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Table of Contents -- Course Reader -- English 1A – Fall 2019 Course Syllabus 2 Revision Process 6 Sample Formatting Page 7 Sample Process Letter 8

1. Inductive Analysis Essay (4-5 pgs.) 50 points Page Essay Prompt 9 Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson 10 “The Transparent I” by William Fitzgerald (Sample Essay) 11 2. Deductive Analysis Essay (6-7 pgs.) 100 points Page Essay Prompt 14 “Seeing” by Annie Dillard 15 An Outline of the Essential Key Points of Dillard’s Essay 22 Sample Paragraphs for writing about “Seeing” 24 3. Personal Essay (4-6 pages) 25 points Page Essay Prompt 25 “Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address” 27 The Pledge of Allegiance 30 “Allegiance to Gratitude” by Robin Wall Kimmerer 31 “Learning the Grammar of Animacy” by Robin Wall Kimmerer 36 4. Research Essay (8-10 pgs.) 200 points Page Essay Prompt 41 Sample Prospectus 44 Sample Annotated Bibliography 45 Sample Outline for a Possible Approach to Writing the Research Essay 46 “The Impermanence of Order: The True Nature of Gardens” by William Fitzgerald 47 Basic Outline for “The Impermanence of Order” by William Fitzgerald 51 “Gardening Means War” by Michael Pollan 53 “The How-To Garden” by Jim Nollman 57 5. Group Presentation Page Group Presentation Prompt 67

Sentence Combining Page Sentence Patterns 68 Clause/Phrase Review 69 Sentence Focus 71 Coordination 77 Conjunctive Adverbs and Transitional Phrases 78 Subordination 80 Run Together Sentences (RTS) 83 Free Modifiers: Adjective Clauses 85 Free Modifiers: Noun Phrase Appositives (NPA) 91 Free Modifiers: Clause Modifying Verbal Phrases (CMVP) 94 Free Modifiers: Absolute Phrases 97 Correlative Conjunctions 100 Fragments 101 Faulty Parallel Structure 103 Punctuation 104 PIE Paragraph Structure 109 Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing vs. Plagiarism 110

MLA - Format for Bibliographical Sources Page Citing Sources In-Text: Contextualizing Sources 112 The Mechanics of In-Text Citations 116 Citing Sources in Your Essay as You Move Between Different Sources 119 Punctuating when Using Quotation Marks 119 Italicizing Titles vs. Using Quotation Marks 119 Formatting the Works Cited Page 121 Works Cited: Printed Sources 122 Works Cited: Sources from the Web 128 Works Cited: Other Common Sources 131

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English 1A (CRN 71261-502) — Fall 2019 Tuesday Evenings 6:10 pm – 10 pm (Art 311)

Instructor: Nathan Wirth | Phone: 415.239.3199 (best to use email) | Email: [email protected] | Office: Art 213

Office Hours: Mondays and Tuesdays 5 pm to 6 pm and By Appointment Prerequisite for the course: Completion of English 96, 88, or 88b with a C or better or placement in English 1A

Course Website on Canvas: https://ccsf.instructure.com

Important Dates Last Day to Drop Without a "W": Sep. 6 | Last Day to Withdraw: Nov. 7 | Final Exam Date: Dec 17

Holidays: Jan 21, Feb 18, March 25

Required Texts & Materials A Reliable Internet connection for Canvas Course Reader (Download from Canvas)

