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N O N - V E R B A L C O M M U N I C A T IO N 7 7

Cul tura l Nuance

Understanding non-verbal communication is a true art—mainly because it varies so significantly from culture to culture. One’s culture determines how close we stand when talking with another, or how much eye contact we demand. Culture also determines what non-verbal signs we use to express anger or hatred or trust or approval. Don’t underestimate the cultural differences in the interpretation of non-verbal forms of communication. What is a gesture of joy in one culture may be considered a rude insult in another.

Consider the case of one British businessman in Iran. After months of doing the right thing—building relationships with Iranian colleagues, respecting the influence of Islam on negotiations and avoiding any potentially explosive political small talk—the executive was elated once a formal contract was signed. He signed the papers and turned to give his Persian colleagues a big thumbs up. Almost immediately there was a gasp and one Iranian executive left the room. The British executive didn’t have a clue as to what was going on—and his Iranian hosts were too embarrassed to tell him.

The explanation was really quite simple. While the thumbs-up gesture means “good, great, well-played” in Britain, in the Persian culture it is a sign of discontent and borders on the obscene. “I don’t think I was ever more embarrassed in my life. I felt like a child who yells out a vulgar curse word without having any clue as to what it means,” the executive says. “My colleagues accepted my plea of ignorance but the relationship was damaged. It wasn’t that they thought I had truly meant the gesture as interpreted in their culture but rather that I was totally ignorant of it. I just never suspected there was anything wrong with it.”

The lesson here is simple. Communicating effectively across cultures requires more than understanding the written and spoken language. It involves a basic knowledge of the acceptable non-verbal forms of communication within a culture as well. In this case experience is probably the best teacher.

Non-Verba l Communica t ion Types

While even in spoken communication there is enormous room for ambiguity, body language is even more inexact and one needs to be careful interpreting it. A grin, a nod, a wink, a frown does not always have some sort of profound meaning—though in certain cultures such facial expressions can be highly revealing. The key to understanding the meaning behind facial expressions and body movements is not in the individual expressions or movements themselves, but rather in the transition from one body movement to another.

Take an individual who when you begin a discussion is, literally, sitting on the edge of their seat. That gesture in and of itself is meaningless because that is how they are comfortable and like to listen—leaning forward on the edge of their seat. Then, after thirty minutes of talks, that same individual begins leaning forward even more. That would indicate an active interest. But say the same person begins leaning back in their chair after 30 minutes—that would indicate a loss of interest.

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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 6/24/2023 8:01 PM via PURDUE UNIVERSITY GLOBAL AN: 437177 ; Mitchell, Charles.; A Short Course in International Business Culture : Building International Business Through Cultural Awareness Account: ns019078

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L E A R N T O L O O K

Getting a meaningful read on an individual’s body language takes concentration and keen powers of observation. But there is no denying the payoff. The most effective method of reading body language is a two-step process. First, observe the individual’s mannerisms during the initial part of a discussion when tension is at its lowest and the subject is apt to be the most friendly. Then, as the talks continue, you can note any sudden changes in behavior or posture. Remember, the key to understanding body language is not the gesture itself but rather the transition from one posture to another.

But researchers warn against being overly captivated by the myths of body language. Reading body language is not a foolproof method of judging a person’s true intentions and sincerity. This would mean that one of the main reasons spoken language was invented was to help humans deceive each other and cover up the truth of non-verbal communication—that is hardly a reasonable assumption.

Basic Body L inguis t ics

D R E S S A N D A P P E A R A N C E

There is one form of non-verbal communication that you can maintain a great deal of control over—your physical appearance. As mentioned earlier in this book, clothes may not make the man—or the woman—but the reality is that how you look goes a long way in making that first impression. A rumpled look, an unshaven face, perhaps too short a skirt or too high a heel, can leave someone with a negative impression or at least signal that you are unprepared and not a businessperson to be taken seriously.

