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Students writing capstones must use the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA style manual). Additional specific requirements for Walden University dissertations and project studies, above and beyond APA style, are included in this guidebook. In rare instances where Walden’s requirements conflict with the APA style manual, the university style standards prevail. These items are indicated in this guidebook by green boxes.

There are grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors.

Identified abbreviations have not been used more than once in the abstract.

The research problem, research question, or purpose of the study is unclear.

There is misalignment between the research problem, research question, methods, results, or implications.

The question “So what?” has not been answered. Students need to indicate why the research is important. Who would care if the problem is solved?

The research methods, data analyses, and results are not adequately described.

Social change implications are inadequate or missing.

The abstract exceeds one page.

Appendices

A blank divider page is unnecessary between appendices unless it lends to readability or if a heading cannot be placed on the first page of an appendix. (Typically, this could happen when a scanned document takes up an entire page.) The materials in the appendix must not extend beyond the margins of the rest of the dissertation; reduce the appendix materials as needed.

Definitions of Terms and Glossaries

Many capstones include a brief listing of key terms that are interpreted and clarified for the reader’s benefit. In general, students should not define a common term such as teenager (“a person between 13 and 19 years, inclusive”). They should list only key concepts included in the study, ambiguous, controversial, or operational terms used throughout the capstone. Technical terms are usually defined in the text, if necessary, rather than in a Definitions of Terms section. Definitions must be explicit, specific, and scholarly, and the source must be cited. More information on defining terms and further instruction on words used as words is provided below.

When defining a term, students need to determine whether the definition belongs in a list or in the text. Walden suggests the following three options for defining key terms:

List key words or phrases in a section called Definition of Terms in the first chapter.

List all key terms in a glossary, in an appendix.

Define more common terms, particularly abbreviations and technical terms with only immediate application for the reader upon first usage. (Per APA 4.21, remember to italicize key terms on first usage.)

Students should consult their committee chair about what is most appropriate for the reader’s comprehension.

Definition Examples

Note that it is important to give proper credit to the originator of the definition.

The following examples illustrate different approaches to this issue. The first two examples might well appear in a section called Definition of Terms.

Dialects: Language varieties that initially and basically represent various geographic origins (Fishman, 1972, p. 5).

This writer might have chosen an entirely different definition, depending on how the term was used in the capstone.

Dialects: Differences between kinds of language that are differences of vocabulary, grammar, and punctuation (Trudgill, 1974, p. 17).

For purposes of this capstone, the writer might have decided that the reader is best served by defining the term in the text, as below, rather than in a list of terms in a Definition of Terms section.

Fishman (1972) used the term dialects to mean “varieties of language that initially and basically represent divergent geographic origins” (p. 5).

To introduce a new, technical, or key term or label or to indicate a word used as a word, students should set the term in italic type on first mention in the text. After the first reference, Roman type should be used. This use of italics most often occurs in the context of defining a word, term, or phrase:

The term networking refers to creating relationships and saving contact information for a specific situation, usually a job search. Networking can be of particular importance when one is establishing contacts in a new arena.

Copyrighting the Capstone

A statement of copyright ownership to a capstone is not necessary because, by federal law, a copyright exists once a work is “fixed in tangible form” (APA 1.15). If students wish to add a copyright notice, place this wording at the bottom of the acknowledgments page or, if there is no acknowledgments page, on a blank page after the main title page:

© [year] by [author’s name]. All rights reserved.

· The purpose and character of the use.

· The nature of the copyrighted work.

· The amount and substantiality of the portion used.

· The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work.

ProQuest offers guidance to authors to help them avoid copyright infringement. Such mistakes may include, among other potential problems, the following:

· Long quotations. There is no legal requirement, but authors should avoid long quotes in nearly all instances.

Reproduced publications. This includes standard survey instruments or questionnaires and articles, such as newspaper or magazine articles, included in an appendix.

Music or lyrics.

Graphic or pictorial works.

APA style uses the author–date citation system. Authors’ names and year of publication are given within the text or at the end of block quotations. The author name may appear as part of the narrative text with the year of publication in parentheses, or both the name and year may appear in parentheses, separated by a comma. These citations are included as items in a reference list placed at the end of the paper and arranged alphabetically by the authors’ last names and chronologically within lists of works by a single author.