The Botany of Desire by Michael Pollan (NOT available in Bookstore) Major Learning Outcomes Outcome 1: Analyze university-level texts. Outcome 2: Compose research-based, organized essays that are driven by an arguable thesis and employ critical thinking. Outcome 3: Apply the major conventions of standard written English. Outcome 4: Choose and integrate credible sources for support, using appropriate citation format. Course Description This course is, first and foremost, a class about writing. We will consider a variety of strategies for combining clauses and phrases (adjective clauses, noun phrase appositives, verbal phrases, absolute phrases), practice ways to focus sentences more clearly, discuss how to develop and cultivate a thesis, and go over the basic elements and strategies for writing a research paper (citing sources, integrating quotations, doing research, etc.). We will also, as a class and in groups, be discussing the various texts and articles that you will be reading during the semester. Naturally, any class that focuses on writing and reading also inevitably leads to thinking. This course is designed to take you through a variety of experiences, perspectives and written assignments that will help you to build a well-rounded understanding of the various questions that will be posed during this course and then to write about them. Logging into Canvas • Log into Canvas from MyCCSF: https://www.ccsf.edu/en/myccsf.html • Username: Your CCSF ID (example W12345678, @12345678, or D12345678) • Password: Your RAMID password In order to take this class, you must have reliable access to the Internet. All homework-related assignments

and essays must be uploaded to Canvas, so if you do not have access to the site, you will not be able to submit your work. You must download and print the course reader, which contains all of the assignments and handouts for the

semester. You are required to bring the course reader to every class. It can be found on Canvas. Lab Hours Requirement • The English Department require all 1A students to complete the online library research tutorials. • Failure to complete ALL the tutorials and/or turn in the badges to prove you have completed them will result in

no participation points (a loss of 25 points). Essays/Written Work/Assignments/ Formatting: All written work (except for rough drafts and notes) must be typed and double spaced. If you don't follow the proper formatting, I will return the paper to you. It is essential that you meet the minimum required page limit. If you do not, then points will be deducted from your essay. You are always welcome to write more than the minimum. Here are my basic, standard formatting guidelines. • Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides. • Use Times New Roman 12 pt. • Pages must be numbered. Place the number in the top right corner. Omit the number on the first page.

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• Indent the first line of paragraphs five spaces from the left margin. • Include a title • Staple the pages. • Underline your thesis statement. • No large gaps between paragraphs.

Quizzes: There will be four reading quizzes for The Botany of Desire. Check Canvas for dates and other details. Assignments: You will be given several essential assignments for your research paper (including, for example, a prospectus and an annotated bibliography). Details are available on Canvas and in the course reader. Process Letters: For each formal essay, you are required to include a brief letter that outlines the difficulties and successes you experienced while working on your essay. Your letter should be a short reflection (a) about your experience writing your essay. What did you struggle with? What problems did you encounter? How did you overcome them? What do you feel satisfied about? Any concerns that you want me to address when I read your essay? The pedagogy behind this is to allow each student the opportunity to actually think about his / her writing process and to reflect on what each student does or does not do when writing. You can find a sample in the course reader. Group Presentations: Instead of a final exam, you will be participating in a group project that will be presented either on December 10th or December 17th. All students must attend both class meetings. Revisions: You have the option to rewrite the first two essays (unless you receive an A). For your rewrite, you must include a detailed analysis of the changes that you made (e.g. what was the mistake? what did you do to change it?). Each rewrite, if done well, can earn up to a full grade; however, in order to earn that many points, your rewrite must be significantly improved and include detailed notes about the changes you made. Specific details are available in the course reader and will be discussed in class. • If your first two essays do not meet the standards and requirements for a passing essay, you will have to meet

me during an office hour to discuss strategies for fixing those issues. Failure to rewrite the essay within three weeks after I return the essay will result in a failing grade for that essay (which means that you will not be able to pass the course).

Plagiarism: Here is the official CCSF policy on plagiarism: "Plagiarism is defined as the unauthorized use of the language and thought of another author and representing them as your own." Plagiarism is a violation of the rules of student conduct, and discipline may include, but is not limited to," a failing grade in an assignment, test, or class in proven cases of cheating or plagiarism or other academic dishonesty.” • My official policy is that you will receive a failing grade for the assignment (0 points for the assignment). At

my discretion, I sometimes offer a plagiarizer the opportunity to rewrite the essay for an F with points (e.g. 55/100). If you should plagiarize a second time, then you will receive a failing grade for the essay and, as a result, for the class.

