Reflective Journal

Volume 10, Issue 1 Distance Learning 1

Encouraging Critical Thinking in Distance Learning Ensuring Challenging Intellectual Programs

Frederick A. Ricci

INTRODUCTION istance learning dialogue, threaded discussions, and chats are exciting and intellectually

stimulating when used in helping students to master intellectual skills. One of the

most necessary skills involving online instruction is the cultivation of critical thinking within every assignment. The oft repeated saying that distinguishes the dif- ference between giving out fish and teach- ing people how to fish is most often used in the business world. It conveys the idea that providing people with good jobs is better than giving them handouts. The same phrase has been used by countless educators within professional and techni- cal educational environments. The ideal online classes provide challenging experi- ences through assignments and exercises, which should create new visions. Assisting students to develop critical thinking skills presents them with the desire to go beyond the content knowledge from their online courses. Critical thinking allows them to analyze the process, to understand the purpose of the subject content, and to utilize information to extend and improve their knowledge, skills, and abilities toward effective decisions toward profes- sional and personal achievement. Critical thinking cultivates a student’s intellectual curiosity, engagement, integrity, empathy, and responsibility.

D

Frederick A. Ricci,

Program Professor, Organizational Leadership, Nova Southeastern University,

1750 NE 167th St., North Miami Beach, FL 33162.

E-mail: [email protected]

2 Distance Learning Volume 10, Issue 1

CRITICAL THINKING:

WHAT IT IS AND WHY

IT MATTERS FOR EDUCATORS A Google search of the question: “What is critical thinking?” can result in more than a million and a half hits. Although numerous researchers have defined critical thinking, one can find a comprehensive explanation on the Critical Thinking Community web- site at http://www.criticalthinking.org/ pages/defining-critical-thinking/766:

Critical thinking is the intellectually disci-

plined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,

synthesizing, and/or evaluating informa-

tion gathered from, or generated by,

observation, experience, reflection, rea-

soning, or communication, as a guide to

belief and action. In its exemplary form, it

is based on universal intellectual values

that transcend subject matter divisions:

clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency,

relevance, sound evidence, good rea-

sons, depth, breadth, and fairness.

This comprehensive definition provides most of the universal standards applied to critical thinking. Earlier writings of Paul (2008) indicated that critical thinking is the ultimate goal toward better student rea- soning. For a simpler explanation of critical thinking, Ennis (1962) defined critical thinking as “a reasonable reflective think- ing focused on deciding what to believe or do” (p. 466). Throughout the studies iden- tifying critical thinking, most authors agree that it allows individuals to pursue the ele- ment of gathering information. It is the ability to exercise sound reasoning by ask- ing questions that lead toward effective decision making and by analyzing and synthesizing information while under- standing different points of view. Most educators view critical thinking as a path toward professional and personnel suc- cess.

STATUS OF CRITICAL THINKING AMONG LEARNERS The World Wide Web provides unprece- dented access to information. Peck (2012) discussed the urgency with which stake- holders in education want students to graduate with critical thinking skills to compete in the expanding global economy. Peck claimed that even as access to the Information Age expands, students appear less prepared than in the past to evaluate the information received critically and defend their beliefs. Such skills are sorely needed in a rapidly changing era. Most educators agree that critical thinking allows students to navigate through the decision making process and provides transfer of learning, which leads to aca- demic and job success as well as a clear world view. Within the interconnected- ness, rapidity, and complexity of informa- tion, the ability to think critically is crucial toward having a successful life. Hogan (2012) revealed what concerns educators, employers, and organizations worldwide are expressing about the ability of students to be prepared for this century. At the same time, organizations such as the European Higher Education Area and the U.S. Department of Education have incorpo- rated these issues within their interna- tional educational standards primarily because critical thinkers have the ability to make better decisions throughout life and in financial, legal, medical, professional, and interpersonal area (p. 49). In a survey of human resource professionals in who were asked to identify the most important skills needed both for employers and employees for the present and future, Chartrand, Ishikawa, and Flanigan (2006) found that critical thinking ranked on top, even higher than innovation or informa- tion technology knowledge.

