prepare the students by asking them to come up

with six good questions for the experts. Plus, the children ask the expert how they use what they learned in school

in their job or in their everyday life—whether science, social studies, math, or any other subject. Most visitors are

asked, “Why did you choose this job?” and “What is the best part of it?” Their answers cause the children to reflect

on the type of character needed to perform each job and whether they are suited for it. For example, 5-year-old

Maisie changes her mind about being a veterinarian when she realizes that the vet may be there when the dogs

die. She decides to be an author instead.

Beyond the presentations by parents and community volunteers, children explore the world of potential careers

via technology. Working in class sessions with their teachers or using individual time to explore on computers or

tablets, they visit an interactive career website that has information, games, and apps related to about 100 different

career options. For example, Kids Search allows them to click on their interests, such as sports, computers, and traveling, or their favorite school subject, perhaps music or geography, and learn how it applies to real jobs. The

older children seek out the section devoted to unusual occupations such as aerial cinematographer, digital artist,

forensic crime scene investigator, toy designer, highway worker, landscaper, language translator, or marine animal

trainer. As children became more interested, they conduct more research and connect

via e-mail with other career experts such as zookeeper, Army captain, scientist, secret

service agent, inventor, professional soccer player, and even an astronaut.

After the information-gathering portion of the project, children create

posters and write essays and poems addressing the question, What do I want to be when I grow up? that are displayed in the school hallway. There’s also a career dress-up and hat day where

everyone dresses as their favorite job. The project culminates

with a poster and essay contest, voted on by the

children in each class. The majority vote for the

astronaut as favorite poster, which appears in

Figure 10.1. ■

Case Study

E ven the most uninformed visitor to this school could not fail to observe the content of the curriculum during this brief visit. Clearly, the curriculum is focused on a social studies topic—the career awareness study—into which other subjects are

integrated. But the curriculum also incorporates state learning standards related to char- acter development, communication, collaboration, and making connections. The children are speaking and listening, and reading and writing about a topic of interest and learning

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FIGURE 10.1 Career Awareness Poster The school-wide career awareness project engaged children’s interests while also addressing several state learning standards.

Engaging Interactions and Environments

Research-Based Curricula and

Teaching Practices

Ongoing Child

Assessment

Highly Individualized

Teaching and Learning

FIGURE 10.2 Framework for Effective Practice Choosing and implementing a strong curriculum is one of the four pillars of effective practice—depicted as a house in this model developed by The National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning.

Source: National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2011, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc.

new vocabulary words and concepts. Skills such as using technology, planning, and researching are also addressed. The theme is literally “played out” on dress-up day, where children use the language they are learning as well as their social skills. The curriculum is so rich and engaging that there are very few discipline problems; the school hums with children’s happy voices, smiles, and laughter.

The goal of this chapter is to help you understand the complexity of planning effective curriculum and the inten- tional teacher’s roles in working with curriculum. We begin by defining the term curriculum and describe ways of or- ganizing curriculum plans. We discuss the early childhood profession’s indicators of effective curriculum and the role of standards. Next, we describe some frequently used cur- riculum models. Finally, we present a model for planning curriculum that demonstrates the connection between disci- pline-based content and child development knowledge.

Defining Curriculum Curriculum is usually thought of as the “what”—the content that children are learning—while teaching is the “how.” In early childhood education, it is especially difficult to separate curriculum from teaching. There is no one agreed-on understanding of curriculum that is a comfortable fit for this diverse field. In this chapter, however, we present our vision of early childhood curriculum and its contributions to children’s learning.

We begin by illustrating the relationship of curriculum to other aspects of the complex role of the teacher. Figure 10.2 is a visual representation of the elements of

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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 311

everyday practice that foster children’s learning and development, depicted as a house (National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning [NCQTL], 2011). The foundation of the building is engaging interactions with children that build positive relationships and create a caring community. The two pillars that support the structure are (1) choosing and implementing a strong curriculum, and (2) using regular assessment of children’s skills. Each of these pillars supports the roof—individualized teaching strategies that ensure each child’s progress.

Although in reality these structural components of practice are integrally connected, in this book we address each in a separate chapter. In Chapter 8, we describe the foundation of a caring community; Chapter 9 presents evidence-based teaching strategies; Chapter 11 discusses ongoing assessment of child progress; and in this chapter we describe curricu- lum content and planning.

What Is Curriculum? Curriculum is a written plan that describes the goals for children’s learning and develop- ment and the learning experiences, materials, and teaching strategies that are used to help children achieve those goals (NCQTL, 2011). The goals include the knowledge, skills, and dispositions (or attitudes and approaches toward learning) that we want children to achieve.

Curriculum content—what children are learning about—is vitally important. One of the strongest predictors of preschool children’s later academic success is their general understanding of the world—what’s happening in nature and what people do and say (Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010). The achievement gap in our schools is now widely understood to be a knowledge gap that must be addressed if all children are to reach their full potential (Christodoulou, 2014). Moreover, young children want to learn. They are curious about their world and everyone and everything in it. As 4-year-old Ryan said when asked what he likes about preschool, “I learn stuff!”

The word curriculum is often used in relation to various models, approaches, or frameworks. Because these general terms are sometimes used interchangeably, we pro- vide definitions and examples of each in the next sections.

Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks A curriculum model is a research-based, idealized version of what and how teaching and learning should occur. Widely used early childhood curriculum models include the High- Scope Curriculum, Creative Curriculum, Montessori method, and Bank Street, which are based on theories of child development and learning. To ensure fidelity, that is, faithful implementation of the curriculum model, developers typically provide professional de- velopment for teachers in how to implement the model.

A curriculum approach describes the main elements or direction of a program (Roop- narine & Johnson, 2013) and is less detailed than a model. For example, Reggio Emilia educators purposely call their work the Reggio Emilia approach and reject the word model. They do not see their work as a model to be imitated or adopted, but rather as a set of princi- ples to be applied in various contexts with diverse children, families, and teachers (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2012). Similarly, the project approach (discussed later in the chapter) is not a curriculum, but a method of engaging children with curriculum content.

Curriculum is sometimes defined as a framework; however, a curriculum framework is more precisely defined as a guide for designing or choosing a curriculum. For example, most state departments of education write curriculum frameworks that influence or deter- mine which commercial curriculum packages school districts purchase. A state reading framework would include ways of grouping for and differentiating instruction and how much time should be devoted to language arts. A published curriculum that did not address the standards would not be used in that state.

curriculum A written plan that describes the goals for chil- dren’s learning and develop- ment, and the learning experi- ences, materials, and teaching strategies that are used to help children achieve those goals.

curriculum model A research- based, idealized version of what and how teaching and learning should occur.

fidelity Faithful implementa- tion of a curriculum model.

curriculum approach Describes the main elements or direction of a program; is less detailed than a curriculum model.

curriculum framework A guide for designing or choosing a curriculum.

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Written Curriculum Plans Different types of written plans can be used to guide instruction and meet the needs of specific groups of children. These include research-based curricula, teacher-developed and locally developed plans, and published curriculum resources.

Research-Based Curriculum Current trends place increasing emphasis on for- mal, research-based curriculum in early childhood education. In an effort to increase ac- countability, federal laws require that public schools as well as Head Start programs use scientifically based curriculum. Scientifically based curriculum, also called research- based, derives from research evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes relate to later achievement and what types of teaching and learning experiences help children achieve those outcomes (National Institute for Literacy, n.d.).

Validated curriculum is scientifically based curriculum that has been evaluat- ed and has demonstrated its effectiveness in producing desired learning outcomes. A growing number of validated early literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional cur- ricula have been developed for preschool and primary grades (Institute of Education Sciences, 2009). Despite the current emphasis on research-based curriculum, the early childhood field has a long history and comfort with teacher-developed and locally developed plans.

Teacher-Developed Plans Because teachers know individual children best and are most familiar with the context in which children live, teachers often prepare their own curriculum plans. For example, Dominique and Tami teach a group of 2-year-olds. Their child care center has goals for the children such as fostering their language and helping them learn about the physical world. Each week, Dominique and Tami meet to prepare written plans that help them think in advance about their goals and the kinds of experiences and materials they need to prepare. Such advance planning frees them to focus their attention on the children. This week, the group is exploring water by play- ing in the water table, splashing in a wading pool outside, and blowing bubbles. Tami suggests putting ice cubes in the water table to encourage new words like freezing, melt- ing, and floating. Dominique thinks of adding food coloring to create more interest and challenge.

Locally Developed Plans In other cases, an agency such as a child care program or a school district develops a written plan. In these situations, a curriculum special- ist or team of teachers develops a plan that is designed to achieve the program’s goals for children. For example, Frankie Sanders’s job is education leader for a chain of employer-supported child care centers. To ensure consistency across the 10 centers in

the agency and meet the parents’ goal that their children will be prepared for kindergarten, she develops, with input from the teachers, the curriculum based on the state early learning standards. The teachers will use the plan flex- ibly, but its existence helps keep them focused on important goals for children and prevents missed opportunities for learning.