When directly quoting an original source, students should use quotation marks to set off the quoted text or format it as a block quotation, as described above, including author, date, and page numbers. Per APA 6.04, Walden strongly encourages students to provide page numbers when paraphrasing closely. The reader will appreciate knowing the exact location of all references, and it will clarify the origination of the ideas, whether they are the author’s or from another source.

Plagiarism

Some general guidance for creating a reference list follows:

Paginate the reference list continuously, following the narrative chapters.

Use the first and middle (if any) initials of all authors; do not write out the first name. Place a character space between the initials. With two or more authors, use & rather than and before the last author. Separate the names with a comma:

Foyt, A. J., & Andretti, M. P. (APA 6.25)

When a reference has up to seven authors, spell out all authors’ names (APA 6.27). When a reference has eight or more authors, spell out the first six, then put ellipses and the last author’s name:

Zuckerman, J., King, M., Cook, A., Timmerman, B., Patterson, J., Ball, T., . . . Kubista, A. (2009).

If two or more of the works by a single author or set of authors have the same publication date, assign the dates the letters a, b, c, and so on.

For the titles of books and journal articles, capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word of the subtitle following a colon (if any), and any proper nouns. Capitalize the titles of journals in title case following the mention of a chapter or article (APA 4.15). Italicize titles of books and journals. Do not use quotation marks around titles of journal articles.

Do not use the abbreviations Vol. and No. in reference to journals. Italicize the volume number, but not the issue or page numbers. Indicate the issue number in parentheses immediately after the volume number only if the journal is paginated separately by issue. Follow the volume (and issue, when applicable) with a comma and the page numbers:

American Political Science Review, 37(2), 17–32.

Do not precede page numbers of journal articles by p. or pp.

In reference lists, use U.S. postal code abbreviations for all state names.

Type one character space after all punctuation in the reference list.

Electronic Sources

Point of View

Inclusive Language

Language used in scholarly writing should be inclusive. Most writers know the gender-restrictive nature of words like policeman, mailman, or fireman. Accordingly, writers should employ words that are not sexist and more accurately describe American society.

One of the most troublesome issues for writers regarding sexist language revolves around the pronouns he and she. The combination he or she is common, if cumbersome; some readers resent he always preceding she; others will write s/he. Some writers choose as a matter of course to use only the word he and then add a note of apology at the beginning of a manuscript. This is dated and seen as a poor solution by many readers. Some writers go back and forth between he and she—also cumbersome, but effective in certain instances.

One frequent solution is changing the singular third-person pronoun to the plural they—thus, replacing “A junior high school teacher spends much of her day just maintaining order” with “Junior high teachers spend much of their day just maintaining order.” In this example, another solution is to use the passive voice: “To a large extent, a junior high school teacher’s day is spent maintaining order.”

Above all, students are asked to be sensitive to the terminology of racial, ethnic, and religious groups.

Type

Line Spacing

Double-space between all text lines throughout the manuscript, including the Table of Contents, block quotations, and the reference list. To do this, go to the line spacing options, select the entire document, and then, under Spacing, set Before and After to 0 (zero), and make sure the line spacing is set to Double.

Double-space the text on the Acknowledgments and Dedication pages, and use regular paragraph indents.

Never use single-spacing or one-and-a-half spacing except in tables or figures.

Begin each chapter on a new page.

Do not begin each section or subsection on a new page. Sections should follow one another immediately in order to avoid large blank spaces.

One-line widows and orphans are acceptable at the top and bottom of a page; however, for increased readability, two lines are preferred. Do not leave a heading floating at the bottom of a page without accompanying text.

Headings must be worded identically in the table of contents and the text. Do not leave a heading stranded at the bottom of a page. Headings should not be labeled with letters or numbers.

Per APA, double-space between a subheading and the preceding text. All headings must have text following a heading before a second heading is used.

The sixth edition of the APA style manual does not show specifically how to format chapter headings. Walden has matched the hierarchy in the sample paper in the manual and incorporated a plain, centered Level 0 heading for chapter headings, in title case (mixed uppercase and lowercase), like this:

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study (Level 0)

Background of the Problem (Level 1)

APA’s heading levels, positions, and formats for a capstone with five heading levels are listed below, with the addition of Walden’s chapter heading (Level 0).

Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Chapter Heading (Level 0)

Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading, Bold (Level 1)

Flush Left, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading, Bold (Level 2)

Indented, bold, lowercase. (Level 3)

Indented, bold, lowercase, italics. (Level 4)

Seriation refers to lists of items (APA 3.04). Two of the most important aspects of formatting lists are readability and consistency. The reader needs to keep track of the listing.

Formatting Lists in Text

For items listed within a paragraph, use letters (a), not numbers, in parentheses; (b) separate each item with a comma; or (c) separate each item with a semicolon, as shown in this example, if there is already a comma in one or more of the items.

When listing items vertically, use the numbered format below:

1. When listing items vertically, or breaking them out of the paragraph format, use 1., 2., 3., and so forth, and continue to double space.

2. Indent the number the same as for a paragraph, usually 0.5 inch.

Bulleted lists are formatted the same as a numbered lists. Use a bulleted list when there is no need to indicate a certain order or chronology.

Properly punctuating lists is a bit of an art and a bit of a science. APA allows the use of periods at the end of items in lists, even if the item is not a complete sentence. To determine the proper punctuation, writers must consider the syntax of the introductory phrase.

Sometimes writers introduce lists with a phrase just like this:

1. End each item in a list like this with a period, even if it is not a complete sentence.

2. Item 2 in a list per APA.

3. Item 3 in a list per APA.

In the above example, the clause that introduces the list could end as a sentence. That is, the items in the list do not complete the introductory clause. In this case, end the clause with a colon, and, per APA, capitalize the first word in each numbered item, and use periods at the end of the items.

On the other hand, see this example:

Sometimes, however, writers introduce lists with a clause that concludes with

1. item 1 in a list per APA that completes the introductory clause,

2. item 2 in a list per APA that completes the introductory clause, and

3. item 3 in a list per APA that completes the introductory clause.

In this case, the three items in the list complete the introductory clause. Per APA, separate the items with commas if there are no other commas in the items or with semicolons if there are. Start each clause with a lowercase letter.

Here are some tips regarding commonly used abbreviations:

Lowercase should be used for Latin abbreviations, such as a.m., p.m., i.e., and e.g.

Latin abbreviations such as e.g., etc., i.e., and cf. should be used only in parenthetical materials. Use the English translation of these abbreviations in non-parenthetical material (APA 4.26). Roman, not italic, type should be used for these abbreviations. An exception is made for the term [sic], which is always italicized and set in square brackets, as shown here.

The plural of the abbreviation p. is pp. Such abbreviations are rarely used when not within parenthetical elements.

In text copy, spell out the names of states and countries. (See APA pp. 88 and 187 to learn when and how to abbreviate locations.)

United States should be written out when referred to in noun form. It is abbreviated with periods when used as an adjective: the U.S. economy (p. 88).

APA has many additional rules regarding abbreviations. See APA 4.22–4.30 and consult the index of the style manual for more information.

Following are items to supplement the APA style manual and highlight some common errors:

1. Only standard American English is acceptable in Walden capstones. Naturally, cited material from previously published sources should be left in the original form, including British or archaic spelling and excessive punctuation or lack of punctuation.

2. Do not use contractions. For example, write cannot rather than can’t and I will rather than I’ll.

3. In most cases, make the possessive form of proper names ending in s by adding an apostrophe and s: Jones’s, Grimes’s, Wilks’s, Sanchez’s. The Chicago Manual of Style notes several exceptions: Moses’, Jesus’, Xerxes’.

4. Do not add an apostrophe when forming the plural form of a number:

Most of you scored 1s and 2s.

The 1950s was a decade of great social homogenization.

5. If a compound adjective cannot be misread or if its meaning is established, a hyphen is not necessary:

covert learning conditions

day treatment program

sex role differences

grade point average

6. In general, compound adjectives that end in -ed are hyphenated when they precede the noun they are modifying:

client-centered service

group-oriented process

self-described phenomena

but

Billie is quick tempered.

7. Check the style manual for the appropriate hyphenation of combinations of words like high school, follow up, and well being (4.13) and the spelling of such words as appendices (4.12).