Paul (1993) discussed the status of criti- cal thinking today and the importance of critical thinking within the curriculum for providing a sustentative concept that stu- dents are able to construct knowledge and

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later transfer this knowledge within the “multiple facets” of their lives. Paul contin- ued by indicating that critical thinking pro- vides a concept which “… affords the durability, flexibility, and richness of detail essential for planning long-term profes- sional development to serve that end” (p. 27).

Ricci (2010) analyzed the importance of leadership and critical thinking: like critical thinking, strategic policies in organiza- tional leadership require an approach to thinking, planning, and decision making for an organization. Critical thinking leads to managing vision and allows individuals to prepare for change, utilizing their analy- sis and forecasting competencies to plan and direct institutional operations. The managing vision allows administrators to concentrate on positive achievements, while adding discipline to the planning and analysis of the process and providing a clear path toward implementation. Any path can be a dead end unless leaders plan an ultimate objective and clear outcome (Ricci, 2011).

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING FOR DISTANCE EDUCATORS At the college level, students need to improve their critical thinking skills. Criti- cal thinking is essential in all venues of education, especially in online venues where students are not in direct contact with their instructors and peers. Earlier studies indicated that 72% of respondents believed critical thinking to be an impor- tant outcome of any program (Ratcill, Johnson, LaNasa, & Gaff, 2001). Learners are taught that in critical thinking, con- cerns are identified, appropriate questions are asked, assumptions are analyzed, infor- mation is synthesized, and individual abil- ity to evaluate results undergoes reasoning. A critical thinker applies what is often tagged as a higher order of thinking by utilizing knowledge and abilities in ana- lyzing and processing information toward

reaching effective solutions. Critical think- ing is considered a learned ability, similar to excelling in sports, learning to drive, or using a computer, all of which require basic skills and practice toward achievement. It is an active exercise in which individuals learn the ability to analyze how they and how others think, behave, and arrive at successful achievements (Jerald, 2009).

Facione (2011) argued that instructors should focus on critical thinking to assist students to make good decisions by giving them an opportunity to improve their futures and contribute to society. Such thinking allows them to learn the ability to practice good judgment, and although it does not guarantee a high level of eco- nomic success or happiness, the ability to think critically can make such desired goals more obtainable by helping them make good decisions rather than bad ones. Ruggiero (1990), in a guiding text on criti- cal thinking, emphasized that although the challenge of improving thinking is great, there is no other kind of self-improvement that can affect all areas of life in such a pos- itive manner.

CRITICAL THINKING FOR DISTANCE LEARNING Critical thinking should be encouraged throughout every online education course for conveying information and enhancing discussions in an organized manner. As emphasized by Paul and Elder (2006), whose writings were instrumental in the development of a critical thinking founda- tion website, higher levels of thought have to be cultivated systematically and teach- ing should include the goal of critical thinking, which is to foster the develop- ment of individual intellectual areas (Foun- dation for Critical Thinking, 2011). Paul and Elder (2008) highlighted other aspects of critical thinking by claiming that critical thinkers are well cultivated, clear thinkers. They can easily identify questions and find problems. They can figure out important

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facts and evidence that are related to the criteria with which they are working and can also find other solutions when the present ones do not seem to be appropri- ate. The most important attributes of these thinkers are that they are clear communi- cators and competent problem solvers (Paul & Elder, 2009).

Essentially, critical thinking involves reasoning in a logical manner, evaluating what is written or spoken, reflecting on individual thoughts and ideas, and being prepared as questions are posed to clarify understanding. For instructors to be assured that these skills are developed and used in online education, they need an understanding of the character of critical thinking, one that leads toward higher level orders of thought. A prime objective of any educational program, especially through distance education, should be to provide the opportunity to use thinking skills for discussions, dialogue, and online assignments. McKenna (2011) cited an American educator, Robert M. Hutchins: “It must be remembered that the purpose of education is not to fill the minds of stu- dents with facts [but] to teach them to think” (para. 4).

Because most distance education classes utilize the Internet for information and research, distance educators should encourage critical thinking when utilizing this powerful tool. Browne (2000) empha- sized the importance of critical thinking for student use of the Internet. He likened the Internet to any other form of educational discourse and named critical thinking as a “liberating mechanism allowing us to select the arguments that best meet our rhetorical standards” (p. 5). Browne admonished instructors to acknowledge the heavy use of the Internet and the con- sequent mandate for critical thinking that leads students toward crucial decision making in accepting, rejecting, or suspend- ing judgment so that they can reach a final decision.