Published Curriculum In the primary grades, more than 80% of teachers use some form of published curriculum (Shanahan, 2006). These decisions may be made at the state, district, or school level. In such situa- tions, a committee, which usually includes teachers, reviews the available options and makes a decision about which curriculum

scientifically based curriculum Derives from research evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes relate to later achievement and what types of teaching and learning experiences help chil- dren acquire those outcomes; also called research-based.

validated curriculum Curricu- lum that has been evaluated and its effectiveness demonstrated.

Curriculum for very young children is often developed by teachers. Even for toddlers, having a curriculum plan helps teachers prepare engaging learning opportunities.

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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 313

resource to adopt. Periodically, state departments of education review new editions of primary-grade curricula in subject areas such as reading, mathematics, and science and identify a list of approved programs from which schools may choose.

The universal pre-K movement has led to greater involvement of public schools in preschool as well as calls for alignment of pre-K with K–12 curricula. As a result, all ma- jor publishers of K–12 curricula now publish curricula for 3- and 4-year-olds (Goffin & Washington, 2007). The greater availability of published curricula for preschoolers adds another factor to the curriculum decision-making process at that level (National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2014).

Written curriculum plans, including those that are commercially published and used in primary grades, are by no means uniform. Some curricula provide an organizing struc- ture and require a lot of initiative on the part of the teacher and children. Others provide goals, suggested activities to help children achieve those goals, and recommended teach- ing strategies. Usually, curriculum packages include teacher’s guides with many options for learning experiences, strategies, and resources, from which teachers choose those that fit their goals for children. In other cases, the curriculum is more prescriptive, and less choice is available or expected (Beatty, 2011).

Advantages of Written Curriculum Plans Whereas critics of written plans believe that they limit teachers’ creativity, decision making, and responsiveness to indi- vidual children, this is not necessarily true. One advantage of written curriculum plans is that they can be evaluated. Written plans make it possible for administrators, teachers, families, funders (such as taxpayers, families, or contributors), evaluators, and other in- terested parties to review, debate, and potentially revise the program’s goals, expectations, and learning opportunities for children. Written plans can also be evaluated for their re- sponsiveness to cultural and linguistic diversity and to community values.

Putting expectations for children in writing also means that teachers can evaluate whether they are developmentally appropriate. For instance, if the kindergarten curricu- lum calls for all children to learn to read, teachers who know the children can determine that this expectation is too high for most, but may be appropriate for some.

The Teacher’s Role Among teachers’ most important responsibilities is planning and implementing intention- al curriculum. With increasing calls for accountability and rising expectations, providing teachers with thoughtfully planned, research-based curriculum resources can free them to focus on adapting their teaching for individual children’s abilities, needs, and interests. Instead of using all of their time preparing lessons and locating related resources, teachers can instead spend their valuable time observing and assessing children’s learning and adapting their teaching. In cases such as these, the written plan serves as a scaffold for teachers, providing them with the support they need to go beyond and do more on their own (Kauffman, Johnson, Kardos, Liu, & Peske, 2002).

Curriculum plans do not take the place of teacher creativity or decision making. Early childhood leaders frequently use pejorative terms such as “curriculum in a box” or “canned curriculum” to describe any published curriculum resource (Frede & Ackerman, 2006; Jones & Nimmo, 1994). These terms imply that such products are by definition less desir- able than teacher’s “homemade” curriculum. Terms like “canned,” “in-a-box,” and “home- made” are analogous to food preparation. There was a time when all food preparation was from scratch, and the only good cooking was completely homemade. Some people still look back on this time with nostalgia. But in an age of microwave and prepared foods, even the best cooks don’t make everything from scratch, such as homemade pasta. The analogy is offered not to justify commercial curricula, but to acknowledge that good teach- ers can produce high-quality educational experiences using either emergent curriculum or published curriculum resources. Similarly, published curriculum does not automatically produce poor teaching.

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Research shows that no curriculum is teacher proof, and that teachers’ qualifica- tions as well as how they teach content matter (National Center for Children in Poverty [NCCP], 2007). Teacher-proof curriculum is the concept that curriculum can be designed to control for variations in teacher behaviors and professional preparation. The concept is talked about a lot, but it is a myth. There is no such thing as teacher-proof curriculum. Teachers matter, regardless of the type of curriculum they are given.

Rather than dichotomize curriculum as either completely teacher-planned and emerg- ing from children’s interests or commercially published and scripted, consider a more complex range of curriculum options. Table 10.1 describes a continuum of types of curri- cula available and the impact on the teacher’s role. The primary-grade examples illustrate various approaches to teaching reading (Commeyras, 2007).

In Table 10.1, we suggest a way of conceptualizing curriculum plans while at the same time thinking about the teacher’s role in relation to those plans. Two basic points should be clear: (1) in some cases, curriculum is developed very close to the classroom and is highly open-ended, flexible, and responsive to individual children. Teachers plan instruction to fit the needs of individual children and the class as a whole, responding and adapting to children’s interests, motivation, and understanding. (2) In other cases, curriculum is developed at a distance from the classroom and is highly prescribed. Teachers pace instruction to ensure the curriculum scope and sequence is covered so that children are exposed to and learn concepts that prepare them for formal assessment and learning goals and expectations. In reality, curriculum is usually somewhere in between these two extremes.

Rather than dichotomize curriculum as either emergent or scripted, this table describes a continuum of types of curriculum and the impact on teachers’ roles.

Type of Preschool Curriculum

Type of Primary-Grade Curriculum

Teacher’s Role in Curriculum Implementation (in collaboration with other teachers and families)

Emergent curriculum, e.g., Reggio Emilia approach, or curriculum based on children’s interests

A teacher-developed literacy lesson

Identify developmental and learning goals.

Know hierarchy of skills and knowledge in each curriculum area.

Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.

Prepare the environment and obtain resources.

Plan interest-based curriculum to help children achieve goals.

Adapt teaching to help individuals make progress.

Curriculum model with linked assessment tools and professional development, e.g., Creative Curriculum, HighScope, Tools of the Mind

A guided reading lesson using leveled readers as defined by Fountas & Pinnell (1996).

Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.

Prepare the environment and plan learning experiences within the suggested framework.

Use intentional teacher-guided and child-guided strategies.

Adapt teaching to help individual children make progress toward identified goals.

Published curriculum with Teacher’s Guide, e.g., Pearson’s Opening World of Learning (OWL) or DLM Early Childhood Express

A basal reading program from a major publisher, e.g., Scott Foresman

Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.

Reference Teacher’s Guide to identify scope and sequence.

Make decisions about how to use or adapt suggested learning plans.

Adapt teaching, including suggested scripts or prompts to help individuals make progress.

Prescribed/scripted curriculum, e.g., Open Court or Direct Instruction

A scripted lesson from Reading Mastery (formerly DISTAR)

Implement prescribed curriculum closely to ensure fidelity to program.

Use program’s assessment tools to track children’s progress.

Maintain children’s attention through positive responses.

Remain sensitive to children’s responses and plan for needs.

Adapt teaching to help children make progress.

Table 10.1 Continuum of Curriculum Approaches and the Teacher’s Role

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The complexity of the roles of teachers is only alluded to in Table 10.1. Nevertheless, even this cursory description reveals the relationship of curriculum and teaching. At one extreme, teachers have huge responsibilities and are expected to create almost everything while at the same time ensuring that children achieve important learning outcomes. At the other extreme, teachers’ expertise is underestimated and undervalued, especially if principals or supervisors do not permit them to deviate from a prescribed script, a growing concern of early educators.

Regardless of the type of curriculum used by a program or school, teachers need to ap- ply their professional expertise. For this reason, all along the continuum, we acknowledge that teachers must observe and assess children and adapt their teaching to help individuals make progress. That adaptation may take many forms, such as adjusting student groupings, daily schedules, the nature of teacher-child interactions, or the amount and kind of scaf- folding provided. The feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Shaping Curriculum to Connect with Children’s Needs and Interests describes one teacher’s thinking as she uses the curriculum as a springboard to adapt plans for individual children. In general, curricu- lum should be selected or developed using the criteria that we describe in the next section.

✓ Check Your Understanding 10.1: Defining Curriculum

Components of Effective Curriculum Now that we have established a common vocabulary with which to discuss curriculum, we turn to a discussion of indicators of effective curriculum. According to the posi- tion statement on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation of NAEYC and the

Becoming an Intentional Teacher Shaping Curriculum to Connect with Children’s Needs and Interests Here’s What Happened I’ve been teaching first grade for 4 years now, and this year the district adopted a K–2 curriculum. It isn’t bad, but I believe it’s far more effective when used with flexibility and a close eye on what the chil- dren need and are ready for. Consequently, I made quite a few changes. My principal has agreed to my modifications as long as I can make a good case for them.

Last month we were working on measurement, and the kids wanted to measure their bean plants. Some of the plants were growing like gangbusters and others were not. We made a chart of the plants’ heights, and the kids wanted to know why the plants varied so much in size. This seemed like the perfect time to get into the unit on plant growth, so I moved this lesson up in the curriculum sequence. We did several experiments on the effects of water and light, giving the children more experiences in measurement and recording results.