8. Many prefixes do not require hyphens, including anti, non, inter, intra, semi, mini, pseudo, and under. (See APA 4.13 for detailed guidance regarding hyphenation.)

9. Academic degrees are spelled as follows in lowercase, unless following a person’s name:

doctorate

doctoral degree

bachelor’s degree

master of science

master’s degree

Dayna Herrington, MA

Eric Riedel, PhD

10. As discussed in APA 3.19, the subject and verb must agree in number (i.e., singular or plural). Data and media are plural nouns. (“The data were misleading, but the media were reporting the erroneous information anyway.”) Datum and medium are singular nouns.

11. Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace.

12. A comma must be used between items (including before and and or) in a series of three or more items (e.g., trains, planes, and automobiles).

13. No comma appears between the month and year when used alone (without an exact date): for example, December 1957.

14. Use double quotation marks for quotations. Use single quotation marks within double quotation marks only. For a quotation within a block quotation, the internal quotation gets double quotation marks. (APA 4.08)

15. Quotation marks nearly always go outside the final punctuation.

The title of the article was “A Day in High School.” One respondent noted, “My boss is a source of great joy at my job.”

but

As Hernandez (2008) observed, “Nothing is more important than financial integrity in higher education” (p. 26).

16. One or two character spaces after a period is acceptable, however it is necessary that the number of spaces you use after a period be consistent throughout your document. In the References section, use a single space after end punctuation (e.g., periods, colons).

17. The proper format for a dash (4.06) is an “em dash” or two hyphens with no space between them or on either side: like this—or--like that. This is automatic in some software programs. Other programs leave spaces around a hyphen, requiring adjustment or an override of that function: In Microsoft Word, use File/Options/Proofing/AutoCorrect Options/AutoFormat. Consult the APA style manual (p. 97) for more on dashes and hyphens.

Capitalization

The following items supplement the APA style manual’s coverage of capitalization (4.14–4.20):

1. Do not capitalize the names of job titles unless they immediately precede a person’s name.

The vice president of the United States is the second in command.

Vice President Nelson Rockefeller came from a wealthy family.

2. Do not capitalize words related to schools when they are used generically. Capitalize such words when used with the name of a school.

the junior high school

Churchill Area Senior High

this university

Walden University

Terms designating academic years are lowercase: freshman, junior.

3. Proper names associated with topographical features, geographical locations, and names of organizations are not discussed at length in APA. Walden recommends The Chicago Manual of Style’s extensive sections on such terms. In general, follow these examples:

the state of Washington; Washington State; New York State

the East Coast; the West Coast

the South; the southeastern United States

the Columbia River; the Columbia River valley

the Allegheny, the Monongahela, and the Ohio Rivers; the Mediterranean and the Caspian Seas

a senator; Senator Barbara Mikulski

the Congress; congressional; the Senate; the House

the Supreme Court; the court; juvenile court

the Democratic Party; a Democrat; communism

(Manuscript page examples continue.)

When and how will I receive my capstone supervisory committee?

Students are assigned their capstone supervisory committee following the processes set forth by their school within the college. Students will be assigned a chair prior to beginning the prospectus course. The URR member will be assigned to the committee after program director (PD) approval of the prospectus and before the committee members have both approved the proposal.

How do I set up a teleconference?

You may use the doctoral title only after your degree has been validated.

If I want to participate in the commencement ceremony, when do I need to finish?

What is the correct style to use? Is there a manual that explains it?

For academic writing, Walden University endorses and uses APA style, as explained in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. The APA style manual is your primary source for style guidance. Throughout this guidebook, the few Walden style preferences that supplant APA recommendations are indicated in green boxes.

What font should I use to type my capstone? What point size?

A serif font is required, and Times New Roman is the preferred serif font. Do not use Courier or New Courier. Tables and figures can use a sans serif font, such as Arial, to help improve readability and appearance. Particularly for Times New Roman, 12-point font size is preferred. (APA pp. 228–229)

Which is right: italics or underlines? Can I use bold?

Italics are correct, rather than underlines. Use bold only in heading levels (APA 3.03), for certain mathematical copy (APA 4.45), and sparingly in tables and figures to improve readability.

How do I format citations of electronic sources?