CRITICAL THINKING: CONTRASTING DISTANCE EDUCATION FROM THE TRADITIONAL ONSITE CLASS In a traditional classroom, the instructor has a physical presence. Therefore, the instructor ’s voice, expressions, body lan- guage, intonation, expressions and ges- tures assist with the instruction and information conveyed. Instructors can hear in a student’s voice the thought pro- cess, and observe one’s facial expressions during students’ questioning, processing thinking, and gestures such as scratching one’s head, or see the “I get it” physical expression of excitement surging individu- ally or collectively. Keefe and Walberg (1992) claimed that critical thinking can be drawn out on a physical level through visual aids and even seating arrangements, which obviously cannot be practiced with online learning.

Critical thinking is less observed within the virtual classroom, for the majority of online courses rely on words, where the style, attitude, and intonations are expressed within writings. The cognitive domain of learning process (Bloom, 1956) emphasizes thinking and is most condu- cive to online learning. The thinking or cognitive domain focusing on knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, syn- thesis, as well as interpretation, applica- tion, and examination of knowledge is where critical thinking skills play a major role with online instruction.

Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, and Zva- cek (2008) noted it that is clear from the research literature that distance education works when courses are developed, designed, and assessed with a focus on vir- tual classrooms. Simonson et al. continued by indicating that the keys to successful distance education are in the design of the courses. Some studies have compared achievement of critical thinking skills online vs. face to face. Huff (2000) pursued this question by focusing on students within an interactive television course and

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face-to-face. One of the purposes was to determine if the Huff pretest-posttest model had any significant differences regarding the two groups on their critical thinking skills.

Derwin (2009) studied and compared critical thinking skills of adults in online and face-to-face courses at West Coast uni- versities, analyzing student achievement by testing both before and after those stu- dents using the California Critical Think- ing Skills Test (CCTST). Also, student’s grades were compared on critical thinking assignments required within the course. The research provided a comparison of online to onsite learning. Students were allowed to select either format. No signifi- cant difference was found between achievements of an online liberal studies class when comparing the test scores using the CCTST utilizing a quasi-experimental nonequivalent control group study method. In addition, the second hypothe- sis was based on whether scores were sig- nificantly higher than face-to-face student scores for assignments requiring interpre- tation, analysis, evaluation, and inferences. It was found that students had similar skills in completing course assignments that required critical thinking skills.

Muirhead (2002) wrote that, when inte- grating critical thinking into online classes, educators need to focus on class structures and online teaching. Muirhead stated that creativity, reflective thinking, and self- directed learning need to be encouraged and enhanced through online media, sim- ulations, and other aspects that support development of critical thinking skills. The application of cognitive learning psychol- ogy and instructional design are important when developing courses within an online environment.

CRITICAL THINKING STRATEGIES ONLINE To facilitate critical thinking strategies in online discussions, researchers have devel-

oped specific guidelines for the students within the course of study. This informa- tion is often prepared by checklists, rubrics, guides or developmental models used by others or prepared by the instruc- tor can help students be aware of what was expected and thus provide better and more thoughtful exchanges (Black, 2005, p. 19). Bai (2009) introduced to students the practical inquiry model developed by Gar- rison et al. (2001). Bai concluded that stu- dent postings focused on a model facilitated critical thinking among students because they provide an awareness of what is expected. Bai’s study indicated that, to promote higher levels of thinking in online discussion, an instructor needs to inform students about what information they are expected to present, which will provide a clear vision of the discussion. The practical inquiry model in this case aided them cognitively in their online dis- cussions, even with little involvement from their instructors. Bai added that well designed discussion questions are funda- mental in developing critical thinking skills at high levels (p. 162).

A good method of eliciting critical think- ing is to encourage students to ask ques- tions so that they can understand, examine the evidence, consider any implications, question their assumptions, explore differ- ent perspectives, and consider other ques- tions (Purdue University Center for Student Achievement, n.d.). For online dis- cussions, it is suggested that some ques- tions be provided at the beginning that refer to whether a student might agree or disagree with a statement so that individ- ual viewpoints can be encouraged that can contrast to other viewpoints. Also, the starter question might refer to readings and classroom/online discussions and even evoke a variety of scenarios where stu- dents can apply knowledge and analysis (Purdue, n.d.).