Here’s What I Was Thinking When I switch the order of the curriculum plan, there’s always a good reason. As in this case, I like to capitalize on what the children are engaged in right then and make the learning more mean- ingful, as I hoped to do with the bean plants. Some areas

of the curriculum, such as phono- logical awareness or number, have a learning path that is sequenced, with one concept or skill building on another. For other things in the curriculum, the order doesn’t matter so much. Before changing the order of topics substantially, I have to think about this. I have to consider whether the change would affect the way the chil- dren’s learning proceeds and whether there are any related skills where the learning path would be negatively affected.

Besides changing the order of lessons in the packaged cur- riculum, I sometimes adjust the pace. I may see that we need a detour or to slow down to work on a skill the chil- dren must master before going on. In other cases, some children may be ready for more challenge and I want to keep them engaged. Sometimes it’s just a few children who need these kinds of adaptations; sometimes it’s the class as a whole.

Reflection In what other ways might this teacher adapt the curriculum plan for the group as a whole? What could the teacher do if a few children showed no interest in this topic? What problems might arise when a teacher changes the order or pace of a school-wide curriculum?

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National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS-SDE) (2003), programs should implement curriculum that is “thoughtfully planned; challenging, engaging, and developmentally appropriate; culturally and linguis- tically responsive; comprehensive and likely to promote positive outcomes for all young children” ( p. 1). These guidelines set a high standard.

With the proliferation of options available today, making decisions about which curricu- lum to choose can be daunting. To assist with this task and to help professionals evaluate whether a specific curriculum is effective, the Office of Head Start (National Center on Qual- ity Teaching and Learning, 2014) developed a consumers’ guide. The evaluation criteria used in the guide are congruent with the NAEYC and NAECS-SDE (2003) position statement. Listed in Table 10.2, the criteria apply to planning, developing, and implementing effective curriculum.

In evaluating effective curriculum, it is important to consider the challenge of pro- viding culturally and linguistically responsive curriculum. Several different curriculum

The Head Start Bureau’s standards for effective curriculum are congruent with the position statements of major early childhood organizations.

Component Key Considerations Based on current knowledge of child development

Are essential principles of how children develop and learn reflected in the curriculum philosophy and planned experiences?

Is evidence based Has the curriculum been rigorously evaluated? Is there evidence of its effectiveness with diverse groups of children—in terms of ethnicity/race, language, and socioeconomic background?

Shows positive effects on child outcomes

Do children who experience the curriculum demonstrate positive learning and developmental outcomes

Is comprehensive across learning domains

Does the curriculum address “the whole child”—all domains of development (cognitive, social, emotional, and physical)—and all content areas such as literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, health and physical education, and the arts?

Covers learning domains in depth

Is there an organized scope and sequence in each of the learning domains that describes progressive steps and individual learning experiences? Does the curriculum build on prior learning and experiences?

Clearly defines specific developmentally appropriate, learning goals

Does the written plan address important goals such as the standards of the disciplines (mathematics or literacy)? Are the goals reasonable expectations for most children within the age range for which the curriculum is designed?

Includes well-designed learning experiences

Does the curriculum provide opportunities for children to be active and engaged both mentally and physically?

Emphasizes responsive teaching

Do learning experiences include both child-focused exploration and investigation and teacher-guided instruction? Is curriculum responsive to children’s interests? Does it promote positive interactions among teachers and children?

Supports individualized instruction

Is the curriculum flexible enough for teachers to adapt to individual variation in children? Can the curriculum be adapted for children with special needs?

Is culturally and linguisti- cally appropriate

Does the curriculum promote positive images of children’s cultural identities and home languages and also recognize and build on their competence?

Includes ongoing assessment tools and strategies aligned with goals and activities

Is there support for teachers to analyze and use assessment results to adapt and individualize instruction, and help children to make continued progress?

Provides professional development

Are there initial and ongoing professional learning opportunities to ensure that teachers implement the curriculum with fidelity?

Supports family involvement Are materials and strategies provided for families to extend children’s learning at home?

Source: Based on Preschool Curriculum Consumer Report, by National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2014, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start, retrieved January 8, 2015, from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/practice/ docs/curriculum-consumer-report.pdf.

Table 10.2 Components of Effective Curriculum

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approaches are used to accommodate dual language learners (Espinosa, 2013). Read the Language Lens: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners feature and con- sider the potential strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

This brief examination of indicators of effective curriculum demonstrates the role of standards on current thinking about curriculum. The connections between learning stan- dards and curriculum are becoming increasingly important and powerful in education, as we discuss in the next section.

✓ Check Your Understanding 10.2: Indicators of Effective Curriculum

Language Lens Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners

Schools today serve increasing numbers of dual language learners, with most speaking Spanish as a home lan- guage. Many of these children are growing up in homes below the poverty level and need excellent educational experiences to help close the achievement gap (Reardon, 2011). The following are brief descriptions of commonly used approaches for educating dual language learners:

• English immersion. All the instruction is in English throughout the child’s school career. Students may receive assistance from specialists in English as a sec- ond language, but the classroom teacher uses English only.

• English-Plus-Spanish. Programs use English and Spanish in a wide range of formal and informal teach- ing and learning experiences. For example, instruction might be English, but teachers use Spanish to explain, clarify, or ask questions to assess children’s under- standing. Teacher–child conversations occur in both English and Spanish. Sometimes children are taught academic subjects in Spanish until their English is sufficiently developed.

• Two-way dual immersion approach. In these programs, half of the instruction takes place in English and the other half occurs in the second language, usually Spanish, but perhaps a Native American language or other language such as Mandarin. The goal is for all the children to become bilingual and biliterate and achieve academic standards.

Consider each of these approaches and how they might affect Antonia Zapeda, who is starting kindergarten:

Antonia’s family came to the United States from Mexico 1 year ago and want very much for their children to suc- ceed in school, but they are struggling to learn English themselves. Antonia’s language development in Spanish is advanced; however, she tends to be shy in new situ- ations, relying on her brothers to pave the way for her.

Put yourself in Antonia’s shoes as she encounters school for the first time. What would her experience be like? How would she feel about her home language and family?

What will she be learning? How successful will she be in mastering curriculum content? The school district’s cur- riculum approach for dual language learners like Antonia is likely to have a significant impact on her later success in school and life, depending on the type of approach used. For example, in an English immersion situation, she is likely to struggle both emotionally and academi- cally despite her competence and knowledge in her home language. In fact, research finds that English immersion is not an effective approach. An English-Plus-Spanish program would be much more likely to build her confi- dence, competence, and English proficiency.

By contrast, consider what Antonia’s experience might be like in a two-way dual language program:

In the morning, Ms. Cafritz does all of the teaching in English, and in the afternoon, Mr. Jimenez teaches in Spanish, or vice versa. All of Antonia’s friends at school are learning both English and Spanish. Her new best friend, Joy, speaks English at home and has trouble with some of the sounds in Spanish, so Antonia helps her when they are on the playground. They laugh together about how funny each other sounds. During Spanish in- struction time, Antonia knows most of the answers to the teacher’s questions and often speaks up, while Joy lis- tens more. After several months, Antonia becomes more confident in English, mixing languages on the playground with her friends but trying to answer the teacher’s ques- tions in English. Her parents are proud when she begins to read in English as well as Spanish. They are impressed that she is learning so many new Spanish words while also learning English.

In your career as a teacher, you are likely to work in situ- ations with different policies regarding dual language learners. As you do, remember Antonia. Be intentional in your approach, considering children’s best interests and respecting the languages and cultures of the families.

Source: Based on Challenging Common Myths about Young English Language Learners: An Update to the Seminal 2008 Report, by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York: Foundation for Child Development.

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A major portion of the day in primary grades is devoted to reading and writing instruction using published curriculum. Intentional teachers know that regardless of the source of the curriculum, their role is to adapt the plan for individual children.

The Role of Standards in Curriculum One of the most influential trends in education today is the standards movement. By the beginning of the 21st century, each of the discipline-based content organizations had de- veloped standards for what students should know and be able to do at various grade levels, which in turn influenced the content of state standards. Also highly significant was the development of K–12 Common Core standards for English language arts (reading, writ- ing, speaking, and listening) and mathematics (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a, 2011b). This initiative is designed to prepare all students for college and careers by bringing greater consistency and higher expectations to school curriculum across the country. By 2015, 44 states and the District of Columbia adopted the Common Core as the framework for their school standards.

What Are Standards? Every state has standards for K–12 schools, 49 states have developed early learning stan- dards for preschool, and many even have infant/toddler standards (Barnett, 2010). To understand the relevance and impact of the standards movement, it is important to under- stand the language of standards.

• Learning standards are expectations for student learning. • Content standards describe what students should know and/or be able to do with-

in a particular discipline such as math or science. • Performance standards, or benchmarks, describe the knowledge or skill that stu-

dents should acquire by a particular point in their schooling, usually tied to grade or age level.