• My official thoughts about Plagiarism: I feel that plagiarizing is exceptionally lame. Why bother going to school if you have no intention of doing your own work? If you are stressed out about your writing, just come talk to me and we can discuss your situation.

Staying on Task: It is essential that you read the essay and assignment prompts carefully. Any essays that do not follow what the prompt specifically asks for will be returned ungraded. I will read them after you revise them, but they will be considered late. That said— the essays are designed to allow you the opportunity to develop exactly how you wish to address the questions posed, so you can still express your individuality. Late Essays: I will accept late essays, but if your essay is late, I will provide no comments and return it at my convenience (which might take a while). You are NOT allowed to rewrite late essays. All late essays must be turned in no later than two weeks after the due date. Requirements for Passing the Class: All the essays must be completed with a passing grade or you cannot pass the course. No exceptions. Help: I will gladly comment on thesis statements, outlines, or a paragraph or two from your essays via email or during office appointments-- but not on entire essays. Make sure that you have specific questions about specific

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things before you email me or come to an office appointment. You can also get lots of quality help in the English Lab (Rosenberg Library R205) — and your visits to the lab count towards your lab-hours requirement. Bring the course workbook to each and every class. Check the course schedule on Canvas before each class to see

what we will be covering and make sure that you bring the necessary materials to class.

Attendance/Participation/Class Discussion/Teacher-Student Conference Attendance: Let me make this as obvious as possible. Your presence is important both to me and for your success in the course. If you have made vacation plans, have work obligations, can’t attend the final class, and/or have no intention of showing up regularly, then I would not recommend taking this course. Even if you find me and/or the material boring, you still have to come to class; however, if that is how you feel, I would strongly recommend that you find a teacher and/or class more to your liking and schedule. • For a night class, you are allowed one unexcused absence (no questions asked and no consequences for that

absence), but I reserve the right to reduce your participation grade by five points for each subsequent absence. Please note that this is not an invitation to miss a class.

• If you miss three or more classes in a row before the final withdrawal date -- and do not contact me to let me know if you are still in the class— I will drop/withdraw you from the course.

• If you miss a total of five class meetings before the final withdrawal date — I will drop/withdraw you from the course. There comes a point when you are just not really taking the course-- and this, as far as I am concerned, is pretty much when you have arrived at that point.

• You are expected to arrive to class on time and to bring the proper materials (course reader, assignments ... check Canvas for details). If you are late then YOU have to let me know, or you will remain marked absent. Three "lates / tardies" equal one absence.

• Please note that if you miss a class, you are still responsible for all material/assignments covered in class. • I recommend that you exchange email addresses with at least a couple of students so that you can keep up

with anything you might miss in class. Though I will be as helpful as I can, do not rely on me to keep you up to date. I will not respond to emails that ask me what was covered in class. Check Canvas for the latest schedule / due dates / required reading, etc. EVERYTHING is there.

• If life deals one of those many unfortunate situations that we all dread but have to deal with, and, as a result, you have to be absent for a few classes, then please have the courtesy to let me know. I do not need to know the details—just that you are “dealing with something” and, thus, missing classes. I will drop or withdraw you from the class if I have not heard from you after two weeks. Don’t just vanish! Keep in touch and let me know what is going on.

Participation Grade: I base your participation grade on attendance, class participation, and completing the lab work (25 pts). Most students, when attendance is good, receive 21 or 22 points. To get more points you need to participate in discussions. Talking during class while others are speaking (whether it be me or your fellow classmates) will result in a reduced participation grade as well. Class Discussion: This class is built around a lot of class discussion and interaction; therefore, it is important that you take part in class discussions—which means that you must put your best effort towards reading the material and thinking about it. Consistent lack of participation will result in a lower participation score. Teacher-Student Conference: Between November 29th and December 3rd, I will conduct individual conferences with each student. Failure to participate in a conference will result in losing all your participation points. General Class Rules Eating & Drinking in Class: Official school rules prohibit eating in class, so if you spill something, clean up after yourself. Smart Phones & Laptops in Class: I am beginning to accept that some students use their smart phones to access information during class, but I am not entirely convinced yet. Let me say this: if you are far more interested in your smart phone than the class, you should seriously ask yourself why you are bothering to take this course. Do not disrupt the class. If you do, I will ask you to leave and then mark you absent.

