Male and Female Wage Disparity in Developed Countries

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This document provides you guidelines on how to proceed with your research report. Please note

that a key objective of the research project is for you to come up with the topic yourselves and be

able to justify why it is useful/important. I can help you refine the topic, but you need to take the

lead.

1 Types of research

You may undertake any of the following types of research:

1. Research based on literature review. Here the literature review constitutes an original

and valuable work of research in and of itself rather than providing a background for the

study. In undertaking a literature review-based research, you will answer your research

question providing a critical review of the literature and articulating the next logical stage

in the growing understanding of the topic. The review should critique and synthesize

representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and

perspectives on the topic are generated (Torraco, 2005). When appropriately conducted,

review articles may represent powerful information sources for policymakers looking for

state-of-the art evidence to guide their decision-making.

2. Empirical research project. A well-developed empirical approach that can

informatively address the question or problem. Here, the research question is answered by

formulating a hypothesis and testing it using an appropriate dataset and relevant statistical

and econometric techniques (for example, linear or probit regression analysis).

3. Theoretical research project. A well-developed theoretical modelling strategy that can

informatively address the question or problem. Here, we need (i) a complete statement of

the structure of the model, (ii) justification of solution methods, and (3) solution of the

model.

4. You may also choose to write a ‘referee report of an existing academic article’ as a

possible fourth type. Here, the aim of the research report is to choose a top-ranked

academic economics journal article then discuss and critically analyse the paper in detail,

showing that you understand the following: a. the intuition underpinning its main results;

b. the limitations of the model. You will place the paper in context to the relevant

literature, i.e. explain the nature and significance of its contribution (you will have to read

other papers to do this). Finally, you will suggest extensions to the work undertaken in the

paper.

Note: You may choose to extend a project on which you are already working (at your workplace).

2 What is expected in the completed research report?

1. Innovation. Demonstration of insight and independence of thought or approach, whether in

terms of the question or problem posed, the methodology specified, or (for empirical

projects) the data to be analyzed.

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Structure. A visible, easy-to-follow structure consistent with the conventions of economics is

expected. We expect sections that typically occur in papers in the economics literature, such as Title,

Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Conclusion, and References1.

2. Title. Provide an informative, clear, concise title.

3. Abstract. An abstract is a concise summary of a research paper or entire thesis. It is placed at

the beginning of your paper, immediately following the title page. An abstract must be fully

self-contained and make sense by itself, without further reference to outside sources or to the

actual paper. It highlights key content areas, your research objective, the significance of your

work, and the key findings. This Melbourne University document may help.

Research Question/Objective or Problem. A well-defined research question or problem that

requires economic analysis and that is motivated (in terms of the economics literature and/or the

proposed methodology), feasible (in terms of the available data for empirical projects, and the

mathematical and computational methods for theoretical projects), and presented explicitly and early

in the document.

4. Literature Review. The situating of the question or problem in the literature—it is NOT an

attempt to exhaustively cite the literature or summarize the literature, but rather to identify

the gaps in knowledge that the study addresses and establish a link between the research

question/problem and the existing literature in economics. It may also provide a theoretical

foundation for the proposed study, corroborate the presence of the research problem, justify

the research as one that contributes something new to the cumulated knowledge, or validate

the methods and approaches for the proposed study ( Levy & Ellis, 2006).

5. Methodology. A well-developed empirical approach or a theoretical modelling strategy that

can informatively address the question or problem is required.

For review-based research it may imply: searching the literature while clearly articulating the

search strategy, and assessing the quality of primary studies, and/or extracting data, and/or analysing

data. Typology of literature review may be diverse (systematic review, scoping review and so on).

For the purpose of this unit, we will focus on critical review which aims to provide “a critical

evaluation and interpretive analysis of existing literature on a particular topic of interest to reveal

strengths, weaknesses, contradictions, controversies, inconsistencies, and/or other important issues

with respect to theories, hypotheses, research methods or results” (Pare et al., 2015, page 15).

For empirical projects, this implies (1) a clear statement of the hypothesis or hypotheses, (2) a

detailed characterization of the data set and why it was chosen, (3) the identification and

justification of the statistical and econometric technique used (for example, Linear or Probit

regression analysis), (4) careful and thorough implementation of the technique.

For theoretical projects, this implies (1) a complete statement of the structure of the model, (2)

justification of solution methods (for example, closed-form analytical or numerical solutions),

and (3) solution of the model.

1 You may also have an appendix at the end of the document to contain supplementary material that is not an essential

part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem

or may provide information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper.