How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? Standards are not curriculum; nevertheless, they have a powerful influence over curriculum development. Today, curriculum is usually designed for the express purpose of helping children achieve standards (Rose, 2010). Similarly, assessment of learning is linked to achieving standards (Gewertz, 2014). Ideally, the goals of a curriculum include, but are not necessarily limited to, the relevant early learning standards (Bredekamp, 2009). As teachers implement curriculum, they should regularly assess children’s learning and adapt the curriculum and their teaching to ensure that children make progress toward the stan- dards. In such a scenario, standards guide but do not determine or standardize the cur-

riculum (Bredekamp, 2009). Because curriculum is inf luenced by

standards, it is essential that standards be comprehensive and developmentally appro- priate. Yet this may not be the case; an evalu- ation of state early learning standards found uneven attention to all areas of child devel- opment and learning (Scott-Little, 2011). For example, although every state addresses the areas of language and cognition, less con- sistent attention is paid to social-emotional development, physical health and develop- ment, and approaches toward learning such as curiosity and persistence. In some cases, standards may underestimate children’s competence, such as the standard of counting

learning standards Expecta- tions for student learning.

content standards Describe what students should know and/or be able to do within a particular discipline such as math or science.

performance standards Describe the knowledge or skill that students should acquire by a particular point in their schooling, usually tied to grade or age level; also known as benchmarks.

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only to 10 in kindergarten (National Research Council [NRC], 2009). In others, they overestimate it, such as expecting 4-year-olds to segment or blend phonemes, a task more appropriate for late kindergarten or first grade (Neuman & Roskos, 2005).

Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups A major trend in education is the move to align standards and curriculum from birth through age 8 and beyond. Alignment means that standards and curriculum are designed to progress as children get older so that they acquire the foundations of skills and knowl- edge to continue to achieve (Kauerz & Coffman, 2013). Alignment also reflects the fact that many curriculum areas such as mathematics are sequential, with later understandings built on earlier ones. Further, if done well, alignment should support developmentally ap- propriate practice because the expectations for an older age group may not be appropriate for younger children.

Even with alignment, in each of the broad age periods of early childhood—infants/ toddlers, 3- through 5-year-olds, and primary grades—standards and the curriculum take a different form with different emphases. The NAEYC and NAECS/SDE (2003) position statement on curriculum, assessment, and evaluation describes how the focus of curricu- lum changes at each period of the early childhood age continuum.

Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers A thoughtfully planned, challenging, and engaging curriculum for infants and toddlers focuses on, but is not limited to (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013a):

• Relationships that promote a sense of identity, security, and social interaction • Language development • Exploration of the physical world and play

Most states now have early learning guidelines for infants and toddlers. These stan- dards are usually organized around developmental domains and by age spans such as young infants (0 to 8 months), mobile infants (about 6 to 18 months), and toddlers (16 to 36 months). In addition to developmental domains such as physical and social, the guide- lines may include precursors of learning in subject areas such as literacy, science, and math- ematics. An added feature of guidelines for very young children is that they usually include suggestions for what adults can do to promote children’s ongoing progress, as illustrated in Figure 10.3, from Oklahoma’s early learning guidelines for infants and toddlers.

Effective curriculum for babies and toddlers is highly individualized and respon- sive to children’s needs and interests, while also extending their language and learning (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2014). High-quality programs for babies and toddlers use an emergent curriculum process, in which learning experiences are responsive to chil- dren’s interests (Lally, Mangione, & Greenwald, 2006). Guidelines such as the one de- picted in Figure 10.3 can assist teachers as they observe children, assess their capacities, and respond by enriching and extending the play or by adding novelty and complexity.

Curriculum for Preschoolers Thoughtfully planned curriculum for 3- through 5-year-olds addresses the development of the whole child, including physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches to learning such as curiosity and persistence, language development, and cognition and general knowledge (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). At the same time, the curriculum builds knowledge and skill in literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, and the visual and performing arts.

In preschool, integration across subject-matter areas is the primary planning strategy, although at times the curriculum will focus on one area such as math or early literacy (NAEYC, 2009). Play and projects are particularly valuable ways of bringing curriculum content to this age group. In fact, research shows that in content-rich classrooms with engaging social studies and science, children play in more complex and high-level ways (Nayfeld, Brenneman, & Gelman, 2009).

alignment Standards and curriculum progress as children get older so that they acquire the foundations of skills and knowledge to continue to achieve.

emergent curriculum Cur- riculum that develops in an educational environment in response to children’s interests and needs rather than accord- ing to predeveloped plans.

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Classroom Connection This video shows a first-grade classroom completing lessons from the English Language Arts cur- riculum. As you watch, think about what teachers do during the plan- ning phase to present a coherent, organized curriculum. Consider the impact that standards have on the curriculum and other aspects of their teaching and children’s learning experiences.

Standard—Pre-Writing: The child will explore different tools that will lead to making random marks, scribbles, and pictures

Young Infant: 0–8 months

The Baby Might: Begin to develop eye-hand coordination and intentional hand control.

The Baby Might for Example: The Teacher Can:

Reach, grasp, and put objects in his/her mouth

Allow infant to grasp finger or other object while holding, feeding, or playing.

Provide infant safe items, including color contrasting and assorted shapes and sizes, for the child to practice grasping, reaching, releasing, and grasping again. (For example: rattles, teething rings, etc.)

Bring hands together to middle of body, hold toys with both hands or pass objects from one hand to the other.

Place objects near infant, giving the infant opportunity to reach with either hand or both.

FIGURE 10.3 Example of Early Learning Guideline for Infants and Toddlers—Pre-Writing Many states now have early learning guidelines for babies and toddlers which can be helpful if they are developmentally appropriate.

Source: From Oklahoma Early Learning Guidelines for Infants, Toddlers, and Twos: Ages 0 through 36 Months, no date, by Oklahoma Department of Human Services and Oklahoma Child Care Services, retrieved January 13, 2015, from http://www.okdhs.org/nr/rdonlyres/dcbc98d7-48b3-42c3-befe-c4abe6f486ac/0/1023_oklahomaear lylearningguide_occs036mo_04012011.pdf.

Almost every state has early learning standards for preschoolers, and most of these are based on the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework (Head Start, 2010a), which is depicted in Figure 10.4. In addition to all the areas of development and learning listed the figure, the Head Start framework addresses English language develop-

ment for dual language learners. Each of the broad goals in the Head Start framework include examples of

benchmarks that describe widely held expectations for children’s development and learning. For example, a curriculum designed to help children achieve the early literacy goals would provide materials, time, and opportunities to engage in writing. For example, a preschool science curriculum about eggs hatching provides ample opportunities for children to draw and write in their journals about their observations of an incubator and chicks. An egg-hatching project also addresses one of the science standards: “Observes, describes, and discuss- es living things and natural processes” (Head Start, 2010a, p. 18). These are a few examples of how curriculum is designed to help children meet learning standards and how standards guide curriculum development.

Curriculum in Kindergarten and the Primary Grades In primary school, the curriculum focus shifts to knowledge and skills in the subject-matter areas. These include language, literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, health, physical education, and the visual and performing arts. Goals should continue to address the importance of social-emotional devel- opment and approaches to learning including motivation, curiosity, creativ- ity, and initiative. Other essential non-content goals include self-regulation

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Initiative and Curiosity Persistence and Attentiveness Cooperation

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Domain Domain element

English Language Development The ten domains above apply to all children. One domain, English Language Development, applies only to children who are dual language learners (DLLs). These children speak a language other than English at home.

Number Concepts and Quantities Number Relationships and Operations Geometry and Spatial Sense Patterns Measurement and Comparison

Reasoning and Problem Solving Symbolic Representation

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These domains and domain elements apply to all 3 to 5 year olds in Head Start and other early childhood programs, including dual language learners and children with disabilities.

FIGURE 10.4 Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework The development and learning goals articulated in the Head Start Framework are congruent with preschool learning standards in many states.

Source: Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework: Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old, Head Start, 2010, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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and executive function abilities such as problem solving, planning, focused attention, and persistence.

Challenging and engaging curriculum for this age group helps children develop and use oral and written language, mathematical and scientific thinking, and investigation skills across the disciplines. Curriculum in the primary grades should help children de- velop a sense of their own competence and confidence—Erikson’s notion of mastery. The overarching goal of the primary grades, however, is learning to read. As described previ- ously, many states now use the Common Core standards. Figure 10.5 is a Common Core writing standard for kindergarten through second grade. Consider how this standard is designed to promote alignment of curriculum across grade levels and how these standards build on the infant/toddler and preschool standards presented in Figures 10.3 and 10.4.

During your career as a teacher, you will confront many decisions about curriculum that will be related to standards. Having discussed indicators of effective curriculum and the role of standards, we now turn to a discussion of general approaches to planning cur- riculum. These approaches share the goal of making curriculum meaningful and interest- ing to children and, therefore, more effective.

✓ Check Your Understanding 10.3: The Role of Standards in Curriculum

Approaches to Planning Curriculum A plan helps guide teachers in making decisions about what, when, and how to teach. In other words, curriculum is not a set of random activities that children might find enjoy- able; instead, the activities must be connected in a coherent way to content goals and teaching strategies (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). There are several ways of organiz- ing a coherent curriculum. These include emergent curriculum, integrated curriculum, thematic curriculum, webbing, the project approach, and scope and sequence.