Can Walden Writing Center staff members review my proposal? Can they look at my capstone when I’m starting out?

Proposal Preliminary

Development

Begin Proposal Stage

Draft

Revisions

Optional draft development in Proposal Preliminary

Development section of Taskstream

Chair and 2

nd

member can provide feedback in the

Proposal Preliminary Development section

Chair determines readiness of document for committee

review under Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis

If assigned, URR is available to provide consultation and

advice on specific questions as the study develops

Chair deems proposal ready for formal review

Student uploads materials for committee review under

Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis

Committee chair scores as Met under Proposal Committee

Rubric Analysis, system notifies committee that one

evaluation has occurred. 2

nd

member completes rubric

analysis. Following both committee member rubrics being

completed, chair reconciles evaluations, combining all

feedback so it is visible to the student.

Proposal

Committee Rubric

Analysis

Proposal URR

Rubric Analysis

Approved

Move to URR review

Not Approved

Revise

Chair uploads proposal, checklist, and Turnitin

report to Meets Requirements reconciliation in

Taskstream

Not Approved

Revise

URR completes rubric analysis under Proposal URR

Rubric Analysis

Referral to

Writing Center

Referral to IRB

Not Approved

Refer-Revise

Approved

Move to Oral Defense

OPTIONAL

An optional meeting that

includes the committee and URR

may be held if necessary. The

student may attend the meeting

if the committee and URR agree

that the student’s presence

would be productive.

Schedule Oral

Defense

IRB Review

Complete Proposal Stage

Proposal Oral

Presentation

Approved

Move to IRB review

Approved

Student schedules oral with chair

and committee; URR does not

attend

Chair submits Conference Call

Request Form to OSRA

Upon completion of the Proposal Oral Presentation, the

commiittee chair evaluates under Proposal Oral

Presentation in Taskstream as having Met or Not Met the

requirements of the presentation.

If significant changes are required after the oral, the chair

notifies and consults with the URR.

Not Approved

Revise

Not Approved

Revise

IRB reviews application outside of MyDR and

communicates any needs to student, copied to chair

IRB notifies student of approval or request for

revision

Workflow e-mails approval of proposal with notice to

submit IRB.

IRB notifies student of approval

to collect data based on proposal

and IRB approval; copied to chair

and OSRA

Committee chair scores as Not Met, returns to

author

A score of Met will move the student forward to

the Proposal Oral Presentation.

A score of Not Met will return the system back to

student submission under Proposal Committee

Rubric Analysis.*

*Upon URR evaluation of Not Met, the chair is

responsible for providing the student with

feedback. Instructions will be sent from the

OSRA team on how to retrieve the URR

feedback after the system processes the URR

evaluation.

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Proposal Preliminary Development

Begin Proposal Stage

Draft Revisions

Optional draft development in Proposal Preliminary Development section of Taskstream Chair and 2nd member can provide feedback in the Proposal Preliminary Development section Chair determines readiness of document for committee review under Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis If assigned, URR is available to provide consultation and advice on specific questions as the study develops

Chair deems proposal ready for formal review

Student uploads materials for committee review under Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis Committee chair scores as Met under Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis, system notifies committee that one evaluation has occurred. 2nd member completes rubric analysis. Following both committee member rubrics being completed, chair reconciles evaluations, combining all feedback so it is visible to the student.

Proposal Committee Rubric Analysis

Proposal URR Rubric Analysis

Approved Move to URR review

Not Approved Revise

Chair uploads proposal, checklist, and Turnitin report to Meets Requirements reconciliation in Taskstream

Not Approved Revise

URR completes rubric analysis under Proposal URR Rubric Analysis

Referral to Writing Center

Referral to IRB

Not Approved Refer-Revise

Approved Move to Oral Defense

OPTIONAL An optional meeting that includes the committee and URR may be held if necessary. The student may attend the meeting if the committee and URR agree that the student’s presence would be productive.

