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O R I G I N A L C O N T R I B U T I O N

Control or involvement? Relationship between authoritative parenting style and adolescent depressive symptomatology

B. F. Piko • M. Á. Balázs

Received: 14 September 2011 / Accepted: 13 January 2012 / Published online: 24 January 2012 ! Springer-Verlag 2012

Abstract Among factors predicting adolescent mood problems, certain aspects of the parent–adolescent rela-

tionship play an important role. In previous studies, chil-

dren whose parents had an authoritative style of parenting reported the best behavioral and psychological outcomes.

Therefore, the main goal of this paper was to investigate

the role of authoritative parenting style and other family variables (negative family interactions and positive iden-

tification with parents) in adolescents’ depressive symp-

tomatology. The study was carried out in all primary and secondary schools in Mako and the surrounding region in

Hungary in the spring of 2010, students of grades 7–12

(N = 2,072): 49.2% of the sample were males; 38.1% primary school pupils; and 61.9% high school students.

Self-administered questionnaires contained items of mea-

suring depressive symptoms (CDI) and parental variables beyond sociodemographics. Beyond descriptive statistics

and calculation of correlation coefficients, multiple linear

regression analyses were applied to detect relationships between parental variables and depressive scores by gen-

der. Overall, our data support a negative association between authoritative parenting style and adolescent mood

problems, particularly among girls. Among boys, only

mother’s responsiveness was a significant predictor. Among girls, father’s parenting played a decisive role; not

only his responsiveness but also demandingness. Interest-

ingly, mother’s demandingness went together with an elevated depressive score for girls. Prevention programs

cannot guarantee success without taking into account the

role of parents. Teaching positive parenting seems to be a

part of these prevention programs that may include facili- tating intimate yet autonomous relationships.

Keywords Depressive symptoms ! Mood problems ! Authoritative parenting style ! Protective factors ! Parent–adolescent relationship

Introduction

Depression is one of the most common psychiatric disor-

ders during adolescence that may lead to less positive adjustment in adulthood [10]. Besides biological modifi-

cations in this life period, changes in the functioning of

adolescents’ social network, particularly with parents and peers may also contribute to mood problems [23]. During

adolescence, parental influence is decreasing while at the

same time the quest for personal autonomy is increasing [31]. The role of parents, however, is more latent and

controversial as compared to the role of peers [35]. It is

evident that during adolescence, emotional closeness to parents may diminish and conflicts with them tend to

increase [38]. The lack of emotional warmth and less open communication may lead to developing problem

behaviors [22]. Despite these processes, however, the

parent–adolescent relationship continues to serve as a rel- evant adaptive and protective mechanism by providing a

secure base for adolescent’s well-being [17]. Particularly

secure attachment to parents is an important correlate for youth’s psychological adjustment [24, 42]. Besides

mother’s positive developmental role [1], studies also

support the adolescent’s relationship with the opposite-sex parent in personality development [39].

Parenting is thought to exert a powerful influence on

psychosocial development, for better or for worse [15].

B. F. Piko (&) ! M. Á. Balázs Department of Behavioral Sciences, University of Szeged, Szentharomsag street 5, Szeged 6722, Hungary e-mail: [email protected]

123

Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2012) 21:149–155

DOI 10.1007/s00787-012-0246-0

Among others, it has a long-term impact on learning

effective or inadequate coping strategies [45]. In addition, parenting deeply influences children’s development of

personality and self-concept [28, 39]. Certain aspects of the

self-concept, such as low levels of self-acceptance or self- esteem may lead to cognitive dysfunctions and mood

problems [40]. Previous studies found that neglecting,

rejecting and dominantly overcriticizing or disapproving parenting practices are the most likely to contribute to the

development of depression; these parenting behaviors as aversive reactions destroy their self-esteem and worsen

their problem-solving capacity [25]. Whereas parental

monitoring provides protection, too harsh parenting control represents another type of depression-prone childrearing

that restricts adolescent autonomy. A cold manner of par-

ent–child relationship, together with an excessive regula- tion of children’s activities, reduces perceived mastery and

induces helplessness [44]. Besides, the overprotective,

dysfunctional or inconsistent parental practices also affect vulnerability to depression [12]. All in all, the inadequate

family climate, conflicts, low family cohesion, lack of

parental social support all contribute to adolescents’ mood and behavioral problems; whereas parent–adolescent con-

nectedness, security of attachment and parental monitoring

may serve as a protection [1, 2, 4, 27, 35]. Not surprisingly, parenting as a type of family influence

recently has received increasing research attention in

relation to adolescent adjustment [41]. Parenting style describes parent–child interactions across a wide range of

situations independently of parental behavior [8]. Parenting

style encompasses a wide range of parent–child relation- ship including parental warmth, control, support and

communication and leads to significant developmental

outcomes in children. There are two basic dimensions of parenting styles: responsiveness (parental warmth, accep-

tance, reflectiveness and involvement) and demandingness

(control, monitoring or strictness). In their widely applied two-dimensional classification model, Maccoby and Martin