Emergent Curriculum Early childhood education has a strong tradition of emergent curriculum. According to this perspective, the focus should be on children, not on curriculum. Emergent curricu- lum is “what happens in an educational environment, not what is rationally planned to

Kindergartners Grade 1 Students Grade 2 Students

Use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing to compose opinion pieces in which they tell a reader the topic or the name of the book they are writing about and state an opinion or preference about the topic or book (e.g., My favorite book is . . .).

Write opinion pieces in which they introduce the topic or name the book they are writing about, state an opinion, supply a reason for the opinion, and provide some sense of closure.

Write opinion pieces in which they introduce the topic or book they are writing about, state an opinion, supply reasons that support the opinion, use linking words (e.g., because, and, also) to connect opinion and reasons, and provide a concluding statement or section.

FIGURE 10.5 Example of Common Core English Language Arts Standard Common Core State Standards are not a curriculum. They are designed to promote consistent, high learning standards across states and alignment across grade levels.

Source: Common Core Standards for English Language Arts, by Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011, Washington, DC: Council for Chief State School Officers and National Governors Association, retrieved January 13, 2015, from http://www.commoncorestandards.org. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.

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happen but what actually takes place” (Jones & Nim- mo, 1994, p. 12). Advocates of emergent curriculum believe that children’s interests and needs, rather than a predetermined plan, should determine what goes on in a classroom. They assume that a written curricu- lum plan may be too rigid to be responsive to chil- dren’s individual and cultural variation.

Although emergent curriculum places consid- erable emphasis on following children’s interests, it does not mean that nothing is planned and that everything emerges solely from the children. Eliza- beth Jones, one of the foremost proponents of emer- gent curriculum, describes it as a planning process in which teachers work from children’s interests, creating webs of possibilities that become tentative plans for experiences (Jones & Nimmo, 1994). What follows depends on children’s responses, with the teacher observing what happens and evaluating and adjusting the plans as needed:

Monday morning in John and Bettina’s preschool class begins with a class meeting in which chil- dren talk about their weekend experiences.

Courtney: “My dad took me and my cousins to a museum and we saw dinosaur bones. They were humongous.”

Shauntae: “I went there. My mom only came up to the dinosaur’s knee.”

The discussion continues, with children becom- ing more animated by the minute. John and Bettina look at each other and smile. Their plan was to introduce a discussion about families. They don’t think that di- nosaurs are the best topic of study because young children can’t grasp concepts of historical time and extinction. At the same time, the teachers recognize that young children are drawn to dinosaurs because they are “manageable monsters.” They de- cide that with this much enthusiasm generated, following the children’s interest could open up new possibilities.

Bettina: “It looks like you want to learn more about dinosaurs. Let’s start by thinking about everything we already know and writing down what we want to find out.”

Later, Bettina and John meet to map out how a study of dinosaurs can help them meet the goals of their original plan. They decide that it will be a novel way to help children learn math concepts, including classifi- cation and measurement, and some of the “big ideas” in science such as change and living/nonliving things.

One of the goals of this chapter is to address the tendency in the field to view emergent curriculum and written curriculum as complete opposites. To be effective, curriculum planning needs to be intentional while at the same time responsive to children’s interests and needs. In other words, goal- directed written curriculum must be flexible and adapt to children’s inter- ests and needs, and emergent curriculum must use children’s interests to help them achieve important learning goals. Whichever approach a program chooses, to be effective, children’s learning must benefit. One way to help children achieve important goals while also responding to their interests is to use an integrated curriculum, defined next.

Within a broad topic of study such as transportation, teachers build children’s language and other skills. This child learns accurate terms for vehicles and motions in the context of an exciting real-life experience.

Classroom Connection In this video, a preschool teacher’s personal experience propels an in-depth curriculum study on the hospital. What do you observe about the teacher’s planning and role in the study? How do children’s interests and curiosity influence the decisions and what learning goals are being addressed?

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Integrated Curriculum A curriculum can be focused on one subject area such as mathematics or science, or it can be comprehensive, addressing all learning goals for a specified age or grade level. It may also focus on various devel- opmental domains such as cognitive, physical, language, and social- emotional. Integrated curriculum addresses learning goals across multiple areas of curriculum at the same time (Fantuzzo, Gadsden, & McDermott, 2010). For example, it might address literacy and social- emotional goals within a single experience or lesson, such as when a preschool teacher reads books about feelings or making friends. A third-grade reading curriculum can include biographies of histori- cal figures such as Harriet Tubman or Abraham Lincoln. In this way, children acquire knowledge of both history and literacy in the same experience.

Integrated curriculum is useful for several reasons. First, it helps address the challenge of covering many learning goals in a limited pe- riod of instructional time. Recall our visit to Ross Elementary School in the opening vignette of this chapter. The school-wide project inte- grated various subject areas such as social studies and literacy. The

children engaged in reading and writing about a topic of interest—what they want to be when they grow up. At the same time, the children learned concepts about the world of work and the relevance of education, symbolic representation, and technological skills. Figure 10.6 shows how a first grader’s career awareness poster demonstrates her achievement of these goals.

Integrated curriculum helps children make connections between skills and knowl- edge in various domains and decreases wasted time when no learning occurs. Integrated curriculum is usually organized around a topic of study or theme, which we discuss next.

Thematic Curriculum Another advantage of integrated curriculum is that curriculum can be organized around topics (also called units) that children find interesting or engaging. This type of integrated curriculum is called a thematic curriculum, in which a broad topic of interest or a “big idea” provides the basis for making connections across learning goals. The life cycle of birds, for example, can be the organizing structure for several weeks or longer.

Thematic curriculum not only motivates children but also builds deeper concep- tual understanding (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). For example, a predictable interest of preschool children—building with blocks—provides a basis for integrating curriculum around the theme of construction. Children’s interest in building structures becomes a vehicle for teaching concepts of physical science, such as how buildings stand up or how roofs are constructed to make enclosed spaces (Chalufour & Worth, 2004). A construction study helps children understand math concepts such as counting, measuring, and classification, which they will need when they decide how to balance a skyscraper. Children also learn vocabulary words related to building. Books, such as Alphabet under Construction by D. Fleming (2006), can bring in literacy skills. A neighborhood walk to see architecture, historical structures, or civic buildings ad- dresses social studies standards.

For thematic curriculum to be effective, however, it is important that teachers se- lect truly “big” ideas—concepts that are rich enough to be studied in depth and lead to new learning. Consider the difference between a unit on teddy bears and one on living bears—there is no comparison in terms of the concepts that can be explored. Yet children love teddy bears, so a teacher might be tempted to pursue that interest despite its shallow nature. How then do teachers decide whether a topic is sufficiently rich to pursue? One strategy is to use webbing, discussed next.

integrated curriculum Addresses learning goals across multiple areas of curriculum at the same time.

thematic curriculum Way of integrating curriculum in which a broad topic of interest or a “big idea” provides the basis for making connections across learning goals.

FIGURE 10.6 First-grader’s Career Awareness Poster This first-grader’s career aware- ness poster illustrates how the project addressed several learning standards at the same time, including social studies, literacy, and art.

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Webbing In Chapter 9, we discussed teaching strategies that build children’s understanding. These included using advance organizers and graphic representations such as K- W-L. Webbing is another example of a graphic organizer and also an effective planning tool that teachers use to organize curriculum content. For an example of a planning web based on a concept that children are learning, see the photo on page 338. Web- bing serves many valuable functions in early childhood curriculum. It helps teachers organize their planning and acts as a conceptual organizer for children’s thinking and learning. Webbing graphically represents the connections children make among facts and larger concepts.

Webbing is a useful tool for all of the ways of organizing curriculum discussed thus far: emergent, integrated, and thematic. But it is particularly valuable as a core component of the project approach, a topic to which we turn next.

The Project Approach Engaging children in projects or investigations, a concept going as far back as John Dewey and an integral part of the Bank Street approach, continues to be one of the most popular activities among early childhood teachers and children (Helm, 2014; Helm & Katz, 2010). A project is an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about, usually involving a small group but occasionally the whole class. The key feature of a project is that it is a research effort focused on finding answers to questions posed by the children, the teacher, or the teacher working with the children (Katz & Chard, 2000).

Benefits of Projects The project approach is not a curriculum; rather it is a way of engaging children’s minds with curriculum content and processes (Helm & Katz, 2010). In the project approach, teachers guide children through in-depth studies of real- world topics of interest to children. When teachers implement the project approach well, children can be highly motivated, feel actively involved in their own learning, and pro- duce high-quality work (Helm, Beneke, & Steinheimer, 2007).

