Early Chinese Source

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Introduction

Confucius (the Latinized version of Kong Fuzi, “master Kong”) or, to call him by his proper

name, Kong Qiu (551-479 BCE) lived during the time when the Zhou kingdom had disintegrated

into many de facto independent feudal states which were subject to the Zhou kings only in

theory. Confucius was a man of the small feudal state of Lu. Like many other men of the

educated elite class of the Eastern Zhou, Confucius traveled among the states, offering his

services as a political advisor and official to feudal rulers and taking on students whom he would

teach for a fee. Confucius had an unsuccessful career as a petty bureaucrat, but a highly

successful one as a teacher. A couple of generations after his death, first- and second-generation

students gathered accounts of Confucius’ teachings together. These anecdotes and records of

short conversations go under the English title of the Analects.

Selections from the Confucian Analects

1:1 The Master said, “To learn, and at due times to practice what one has learned, is

that not also a pleasure? To have friends come from afar, is that not also a joy? To go

unrecognized, yet without being embittered, is that not also to be a noble person?”

1:2 Master You [You Ruo] said, “Among those who are filial toward their parents

and fraternal toward their brothers, those who are inclined to offend against their superiors are

few indeed. Among those who are disinclined to offend against their superiors, there have

never been any who are yet inclined to create disorder. The noble person concerns himself with

the root; when the root is established, the Way is born. Being filial and fraternal — is this not the

root of humaneness?”

1:3 The Master said, “Those who are clever in their words and pretentious in their

appearance, yet are humane, are few indeed.”

1:8 The Master said, “If the noble person is not serious,2 he will not inspire awe, nor

will his learning be sound. One should abide in loyalty and trustworthiness and should have no

friends who are not his equal.3 If one has faults, one should not be afraid to change.”

2:3 The Master said, “Lead them by means of regulations and keep order among

them through punishments, and the people will evade them and will lack any sense of shame.4

Lead them through moral force (de) and keep order among them through rites (li), and they will

have a sense of shame and will also correct themselves.”

2:7 Ziyou asked about filial devotion. The Master said, “Nowadays filial devotion

means being able to provide nourishment. But dogs and horses too can provide nourishment.

Unless one is reverent, where is the difference?”

3:4 Lin Fang asked about what is fundamental in rites. The Master said, “This is

indeed a great question. In rites, it is better to be sparing than to be excessive. In mourning, it is

better to express grief than to emphasize formalities.”

3:12 “Sacrifice as if they were present” means to sacrifice to the spirits as if they were

present. The Master said, “If I am not present at the sacrifice, it is as if there were no sacrifice.”

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3:19 Duke Ding asked how a ruler should employ his ministers and how ministers

should serve their ruler. Confucius replied, “The ruler should employ the ministers according to

ritual; the ministers should serve the ruler with loyalty.”

4:2 The Master said, “One who is not humane is able neither to abide for long in

hardship nor to abide for long in joy. The humane find peace in humaneness; the knowing

derive profit from humaneness.”

4:5 The Master said, “Wealth and honor are what people desire, but one should not

abide in them if it cannot be done in accordance with the Way. Poverty and lowliness are what

people dislike, but one should not avoid them if it cannot be done in accordance with the Way.

If the noble person rejects humaneness, how can he fulfill that name? The noble person does not

abandon humaneness for so much as the space of a meal. Even when hard-pressed he is bound

to it, bound to it even in time of danger.”

4:16 The Master said, “The noble person is concerned with rightness; the small person

is concerned with profit.”

6:28 Zigong said, “What would you say of someone who broadly benefited the

people and was able to help everyone? Could he be called humane?” The Master said, “How

would this be a matter of humaneness? Surely he would have to be a sage? Even Yao and Shun

were concerned about such things. As for humaneness — you want to establish yourself; then

help others to establish themselves. You want to develop yourself; then help others to develop

themselves. Being able to recognize oneself in others, one is on the way to being humane.”5

7:29 The Master said, “Is humaneness far away? If I want to be humane, then

humaneness is here.”

11:11 Jilu asked about serving spiritual beings. The Master said, “Before you have

learned to serve human beings, how can you serve spirits?” “I venture to ask about death.”

“When you do not yet know life, how can you know about death?”