Browne and Keeley (2007) focused on the importance of asking good questions by searching for issues, initiating a ques-

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tion process, checking for ambiguity, iden- tifying value conflicts and assumptions, seeking evidence and reasoning, checking for significant information included or excluded, and finding evidence and con- clusions. An extensive list of questions can be found on the changingminds.org (2012) website. This site focuses on several types of Socratic questioning toward challenging the accuracy and completeness of thinking into categories beginning with clarifying concepts involving what is being said; ask- ing for specific examples; questioning assumptions by encouraging students to ponder the beliefs that underlie their opin- ions; exploring different viewpoints and acknowledging that they are equally valid and listening to these other points of view; imagining possible consequences of an idea; and circling around on the original question and even using their attacks upon themselves.

New exercises based on the outcome of enhancing critical thinking skills can create excitement about the course, expand stu- dent curiosity, and encourage developing the talent to ask focused, creative ques- tions. If student curiosity is aroused, then not only can students be prepared to accomplish academic tasks, but they will also be better problem solvers in the work- place. Their approach to thinking in any learning task will be scientific and they will readily expect to find credible sources, ask for clarification, and request additional information in their scholarly endeavors.

CRITICAL THINKING DEVELOPMENT IN DISTANCE LEARNING To integrate or expand critical thinking within an online class for distance educa- tion students, an instructor, for a start, can create or rewrite a course emphasizing the importance of critical thinking within the class assignments to expand and improve each student’s thinking abilities. The rea- son for integrating critical thinking within online assignments is that such thinking is

an important goal of distance learning, and certain methods do provide better out- comes in encouraging critical thinking. One method is to encourage students to spend more time on assignments and to make these areas a significant part of their final grade (Arend, 2007). Arend (2007) concluded that if instructors wish to encourage critical thinking online, they should ask students to focus on specific critical thinking techniques.

Furthermore, being able to use critical thinking techniques would allow one to transfer this knowledge toward organiza- tional leadership and become good deci- sion makers and problem solvers. In history, great scholars used strategic think- ing. Paul (1993) indicated that the Socratic Method is the basis of critical thinking because it enables an individual to cross- examine the claims of another individual to see if there are any inherent contradic- tions or inconsistencies in the claims. If individuals use Socratic questions, they are able to determine accuracy and compre- hensiveness of thought so that people can learn to their highest ability. Not only can critical thinking help people address oth- ers’ thoughts but also their own so they can reflect and elaborate on their own assumptions, ideas, and interactions, an ability that is reflected in a transforma- tional leadership style (Paul, 1993).

Bruning (2005) described the impor- tance and value of critical thinking online, emphasizing that online instructors need to provide students with in-depth critical thinking exercises that apply theory to practice. This strategy will require distance educators to construct curricula that will encourage and inspire students to apply critical thinking techniques and standards, which is the most important aspect in an online learning environment. Most educa- tors agree that online instructors have the responsibility to create and develop assign- ments, exercises, discussions, and other projects that will continue to expand criti-

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cal thinking knowledge, skills, and experi- ences toward achieving future success.

ENHANCING CRITICAL THINKING WITH ONLINE TEAMS Group assignments are an effective means of practicing and enhancing critical think- ing skills. This kind of approach supports critical thinking, allowing a focused discus- sion, and builds cohesive communities within the groups. Instructors can lead dis- cussion threads and boards with questions that will encourage student discussions to the higher level of thinking. Instructors should provide enough time and a struc- ture so that students can actually think about their thinking, synthesize their knowledge from prior readings, and read- ily provide their comments in either syn- chronized or unsynchronized group discussion threads (Kinne & Eastep, 2008).

In groups and team assignments, criti- cally thinking students would look for alternative explanations and seek different positions as they increase their ability to debate the authenticity or decisions of the other students in group assignments. They would be encouraged to become focused thinkers who relate back to the main intent of the issues, questions, or discussion. They learn how to withhold judgment of other group members when evidence is not suf- ficient and are eager to seek the evidence needed. More importantly, they would become open-minded students who con- sider other opinions and points of view and are willing to change positions when facts, logic, or evidence are sufficient or evident from group members. This skill would be applicable to their present and future organizations and prepare students for teamwork necessary toward organiza- tional success.