[26] distinguished four parenting styles: authoritarian (low

responsiveness and high demandingness), authoritative (high responsiveness and high demandingness), neglectful/

indifferent (low responsiveness and low demandingness),

and indulgent/permissive (high responsiveness and low demandingness). The authoritative parenting style has

a meaning of both parents’ reflectiveness in terms of their

children’s psychosocial needs (e.g., connectedness, trust, emotional warmth) and adequate parental monitoring

(e.g., when parents set a curfew and they know where

the children are when they are away) [31]. More precisely, it represents both rational and emotional aspects of

childrearing. This parenting style is closely connected to

adaptive mechanisms of the personality development, such as resilience, internal locus of control or self-esteem

[13, 39, 41]. In previous studies, children whose parents

had an ‘‘authoritative’’ style had the best outcomes on a number of behavioral and psychological measures. Among

others, its protective effects were justified in terms of

adolescent depression [37], anxiety [3], substance use [18, 19, 32], aggressive and violent behavior, carrying a weapon

and poor school adjustment [20, 43]. The authoritative

parenting style may be linked to adolescents’ mood prob- lems both directly [37] and indirectly mediated by parent–

child attachment [29]. In a retrospective study, adults who reported previous experiences with authoritative parenting

style during childhood were less likely to suffer from

depression later [41]. Although we know more and more about these issues,

further research is needed to focus on detecting possible

protective factors in understanding the context of adoles- cent depressive symptomatology in population-based

studies. In Hungary, we know much less about the familial

protective factors and parenting style particularly in rela- tion to adolescent mood problems. In addition, parenting

style may also vary depending on cultural issues; for

example, within an authoritarian culture, the parenting styles may act in a different way as compared to a liberal

culture [12]. In Hungary, the radical change from socialism

to capitalism has brought about changes at a variety of levels, and consumerist (and more liberal) lifestyle may

influence not only youths’ well-being but also parental

practices as well. Obviously, cultures in Eastern Europe had more experiences with authoritarian than authoritative

manner in behaviors [34].

Therefore, we aimed to detect whether authoritative parenting style might have an association with Hungarian

adolescents’ depressive symptomatology. More specifi-

cally, the main goal of this paper was to investigate the role of authoritative parenting style (demandingness and

responsiveness) and other family variables (negative fam-

ily interactions and positive identification with parents) in mood problems in a nonclinical (healthy) sample of ado-

lescents. Due to sociocultural, socioeconomic changes and

the impact of globalization particularly we anticipated that authoritative parenting style might play a decisive role in

this sample similar to previous studies from other cultures.

In addition, we aimed to detect possible gender differences. Previous studies reported gender differences not only in

occurrence of depression, but also in the structure of risk

and protective factors influencing it [9, 35]; particularly in role of the social network [33]. Not surprisingly, social

norms still expect greater emotional attachment to parents

and behavioral obedience from girls and they also tend to receive greater parental control [6]. Finally, we expected

greater role of the opposite-sex parent’s behavior in rela-

tion to adolescent mood problems that may be an important issue during the gender role socialization [11].

150 Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2012) 21:149–155

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Methods

Participants and procedure

Data were collected in Mako, southeastern region of Hungary, and the villages in its suburban area in the spring

of 2010. All middle and high school students (grades 7 and

12) in this region were invited to participate in the survey. Of the 2,394 questionnaires sent out, 2,072 (aged between

12 and 21; mean = 15.4 years, SD = 1.8 years; 49.2%

males and 50.8% females; 38.1% middle school students and 61.9% high school students) were returned and ana-

lyzed giving a response rate of 86.5%. The remaining

students likely consisted of youth absent or those youth whose parents did not want them participating in the

study.

Parents were informed about the study and their con- sent was obtained. Using a standardized procedure of

administration-trained graduate students distributed the

questionnaires to youth in each class, after briefly explaining the study objectives and giving the necessary

instructions. Students completed the questionnaires during

the class period. Student participation was voluntary and confidential.

Measures

The questionnaire contained items on sociodemograph- ics, adolescents’ depressive symptomatology and parental

variables.