The purpose of clothing has changed much since humans first donned animal skins for cover. Today, clothes are considered an expression of the individual and a way to identify a person as a member of a certain class or profession (a businessman in a suit, a doctor in a lab coat). Dressing to fit the part is essential. It may not be fair but it is a reality.

E Y E C O N T A C T

The eyes are said to be the window to the soul—and they can reveal the deeper meaning behind the spoken word. But the amount of proper eye contact varies greatly from culture to culture. For example, Americans take direct eye contact as a sign of honesty and sincerity. It shows interest and attentiveness while a lack of eye contact or shifty eyes is taken as a sign of untruthfulness.

Now compare this to the French attitude. Eye contact is considered a statement of equality and is too personal a gesture to use with strangers in a social setting. However, in business meetings, the French will demand at least some direct eye contact. To refuse to meet someone’s eyes is an unfriendly gesture. Finally, compare this to the attitude in Japan where they believe that the less eye contact, the higher the level of esteem. To divert one’s eyes from a business colleague is a sign of respect and reverence.

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F A C I A L E X P R E S S I O N S

Researchers estimate that the human face is capable of creating in excess of a quarter of a million different expressions. Emotions such as happiness and sadness are not easily hidden by facial expressions in most cultures. The ability to produce the proper expression at the proper time can be a powerful way to re-enforce the spoken word. But even the most basic of facial expressions, the smile, can mean different things in different cultures.

For example, Americans consider the smile a highly positive sign—a signal of a warming relationship. However, while Americans are quick to smile, the French are wary of smiles and laughter, especially among strangers. The French smile only when there is an explicit reason. A French human resources magazine went so far as to list 13 different types of smiles and their meaning, from weak and cowardly to mocking. Americans may throw smiles around quite nonchalantly but to the French smiling can be serious business. Compare these two attitudes to Japan where the smile has little place in business negotiations. Usually the only smiles you do see are at the successful conclusion of a contact. A Japanese executive is likely to interpret a smile before then as a sign of lack of seriousness— or even as a gesture of mockery.

P E R S O N A L S P A C E

In some cultures individuals regard space as personal territory and detest the invasion of their turf. The formal term for the amount of space around us or between us and others is proxemics. This, too, can be a form of non-verbal communication. How closely people position themselves to one another during a discussion can communicate what type of relationship exists between them. For example, researchers have determined the proxemics found in American culture:

0-18 inches is intimate space reserved for family and close friends 18 inches to 4 feet is personal space used in most interpersonal interactions 4-12 feet is social-consultative space used in more formal interactions

Of course, Asian and Arabic cultures are minimalist when it comes to proxemics. In these cultures, there is little regard for personal space, and judging the warmth or type of relationship by the amount of space allocated to you by individuals would lead to false conclusions. For businesspeople used to a wide swath of personal space, it is important to hold your ground and not back away when encountering an individual from a culture where space is less important. To back away in these circumstances would be offensive and rude and can lead to a comical “chase” as one person backs away while the other steps forward to close the distance.

P O S T U R E Straight, erect posture, shoulders back, head held high are generally considered

the attributes of an individual who is confident, energetic and self-assured. But posture can also be an indication of the existence of communication barriers. Generally, a relaxed posture, a comfortable seating position, uncrossed arms, and lack of stiffness indicate openness with no communication obstacles. On the other hand, abrupt movements, shifting seating positions, crossed arms or legs may signal defiance, disinterest or an unwillingness to listen. Generally in most cultures:

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■ Slumped posture means low spirits or can signal defeat or disinterest. (In Confucian cultures it denotes a lack of internal harmony.)

■ Leaning forward shows openness and interest.

■ Leaning backwards or away from the speaker indicates a defensive posture or disinterest.

■ Crossed arms or crossed legs signals a defensive position.

■ Uncrossed arms shows a willingness to listen.