Organizational change takes place when a team-setting environment incorpo- rates critical thinking skills. Implementing the process of critical thinking, team judg- ment, analysis, interpretation, and infer-

ences within a team-setting environment are crucial to successful organizational changes (Natale & Ricci, 2006, p. 272). Because critical thinkers realize the limits of being able to know the entire factual information required for an opinion or decision, they are ready for developing the foundation for decision making among teams within an organization. Within the online classes, they focus on probability of the information available and most often produce effective results leading toward the most appropriate reasoning for each situation. Students will be able to identify the relationships among ideas within team and group discussions and can practice categorizing information received on a range of issues from that of major impor- tance to complete irrelevance. On success- ful completion of the online course, students will become not only knowledge- able within the subject content area, but will also become more reflective thinkers. Those reflective thinkers will be able to analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and draw conclusions toward reaching a rational judgment within each step of the group dynamic process.

ONLINE LOCAL AND GLOBAL THINKING Students who think critically become sen- sitive to diversity in culture. They display a degree of sophistication and knowledge in their verbal and written discussions. This sensitivity is often a result of developing the ability to analyze in parts a problem or concern, focus on complex concern, and provide a logical and orderly process for changing opinions. Eventually they will be able to transfer their skills to other situa- tions from online discussions to their onsite work or academic environment to enhance the outcome of everyday deci- sions.

In a presentation at an international conference on education, research, and innovation in Madrid, Spain (Ricci, 2009),

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learning beyond the boundaries of cultural conditioning by focusing on critical think- ing was broached. My research indicated that differences of opinion on decisions often are based on backgrounds or “cul- tural conditioning.” Our thought process and decision-making process often is influ- enced by background or heritage. Barry (1984) wrote that cultural conditioning can block an individual’s ability to think criti- cally. However, Barry concluded that an instructor recognizes the role that critical conditioning has in the thought process; thus, critical thinking can be applied and allow groups to develop best solutions within a given situation, which was reiter- ated by Streib (1992) in an historical disser- tation on critical thinking. Streib argued that cultural influences do affect individual thinking systems and influence personal thinking preferences. A more comprehen- sive discussion on culture and distance learning can be found in the research of Simonson et al. (2008).

ENCOURAGE CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH ANALYTICAL RESEARCH PAPERS Critical thinking is crucial when students are writing research papers. A distance educator can create and enhance the criti- cal thinking writing skills by developing assignments for which students have to evaluate other writings within the course content areas. Students can be encouraged to judge the credibility of the sources, identify the assumptions, judge the quality of reasoning and evidence, and take a posi- tion on an issue developed and defended by critical thinking (Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2007). Instructors should encourage students to pursue a logical and sequential pattern when discussing online information and teach them to formulate a logical thinking process beginning with figuring out the problem, getting relevant information together and analyzing it. In

using deductive reasoning, students can address their original ideas or consider alternatives. Then the teacher can help them self-evaluate so that they can draw appropriate conclusions (McGraw Hill Companies, 2000). Perkins (2008) con- cluded that students who employ critical thinking are better strategizers in that they are more analytical in problem solving than the students who are not good critical thinkers. They think at a higher level than their peers and always employ good logic and organization in the learning process. They can easily distinguish the main issues from the details and are competent at judging statements as backed by evidence or assumptions (Perkins, 2008).

Critical thinking allows online students to consider issues and evidence carefully from all viewpoints when gathering data for online research papers. It assists their ability to determine what is rational and realistic, allowing them to separate truth from opinion. Reading, writing, and learn- ing in a critical light can provide the ana- lytical thinking necessary for successful completion of most online experiences. Doherty, Hansen, and Kaya (1999) dis- cussed the importance of critical thinking and the need for librarians to teach infor- mation literacy within their online pro- grams. Doherty et al. have developed instructional programs that work with stu- dents on the Internet toward applying crit- ical thinking skills to all resources within their specific areas of interest. They stressed the need for critical thinking and foresaw their continuing role toward the development of thinking and information, utilizing the new and emerging technolo- gies that enhance the objectives of all infor- mation specialists. Such approaches will assist students to utilize these skills when “surfing” the net for information and con- tinuing on to their professional careers in which strategic thinking is most often identified as the key to success.