12:1 Yan Yuan asked about humaneness. The Master said, “Through mastering

oneself and returning to ritual one becomes humane. If for a single day one can master oneself

and return to ritual, the whole world will return to humaneness. Does the practice of

humaneness come from oneself or from others?” Yan Yuan said, “May I ask about the specifics

of this?” The Master said, “Look at nothing contrary to ritual; listen to nothing contrary to

ritual; say nothing contrary to ritual; do nothing contrary to ritual.” Yan Yuan said, “Though

unintelligent, Hui6 requests leave to put these words into practice.”

12:2 Zhonggong [Ran Yong] asked about humaneness. The Master said, “When going

abroad, treat everyone as if you were receiving a great guest; when employing the people, do so

as if assisting in a great sacrifice. What you do not want for yourself, do not do to others. There

should be no resentment in the state, and no resentment in the family.” Zhonggong said,

“Though unintelligent, Yong requests leave to put these words into practice.”

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12:3 Sima Niu asked about humaneness. The Master said, “The humane person is

cautious in his speech.”7 Sima Niu said, “Cautious of speech! Is this what you mean by

humaneness?” The Master said, “When doing it is so difficult, how can one be without caution

in speaking about it?”

Selections from the Confucian Analects:

On Humaneness

4:2 The Master said, “One who is not humane is able neither to abide for long in

hardship nor to abide for long in joy. The humane find peace in humaneness; the knowing

derive profit from humaneness.”

4:5 The Master said, “Wealth and honor are what people desire, but one should not

abide in them if it cannot be done in accordance with the Way. Poverty and lowliness are what

people dislike, but one should not avoid them if it cannot be done in accordance with the Way.

If the noble person rejects humaneness, how can he fulfill that name? The noble person does not

abandon humaneness for so much as the space of a meal. Even when hard‑pressed he is bound

to it, bound to it even in time of danger.”

4:6 The Master said, “I have not seen one who loved humaneness, nor one who

hated inhumanity. One who loved humaneness will value nothing more highly. One who hated

inhumanity would be humane so as not to allow inhumanity to affect his person. Is there

someone whose strength has for the space of a single day been devoted to humaneness? I have

not seen one whose strength was insufficient. It may have happened, but I have not seen it.”

6:21 The Master said, “The wise take joy in water; the humane take joy in mountains.

The wise are active; the humane are tranquil. The wise enjoy; the humane endure.

6:28 Zigong said, “What would you say of someone who broadly benefited the

people and was able to help everyone? Could he be called humane?” The Master said, “How

would this be a matter of humaneness? Surely he would have to be a sage? Even Yao and Shun

were concerned about such things. As for humaneness — you want to establish yourself; then

help others to establish themselves. You want to develop yourself; then help others to develop

themselves. Being able to recognize oneself in others, one is on the way to being humane.”2

7:29 The Master said, “Is humaneness far away? If I want to be humane, then

humaneness is here.”

12:22 Fan Chi asked about humaneness. The Master said, “It is loving people.” He

asked about wisdom. The Master said, “It is knowing people.” When Fan Chi did not

understand, the Master said, “Raise the upright, put them over the crooked, and you should be

able to cause the crooked to become upright.”

15:8 The Master said, “It does not happen that the dedicated officer and the humane

person seek life if it means harming their humaneness. It does happen that they sacrifice their

lives so as to complete their humaneness.”

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17:6 Zizhang asked Confucius about humaneness. Confucius said, “One who would

carry out the five everywhere under Heaven would be humane.” “ I beg to ask what they are.”

“Respect, liberality, trustworthiness, earnestness, and kindness. If you are respectful, you will

have no regret; if you are liberal, you will win the multitude; if you are trustworthy, you will be

trusted; if you are earnest, you will be effective; if you are kind, you will be able to influence

others.”

Selections from the Confucian Analects:

On Government

1:5 The Master said, “In ruling a state of a thousand chariots, one is reverent in the

handling of affairs and shows himself to be trustworthy. One is economical in expenditures,

loves the people, and uses them only at the proper season.”

2:1 The Master said, “One who governs through virtue may be compared to the

polestar, which occupies its place while the host of other stars pay homage to it.”