 You are adults and I expect you to act responsibly/accordingly.  DO NOT TALK TO YOUR FELLOW CLASSMATES DURING LECTURES OR CLASS DISCUSSIONS!  Do not sleep or do homework during class. If you feel the class is boring and/or stupid, I encourage you to

drop the course and find one that is more interesting to you.

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Other Concerns  Email Addresses: Make sure that you check the email the school has provided you. You can forward your school email to

your regular email account (and that way you won’t miss anything the school sends you). This is the email that I am provided and my only way of contacting you. All mail related to Canvas is delivered to your school email as well.

 This class is rated “R.” From time to time strong language and discussion of adult themes and situations may occur. If these kinds of things offend you, you should consider taking a different course.

 Accommodations: If you need classroom or testing accommodations because of a disability, or have any other special needs, please give me your DSPS form or make an appointment with me as soon as possible. Disabled Students Programs and Services (DSPS) is located in Room 323 of the Rosenberg Library, phone (415) 452 5481

Grade Breakdown (Subject to Change) 70% of your grade • Inductive Analysis Essay 1 (Emerson) = 50 points • Deductive Analysis Essay 2 (Annie Dillard’s “Seeing”) = 100 points • Personal Essay (Kimmerer) = 50 pts • Research Essay (Gardening) = 200 points

20% of Your Grade • In-class Essay = 25 pts • Group Presentation = 25 points • Assignments (Various Points) • Reading Quizzes (Various pts.)

10% of Your Grade • Participation (Attendance + Class Discussion + Online Tutorials + Student-Teacher Conference) = 25 points

The Complete and Detailed Schedule for the Class Is on Canvas

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Revision Process

If your grade is below passing, then disregard this process. You must meet with me in person so that we can discuss your rewrite. It is your responsibility to make this appointment.

Turn in a printed copy of the rewritten essay to me – Do Not Upload Rewrites to Canvas

This exercise in revision is not just a process of fixing the corrections or responding to the comments I made. Treat this as a revision of the essay as a whole. Think about how you can improve or tighten up your points/writing. In other words, this is a revision of the whole essay. As you revise your essay keep notes about the changes you have made to your essay. I need to know WHY you made EVERY change. Note: Because Nathan marked it / told me to is not an acceptable reason. If I asked you a question or commented about something you wrote, I expect you to address what I said and tell me how and why you fixed it. I want to know what your reasoning is for every change you make. Keep track of these changes on your freshly-printed, revised draft. Go ahead and write on the essay in pencil. (A) Underline / circle the section you have changed in your revised essay and then explain the nature of the problem, how you fixed it, and why your fix has taken care of the problem. The amount of points you are awarded will be based on how detailed your explanations are. If you are going to only make minor changes and / or spend no time explaining this, then do not bother revising the essay. (B) For all sentence related errors—name the error (such as run together sentence, misspelled word, subject-verb agreement, incorrect verb tense, proofreading error, wrong word choice, the sentence fell apart/derailed/too weighty, etc) and then explain what you have done to fix the problem. (C) If it is repetitive problem—such as forgetting to use the right tense or keeping the comma inside the quotation marks or incorrectly formatting your in-text citations— then explain the nature of the error and circle each instance of that error. Do not explain the instance of each error. If you do not follow these requirements, then I will not read your revised essay. The amount of points that you are rewarded will reflect the quality of your rewrite and how detailed your explanations are. In general, your grade will be boosted a half grade or a full grade if you do a good job (for example a C+ will become a B-). If your rewrite significantly improves your essay, then I reserve the right to increase it a full grade (for example, a C could become a B). Provide me a printed copy with your corrections. Do not upload the revision to Canvas. Please Note  If you received an A- or better, then you cannot rewrite the essay.  Only the first two essays of the semester can be revised / rewritten.