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Results and Discussion. An explicit statement of the new results emerging from the project and

their relevance to the broader economic literature. Think carefully, if the report includes tables or

figures, what do they add to the study? Do they aid understanding or are they superfluous?

Discussion should focus on (1) how the results relate to economic intuition; (2) on the findings

of related previous research.

On the whole, this section should tell a coherent story - What happened? What was discovered or

confirmed? Start by describing in simple terms what the data/findings show. Make reference to

statistical analyses, such as significance or goodness of fit (in empirical work). Explain the

significance of the results to wider understanding. This can only be done by referencing

published research.

Discussion should always, at some point, gather all the information together into a single whole.

If there are gaps or inconsistencies in the story, they should address these and suggest ways

future research might confirm the findings or take the research forward.

Conclusion. Summarize by concisely stating the context, research questions and key findings

(maybe one sentence on each). Indicate (1) policy implications of the findings (2) possible

limitations of the results, and (3) directions for further research.2

This section is usually brief. The conclusions should reflect upon the aims - whether they were

achieved or not - and, just like the aims, should not be surprising. The conclusions should be

consistent with the evidence and arguments presented? They should also address the main

question posed. Carefully avoid drawing a conclusion that is contradicted by the author's own

statistical or qualitative evidence.

Style. Lucid, informative, readable sentences; well-defined key terms and concepts; appropriate

gauging of readers’ knowledge; presentation of sufficient context; clear and concise writing

(Lengthy discussions should be avoided). Write, accurately, simply, directly. In writing a

literature review, since part of their research effort is devoted to the criticism of existing

literature, avoid being overly critical of existing research and making personal aspersions.

Accurate and scientific reporting is important.

Source citations. The proper and consistent use of a citation style found in the economics

literature —for example, the APA style or the style used in the American Economic Review. Pay

attention to both in-text citation and bibliography at the end of the research document. Quality of

evidence is crucial. Therefore, pay attention to the sources which you are using to collate

evidence from the literature. Try to provide high quality scholarly sources as evidence.

Note: Relevant economic journals or working paper series

Below is a non-exhaustive list of excellent economic journals and working paper series in order

to help you with your literature search:

2 Sometimes 1, 2 and 3 are also included in Discussion.

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(Journal of Political Economy, Quarterly Journal of Economics, American Economic

Association journals (AER, AEJ), Economic Journal, Journal of Human Resources,

Journal of Labor Economics, Journal of Development Economics, The Review of

Economics and Statistics, Journal of Public Economics, European Economic Review,

Labour Economics, Econometrica, NBER Working papers, IZA Working papers).

More comprehensive list of journals is available here (note this spreadsheet also has

journals from other disciplines). Check if your literature review is based on A and A*

journals.

Additional note on referencing.

• In text, use only author and year, but include a list at the end with the full references

(authors, year, title, journal, volume/issue, page numbers)

• Cite the journal version and not the discussion paper version of a paper, if the paper is

already published in a journal (might not be the case for very recent discussion papers).

• Look for economic sources. Two ideas are: Follow our guidelines (e.g. journal list

above), or look for references in articles you know or for papers who cite this article

themselves.

• Please do not simply copy statements/expressions from papers. If you need a specific

quote, mark it as such (direct quote is marked with "..." and reference incl. page numbers

should be given). But remember, the report should be you describing it in your own

words.

On the whole, focus on the following in writing the research report:

1. write in your own language, paraphrase appropriately

2. avoid plagiarism

2. demonstrate some evidence of critical reflection

3. maintain a logical flow of arguments - well-structured and coherent presentation. For example,

disconnected ideas cropping up from nowhere do not make sense – each section should naturally

flow and connect to one another.

4. avoid copy pasting tables/figures etc from the papers unless they are absolutely essential.

3 On the question of Originality

We focus on ‘simple originality’ ‘which may include reshaping material or considering information

in other ways. It is sufficient for the student to contribute only an incremental step in understanding

(Phillips & Pugh, 1994). Replication should only be done as one part of a “critical evaluation” of an

existing piece of research. For example, you can write a referee report on an academic journal article

and part of that process can be that you replicate the results. Refer to this Melbourne University

guide on the question of ‘originality’.

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4 The process of social research: Research Questions (Wellington & Szczerbinski, 2007)

The starting point for a research project may be a question, or questions, that the researcher would

like to address.

A slightly less focused start might be an issue to be explored or, more ambitiously, a problem to be

solved. The research problem (very similar to research aim or question) identifies what the

researcher does not know and is interested in studying.

It may be presented in the interrogative (question) form (e.g. ‘what is the effect of wealth on

happiness?’), and then we get the research question.