2:3 The Master said, “Lead them by means of regulations and keep order among

them through punishments, and the people will evade them and will lack any sense of shame.2

Lead them through moral force (de) and keep order among them through rites (li), and they will

have a sense of shame and will also correct themselves.”

12:7 Zigong asked about government. The Master said, “Sufficient food, sufficient

military force, the confidence of the people.” Zigong said, “If one had, unavoidably, to dispense

with one of these three, which of them should go first?” The Master said, “Get rid of the

military.” Zigong said, “If one had, unavoidably, to dispense with one of the remaining two,

which should go first?” The Master said, “Dispense with the food. Since ancient times there has

always been death, but without confidence a people cannot stand.”

12:11 Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, “Let the

ruler be a ruler; the minister, a minister; the father, a father; the son, a son.” “Excellent,” said the

duke. “Truly, if the ruler is not a ruler, the subject is not a subject, the father is not a father, and

the son is not a son, though I have grain, will I get to eat it?”

12:19 Ji Kang Zi asked Confucius about government, saying, “How would it be if one

killed those who do not possess the Way in order to benefit those who do possess it?”

Confucius replied, “Sir, in conducting your government, why use killing? If you, sir, want

goodness, the people will be good. The virtue of the noble person is like the wind, and the

virtue of small people is like grass. When the wind blows over the grass, the grass must bend.”

13:3 Zilu said, “The ruler of Wei has been waiting for the Master to administer his

government. What should come first?” The Master said, “What is necessary is the rectification

of names.” Zilu said, “Could this be so? The Master is wide of the mark. Why should there be

this rectification?” The Master said, “How uncultivated, You! In regard to what he does not

know, the noble person is cautiously reserved. If names are not rectified, then language will not

be appropriate, and if language is not appropriate, affairs will not be successfully carried out. If

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affairs are not successfully carried out, rites and music will not flourish, and if rites and music

do not flourish, punishments will not hit the mark. If punishments do not hit the mark, the

people will have nowhere to put hand or foot. Therefore the names used by the noble person

must be appropriate for speech, and his speech must be appropriate for action. In regard to

language, the noble person allows no carelessness, that is all.”

14:23 Zilu asked how to serve a ruler. The Master said, “You may not deceive him, but

you may stand up to him.”

Introduction

Mencius (Mengzi, or Meng Ke) was a particularly powerful advocate for the thought of

Confucius. Living in the fourth century BCE, about one hundred years after Confucius, Mencius,

too, was concerned about the contradiction between the ideal of a peaceful, unified, hierarchical

feudal kingdom and the reality of nearly constant warfare between de facto independent feudal

states in which the large and powerful preyed upon and absorbed the smaller and weaker states.

Like Confucius, Mencius offered his services to feudal lords. Also like Confucius, Mencius had

a more successful career as a teacher than as an official.

Selections from the Mencius:

On Human Nature

All human beings have a mind that cannot bear to see the sufferings of others.

The ancient kings had a commiserating mind and, accordingly, a commiserating government.

Having a commiserating mind, a commiserating government, governing the world was like

turning something around on the palm of the hand.

Here is why I say that all human beings have a mind that commiserates with others. Now,1 if

anyone were suddenly to see a child about to fall into a well, his mind would always be filled

with alarm, distress, pity, and compassion. That he would react accordingly is not because he

would use the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the child’s parents, nor because he would

seek commendation from neighbors and friends, nor because he would hate the adverse

reputation. From this it may be seen that one who lacks a mind that feels pity and compassion

would not be human; one who lacks a mind that feels shame and aversion would not be human;

one who lacks a mind that feels modesty and compliance would not be human; and one who

lacks a mind that knows right and wrong would not be human.

The mind’s feeling of pity and compassion is the beginning of humaneness (ren); the mind’s

feelings of shame and aversion is the beginning of rightness (yi); the mind’s feeling of modesty

and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the mind’s sense of right and wrong is the

beginning of wisdom.

Human beings have these four beginnings just as they have four limbs. For one to have these

four beginnings and yet to say of oneself that one is unable to fulfill them is to injure one’s ruler.

When we know how to enlarge and bring to fulfillment these four beginnings that are within

us, it will be like a fire beginning to burn or a spring finding an outlet. If one is able to bring

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them to fulfillment, they will be sufficient to enable him to protect ‘all within the four seas’; if

one is not, they will be insufficient even to enable him to serve his parents.”

