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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice

CHAPTER

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

FOURTH EDITION

Theoretical Perspectives on Drug Use and Abuse

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Why Do People Take Drugs?

• Therapeutic reasons

 Relief of physical or psychological disorders

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Why Do People Take Drugs?

• Recreational reasons

 Sheer pleasure

 To escape from life of boredom

 To suppress feelings

 To fit in with peers

 To relieve stress

 Propensity rooted in the chemistry of the brain

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Why Do People Take Drugs?

• Moral model of drug abuse

 Drug-taking behavior is a matter of choice.

 Not a biological defect, abuse is a psychological dysfunction; or due to sociological circumstances.

 Attributed to personal inadequacies, overindulgence, a weakness of will, or other serious character flaw

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Biological Perspectives

• Biological theories focus primarily on genetic factors, physiological factors, and neurochemical systems in the brain.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Genetic Factors

• Genetic research has advanced.

• Genetic factors and environmental factors may play an equal role (or genetics slightly more so) in drug use and drug abuse.

• Genes play role in determining risk level

 Genome mapping

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Genetic Factors

• Most studies focus on alcoholics.

• Children of Alcoholics (COA)

 Four times more likely than other children to become alcoholics

• Identical twins

 More at risk than fraternal twins

• Not identified a single gene or set of genes responsible for alcoholism

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Physiological Factors

• People differ in which chemicals in the body break down or change (metabolic process).

 Circumstantial evidence to support this claim.

• Neurochemical systems in the brain

 Varying pharmacological reactions

 Similarities in drugs

 Common neurochemical system in brain

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Neurochemical Systems in the Brain

• Two key elements to understanding the rewarding effect of drugs

 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the brain cells to communicate with each other.

• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter related to emotional and motor control.

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Neurochemical Systems in the Brain

• Two key elements to understanding the rewarding effect of drugs

 Nucleus accumbens is a region in the brain responsible for reinforcing the effects of drugs.

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Neurochemical Systems in the Brain

• Research on dopamine and drug dependence may show why some people are more prone to becoming drug dependent.

• Example

 One study found men with a lower concentration of dopamine were the ones feeling the most pleasure from taking the drug.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Three categories

 Psychoanalytic theories of personalities

 Nonpsychoanalytic theories of personality

 Behavioral accounts of human learning

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Psychoanalytic theories are founded by Freud (1856–1939)

 Id, ego, and superego

• A strong, healthy ego

 Psychological balancing act

 Minimizes excessive out-of-control pressures from the id

 Excessive pressures of guilt and anxiety from superego

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Some psychoanalytical theorists focus on getting high as an expression of power or drug dependence as a means of coming to terms of an unconscious death.

• A poorly functioning ego can lead to a self-destructive lifestyle, while a healthy ego should promote self-care, self-protection, and self-esteem.

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Nonpsychoanalytic personality theories

 Antisocial personality disorder, anxiety, and depression are more common among drug abusers.

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Nonpsychoanalytic personality theories

 May have an increased need for stimulation, excitement, and immediate gratification

 May demonstrate poor judgment, difficulty learning from their mistakes, and be emotionally insensitive to others

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Psychological Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• Behavioral theories emphasize the role of learning through the principle of reinforcement.

• Behavior followed by a reward is more likely to be repeated.

• Specific cues may stimulate powerful drug cravings.

 Difficult to break

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Quick Concept Check 5.1 Understanding Biological and Psychological Perspectives on Drug Use and Abuse

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Sociologists look at the role the environment and societal factors play in drug use and abuse.

• Anomie/Strain Theory

 Sociologist Emile Durkheim (1893)

 Feelings of frustration and alienation

 Not able to meet the demands of society

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Five Adaptations of Anomie/Strain Theory by Robert Merton

1. Conformity

2. Innovation

3. Ritualism

4. Retreatism

5. Rebellion

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Social Control/Bonding Theory

 Weakened social bonds between an individual and social entities lead to rule breaking.

• Bonds to family, religious affiliation, school, and community

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Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Social Control/Bonding Theory

 Four types of social bonds

• Attachment

• Commitment

• Involvement

• Belief

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Differential Association Theory

 Originally proposed by Edwin Sutherland in 1939

 Drug taking behavior is learned in interactions and communications with other individuals like parents and friends.

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Differential Association Theory

 Adolescents who have friends that encourage drug use will more likely use drugs.

• Learn the drug taking process and how to enjoy the high

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Subcultural Recruitment and Socialization Theory

 Erich Goode and Bruce Johnson

 Draws on differential reinforcement but focuses on dynamic relationship between the drug abusers

 Drug users are drawn to other drug users.

 Drug user subculture increases.

continued on next slide

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Sociological Perspectives

• Labeling Theory

 Primary deviance is the first time a person uses experiments with drugs.

 Continued drug-taking behavior that is based on the expectations of others is secondary deviance.

 A drug user internalizes a newly acquired label of deviance.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Labeling Theory

• Primary deviance

 Nonconformity that is temporary, exploratory, and easily concealed

• Secondary deviance

 Persistent nonconformist behavior is deviant.

• Behavior is based upon expectations of others.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Integrating Theoretical Perspectives on Drug Abuse

• There are multiple pathways to drug abuse.

• A combination (integrated) approach to treatment reflects the biopsychosocial model of drug-taking behavior in general.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Risk Factors vs. Protective Factors

• A given person has a certain degree of vulnerability with respect to drug- taking behavior.

• This vulnerability is shaped by two factors.

1. Risk factors increase the likelihood of involvement with drugs.

2. Protective factors make it less likely that person will be involved in drugs.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Figure 5.2 The biopsychosocial model with respect to effective drug-abuse treatment. Source: Modified from Margolis, Robert D.; and Zweben, Joan E. (1998). Treating patients with alcohol and other drug problems: An integrated approach. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 76–87.

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Risk Factors

• Factors that make it more likely that a person will be involved with drugs

 Such as socioeconomic status

• May depend on particular drug used

• Most reliable risk factors are psychosocial characteristics.

• Reflect a tendency to nonconformity

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Table 5.1 Major risk factors: Odds ratios for marijuana use over the past year among youths aged 12–17 as related to specific questions

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Protective Factors

• Factors that make it less likely that a person will be involved with drugs

• Strong resistance against temptation

• Buffering element among high risk

• Greater resilience against drug-taking behavior

Drugs, Society, and Criminal Justice, Fourth Edition Charles F. Levinthal

Table 5.2 Major protective factors: Odds ratios for marijuana use over the past year among youths aged 12–17 as related to specific questions