Well-planned and implemented projects engage children’s interests and eagerness to learn, focus their attention, and are lots of fun. More important than simple enjoyment is the fact that projects or investigations are effective ways of integrating curriculum content and promoting children’s understanding and thinking. Consider the following example of a project that integrates social studies and other areas of the curriculum, shared by Gail Joseph:

One morning at the Active Learning Center, the organic milk delivery service mistak- enly left chocolate milk. Before she notices, the teacher, Diane, asks Lamont and Sara to bring it to the kitchen because they have the “milk deliverer” job today. Lamont and Sara shriek as they carefully lift a glass bottle filled with chocolate milk out of the box. They head for the classroom to find Diane, but along the way they tell each child in the class about the yummy mistake, “We got chocolate. It’s brown!”

By the time they reach Diane, there is a line of children asking if they can have the chocolate milk with their snack. After Diane agrees, a more dedicated line of inquiry ensues. “Who left this for us?” “How do they make it brown?” “Does it cost more money?” “Can we have it again?” Diane sees that the milk mistake has the po- tential for an interesting project.

At group time, Diane asks the children to list what they know about chocolate milk and what else they want to find out. She records their ideas on chart paper. During the next 2 weeks, the children learn a lot about chocolate milk. They write stories about the “chocolate mistake” in the writing center. They write letters to the milkman, thanking him for the mistake. They examine the price list to compare the cost of chocolate and plain milk. They make chocolate milk and graph how many children like chocolate versus plain milk (a skewed distribution for sure!).

webbing A planning tool that teachers and children create together to organize curriculum content.

project An in-depth investiga- tion of a topic worth learning more about, usually involving a small group, but occasionally the whole class.

project approach Strategy for conceptually organizing cur- riculum by engaging children in in-depth investigation of a topic, focused on finding answers to questions posed by the children, the teacher, or the teacher working with the children.

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The milk investigation goes into greater depth when the children take a field trip to the dairy and learn about “organic” milk, and why people might prefer it to nonorganic. They observe dairy cows and see milking machines. The children also learn how the milk is transported to the customers and why they use glass bottles. On the trip, they discover that the empty bottles are recycled, which prompts one of the children to propose a “recycler” job in the classroom. The children learn that not all people drink milk and the reasons why. They learn why regular milk is healthier than chocolate.

During the last week, the children decide to have a “chocolate milk celebration” with their families. They make invitations, propose and vote on the menu, and help develop displays documenting their field trip and what they’ve learned. They also offer a book signing for the class book they title The Chocolate Mistake.

At the end of the project, Diane revisits the chart created a few weeks ago and asks the children what they have learned. It is clear that they thoroughly enjoyed the project and learned a lot about chocolate milk. But they learned much more about social studies, including concepts about culture, health, community, the environment, diverse beliefs, production of goods and services, and economics, and they also en- gaged in reading, writing, mathematics, and science.

Phases of a Project The previous example illustrates the phases of a project: • Phase 1: Beginning a project. The beginning phase occurs when a possible topic

emerges either from the children’s interest or from an idea initiated by the teacher. During this phase, the class might create a K-W-L list or web of what they know and what they want to find out. At this stage in a project, the teacher needs to de- cide whether the topic is appropriate, practical, and consistent with the goals of the curriculum (Helm & Katz, 2010). In the scenario above, Diane recognizes that the children are very interested in the chocolate milk, although the interest was a fortuitous mistake. Other ways to discover or cultivate children’s interest could be through bringing something into the classroom, such as a hen that a teacher brought in, or through a story. The key is to notice what children are interested in

The project approach is an excellent way to engage children’s interest while meeting learning goals. Proj- ects have three phases: cultivating children’s interest, preparing for and conducting the investigation, and a culminating event.

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and to follow it. The next step is to develop a web of children’s thoughts and ques- tions about the topic.

• Phase 2: Developing a project. In this phase, children begin to think about and en- gage in an investigation of the topic. The questions children want answered should be broad enough to allow for substantive research. They might take a field trip as Diane’s class did when they went to the dairy, hear from visiting experts to learn more about the topic, or conduct experiments.

• Phase 3: A culminating event. An event can be arranged that involves com- municating, sharing, and presenting the work of the project to others. Diane’s class held a chocolate milk celebration to share with their families all they had learned.

The project approach draws on and cultivates children’s interests as it builds their motivation to learn. But more important, it engages children in thinking and problem solving, finding answers to their questions, and building content knowledge and skills. Research on the project approach finds that although it is challenging to implement, it is most effective when teachers have content knowledge themselves (David, 2008).

In previous sections, we described several well-known approaches to organizing cur- riculum content in early childhood settings. Next, we turn to a different approach, orga- nizing curriculum sequentially.

Scope and Sequence In recent years, research on early learning has provided greater insight about which skills are foundational in content areas such as reading and mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000, 2006; National Early Literacy Panel, 2008; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; NRC, 2009). This knowledge is useful in developing the scope and sequence of a curriculum, especially in areas where sequential learning is particularly important. In mathematics, for example, children need to have a basic understanding about number before they can tackle num- ber operations such as adding and subtracting. Scope refers to the particular focus of the curriculum at a given point in time; that is, how much of a larger content area will be addressed. Sequence, as the word implies, is the order in which knowledge and skills will be taught.

Scope and sequence are familiar terms in elementary education, where the curricu- lum is more closely linked to teachers’ guides and textbook series for children, but is relatively new in the preschool world. Scope and sequence curriculum provides teachers with guidance about what to teach and when. For example, learning to read involves many different abilities that children acquire over time. A primary-grade reading curriculum identifies the expectations for children’s reading achievement at each age level (the scope of what is to be learned) and suggests an order in which reading skills should be taught as well. However, because children’s acquisition of skills and knowledge does not occur in a predetermined order and because many skills are acquired simultaneously, curriculum sequences should not be applied rigidly.

In the previous sections, we described several ways of planning curriculum: emer- gent, thematic, integrated, webbing, the project approach, and scope and sequence. Ear- lier, we described types of plans, from teacher developed to commercially published. All of these curriculum approaches can be used from preschool through primary grades. For example, although a second-grade teacher is highly likely to use a published reading pro- gram with a predetermined scope and sequence, she may also use an integrated science curriculum and the project approach to teaching social studies.

Having defined curriculum and explored indicators of effective curriculum, next we go deeper into the concept of curriculum models. In the following section, we describe well-known, though somewhat different, models of early childhood curriculum.

✓ Check Your Understanding 10.4: Approaches to Planning Curriculum

scope The particular focus of the curriculum at a given point in time; that is, how much of a larger content area will be taught.

sequence The order in which knowledge and skills will be taught.

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Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula Effective early childhood curriculum focuses on both the process of teaching and the content of what children are learning. Two types of early childhood curricula exist: (1) comprehensive models that address the whole child, and (2) focused curricula that target a content area such as science or a developmental domain such as social-emotional.

Comprehensive Curriculum Several research-based comprehensive curriculum models are widely used—HighScope, Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge, and Tools of the Mind. HighScope and Creative are the most widely used curriculum models in Head Start and public prekindergarten programs (Zill, Sorongon, Kim, Clark, & Woolverton, 2006). In this section, we discuss the key components of each of these models.

HighScope Curriculum The HighScope curriculum was first developed by David Weikart and his colleagues, who launched the Perry Preschool Project in the early 1960s. HighScope is a validated curriculum because research has demonstrated that using it

has lasting positive effects on children’s long-term success in school and in life (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993; Schweinhart et al., 2005; Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). An evaluation of the Georgia univer- sal prekindergarten program found that the HighScope curriculum positively predicted children’s language, literacy, math, and social skills in kindergarten (Henry et al., 2004).

The HighScope curriculum reflects current research and provides guid- ance for teachers’ scaffolding learning based on a constructivist view of child development (Epstein & Hohmann, 2012). The curriculum emphasizes that children need to be engaged in active learning—direct, hands-on experience with people, objects, events, and ideas. Teachers and children play an active role in the HighScope curriculum, functioning as partners in learning.

A key element of HighScope’s curriculum is the plan-do-review process that begins with a small-group time during which children plan what they want to do during work time—that is, the area they plan to visit, the materials they will use, and the peers they will play with. The children then have a work time of about an hour for carrying out their plans. Following this period is another small-group time for children to review and recall with the teacher and the other children what they have done and learned. The HighScope curriculum is effective because it intentionally promotes use of higher-order thinking skills and executive function (Heckman, Pinto, & Savelyev, 2013). Many early childhood programs offer children choices during play time, but planning is more than making choices.

The content of the HighScope preschool curriculum consists of a set of 58 key developmental indicators that describe goals across 10 child-development areas. For example, there are two key indicators for the goal area “Approaches to Learning”: (1) making and expressing choices, plans, and decisions, and (2) solving problems en- countered in play. The key developmental indicators provide a framework for teachers to use as they plan activities and observe children’s progress.

An online assessment system, the COR Advantage (Epstein, Marshall, & Gainsley, 2014), is available and is a key to effective implementation. It is an 8-point rating scale that can be used by any program serving infants through kindergarten. HighScope also provides a specific literacy component; a mathematics-focused curriculum, Numbers Plus; and an infant/toddler curriculum (Post, Hohmann, & Epstein, 2011). The High- Scope Educational Research Foundation assumes that teachers need professional devel- opment to implement the curriculum at a high level.