S I L E N C E

The act of remaining silent is far from a passive action. However, in different cultures it can mean very different things—or, in the case of Asian cultures, it may mean nothing at all. American, German, French and Arabic executives take a silent reaction to be a negative one. Likewise, when businesspeople from these cultures show no reaction to a proposal or presentation, it should be taken as a negative. However, in Asian cultures silence is not equated with failure or a negative attitude. Rather it simply means that executives are taking time to digest the information and put it into context. The same is true in Scandinavian countries where more thought is given to a reaction following a presentation or discussion than in other European cultures. While such silences may seem awkward to some, it would be wrong to expect an immediate reaction of any depth or meaning in cultures where silence is not thought of as a negative.

G E S T U R E S

Hand and body gestures are often used to emphasize a point and add meaning to the spoken word. When used properly they can be a powerful force in capturing the attention of an audience. But the reverse is also true. You can undermine your message by subconsciously using gestures that send negative signals. As a listener, watching out for the hand movements or body gestures employed by a speaker can give an interesting insight into the true attitude behind the words. Again, the meaning of some gestures varies greatly according to culture. For example, the OK sign, with thumb and index finger forming an “O” and the remaining three fingers slightly raised, means everything is fine and going well to an American. However, to the French the gesture means exactly the opposite—that a proposal is absolutely worthless, a zero. To the Japanese, it has no positive or negative connotation at all but rather is a commonly used symbol for money. The reason: the “O” formed by the thumb and index finger suggests the shape of a coin.

P O S I T I V E V E R S U S N E G A T I V E B O D Y L A N G U A G E

Across all cultures, there are some basic gestures and movements that do have a common meaning. Figuring them out is not brain surgery. Some examples of positive body language and gestures:

■ T H E N O D A fairly rapid almost subconscious nodding of the head signals agreement with what the speaker is saying. It can be a useful signal given by a listener to encourage a speaker and build enthusiasm. Of course, a slower series of head bobs may mean your audience is literally nodding off to sleep.

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■ M O V I N G C L O S E R , L E A N I N G F O R W A R D This is an almost uncontrollable action on the behalf of listeners when they are really interested in a subject. It also means that you have overcome fundamental resistance and barriers to communication that existed have been overcome. If you bring people to the edge of their seats, you have them hooked.

■ P L E N T Y O F H A N D M O V E M E N T , P A L M S O P E N The more the hands move, the more open and involved a speaker is with the audience.

■ N O T E T A K I N G This generally shows a heightened amount of interest and a seriousness about listening. This is more true in North America than in other cultures, though. (Americans almost always attend meetings and presentations armed with notepad and pen.) However, in some cultures (Germany is one example), taking notes is the job of a secretary and not an executive. To take notes would demean your status.

Researchers agree that negative body language is much less reliable as an indicator of mood or interest than positive body language. The listener may simply be sitting in an uncomfortable chair, suffering from an extreme of temperature (too hot in the room or too cold) or may be nursing a hangover from the previous night’s social fling. Regardless, some basic gestures and movements that may have negative connotations include:

■ W I T H D R A W A L , L E A N I N G A W A Y F R O M T H E S P E A K E R As would be expected this means the opposite of leaning closer to a speaker. It is perhaps one of the strongest and uncontrollable negative signals a listener can send.

■ F O L D E D A R M S An act of defiance indicating that you need to overcome obstacles or skepticism before hoping to reach the listener.

■ H A N D S O N F A C E This is a signal that an audience may be listening to what you have to say but may not wholly agree with it. Holding one’s chin while resting the elbow on the table usually means the listener is bored. (In Asia, it can also indicate unhappiness.)

■ S H I F T I N G P O S I T I O N S Again, if not due to a listener’s physical discomfort, it indicates boredom, disagreement and perhaps impatience with the content or length of the presentation.

■ T H E Y A W N Self-explanatory. You have lost your audience. Cut out the detail and put more energy into the discussion.

■ W A N D E R I N G E Y E S Eyes darting around the room, open stares, flipping through printed handouts, checking a wristwatch are all indicators of a lack of interest and attention. If you see this toward the end of a presentation, wrap it up in a hurry.