Depressive symptomatology was measured by a short- ened version of the original 27-item Children’s Depression

Inventory (CDI) that is a self-rated depressive symptom

scale for young children adapted from the Beck Depression Inventory for adults [21]. Each item of the original and

shortened versions assesses a single symptom, such as

sadness, and was coded from 0 to 2. The shortened version of the CDI, based on the current data, was reliable with a

Cronbach’s alpha of 0.74. We weighted the shortened CDI

by a factor of 3.375 (number of original CDI items 27/shortened version items 8 = 3.375) for purposes of

comparing this sample with other Hungarian, European and

US samples of adolescents. Thus, the mean score and standard deviation for this sample was 8.3 (SD = 8.8),

whereas a previous sample of high school students from

Szeged (a similar Hungarian sample) in 2008 yielded a mean CDI score of 8.1 (SD = 8.0) [36]. The cutoff CDI

score for the upper 10% of the distribution for the current

sample was 20 similar to the previous sample mentioned above.

Among the parental variables, two scales of the

Authoritative Parenting Index were applied to measure parenting style [20]. The scales were translated and

back-translated by bilingual translators and were previously

validated and applied in Hungarian-speaking adolescent samples [5]. The first scale was referred to ‘‘responsive-

ness’’ that contained nine items (e.g., ‘‘Mother/Father tells

me when I do a good job on things’’). The second scale measured ‘‘demandingness’’ and contained 7 items (e.g.,

‘‘Mother/Father makes sure I tell him/her where I am

going’’). Response categories were based on the level of agreement with the statements that varied from 1 = not at

all to 4 = entirely agree. The final scales were coded from 9 to 36 (responsiveness) and 7–28 (demandingness) and were

reliable with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.75 (both

mother’s and father’s responsiveness) and 0.70 (mother’s demandingness) and 0.77 (father’s demandingness).

Besides authoritative parenting style, negative family

interactions were measured by using four items from the Family Management Study [14, 16]. Similar to the pre-

vious index, these scales were also translated and back-

translated by bilingual translators. We asked the students the following: ‘‘During the past month, how often have

your parents yelled at you/criticized your ideas/put their

needs ahead of your needs/hit you?’’ Response categories were the following: 1 = never; 2 = once or twice a

month; 3 = 3 or 4 times a month; 4 = a couple of times

a week; 5 = almost everyday. Reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.78. Finally, positive identifica-

tion with parents contained four items from the same study

as [14, 16]. The students were asked: ‘‘How close do you feel to your parents?’’; ‘‘How much do you respect your

parents?’’; ‘‘How much do you want to be the kind of

person your parent is when you are an adult?’’; ‘‘How often do you and your parent do things that you enjoy

together?’’ Response categories were the following:

1 = not at all; 2 = just a little; 3 = quite a bit; 4 = a lot. Cronbach’s reliability coefficient was 0.76 with the current

sample.

Statistical methods

SPSS for MS Windows Release 15.0 program was used in the calculations with a significance level of 0.05. The

analysis begins with an examination of the descriptive

statistics for both the dependent and independent variables. Student’s t tests were calculated to test significance for differences by gender. Bivariate relationships between

variables were tested by calculating correlation coeffi- cients. The primary focus of the analyses was detecting the

association between parental variables and depressive

symptomatology by using multiple regression analysis. Due to expected gender differences in the role of parental

variables as discussed earlier, regression analyses were

conducted separately for boys and girls, and age was also controlled for.

Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2012) 21:149–155 151

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Results

Table 1 provides detailed descriptive statistics for the

sample by gender. The mean CDI score was 7.23 (SD =

8.49) for boys and 9.23 (SD = 8.79) for girls. Gender difference in depressive symptoms was significant (p \ 0.001) as it had been expected. In terms of parental vari-

ables, gender differences could be justified only in levels of mother’s scales: girls received more responsiveness

(p \ 0.01) and demandingness (p = 0.05) from their mother.

Table 2 presents zero-order correlations among the

variables by gender. According to the correlation coeffi-

cients depressive scores in both sexes were positively cor- related with negative family interactions and negatively

with positive identification with parents as well as with

parents’ responsiveness. Parents’ demandingness, however, did not show a significant relationship either among boys or

girls (p [ 0.05). However, there was a negative association between negative family interactions and parents’ respon- siveness (r values [ 0.30 in each case). The variable of positive identification with parents, on the other hand, was

positively associated with all elements of the authoritative parenting style. In addition, mother’s and father’s parenting

styles significantly covaried (i.e., father’s demanding-

ness with mother’s demandingness: r = 0.60*** for boys and r = 0.55*** for girls, and father’s responsiveness and mother’s demandingness: r = 0.54*** for boys and r = 0.36*** for girls). In addition, age was negatively correlated with the authoritative parenting style (except for

mother’s responsiveness) and positive identification with parents, regardless gender.