Introduction

Xunzi (Xun Qing, or Xun Kuang: c. 310-c. 219 BCE) lived at the very end of the Zhou dynasty.

Like Mencius, he was an advocate and interpreter of the teachings of Confucius. Living a

generation after Mencius, Xunzi lived through the final, brutal wars which ended with the state

of Qin absorbing and unifying all the Chinese feudal states. Xunzi was a widely traveled scholar,

teacher, and official.

Selection from the Xunzi:

“Human Nature Is Evil”

Human nature is evil; its good derives from conscious activity. Now it is human nature to be

born with a fondness for profit. Indulging this leads to contention and strife, and the sense of

modesty and yielding with which one was born disappears. One is born with feelings of envy

and hate, and, by indulging these, one is led into banditry and theft, so that the sense of loyalty

and good faith with which he was born disappears. One is born with the desires of the ears and

eyes and with a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds, and, by indulging these, one is led to

licentiousness and chaos, so that the sense of ritual, rightness, refinement, and principle with

which one was born is lost. Hence, following human nature and indulging human emotions

will inevitably lead to contention and strife, causing one to rebel against one’s proper duty,

reduce principle to chaos, and revert to violence. Therefore one must be transformed by the

example of a teacher and guided by the way of ritual and rightness before one will attain

modesty and yielding, accord with refinement and ritual, and return to order. From this

perspective it is apparent that human nature is evil and that its goodness is the result of

conscious activity.

Thus warped wood must be laid against a straightening board, steamed, and bent into shape

before it can become straight; blunt metal must be ground on a whetstone before it can become

sharp. And in that human nature is evil, it must wait for the example of a teacher before it can

become upright, and for ritual and rightness before it can become orderly. Now, if people lack

the example of teachers they will be partial and narrow rather than upright; if they lack ritual

and rightness they will be rebellious and chaotic rather than orderly. In ancient times the sage

kings, recognizing that the nature of human beings is evil ‑‑ that they incline toward evil and

are not upright, that they are disposed toward chaos and are not orderly ‑‑ created ritual an

rightness and established models and limits in order to reform and improve the human

emotional nature and make it upright, in order to train and transform the human emotional

nature and provide it with a guide. They caused them to attain order and to conform to the

Way. And so today a person who is transformed by the instructions of a teacher, devotes

himself to study, and abides by ritual and rightness may become a noble person, while one who

follows his nature and emotions, is content to give free play to his passions, and abandons ritual

and rightness is a lesser person. It is obvious from this, therefore, that human nature is evil, and

that its goodness results from conscious activity.

Mencius said, The fact that human beings learn shows that their nature is good. I say this is not

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so; this comes of his having neither understood human nature nor perceived the distinction

between the nature and conscious activity. The nature is what is given by Heaven: one cannot

learn it; one cannot acquire it by effort. Ritual and rightness are created by sages: people learn

them and are capable, through effort, of bringing them to completion. What cannot be learned

or acquired by effort but is within us is called the nature. What can be learned and, through

effort, brought to completion is called conscious activity. This is the distinction between the

nature and conscious activity. That the eyes can see and the ears can hear is human nature. But

the faculty of clear sight does not exist apart from the eye, nor does the faculty of keen hearing

exist apart from the ear. It is apparent that the eye’s clear vision and the ear’s acute hearing

cannot be learned.

Mencius said, Now, human nature is good, and [when it is not] this is always a result of having

lost or destroyed one’s nature. I say that he was mistaken to take such a view. Now, it is human

nature that, as soon as a person is born, he departs from his original substance1 and from his

natural disposition, so that he must inevitably lose and destroy them. Seen in this way, it is

apparent that human nature is evil. Those who say that the nature is good find beauty in what

does not depart from the original substance and value in what does not diverge from the

natural disposition. They consider that the beauty of the natural disposition and the original

substance and the goodness of the mind’s intentions are [inseparable from the nature] in the

same way that clear sight is inseparable from the eye and keen hearing is inseparable from the

ear. Hence they maintain that [the nature possesses goodness] in the same way that the eye

possesses clear vision or the ear possesses keenness of hearing.