A hypothesis, on the other hand, is the answer to the research question, which a researcher believes

to be true before he analyses his data. It must be stated in the affirmative form (e.g. ‘Happiness

impacts wealth’).

While it is possible (at least in principle) to carry out research without having specific hypotheses in

mind, there can be no research without an underlying purpose, problem or question.

Stating or formulating your purposes under one (or perhaps more) of these categories can help at all

stages of a research enquiry, especially at the outset, i.e:

• What question(s) are you asking/addressing?

• What hypothesis are you testing?

• What problem(s) are you trying to solve/alleviate?

Framing research questions should always be the first step in the research process. It should always

be a case of questions first, methods later. For example, it makes no sense to decide: ‘I am going to

use questionnaires/interviews/observations’ before clarifying the questions which you wish to

address or shed light upon.

As discussed in the slides (on Research Method) there may be what, which, where, how or why

questions. The former may imply a straightforward collection of information, perhaps a

descriptive approach. But the latter, i.e. the how and why questions which seek explanations will

demand more in-depth exploratory approaches.

5 A template

Based on the discussion in the previous sections, here is a possible template for your full research

report.

Note that, for the proposal you will only report Introduction, Literature Review, Proposed

Method and References (optional: Appendix).

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1. Introduction

The Topic: is the broad subject matter being addressed in a study. Introduced in the first paragraphs.

The Research Problem: an area of conflict, concern, or controversy, a gap. State the problem in the opening

paragraph (i.e., something that needs a solution). Identify an issue. Reference the problem using the literature.

Significance: Why the research problem is important. For example, the proposed study is significant since it

addresses the sustainable development goals of zero hunger and eradication of poverty.

Background and Justification: The evidence and relevance from the literature and published or archival data

showing the problem exists. Include key references. You should also have a theoretical basis for the study.

Deficiencies in the Evidence: Include a brief discussion that details the area of need (in relation to the

problem) and the deficiency or lack of evidence in the literature.

Research Aim/Objective/Purpose: Major intent or objective of the study. Create a sentence that begins with

“The purpose/objective of this study is . . .” Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the

study.

Research questions: can be quantitative (more closed. Often on probable cause/effect) or qualitative (more

open ended - descriptive /interpretive /process oriented) or a mix of both.

Contribution of the study. For example, the study addresses a specific gap in the literature and hence, adds

value to the scholarly literature on the subject.

Note: The dividing lines between research problem, research aim /purpose/objective and research questions

are thin. As you read more and more papers from top quality journals you will get the subtle differences. You

may also get confused between contribution and significance of the research. Again reading will help here.

2. Literature Review

Synthesize main findings from the literature on your selected research topic and problem and identify a gap.

Refer to resources on literature review posted in canvas. Also refer to the slides on Research Method.

3. Methodology

Describe the method used to address the research.

Points to be considered for a literature review-based research

• How was the literature selected? Search strategy.

• What keywords and procedures were used to search the literature?

• What databases were used?

• What criteria were used for retaining or discarding the literature?

• How was the literature reviewed? Authors may do a complete reading of each piece of literature,

analyze methods and findings only, or conduct a staged review (i.e., an initial review of abstracts,

and/or introduction, followed by an in-depth review) to analyze the literature.

• How are the main ideas and themes from the literature identified and analyzed?

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For Empirical Research following sections should be present in Method

3.1 Data

• Survey Location • Type of data: experimental/observational

• Sampling size and strategy: For example, out of 10,000 working age population residing in the

village, a random sample of 1000 individuals were selected, stratified by gender.

• What information was collected in the survey

• Duration/Year of survey

3.2 Key Variables

Define and explain the choice of dependent & independent variables in the study. Justification

for including these variables should follow from the literature.

3.3 Summary Statistics of Variables

Example:

Variable Name Description Mean Standard Error (SE)

pcinc Per capita income $1000 0.55

hhsize Household size 5 1.2

3.4 Empirical model

Example: Probit model. Describe the model. Briefly explain why it is relevant.

The theoretical framework behind the empirical model should be mentioned in the Introduction or Literature

review. For example, a health demand function is estimated following Gary Becker’s household production

model (Becker, 1965) as discussed in the Literature review in section 2.

4. Results

5. Discussion

6. Conclusion 6.1 Policy Implications of key findings

6.2 Limitations of the study

6.3 Directions for future research

References/Bibliography

Appendix. Here you can include additional materials which support the analysis but which need not be

included in the main body of the report. For examples, details of survey design, variable construction,

additional results etc.