Table 3 presents regression estimates for depressive

symptomatology scores where multiple regression analyses

were used to examine the relative role of parental variables

for girls and boys separately. Age was a controlling vari- able in the analysis. The negative family interaction vari-

able was associated with an elevated depressive score in

both sexes (boys: b = 0.30, p \ 0.001; girls: b = 0.26, p \ 0.001). Among boys, only mother’s responsiveness was a significant predictor (b = -0.13, p \ 0.01). Among girls, besides father’s responsiveness (b = -0.14, p \ 0.01), father’s demandingness also predicted their depres-

sive scores (b = -0.07, p \ 0.05). Mother’s demanding- ness, on the other hand, was positively associated with

girls’ depressive symptomatology (b = 0.12, p \ 0.01). All these parental variables explained 19% of the total variation in depressive symptomatology scores for both

boys and girls.

Discussion

Among the social influences of adolescent mood problems,

the social network variables occupy a special place in the

structure of risk and protective factors [23, 35, 41]. Despite the prolifical research in this field, we need more investi-

gations into the role of parents during adolescence. As

previous studies revealed, parents still played an important role in their children’s lives and behaviors even in this life

period; however, in an altered form as compared to

childhood [17, 24, 42]. Whereas we know that parental monitoring is a key protective factor for children’s

behaviors and well-being, controlling behavior of the par-

ents may change during adolescence [44]. Emotional connectedness may also decrease due to adolescents’

thriving for autonomy [31, 38]. As previous studies dem-

onstrated, authoritative parenting style provided both

Table 1 Descriptive statistics for depressive symptomatology and parental variables by gender

Student’s t test

Boys mean (SD) Girls mean (SD) t value significance

Depressive symptomatology (CDI) 7.23 (8.49) 9.23 (8.79) t = -5.043

p \ 0.001 Negative family interactions 6.53 (2.67) 6.40 (2.50) t = 1.904

p [ 0.05 Positive identification with parents 10.83 (2.01) 10.88 (1.94) t = -0.578

p [ 0.05 Mother’s responsiveness 27.70 (4.33) 28.36 (5.14) t = -2.974

p \ 0.01 Mother’s demandingness 15.10 (4.45) 15.48 (4.24) t = -1.928

p = 0.05

Father’s responsiveness 26.22 (5.12) 26.52 (5.63) t = -1.184

p [ 0.05 Father’s demandingness 13.86 (4.98) 13.64 (4.81) t = 0.952

p [ 0.05

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control and connectedness for adolescents in an optimal

compound [3, 18–20, 32, 37, 43]. Therefore, we applied a measurement of authoritative parenting style to detect its

protective role in a sample of Hungarian youth, together

with some other parental variables. Previous studies reported gender differences not only in

occurrence of depressive symptoms [36], but also in the role

of its influencing factors [9, 35]. Our findings also show a higher level of depressive score among girls. Gender dif-

ferences in parenting style, however, may be detected only in terms of mother’s behavior; girls received more respon-

siveness and demandingness from their mothers, whereas

there were no differences in father’s parenting style. It is obvious that girls usually tend to receive more control [6];

however, as it seems it is related to mother’s parenting only.

Thankfully, girls receive not only more control from their mothers, but also more responsiveness.

Overall, our data support the protective role of authori-

tative parenting style in relation to adolescent mood prob- lems, particularly among girls. Interpreting the predictor

structure of depressive symptomatology, our findings

suggest that parenting style maybe related to girls’ and boys’ behaviors in a different way. Among boys, only

mother’s responsiveness was a significant predictor. Among

girls, father’s parenting played a decisive role; not only his responsiveness but also demandingness. Interestingly,

mother’s demandingness went together with an elevated

depressive score for girls. This may be explained by girls’ striving for autonomy that may get into conflict with

maternal control; whereas paternal control may be more accepted by them as a part of the traditional masculine role

[23, 35, 44].

All in all, these findings support previous research results on the importance of the opposite-sex parent in the

gender role socialization and personality development [39].

Although there was a strong correlation between father’s and mother’s parenting style, their responsiveness and

demandingness may have a different role. For boys, the

father, for girls, the mother seems to be determinative that may have a longstanding impact on adolescents’ behaviors

and later mental health [11]. It is also a highlighted gender

difference that despite girls’ increased level of depressive symptomatology, more protective factors are available for

them from their social network, such as parents [33].