Classroom Connection Watch this video to see how teachers use the plan-do-review process, an essential element of the HighScope Curriculum that contributes to its effectiveness.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =8X6ncsGkAxA&list=PL3176BC D80C15A22F

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Play is an integral component of the HighScope curriculum. But what sets HighScope’s approach apart, and what has been emulated by many other programs, is its emphasis on children planning their play. To see an example of this effective prac- tice in action, read the feature titled Promoting Play: Involving Children in Planning Their Play.

Involving Children in Planning Their Play When children engage in planning, they use their minds actively. As they work out what they will do, children become initiators, problem solvers, and art- ists who make things happen and create meaning for themselves and others. To help children develop the ability to plan, consider the following strategies.

Make Planning a Regular Part of the Day If tasks that require planning become a routine classroom activ- ity, children are more likely to improve their plan- ning skills. To encourage children to plan tasks and events, it is useful to have a designated planning time, such as just before center time. You can plan with children in small groups, pairs, or individually, making sure each child gets to express his or her intentions. Children benefit from planning in small groups because the thoughts and elaborations of others often spark their own ideas. For example, notice how the teacher is talking with a group of 4- and 5-year-olds about what they will do during center time:

Jason: I’m going to make a race track in the block area.

Teacher: You made a track yesterday that stretched all the way to the bookshelf.

Mike: Me and him made it together. Today we’re gonna make a longer one.

Teacher: It sounds like Jason and Mike are plan- ning to work together today.

Darya: I’m going to work together, too. Teacher: Who are you planning to work with? Darya: With Mei Lin. Mei Lin: Let’s fill all the jars with water and make

them sing. Darya: First let’s make the water orange. I’ll mix

the watercolors while you get the jars. Teacher: Let me know when the jars are ready to

sing. I want to hear them.

encourage Children to elaborate on Their Plans For inex- perienced planners, try simple follow-up questions: “What will you need to do that?” Sometimes a comment about what the child is doing elicits more details than a question would. When the teacher observed 4-year-old Mitch’s behavior, she said, “You’re barking like a dog,” to which Mitch replied, “I’m a lost dog and I want you to find me.”

In your eagerness to assist younger children, don’t overlook opportunities to promote older children’s progress as planners as well. Encourage them to give specifics about where they will work, the materials they intend to use, the sequence of their activities, and the outcomes they expect to achieve. When Rachel announces she is going to draw the family dog, her teacher says, “I wonder how you’re going to show the puppies growing inside Daisy.” This comment encourages Rachel to consider such issues as size and spatial relation- ships as she plans her drawing.

Write Down Children’s Plans Written plans communi- cate that children’s ideas are valuable. Take dicta- tion when children describe what they will do and how they will go about it. Encourage older 4-year- olds and kindergarten children to begin writing their own ideas. Documenting children’s work through writing, drawing, and photography—which children and teachers can be involved in—helps young learners become more conscious of the process and value of planning. Children can also look back to their documented plans as they reflect on their experiences and compare their intentions with the actual outcomes.

Source: Based on “How Planning and Reflection Develop Young Children’s Thinking Skills,” by A. S. Epstein, 2003, Young Children, 58(5), pp. 28–36.

Promoting Play

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Creative Curriculum Creative Curriculum System for Preschool, developed by Diane Trister Dodge and her colleagues (2010), is a comprehensive curriculum address- ing all areas of child development as well as literacy and mathematics. Revised in 2010, the curriculum identifies intentional teaching strategies and learning sequences, provides guidance for book discussions, and suggestions for “mighty minutes”—ways to support learning during transitions and routines. It includes integrated topics of study such as clothing, building, trees, and recycling. Creative Curriculum’s goals are described in a developmental continuum that guides teachers’ observations and assessment of children’s progress and their planning, called GOLD™.

Creative Curriculum strongly emphasizes the learning environment, children’s play, and child-initiated activity. The learning environment is the organizing framework of the curriculum. Teachers use children’s involvement in centers in the classroom, including blocks, dramatic play, toys and games, art, library, discovery (science center), sand and water, music and movement, cooking, computers, and outdoors, to foster development and learning (Dodge et al., 2010).

The Creative Curriculum has evolved over the years, drawing on the work of several learning theorists, including Maslow, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner. These in- fluences have contributed to the teacher’s role as observing, reflecting, and responding to children in their environment in order to facilitate and scaffold their development and learning. The Creative Curriculum has a program for infants, toddlers, and twos (Dodge et al., 2010). Materials are available in English and Spanish.

Both HighScope and Creative Curriculum are child-centered curriculum models that focus on the goals as well as the process of how children learn and develop, reflecting a constructivist theoretical perspective. HighScope’s distinguishing characteristic is the plan-do-review learning process, whereas Creative Curriculum emanates from the learn- ing environment. Another approach to curriculum development focuses on content: what children should know and be able to do. This is the key component of the Core Knowl- edge curriculum.

Core Knowledge In 1986, E. D. Hirsch Jr., professor at the University of Virginia, founded the Core Knowledge Foundation, a nonprofit organization that promotes greater excellence and fairness in education. The concept is based on the fact that successful education systems in other countries tend to teach a common core of knowledge to all children. The premise of Core Knowledge is that equal educational opportunity can be guaranteed for every child, including children from low-income families, only by explic- itly identifying the competencies and knowledge that all children should acquire (Hirsch & Wiggins, 2009). Hirsch believes that the achievement gap in American schools is ac- tually a result of inequity in exposure to curriculum content. This belief led the Core Knowledge Foundation to develop a curriculum sequence for prekindergarten through eighth grade.

The Core Knowledge preschool sequence (Core Knowledge Foundation, 2013) is designed to be a coherent, content- and language-rich curriculum that offers a progression of skills and knowledge across all areas of development as well as mathematical reason- ing and number sense, orientation in time and space, scientific reasoning and the physical world, music, and visual arts.

These areas of skill and knowledge are similar to those included in the other cur- riculum models described previously. However, the Core Knowledge preschool sequence differs from those approaches in at least two ways:

• Specificity regarding content. The preschool sequence identifies specific experi- ences, knowledge, and skills for all children, including particular stories, fables, legends, nonfiction books, songs, rhymes, and poems. A month-by-month planning guide promotes the concept of a sequence of knowledge and competencies building on one another. Although the program is flexible, it does establish expectations that all the content and language should be incorporated in order to prepare children for the next level of curriculum.

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• Lack of specificity regarding pedagogy. The Core Knowledge preschool sequence specifies what to teach, not how to teach. It does not advocate any particular ap- proach, but rather a wide range of strategies that includes teacher-directed large- and small-group experiences as well as children’s play and discovery learning.

Tools of the Mind Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning, the Tools of the Mind curriculum is designed for preschool through second grade (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). The comprehensive curriculum provides teachers with ideas and strategies to support children’s development of executive function, self-regulation, and academic skills. The curriculum emphasizes the teacher’s role in scaffolding children’s learning along with child-directed experiences and teacher-supported socio-dramatic play. Teach- ers engage in ongoing assessment of children’s development to provide individualized scaffolding in which they increase or decrease their level of support depending on the degree to which children independently perform specific skills (Blair & Raver, 2014). The curriculum is designed to achieve two main, interrelated goals:

1. Development of foundational cognitive abilities that include self-regulation of be- havior, emotions, and cognition; memory; and focused attention (Blair & Raver, 2014; Diamond & Lee, 2011).

2. Learning academic skills aligned with the Common Core standards, such as lit- eracy, mathematics, and science (Blair & Raver, 2014).

The central element of Tools of the Mind is using high-level, mature socio-dramatic play to develop children’s self-regulation. Such mature play includes a theme, roles with rules, language, and symbolic props such as using a rhythm stick standing for a magic wand.

To make play a more effective learning experience, teachers engage children in play planning before and even during the play. Children produce their own play plans, which include written and graphic descriptions of what the child intends to do during the play. By writing and/or drawing their plans, the children’s writing abilities improve over time, a process called scaffolded writing. Children state their plans verbally, and the teacher draws lines on the paper for each spoken word. This serves as a short-term memory scaf- fold as children write and draw their plans. Over time, teachers help children make more complex plans, encouraging two or more children to plan together to build friendships and collaborative learning.

To enhance the quality of the play, teachers also provide children with relevant expe- riences that will inform their play. For example, a trip to the firehouse helps children learn about the roles and scenarios that occur there. But teachers do not leave the learning to chance. They ask the firefighters and other workers to demonstrate for children what they actually say before and after the fire bell goes off. Such experiences expand children’s vocabulary and use of complex language, which they then practice during play.

One of the key aspects of Tools of the Mind is that it is based on the assumption that if children lack underlying cognitive skills such as self-regulation, trying to teach them academic skills is more difficult and inefficient. As a result, activities in Tools of the Mind promote these abilities simultaneously. Teachers organize the classroom routines to eliminate or minimize situations that tend to interfere with the development of self-regulation, such as long periods of whole-group instruction or lengthy waits for a turn.