Now, it is human nature that when one is hungry he will desire satisfaction, when he is cold he

will desire warmth, and when he is weary he will desire rest. This is the emotional nature of

human beings. Yet, even if a person is hungry, he will not dare to be the first to eat if he is in the

presence of his elders because he knows that he should yield to them. Although he is weary, he

will not dare to seek rest because he knows that he should work on behalf of others. For a son to

yield to his father and a younger brother to yield to his elder brother, or for a son to work on

behalf of his father and a younger brother to work on behalf of his elder brother ‑‑ these two

acts are contrary to the nature and counter to the emotions, and yet they represent the way of

filial devotion and the refinement and principle that are associated with ritual and rightness.

Hence, to follow the emotional nature would mean that there would be no courtesy or humility;

courtesy and humility run counter to the emotional nature. From this perspective it is apparent

that human nature is evil, and that goodness is the result of conscious activity. A questioner

asks: If human nature is evil, then where do ritual and rightness come from? I reply: ritual and

rightness are always created by the conscious activity of the sages; essentially they are not

created by human nature. Thus a potter molds clay and makes a vessel, but the vessel is created

by the conscious activity of the potter and is not created by his human nature. In the same way

a carpenter carves a piece of wood and makes a utensil, but the utensil is created through the

conscious activity of the carpenter and is not created by his human nature. A sage gathers his

thoughts and reflections, engages in conscious activity, and thus creates ritual and rightness

and produces models and regulations. Hence ritual, rightness, models, and limits are created by

the conscious activity of the sage and not by his human nature. …

When a person desires to do good he always does so because his nature is evil. A person who is

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shallow aspires to depth; one who is ugly aspires to beauty; one who is narrow aspires to

breadth; one who is poor aspires to wealth; one who is humble aspires to esteem. Whatever one

lacks in oneself he must seek outside. Therefore if a person is rich, he will not aspire to wealth,

and if he is esteemed, he will not long for power. What a person possesses in himself he need

not seek outside. One can see from this that the reason human beings desire to do good is that

their nature is evil. Now human nature is definitely devoid of ritual and rightness. Therefore,

they compel themselves to study and to seek to possess them. The nature knows nothing of

ritual and rightness, and therefore they reflect and ponder and seek to understand them. Thus

the nature is inborn, that is all, and human beings neither possess ritual and rightness, nor do

they understand them. …

If human nature were good, we could dispense with the sage kings and desist from the practice

of ritual and rightness. Since human nature is evil, we must elevate the sages and esteem ritual

and rightness. Therefore the straightening board was created because of warped wood, and the

plumb line came into being because of things that are not straight. Rulers are established and

ritual and rightness are illuminated because the nature is evil. From this perspective it is clear

that human nature is evil and that goodness is the result of conscious activity. Wood that is

straight need not wait for the straightening board to become straight; it is straight by nature. But

a warped piece of wood must be laid against a straightening board, steamed, and bent into

shape before it can become straight because its nature is not straight. Now since human nature

is evil, people must await ordering by the sage kings and transformation through ritual and

rightness, and only then do they attain order and accord with goodness. From this perspective,

it is clear that human nature is evil and that goodness is the result of conscious activity. …

Someone may ask whether ritual and rightness and sustained conscious activity are not

themselves human nature, which would explain why the sage is able to create them. I reply that

this is not the case. A potter may mold clay and produce an earthen pot, but how could molding

pots out of clay be the potter’s nature? A carpenter may carve wood and produce utensils, but

how could carving utensils out of wood be the carpenter’s nature? The sage stands in the same

relation to ritual and rightness as the potter to the things he molds and produces. How then

could ritual and rightness and sustained conscious activity be the original human nature?