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CRITICAL THINKING ON NETWORKS: DISTANCE EDUCATION IS HERE TO STAY The main source of information today is the virtual world. Most people use e-mail communications, video and audio record- ings, social networking on Twitter, Face- book, and personal blogs via computers, smart phones, and tablets among other hardware, all of which are developing at a rapid pace. Information is so abundant that critical thinking is crucial for every- one, particularly students, who need criti- cal thinking when reviewing all the electronic information. They need to deter- mine accuracy levels as well as the credibil- ity of the authors in addition to how updated the information is. Although search engines have become the present- day gateway to information, education will continue to be the economic engine of a society attracting those with knowledge in providing research and innovation to the world as they contribute to the global economy (Ricci, 2012, p. 155). Furthermore, the means and transfer of education and information will continue to change with the emergence of expanding online instruction within the elementary, second- ary, and postsecondary educational envi- ronments.

As world populations expand their opportunity to obtain information through electronic media, educators will need to encourage students to seek reasoning in every piece of information with which they engage so that they can evaluate blogs, statements, and discussions on pres- ent global social media networks. Their analysis, reasoning, evaluating, and decision-making activities will be more crucial than any other time in history as the Internet continues to expand its appli- cations. The qualities of critical thinking including clarity, accuracy, precision, rele- vance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness will be sorely needed to evaluate the vast amount of information available daily

from those in all cultural, social, or eco- nomical levels worldwide. Everyone will need to know how to identify if the infor- mation submitted by those within and among all nations is accurate, reliable and valid, and supported (Foundation for Criti- cal Thinking, 2007).

DISTANCE EDUCATORS: LEADING TOWARD GLOBAL ACCESS LEARNING Distance educators will be the leaders toward cultivating critical thinking online as they assist students to communicate effectively in a rapidly growing online world to solve complex problems in busi- ness, industry, government, and educa- tion, both locally and globally. Distance educators need to update and refresh the critical thinking, knowledge, and vocabu- lary of their students continuously so that within each written assignments and course outlines the thinking process can be fostered and transferred to all areas of indi- vidual lives (Foundation for Critical Think- ing, 2007). These teachers are at a critical position toward leading the way toward clear, accurate, precise, relevant, consistent, logical, complete and fair thinking by assisting with examples and exercises online. A well organized and comprehen- sive website provides instructors with valuable insights on critical thinking (Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2007). Reviewing these insights will expand and improve distance educators’ knowledge and provide a good method to begin improving one’s proficiency and apprecia- tion of the basic skills of critical thinking.

Other websites that provide supportive information on critical thinking can be uti- lized as an instructor ’s reference or as a student supplement such as a critical thinking website (Lau & Chan, 2012; http:// philosophy.hku.hk/think) and a critical thinking community (Foundation for Criti- cal Thinking, 2011; http://www.criticalth- inking.org/pages/critical-thinking-where- to-begin/796). Most educators would agree

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that thinking critically is essential for job ambitions, democratic aspirations, a grow- ing world economy, and employee diver- sity, all of which enhance quality of life and help students keep an open mind. Instruc- tion focusing on critical thinking in online courses generates more analytical problem solvers at school and work who are part of an ever-advancing society in a social, eco- nomic, and political world.

An extensive study of Ohio business and government leaders led to a list of the most important skills needed to succeed in the global economy in addition to ways educators could strengthen the educa- tional system toward fulfilling student needs. The result of this work is a Top 10 list of what it believed to be the most important skills, knowledge, and behav- iors for students, indicating that critical thinking, problem solving, and applying knowledge to get results were at the top of the list (Subcommittee for Education in the New Global Economy, 2007).