Reading React ions in Di f ferent Cul tures

Successfully reading body language and the meaning of gestures in different cultures is truly a subtle art form. The following examples taken from four distinct cultures from four continents show just how diverse a meaning body language can have.

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R E A D I N G T H E A M E R I C A N S

Directness is a highly valued trait in the United States. Because they are a very animated people and not averse to letting others know how they feel, Americans can be relatively easy to read. And often they expect you to pick up on their non- verbal signals. When they are restless or bored, they fidget. When they are impatient they drum their fingers on the table. When they are ready to leave they look at their watches. Even when they attempt being discreet, it is difficult for them to hide their true feelings. Their body language is usually a giveaway.

For Americans the handshake is a vital test of their opponent—the firmer the better. Direct eye contact is taken as a sign of honesty and sincerity. To avoid it is to run the risk of being thought of as lying, distorting the truth or covering something up. Raised voices and animated gestures do not necessarily indicate anger. They may reflect enthusiasm and excitement. Americans will tell you when they are angry. Uncertainty or reluctance to agree are often indicated by shrugging the shoulders or looking away. Pointing at someone to clarify meaning is normal but emphatic or repeated pointing usually indicates agitation or aggression.

Americans will sometimes emphasize a strongly held commitment, belief or position by banging on the table or suddenly standing up. Raising the eyebrows or a sudden pulling back of the head indicates surprise, disbelief or astonishment. Basically, with America executives, what you see is what you get. Deliberate deception is really not their style—and they probably couldn’t hide it if they wanted to.

R E A D I N G T H E R U S S I A N S

As in America, handshaking is serious business in Russia. The general rule of thumb is that should a Russian become demonstratively physical—bear hugs, death-grip handshakes, exuberant backslapping—your meeting went very well and the personal relationship that lies as the basis for business deals is well on the way to succeeding. On the other hand, a stone face and lack of warm contact is a clear indicator that something is amiss.

Russians do use body language and hand gestures rather than verbal communication to signify their excitement, approval or disapproval of an individual, an idea or even a business proposal. (A case in point is the late Nikita Khrushchev’s shoe-banging episode at the United Nations in the 1960s. Russians do believe that physical gestures lend drama to simple communications and help to underscore the intensity of feeling.) While many Russian businesspeople will sit poker-faced during a presentation, they will provide subtle clues as to their feelings by using facial expressions and gestures. Winks and nods are good things if coming from your Russian counterparts.

While American businesspeople are apt to be all smiles from the start, Russians may be just the opposite. (It has been suggested that the chronically poor state of the country’s dental health is the real reason behind the severe rationing of Russian smiles.) Here, the smile is highly valued and used only when needed. Should you look across the room and see your Russian counterparts with happy smiley faces, that is a very good sign. However, beware the grim face—it means you are not getting through. Try and maintain direct eye contact with your Russian counterpart, even if you are using an interpreter to discuss business. Looking away during a conversation is not only considered rude but it casts doubt on your sincerity. If a Russian avoids eye contact, then you are probably getting less than half the truth.

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R E A D I N G T H E S O U T H A F R I C A N S

Because South Africans are generally so bubbly and talkative, silence says a lot. They are polite as well and if you are boring them, they, unlike the Americans they admire, will suffer through in silence. When the questions stop, consider it time to go—you’ve lost your audience. South Africans often use hand gestures in conversation but it is impolite and seen as a personal challenge to point at someone with your index finger wagging. The amount of hand movements a South African generates while talking is a good indicator of the degree of passion that individual has for a particular topic or proposal. It is also considered rude to talk with your hands in your pockets.

South Africans use facial expressions to signal their interest or reactions to a speaker. It is a highly developed form of communication and a good indicator of whether or not you are hitting the mark. At a meeting South Africans will steal glances at one another or at the boss to judge a reaction. Because so much business is done on trust, eye contact is essential, especially in the white community. Black African businessmen seem less hung up on that and are more into physical contact. A warm handshake followed by an arm around the shoulder means you had a successful meeting.