In their human nature, Yao and Shun were one with Jie and Zhi, just as the noble person and

the lesser person are, by nature, one. How could it be that ritual and rightness and sustained

conscious activity are human nature? If this were the case, what reason would there be to honor

Yao or Yu or to honor the noble person? People honor Yao, Yu, and the noble person because of

their ability to transform their nature, to generate conscious activity, and, through this

conscious activity, to create ritual and rightness. Thus the sage necessarily stands in the same

relation to ritual and rightness and conscious activity as does the potter to the things he molds

and produces. From this perspective, how could it be that ritual and rightness and sustained

conscious activity are human nature? The reason people despise Jie, or the lesser person, is that

they follow their nature, indulge their emotions, and are content to give free rein to their

passions, so that their conduct is marked by greed and contentiousness. Therefore it is clear that

human nature is evil and that goodness is the result of conscious activity. …

“The man in the street can become a Yu.”2 What does this mean? I reply, What made the sage

emperor Yu a Yu was the fact that he practiced humaneness and rightness and took uprightness

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as his standard. This being so, humaneness, rightness, and proper standards must be based

upon principles that can be known and practiced. Any man in the street has the natural

endowment needed to understand humaneness, rightness, proper standards, and uprightness

and the ability to practice humaneness, rightness, proper standards, and uprightness. Therefore

it is clear that he can become a Yu.

Is one to suppose that humaneness, rightness, proper standards, and uprightness are not based

upon principles that can be known and practiced? If that were so, then even a Yu could not

have understood and practiced them. Is one to suppose that the man in the street does not have

the natural endowment needed to understand them or the ability to put them into practice? If

that were so, then the man in the street, within his family, could not understand the rightness

that pertains between father and son and, without, could not comprehend the correctness that

pertains between ruler and subject. But this is not the case. The man in the street, within, can

understand the rightness that pertains between father and son and, without, can understand the

correctness between ruler and subject. Thus it is clear that he has in him the natural endowment

needed to understand and the talent to put them into practice. Now if the man in the street

takes this endowment that enables him to know and this talent that enables him to act and

applies them to the principles of humaneness and rightness, which are knowable, and the

practice of humaneness and rightness, which is practicable, then it is clear that he can become a

Yu. If the man in the street applies himself to training and study, concentrates his mind, unifies

his will, and pondering and examining things carefully, continues his efforts over a long period

of time, accumulating good acts without stop, then he can penetrate to a spiritual

understanding and form a triad with Heaven and Earth. The sage is a person who has arrived

where he has through the accumulation of good acts.

Introduction

The book that we know as the Daodejing is traditionally ascribed to a mysterious character

called Laozi (“the old master”). As best as we can tell, the text was written by several authors

over a period of time roughly around the third century BCE. The authors of the Daodejing lived

at a time when China consisted of a number of feudal states nominally under the leadership of

the Zhou Dynasty kings, but actually independent. The feudal states fought with each other

regularly and engaged in shifting patterns of alliances. When addressing issues of government,

the authors of the Daodejing were concerned with the problem of how to restore peace, order,

and tranquility to the world.

Selections from the Laozi (Daodejing):

On Government

Do not exalt the worthy,

and the people will not compete.

Do not value goods that are hard to come by,

and the people will not steal.

Do not display objects of desire,

And the people’s minds will not be disturbed.

Therefore the ordering of the sage

empties their minds,

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fills their bellies,

weakens their ambitions,

strengthens their bones.

He always causes the people to be without knowledge,

without desire,

And causes the wise ones not to dare to act.

He does nothing (wuwei), and there is nothing that is

not brought to order.

Govern the state by correctness;

Deploy the army by deception;

Acquire the empire by taking no action (wushi).

How do I know this is so?

By this.2

The more prohibitions there are in the world,

The poorer are the people.

The more sharp weapons the people have,

The more disorder is fomented in the family and state.

The more adroit and clever men are,

The more deceptive things are brought forth.

The more laws and ordinances are promulgated,

The more thieves and robbers there are.

Therefore the sage says:

I do nothing (wuwei),

And the people are transformed by themselves.

I value tranquility,

And the people become correct by themselves.

I take no action (wushi),

And the people become prosperous by themselves.

I have no desires,

And the people of themselves become like uncarved wood.

Let the state be small and the people few.

There may be ten or even a hundred times as many implements,

But they should not be used.

Let the people, regarding death as a weighty matter,

not travel far.

Though they have boats and carriages, none shall ride in them.

Though they have armor and weapons, none shall display them.

Let the people return once more to the use of knotted ropes.3

Let them savor their food and find beauty in their clothing,

peace in their dwellings, and joy in their customs.

Though neighboring states are within sight of one another,

And the sound of cocks and dogs is audible

from one to the other,

People will reach old age and death

and yet not visit one another.