Schedule Oral Defense

IRB Review

Complete Proposal Stage

Proposal Oral Presentation

Approved Move to IRB review

Approved

Final Study Preliminary

Development

Begin Final Study Stage

Draft

Revisions

Optional draft development in Final Study Preliminary

Development section of Taskstream

Chair and 2

nd

member can provide feedback in the Final

Study Preliminary Development section

Chair determines readiness of document for committee

review under Final Study Committee Rubric Analysis

If assigned, URR is available to provide consultation and

advice on specific questions as the study develops

Chair deems proposal ready for formal review

Student uploads materials for committee review under Final

Study Committee Rubric Analysis

Committee chair scores as Not Met under Final Study

Committee Rubric Analysis, returns to author (i.e. student) in

Taskstream

Committee chair scores as Met under Final Study Committee

Rubric Analysis, system notifies committee that one evaluation

has occurred. 2

nd

member completes rubric analysis. Following

both committee member rubrics being completed, chair

reconciles evaluations, combining all feedback so it is visible to

the student

Final Study

Committee Rubric

Analysis

Final Study URR

Rubric Analysis

Approved

Move to URR review

Not Approved

Revise

Chair uploads final study, checklist, and Turnitin

report to Meets Requirements reconciliation in

Taskstream

Not Approved

Revise

URR completes rubric analysis under Final Study URR

Rubric Analysis.

Referral to Writing

Center

Referral to IRB

Not Approved

Refer-Revise

Approved

Move to Form & Style Review

OPTIONAL

An optional meeting that includes

the committee and URR may be

held if necessary. The student may

attend the meeting if the committee

and URR agree that the student’s

presence would be productive.

Form & Style review

Final Overall Quality

URR Rubric Analysis

Move to Final CAO and UMI Review

Final Oral Presentation

Approved

Move to Final Overall Quality Committee review

Approved

Form & Style editors complete their

review under Form and Style Review

section of Taskstream

Upon completion of the Form & Style review, the

Final Oral Presentation may be held. Upon

completion of the Final Oral Presentation, the chair

will evaluate under that section of Taskstream.

Not Approved

Revise

Student uploads study under Final Overall Quality

Committee Rubric Analysis

Committee completes rubric evaluations and chair

reconciles evaluations.

Final Overall Quality

Committee Rubric

Analysis

A score of Not Met will return the system back to

student submission under Final Study Committee

Rubric Analysis.*

A score of Met will move the student forward to the

Form & Style review. The URR should ensure a clean

copy is uploaded to the URR review for F&S to access.

Not Approved

Revise

If Not Met, return to student to resubmit under Final

Overall Quality Committee Rubric Analysis.*

Met decision triggers URR Final Overall Quality Rubric

Analysis. If Met, URR uploads clean copy of the final study

for CAO review

If Met, triggers URR review. Chair uploads study

for URR review

Not Approved

Revise

*Upon URR evaluation of Not Met, the chair is

responsible for providing the student with

feedback. Instructions will be sent from the

OSRA team on how to retrieve the URR

feedback after the system processes the URR

evaluation.

*Upon URR evaluation of Not Met, the chair is

responsible for providing the student with

feedback. Instructions will be sent from the

OSRA team on how to retrieve the URR

feedback after the system processes the URR

evaluation.

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Final Overall Quality Committee Rubric Analysis

Final Study Preliminary Development

Begin Final Study Stage

Draft Revisions

Begin Final CAO and UMI Review

Abstract Review by CAO or

designate

Not Approved

Revise

CAO/Designate returns feedback in Taskstream, notification

generated to OSRA to clear Taskstream sections

OSRA clears sections and sends notification to committee

and URR

Chair supervises revisions with student

Student submits revised study under Final Overall Quality

Committee Rubric Analysis

Committee members complete rubric analyses; chair

reconciles evaluations and uploads study for URR to

reconciliation

URR completes rubric analysis upon system prompt and

uploads clean copy for CAO review

Cycle continues to achieve satisfaction of CAO/Designate

comments, Chair and student may be referred to Center for

Research Quality for additional guidance

Clean copy of FINAL draft of study

submitted for UMI publication review

Approved

Move to Final UMI review

CAO enters approval in Taskstream

Workflow notifies student, committee, and

URR of approval

OSRA follows up with approval page for

publication

Not Approved

Revise

Complete Final CAO and UMI Review

Approved

Graduation

Audit

Research Capstone is Complete

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Begin Final CAO and UMI Review

Abstract Review by CAO or designate

Not Approved Revise