Teachers embed self-regulation practice in all activities. For example, a preschool teacher might use props to scaffold children’s practice of conversation turn-taking. After the teacher explains what to do with the props, Kesharia holds a cardboard ear to prompt her to listen, while Ashanti holds a cardboard mouth assigning him the role of speaker. Then, they switch roles.

Considerable research has been conducted on the effectiveness of Tools of the Mind. Read the What Works: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap feature to learn the results of a rigorous evaluation of the curriculum and its lasting impact on kin- dergarten children’s self-regulation and academic skills.

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Focused Curriculum The four curricula described previously are comprehensive, addressing the learning and development of the “whole child.” Historically, in early childhood education, compre- hensive curriculum has been essentially the only approach. Recently, however, there has been an explosion in curriculum development among researchers as well as publishers, much of which focuses on a single area such as literacy, mathematics, or social-emotional development. Perhaps because these curricula are targeted to relatively specific goals, several have been found to be more effective in improving children’s outcomes than com- prehensive approaches (Yoshikawa et al., 2013).

For example, in an effort to improve the quality and consistency of preschool class- rooms, one large urban school district implemented a literacy curriculum, Opening the World of Learning (OWL) (Schickedanz & Dickinson, 2012), and a mathematics cur- riculum, Building Blocks (Clements & Sarama, 2007a), system-wide. An evaluation of the program found significant positive effects on children’s literacy, language, early math, and executive function abilities (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2011). The researchers concluded that using a uniform curriculum and intentional teaching strategies with professional de- velopment for teachers made the difference. The effects on executive function were espe- cially important because these abilities are vital for later success.

Similarly, one study (Wilson, Dickinson, & Rowe, 2013) found that the OWL cur- riculum produced large improvements in literacy and language outcomes for all children

What Works Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap The Tools of the Mind curriculum is based on the premise that de- veloping young children’s executive functions—flexible thinking, focused attention, and working memory—and self-regulation of emotions and behavior is the key to their later academic success and social competence. Neuroscientists and child development researchers are finding strong support for the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving this objective.

A well-designed evaluation study involving 29 schools, 79 kindergarten classrooms, and 759 children compared the im- pact of Tools of the Mind to the traditional curriculum. What was unique about this study was that it not only assessed children’s executive function abilities and academic skills, but it also tested saliva samples to compare children’s stress levels.

At every grade level, Tools of the Mind has the same overarch- ing goals, but the teaching strategies and learning activities vary by age group. At the kindergarten level, children meet with teachers to create and implement weekly learning goals and plans. Instead of the strong emphasis on sociodramatic play that occurs in preschool, Tools of the Mind kindergartens use dramatization. Children “play out” the stories that they are learning to read, beginning with fairy tales and moving to chapter books, rather than pretending about ev- eryday experiences. This intentional pretend play develops language, vocabulary, reading, and creativity. By contrast, the traditional, aca- demically focused kindergarten classrooms typically allow only 10 to 15 minutes of play during free choice time and have no materials to support pretend play or connect it to literacy learning.

Another major difference between Tools of the Mind class- rooms and the traditional kindergartens is the emphasis on peer

interaction and teacher scaffolding to support higher-order thinking and pro- mote social competence and intrinsic motiva- tion. Children talk with teachers, question, and reflect on their own understanding. Mistakes become learning opportunities.

The study found that children in Tools of the Mind classrooms performed better on neurologically based executive function tasks such as focusing attention, ignoring distractions, and working mem- ory. Children’s reading, vocabulary, and mathematics also improved at the end of kindergarten and even better reading and vocabulary results were achieved in first grade. Significantly, these differences were greater in schools serving children in poverty.

One of the most encouraging aspects of the study is the neu- robiological findings. Children in the Tools of the Mind kindergar- tens demonstrated lower levels of stress. Given the heightened academic demands of kindergarten resulting in increased stress for all children coupled with the toxic stress associated with pov- erty, lowering stress is essential. Children cannot learn effectively if they are anxious, worried, or unable to focus. This study demon- strates that through teacher-scaffolded support of executive func- tion and self-regulation, Tools of the Mind can benefit children in high-poverty schools academically, physically, and emotionally, and has the potential to close the achievement gap.

Source: “Closing the Achievement Gap through Modification of Neurocog- nitive and Neuroendocrine Function: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial of an Innovative Approach to the Education of Children in Kindergarten,” by C. Blair and C. C. Raver, 2014, PLoS ONE, 9(11), e112393, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112393.

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but especially for dual language learners. These children performed nearly as well or better than native speakers at kindergarten entry, and reached national norms on standard- ized tests. Dual language learners in OWL classrooms performed better on expressive and receptive vocabulary than those who did not experience the curriculum.

The Reggio Emilia Approach The internationally known schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy, have been called “the place theory and practice touch like the magic moment when night becomes day” (quoted in Bredekamp, 2008b, p. 49). Since the approach was first introduced in the United States, it has inspired teachers throughout the country and made major contributions to the knowl- edge base (Baldini, Cavallini, Moss, & Vecchi, 2012; Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2012).

The Schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy The city-run preschools and infant/tod- dler centers serving children from birth through age 6 originated as a movement among parents following World War II. Founder Loris Malaguzzi was inspired by the parents and committed himself to the continued evolution of the schools until his death in 1994.

Malaguzzi used the metaphor “the hundred languages of children” to connote the complex elements of the approach. First and foremost, the metaphor communicates the inherent genius of every child. Secondly, the “hundred languages” stand for the processes of children’s learning as well as how they demonstrate it. In addition, “languages” are various forms of media—drawing, sculpting, writing, photography, video, music, dance, words, numbers, and so on—that are used to promote and display children’s understand- ing of the world. By focusing attention on what children are capable of doing, the Reggio approach has made young children’s amazing competence visible to the world.

The Reggio Emilia approach is not a curriculum, nor is it a model. It draws on several theories in an integrated fashion, but also goes beyond them. For example, a visitor to the schools would see evidence of Vygotskian sociocultural theory in the collaborative proj- ect work among small groups of children and also in the co-construction of knowledge between teachers and children. In addition, teachers and peers place themselves in zones of proximal development, continually scaffolding each other’s learning. Teachers often act as provocateurs for children, deliberately creating what Piaget termed disequilibrium, to drive children’s learning.

Principles and Values of the Reggio Emilia Approach The Reggio Emilia approach is based on a set of core values and principles (Gandini, 2008). However, the complexity and uniqueness of the approach cannot be reduced to a list of principles. Anyone attempting to implement a Reggio-inspired program should devote considerable study to the intricacies of its cultural origins and theoretical underpinnings (Rinaldi, 2006; Vecchi, 2010). A brief summary of its core components follows.

The Image of the Child The foundation of the Reggio Emilia approach is the image of the child as rich in potential, strong, and powerful with rights as a citizen and contributing member of the commu- nity. In Reggio, children with special rights (what Americans call children with special needs) are given precedence in school enrollment.

Children’s Relationships and Interactions Malaguzzi (1993) called the approach “an educa- tion based on relationships.” Teachers stay with the same group of children for 3 years and focus on reciprocal relationships among children (often in small groups) and the community.

The Reggio Emilia approach has inspired schools in the United States to rethink the environment and children’s representational ability. What does this Reggio-inspired learn- ing environment communicate about and to children?

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The Role of Parents Malaguzzi often said that the school has three protagonists with- out which schools do not exist: children, teachers, and parents. The active participation of parents is essential to the operation of the schools; parents are deeply involved in the learning activities of the children.

The Role of Space: An Amiable School The environments convey the message that “this is a place where adults have thought about the quality and the instructive power of space” (Gandini, 2008, p. 25). Americans are struck by the aesthetic beauty of the schools, but each element is designed for a purpose, such as to promote small-group in- teraction or display evidence of the process of children’s learning.

Teachers and Children as Partners in Learning Although highly knowledgeable, teachers do not consider themselves experts who impart knowledge, but rather partners with children in the journey of discovery. They act as a resource to children, asking provocative questions, exploring children’s thoughts and hypotheses, and learning along with them.

Curriculum as a Process of Inviting and Sustaining Learning There is no preset cur- riculum in Reggio schools. Teachers prepare a declaration of intent about possible learn- ing experiences they will offer to children, but the curriculum emerges from children’s interests in topics or questions and their desire to find out more or to solve a problem. However, teachers do have goals and plan in advance for possible directions the work will take. They listen carefully to children and regularly meet to discuss how to further children’s involvement and deepen their understanding.

The Many Languages of Children Each school has a special teacher, called an atelieri- sta, who is knowledgeable about the visual arts and works closely with the other teachers and children. Each preschool has an atelier, a specially equipped studio that contains a wide range of materials and resources that are used by children to represent their ideas and thinking and in projects.

In the United States, the Reggio Emilia approach is sometimes described as an art program. However, the Italians see the children’s work as symbolic representation that is an integral part of learning. When children represent the same concept using different media, their understanding deepens. For example, drawing a horse in two dimensions conveys a partial concept of the animal. Constructing a three-dimensional model of a horse in clay requires thinking about how the horse stands up and how it runs.