“It is much easier to tell how things went after meeting with a black South African businessman. They are always polite, more so than the whites, but they also like to be more demonstrative physically in their approval,” says one British businessman who has been in South Africa for over a decade. “After one particularly good meeting, my black South African counterpart walked me out to my car in the parking lot and for ten minutes never once took his arm off my shoulder. I knew then we had a deal.”

South Africans like to be right and seem to appreciate positive re-enforcement. If you are listening to a South African, nod agreement. It is a highly positive gesture and if you do it in the appropriate places it will make the speaker much more at ease. It is also smart to express agreement verbally on occasion to reinforce the nods.

R E A D I N G T H E J A P A N E S E

The Japanese avoid strangers, shun physical contact, rarely smile, avoid eye contact and subject themselves to rather strict rules of public behavior, including a severe limit on emotional expression. The Japanese are taught virtually from birth to mask their feelings behind blank impassive faces. Even such non-verbal communication forms as dress and appearance are masked behind conservative clothes and a lack of individual style.

Of all global cultures, the Japanese are masters at non-disclosure and at masking emotions. They are indeed hard people to read. Learning to put a mask over one’s true feelings and emotions is part of growing up in the Japanese culture where the expression of emotions, even through involuntary facial expressions and gestures, is improper behavior. (Remember, this is a culture that values group harmony and conformity and shuns individualism.) The Japanese have, in effect, the uncanny ability to alter whatever they feel “for public consumption.”

Before they can be displayed in public, true feelings must be refined through the innumerable rules of social behavior and social roles that lie at the heart of Japanese society. Behavior that is permissible for public display is known as

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tatemae. Behaving in a tatemae manner supports the Japanese ideal of social harmony. Often, visitors remark about the emotionally blank faces of the Japanese or the feeling that what emotion is expressed appears insincere. This is because, under the rules of tatemae, the Japanese conjure up whatever facial expression the situation calls for and the visitor expects. Smiles, for example, are rationed and displayed at the expected time—at the end of a successful deal. To smile beforehand would violate the rules of tatemae. Also, a smile is sometimes a mask to hide displeasure.

The passive, expressionless face that masks the Japanese executive can be unnerving to visiting business executives, who mistake the passiveness for a negative or disinterested reaction. In fact, the expressionless face may be concealing nothing more sinister than a daydreaming executive thinking about the party after work. However, because the Japanese display such little emotion through gesture and expression, they are especially sensitive to any body language you might display—and in fact may exaggerate the meaning.

Gestures Around the Wor ld

As explained earlier, one person’s positive gesture may be another person’s insult. The world is full of non-verbal gestures that can mean the exact opposite in different cultures. Some examples of the type of gestures an international business traveler is likely to come across:

T H E O K S I G N

The “OK” sign, when the thumb and index finger form a circle, means “everything is great,” in the United States and Germany. In Mexico it means things are just good, not excellent. In most other European countries as well as in Argentina it means something is worthless—an absolute zero. In Japan it is a symbol for money, usually coinage. In Spain, Russia, Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay it is considered a vulgar gesture. In Tunisia it conveys a threat of bodily harm.

Everything is Great • United States, Germany

Things are Good (Not Excellent) • Mexico

Worthless (Zero) • France, Most of Europe

Symbol for Money (coins) • Japan

Vulgar Gesture • Spain, Russia • Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay

Threat of Bodily Harm • Tunisia

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T H U M B S U P

It signals approval in the United States, Britain and Russia. However, in Iran it basically means “screw you.” It is also considered a rude gesture in Australia.

T H U M B S D O W N

In the United States and Canada it shows disapproval. In Greece it is considered a rude sign and is often used by motorists to signal their anger over someone’s crazy driving.

Approval • United States • Great Britain • Russia

Highly Offensive • Iran

Rude • Australia

Disapproval • United States • Canada

Rude • Greece

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