If I am not requiring you to rewrite / revise your essay, then don’t bother with this process unless you really want to rewrite your essay and learn something from the process. Anything less will receive no points. Just changing a few quick things will not yield very many points (and might receive no points).

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Sample Format Guidelines for Essays Not a Writing Sample – Just a Formatting Sample

Bane

Personal Essay (Solitude)

December 31, 9768

The Eye of Solitude

Since my early childhood days, I have often returned to the Point Reyes National

Seashore, but after moving to Marin County a few years ago, that "often" has been

replaced with "as much as once a week," especially during the winter and spring after a

good rain has settled but the clouds have not yet left. As a child, my family was far too

poor to ever travel, but over several summers we would board the Golden Gate Transit

bus before sunrise, in the dark, and then leave to come home on the final bus, which

would return us to San Francisco in the dark. And thus began a tradition of sorts, one

that stretches back to those early childhood days and looks further forward to whatever

I may encounter in future visits. Now that I live in Novato, a forty five minute drive

away, I visit Drake's Beach each week, camera, neutral density filters, and tripod in

hand so that I can find yet another way to photograph this stretch of beach where land

ends and the sea begins-- or if you wish where the sea ends and land begins-- or,

perhaps, where the land and the sea simply meet, that shoreline bringing to mind the

line on a map where the blue of the water is separated by the color of the land mass.

These are the kinds of thoughts that I often play with as I wait for the seconds to pass

into minutes during the long exposure photographs that I work on each visit. Indeed,

gazing out into the sea, I often find a certain kind of silence, a silence that is experienced

in between the sounds of the sea, a silence that I only find in solitude.

Lately, I have been thinking about what Emerson and Thoreau had to say about

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SAMPLE PROCESS LETTER Dear Mr. Nathan,

Overall, I feel like I understand the question and answered it well; however, I really struggled

with my introduction and my conclusion. I know that they are supposed to be like the bookends of the

essay and really tie together my overall points/thesis, but I don’t feel like I fully introduce my essay and I

am not certain if the introduction even really relates to my thesis. I wish I had taken more time with it. I

am not entirely certain if I ever fully figured out exactly what Emerson is saying about solitude. I do,

however, feel that I have a good grasp of Emerson’s main ideas (I am not certain that I adequately

explained his thoughts, and I may have claimed he said things he never actually says in the essay).

I feel confident about my body paragraphs. I worked very hard on trying to write good

transitions between paragraphs and I think most of them are very effective, but I also think a few of them

are a bit too formulaic. I think I did a really good job integrating the sources and finding ways to support

my argument that solitude helps us to understand nature in very human terms. I am used to thinking of

the first sentence of each paragraph as a topic sentence, so it might take me a while to adjust to your

instruction about considering them as points.

I wish I had taken a little more time to revise the essay. I feel good about the writing overall, but

I know that I could have cleaned up and better focused some of the sentences. I’d really appreciate it if

you would comment on the conclusion and let me know if you think I successfully tied together all the

elements of my body paragraphs and my thesis.

I plan to start the next essay even earlier so that I have lots of extra time to proofread and

rethink my sentences (and make sure that all the elements of the essay work together smoothly). I know

every student says that!

Thanks! Miley

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Essay 1: Inductive Analysis Essay -- Emerson (50 pts.) Length: 4-5 pgs. Due Date: Check Canvas Task: Analyze the text of the excerpt from Emerson’s Nature and discuss how the writer explains (a) his experience with nature while in solitude and (b) the spiritual connection that he has with God through nature. • To successfully accomplish this task, you will need to analyze Emerson’s actual language. This is essential. I am