EXPANDED SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING ONLINE Almost all aspects of distance learning involve writing, whether in essays and other submitted assignments, discussion posts, or communications with instructors and peers. Online instructors can encour- age good writing by asking questions. When students are asked to post written assignments, instructors could encourage them to analyze and evaluate writing to enhance critical thinking skills and writing outcome. Paul (2006) stressed the impor- tance of understanding the logic of the author ’s position in a reading assignment can be made clear by being able to deter- mine the author ’s purpose of writing, ask questions that can be answered with the content of the piece, make inferences in reference to convicting or persuading, identify concepts and reflect and elaborate on them effectively, and state assumptions

if any, including different points of view from the students. Paul claimed that stu- dents should be able to judge whether writing in reference to those areas employ intellectual standards of clarity, precision, logic, relevance, significance, depth, fair- ness, and accuracy. Examples of questions suggested by Paul (2006) to encourage stu- dents to pursue include, among others:

• Am I clear in reference to what I am thinking and conveying into words?

• Do I have adequate information to assist readers in the understanding of what I wish to convey?

• Are my writings clearly and logically conveying my ideas?

• Have I identified the significance of what I am writing?

• Did I provide accurate information sup- ported by facts, logic, and evidence from credible resources?

These questions would enhance the stu- dents’ written assignments along with their ability to think clearly and critically while applying intellectual standards (Paul, 2006). In a peer-reviewed electronic journal at http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp ?v=4&n=3, Potts (1994) revealed three strategies that would help instructors teach critical thinking skills: (a) building catego- ries, (b) finding problems, and (c) enhanc- ing the environment.

Critical thinking checklists are often helpful to both the students and the online instructor like the one provided by Wilson (2009). This general checklist that can be found at http://www.sussex.ac.uk/s3/ index.php?id=91 focuses on what is important and emphasizes that critical thinking should be developed within the context of the subject area or discipline being taught. The categories are (a) identi- fying what is important (e.g., what are the key ideas, problems, arguments, observa- tions, findings, conclusions?), (b) evaluat- ing what is discovered (e.g., is there engagement with relevant, up to date

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research?), (c) looking beyond what one is reading/hearing (e.g., what other view- points, interpretations and perspectives are there; what is the evidence; and how do they compare?), (d) clarifying perspec- tives (e.g., reach conclusions on the basis of your reasoning).

A guide from the Centre for Teaching Excellence at the University of Waterloo at http://cte.uwaterloo.ca/teaching_resources/ tips/promoting_and_assessing_critical_ thinking.html is directed toward online and classroom instructors. Some highlights of this simple guide are useful generic question stems for instructors such as (a) what do we already know about …, (b) how does … affect …, (c) how does … tie in with what we have learned before, (d) why is … important, and (e) what is a counterargument for …, to name a few.

CRITICAL THINKING MEASUREMENT USING A RUBRIC Online professors can assist students when the latter are reading and writing in social media, reviewing textbooks and aca- demic journals, writing essays or papers, and contributing to discussion forums and group assignments. Soni (n.d.) summa- rized a variety of sources of rubrics for assessing critical thinking skills to help instructors make their courses more con- sistent and objective and to help students assess the quality of their work and improve their performance (see http:// litre.ncsu.edu/toolkit/Critical_Thinking_ Rubrics.htm). Three of the rubrics listed are The New Critical and Integrative Thinking Rubric, Template for Developing a Customized Critical Thinking Rubric, and Collegiate Learning Assessment: International Critical Thinking Test. Instructors are encouraged to adapt rubrics that “can be used across disci- plines in an attempt to highlight the importance of integrating ideas and per- spectives across boundaries of discipline, viewpoint, and practice” (Soni, n.d.).

DISTANCE EDUCATOR CREATIVITY ON CRITICAL THINKING On the role of critical thinking within an online environment, Buring (2005) wrote that the instructor can create interactive exercises in a learning community where students interact and share ideas. Buring’s Create-A Problem exercises provide critical thinking exercises within the online envi- ronment and can be used as an example for online instructors. It allows students to relate to their problems or concerns in a story format, to which other students respond by creating detailed solutions and feedback within the discussion threads. There, analytical and problem solving skills were stimulated for the students toward realistic problems online.

SUGGESTIONS FOR DISTANCE EDUCATORS For educators who wish to enrich their courses of study by creating critical think- ing methods and techniques toward expanding and improving students’ critical thinking skills, I have listed several sugges- tions that will lead to ensuring challenging and intellectual online classes:

• Create problem-solving discussions and emphasize the relevance and validity of the information.