Besides authoritative parenting style, positive identification with parents also proved to be a predictor among girls in

our study.

Our findings also suggest a continued important role of parents in this life period; however, whereas parental

control is a strong protective factor for adolescent sub-

stance use or externalizing problem behaviors, it does not provide protection against adolescent mood problems on its

own [31, 35, 44]. Overt and particularly manipulative

control often leads to undermining adolescent self-esteem [25]. Whereas adequate parental control as a part of

parental monitoring is a normal behavioral regulation

stemming from the parents’ active role in socializing their children to behavioral norms [31], this does not mean that

Table 2 Correlation matrix for bivariate relationships between depressive symptomatology and parental variables by gender

1 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Depressive symptomatology (CDI) – 0.37*** -0.24*** -0.31*** 0.05 -0.27*** 0.03 -0.01

2. Negative family interactions 0.40***a – -0.20*** -0.47*** 0.08* -0.37*** 0.04 0.02

3. Positive identification with parents -0.25*** -0.31*** – 0.34*** 0.17*** 0.34*** 0.20*** -0.08*

4. Mother’s responsiveness -0.31*** -0.57*** 0.34*** – 0.01 0.54*** 0.02 -0.01

5. Mother’s demandingness 0.06 0.04 0.17*** 0.01 – 0.01 0.60*** -0.24***

6. Father’s responsiveness -0.29*** -0.36*** 0.29*** 0.36*** 0.04 – 0.03 -0.08*

7. Father’s demandingness -0.05 -0.08* 0.22*** 0.11*** 0.55*** 0.04 – -0.17

8. Age 0.04 0.02 -0.12*** -0.06 -0.23*** -0.09** -0.23*** –

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ 0.001 a Correlation coefficient. Boys above diagonal and girls below

Table 3 The role of authoritative parenting style and family vari- ables in adolescents’ depressive symptomatology: multiple linear regression analysis

Boys Girls

Age -0.04a -0.01

Negative family interactions 0.31*** 0.26***

Positive identification with parents -0.05 -0.11**

Mother’s responsiveness -0.11** -0.04

Mother’s demandingness 0.01 0.12**

Father’s responsiveness -0.06 -0.14***

Father’s demandingness -0.03 -0.07*

Constant 12.445*** 12.471***

R2 0.19*** 0.19***

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ 0.001 a Standardized regression coefficient

Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2012) 21:149–155 153

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there is no need for demandingness and parental control

even in this age period. These items of parenting style do play an important role when they are part of a strategic

parental orientation in a fairly explicit childrearing. In a

word, demandingness is beneficial if it is completed with parental responsiveness. The authoritative parenting style

included both of them.

While these findings provide clear evidence for the role of parenting in adolescents’ mood problems, there are some

important limitations to the present study that should be noted. Because of the cross-sectional study design, our

results cannot provide a cause-and-effect relationship.

Furthermore, we use self-reported data on depressive symptoms without a clinical diagnosis that does not enable

us to determine adolescents’ mental health status, e.g.,

levels of clinical depression. In addition, due to the specific cultural context of the study the findings may not be gen-

eralizable since differences across cultures in parenting

practices may result in different patterns of interrelation- ships. Despite any cultural differences, however, our data

support a universal protective role of the authoritative

parenting style. Future research should focus on its role in clinical depression as well, particularly applying a longi-

tudinal study design. Further studies should also take into

account the socioeconomic background of parents as a possible contributor for parenting style.

As to practical implications, prevention programs

cannot guarantee success without taking into account the role of parents. Many researchers suggest that teaching

positive parenting seems to be a part of these prevention

programs that may include facilitating intimate yet autonomous relationships [7]. This would help avoid

mishandling familial conflicts as well. Authoritative par-

enting style, providing an optimal compound of control and connectedness, help with effective problem solving

in the families [26]. In addition, as data from an empir-

ical study suggest, authoritative style is important not only in terms of parenting, but also related to school

life: authoritative schools (that are both demanding and

responsive) have the best results for youth behavior (e.g., disengagement, behavioral and psychological mea-

sures) [30]. Therefore, future research should focus on the

complex interactions among authoritative parenting, school life and adolescents’ personality in relation to their

depressive symptomatology. Such data may enhance

positive youth development and prevention of depression on a long term.

Acknowledgments This study was supported by the ETT 012-08/2009 research grant of the Ministry of Health Care (Hungary) and in the frame of the following personal research grant: TÁMOP 4.2.1.-B/09/0/KONV-2010-005.

Conflict of interest None.

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