not asking you what your thoughts are about Emerson’s views. I am asking you to analyze what he wrote. • You need to make sure that you analyze the following key elements in Emerson’s essay: a) What Emerson feels is required to achieve the kind of solitude he is discussing. How one can achieve it. b) How our awe for the stars help us to understand what true solitude means. c) How all “natural objects” can fill us with the same sense of awe if we are open to their influence. d) How seeing this way is the way the poet sees. e) How seeing with this sense of wonder is the way many people experience nature when they are children. f) How the “transparent eyeball” passage represents the awe, the willingness to be open to the influence of all “natural objects,” the way the poet sees, the child-like wonder that we can have for nature, and his connection with God through nature.  be very thorough about this (do not skip it). Please note I am not asking you to discuss your views about his thoughts. Your task is to analyze the text (so you will need to summarize, paraphrase and directly quote from Emerson and use your analysis of the text to shape your understanding of how he experiences solitude and nature). And your essay is not only a summary … it is an analysis. Do not write from the perspective of what you think Emerson is trying to say; instead, write from the perspective of what he actually writes and how his observations are interconnected-- and what they, ultimately, lead to.  Audience: Your audience will be familiar with this excerpt, so you should not retell everything that happens in them. Instead, focus on those passages that you choose to analyze. You should summarize, paraphrase and quote those passages that will help you to demonstrate how Emerson describes his experiences with nature in solitude. Do not use “I” or “You.”  Essay Structure: This is an inductive analysis essay, which means you do not begin your essay with the traditional introduction that includes a thesis statement. Instead, you should, after stating the title and the author’s full name, jump right in and start analyzing what Emerson does and how he does it. Your goal is to connect the various elements of his essay and show how he ultimately connects with God through his deep connection with nature. Thus, it makes the most sense to discuss his essay by analyzing these elements in the order he writes them in—your job also including the need to make connections between these elements. Your conclusion must, ultimately and conclusively, state how Emerson’s essay explores his connection with God through solitude and nature. And, very importantly, state your thesis in your conclusion. Think of it this way: this essay form requires you to argue towards your thesis (instead of stating it at the beginning of your essay).  MLA Formatting: (1) When writing about the essay, use the present tense (Example: Emerson explains a certain quality of solitude). (2) In your introductory paragraph, refer to the title of the full essay (Nature) and the author’s full name (Ralph

Waldo Emerson). (3) For the rest of the essay, use the author’s last name (Emerson). Do not repeat his full name again. (4) Once you have mentioned the title, do not mention it again. Do not write “in the essay.” We will know that you

are discussing the essay. (5) For in-text citations / quotations, use the page number in the course reader. You do not need to mention the

author’s last name in the citation because once you have introduced us to the title and the author’s name, we will know that you are only quoting that source because your task is to analyze that essay and that essay only.

(6) Provide a Works Cited page. Here is the correctly formatted bibliographical citation. Pay attention to the italicized titles and the indented second line.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Nature. English 1A Course Reader. Edited by Nathan Wirth, Nathan’s Mind Inc., 2019.  Final Draft: Upload your final draft to Canvas. Check the course schedule for due dates and the upload link.  Process Letter: You must also include a process letter, in which you write about your writing process for the essay. Please make this the first page of your document (and it does not count as one of the required pages). You can find a sample process letter in this course reader.  Formatting: Check the formatting requirements in this course reader before you upload your essay.

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Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1836 To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society. I am not solitary whilst I