• Identify possible solutions to problem assignments and welcome alternative methods of finding solutions.

• Promote interaction among students online by encouraging questions and responses to student postings, chat ses- sions, and other online activities.

• Select visually attractive web pages, vid- eos, blogs, or tweets on a topic of gen- eral interest to the learners.

• Select or create scenarios and case stud- ies where there is no correct answer. Encourage students to think critically and respond without concerns about incorrect answers.

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• Teach toward transfer of learning by dis- cussing how students can apply the new information learned to other situa- tions that may contribute to their per- sonal or professional life.

• Create problem-finding activities and assemble groups or teams to pursue the assignment and discuss methods of identifying and solving problems.

• Provide online students with the oppor- tunity to express their knowledge in ways that are personally meaningful and beneficial to others.

• Define the content and conceptual knowledge that the students need to demonstrate on completion of an assignment or at the end of the semes- ter.

• Encourage students to demonstrate their acquisition of knowledge by indi- cating the process used and how it will benefit their immediate and future wants and needs.

• Create alternative strategies for accu- rately assessing student content for stu- dent discussion such as investigations, self-assessment, reflection, e-portfolios, e-projects, asynchronous discussions, or video presentations.

• Add case studies, debates, research proj- ects, Wikis and blog assignments, simu- lations, podcasts, and educational games to encourage critical thinking techniques online

• Provide and discuss rubrics, standards, and indicators of student’s performance on critical thinking skills.

• Question students on how each project is aligned to the course and program of study objectives.

• Include critical thinking rubrics as part of the discussion and evaluation process

• Implement grading systems that accu- rately present student achievement within each objective and intended out- come.

• Utilize critical thinking strategies for students who have varied talents and skills and uses appropriate

• Provide activities, modified as necessary according to diversity and cultural dif- ferences, that enhance critical thinking skills relevant to the needs of the learn- ers.

• Encourage collaboration and interaction among all students by leading them to employ critical thinking in teamwork.

• Develop online student-centered activi- ties based on critical thinking and relate to outside world applications.

• Help students to stretch their critical thinking while maintaining realistic expectations on solutions.

• Provide provisions for assistance with technology tools and indicate where to seek help when needed.

• Provide opportunities for team and group activities for promoting critical thought such as case studies, task- related group projects, peer reviews, debates, etc.

• Allow students to evaluate their own critical thinking skills thorough the course.

Distance educators have the opportu- nity to provide numerous opportunities for conveying and providing critical think- ing activities, exercises, scenarios, and online experiences that allow students to identify issues, devise “what if ” scenarios, and formulate arguments and hypotheses.

WORLDWIDE ONLINE REVOLUTION The traditional classroom is undergoing a significant transformation that requires new teaching methods adapted for an online venue. Online education is giving rapid rise to innovative information tech- nologies. The future of distance education is secure, yet the key to engaging with the content in the most effective way is a strong emphasis on critical thinking for students and instructors alike. Distance educators should collaborate to develop critical thinking skills in all elements of online coursework to enhance the learning

Volume 10, Issue 1 Distance Learning 13

environment for students everywhere. The latter represent a diversity of ethnicities and cultures but are the same in their needs for viewing a changing world with a critical eye.

Distance educators will be in the fore- front of this pedagogical transformation in an environment in which every aspect of the world—be it technological, political, societal, or theoretical—does not share the same status of even a few decades ago. Such a transformation does not come eas- ily and presents numerous challenges. However, distance educators must con- tinue to encourage students to be ready to meet the challenges. Simonson (2008) pre- dicted that at a time when technology, society, economics, politics, and theories of learning are all in transition, distance edu- cation will continue to be contested, which will challenge the distance educator and researchers. Such circumstances will encourage these academics to develop more ways to continue to meet the needs of learners worldwide. One of the greatest needs of human beings is the ability to think critically. Distance education instruc- tors will lead the way toward assuring that prepackaged and repacked information will not supplant acquiring reasoned judg- ment. Developing critical thinking skills among students is the common objective of all the disciplines conveyed thought dis- tance learning. It is the necessary skill needed to conquer the information explo- sion and the future technological commu- nication changes worldwide.

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