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5. Differences among Research topic, Research problem, Research purpose/objective

and Research questions

Here is a nice resource (from Nova South Eastern University, Abraham. S. Fischler School of

Education which elucidates the (quite subtle) differences among topic, problem, objective/purpose

and questions.

Source: Nova South Eastern University, Abraham. S. Fischler School of Education

Statement of the Problem

The Topic Distance education via online platforms is a rapidly growing method of education delivery

due to its convenience, wide reach, relatively low cost, and ability to support the achievement of

learning objectives. Whether the platform is Blackboard, WebCT, Moodle, Angel, or some other

learning management system, online education utilizes a variety of common learning tools including

discussion boards, drop boxes, automated testing, and wikis. Chief among these tools are live online

sessions.

The Research Problem

Live online sessions may be delivered in virtual classrooms from Adobe Connect, Elluminate,

GoToMeeting, Wimba, or other software programs. Regardless of the software used, student

attendance at live online sessions, especially optional ones, can be unpredictable at best. It is a

common complaint among the online faculty at a university in the south that many, oftentimes most,

of their students do not attend the live online sessions. This study will address the problem of low

student attendance at nonmandatory virtual classroom meetings in online college courses.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore absenteeism from nonmandatory synchronous

sessions in the virtual learning environment, Wimba Classroom, by undergraduate and graduate

students in online courses at a southern university.

Background and Justification

Offir, Lev, and Bezalel (2008) found the interaction level in a synchronous class, also known as web

conferencing, to be a significant factor in the effectiveness of the class. Other researchers describe

“the power of a synchronous online system to empower students in conversation and expression

(McBrien, Jones, & Cheng, 2009). However, if students do not attend, then they cannot interact nor

express themselves.

Deficiencies in the Evidence. According to Skylar (2009), “research concerning the use of newer

multimedia technologies, such as interactive synchronous web conferencing tools, is in its infancy

and needs further and continued study” (p. 82). McBrien, Jones, and Cheng (2009) stated that “more

studies are needed to explore students’ perceptions of the synchronous learning experience.” A

variety of studies have explored the differences in functionalities of the various platforms (Kenning,

2010; Lavolette, Venable, Gose, & Huang, 2010), but they did not get to the heart of why students do

or do not attend. The contribution of the present study is in addressing the above gap in the

literature.

Research Questions

The central question is: What are students’ attitudes regarding nonmandatory synchronous sessions

in Wimba at a southern university?

The following are subquestions:

1. What are students’ reasons for attending nonmandatory synchronous sessions in Wimba?

2. What are students’ reasons for not attending nonmandatory synchronous sessions in Wimba?

3. What actions could the university or its instructors take that would motivate students to increase

their attendance at nonmandatory synchronous online sessions?

Significance

The study is significant in view of the increasing emphasis on student-focused learning in the higher

education sector.

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6 Some tips….

6.1 On Topic Selection

• Personal interest

• Organizational support

• Ethical issues

• Relevance of the study

• Contribution to the field

• Time constraints

• Breath and scope

• Economic factors

6.2 Locating the Research Problem Read the introduction/opening paragraphs of some existing studies on the topic and think:

• What is the issue or problem?

• What controversy leads to the need for a study?

• What concern is being addressed behind the study?

• Is there a sentence such as, “The problem being addressed in this study is...”?

• What are the questions asked?

6.3 Determining Whether a Problem Should be Researched • Can you study the problem?

• Do you have access to the research site?

• Do you have the time, resources, and skills to carry out the research?

• Should you study the problem? Does it advance knowledge? Does it contribute to

practice?

• Will your study fill a gap or void in the existing literature?

• Will your study replicate a past study but examine different participants and different

research sites?

• Will your study extend past research or examine the topic more thoroughly?

• Will your study inform practice?

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References

1. Bhattacherjee, A., "Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices" (2012).

Textbooks Collection. 3.http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/oa_textbooks/3.

2. Becker, G.S. (1965). ‘A theory of the allocation of time’, Economic Journal, vol. 75(299), pp.

493– 517.

3. Levy, Y., & Ellis, T. J. (2006). A systems approach to conduct an effective literature review in

support of information systems research. Informing Science, 9, 181–211.

4. Paré, G., Trudel, M.-C., Jaana, M., & Kitsiou, S. (2015). Synthesizing information systems

knowledge: A typology of literature reviews. Information & Management, 52(2), 183–199.

5. Phillips, E.M. & Pugh, D.S. (1994). How to get a PhD. USA: Open University Press.

6. Torraco, R. (2005). Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples. Human

Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283

Wellington, J. J. (Jerry J. . & Szczerbiński, M. (2007) Research methods for the social sciences.

London: Continuum International Pub. Group.