read and write, though nobody is with me. But if a man would be alone, let him look at the stars. The rays that come from those heavenly worlds, will separate between him and what he touches. One might think the atmosphere was made transparent with this design, to give man, in the heavenly bodies, the perpetual presence of the sublime.1 Seen in the streets of cities, how great they are! If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how would men believe and adore; and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every night come out these envoys of beauty, and light the universe with their admonishing2 smile. The stars awaken a certain reverence, because though always present, they are inaccessible; but all natural objects make a kindred impression, when the mind is open to their influence. Nature never wears a mean appearance. Neither does the wisest man extort3 her secret, and lose his curiosity by finding out all her perfection. Nature never became a toy to a wise spirit. The flowers, the animals, the mountains, reflected the wisdom of his best hour, as much as they had delighted the simplicity of his childhood. When we speak of nature in this manner, we have a distinct but most poetical sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made by manifold natural objects. It is this which distinguishes the stick of timber of the wood-cutter, from the tree of the poet. The charming landscape, which I saw this morning, is indubitably4 made up of some twenty or thirty farms. Miller owns this field, Locke that, and Manning the woodland beyond. But none of them owns the landscape. There is a property in the horizon which no man has but he whose eye can integrate all the parts, that is, the poet. This is the best part of these men's farms, yet to this their warranty-deeds give no title. To speak truly, few adult persons can see nature. Most persons do not see the sun. At least they have a very superficial seeing. The sun illuminates only the eye of the man, but shines into the eye and the heart of the child. The lover of nature is he whose inward and outward senses are still truly adjusted to each other; who has retained the spirit of infancy even into the era of manhood. His intercourse with heaven and earth becomes part of his daily food. In the presence of nature, a wild delight runs through the man, in spite of real sorrows. Nature says, -- he is my creature, and maugre5 all his impertinent6 griefs, he shall be glad with me. Not the sun or the summer alone, but every hour and season yields its tribute of delight; for every hour and change corresponds to and authorizes a different state of the mind, from breathless noon to grimmest midnight. Nature is a setting that fits equally well a comic or a mourning piece. In good health, the air is a cordial7 of incredible virtue. Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, at twilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts any occurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfect exhilaration. I am glad to the brink of fear. In the woods too, a man casts off his years, as the snake his slough, and at what period soever of life, is always a child. In the woods, is perpetual youth. Within these plantations of God, a decorum and sanctity reign, a perennial8 festival is dressed, and the guest sees not how he should tire of them in a thousand years. In the woods, we return to reason and faith. There I feel that nothing can befall me in life, -- no disgrace, no calamity, (leaving me my eyes,) which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground, -- my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, -- all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God. The name of the nearest friend sounds then foreign and accidental: to be brothers, to be acquaintances, -- master or servant, is then a trifle and a disturbance. I am the lover of uncontained and immortal beauty. In the wilderness, I find something more dear and connate9 than in streets or villages. In the tranquil landscape, and especially in the distant line of the horizon, man beholds somewhat as beautiful as his own nature. The greatest delight which the fields and woods minister, is the suggestion of an occult relation between man and the vegetable. I am not alone and unacknowledged. They nod to me, and I to them. The waving of the boughs in the storm, is new to me and old. It takes me by surprise, and yet is not unknown. Its effect is like that of a higher thought or a better emotion coming over me, when I deemed I was thinking justly or doing right. Yet it is certain that the power to produce this delight, does not reside in nature, but in man, or in a harmony of both. It is necessary to use these pleasures with great temperance. For, nature is not always tricked in holiday attire, but the same scene which yesterday breathed perfume and glittered as for the frolic of the nymphs, is overspread with melancholy today. Nature always wears the colors of the spirit. To a man laboring under calamity, the heat of his own fire hath sadness in it. Then, there is a kind of contempt of the landscape felt by him who has just lost by death a dear friend. The sky is less grand as it shuts down over less worth in the population.

1 sublime = of such grandeur, or beauty as to inspire great admiration or awe (so much awe that it comes with fear / respect & thus reverence) 2 admonish = to urge to a duty; remind 3 extort = obtain (something) by force, threats, or other unfair means 4 indubitably = too evident to be doubted 5 maugre = in spite of 6 impertinent = not pertinent to a particular matter; irrelevant. 7 cordial = a comforting or pleasant-tasting medicine 8 perennial = lasting or existing for a long or apparently infinite time; enduring or continually recurring. 9 connate = (especially of ideas or principles) existing in a person or thing from birth; innate.

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Sample of Essay One – Emerson William Fitzgerald English 1A Mr. Nathan

The Transparent I Ralph Waldo Emerson begins his essay Nature by offering his readers the conditions necessary to

find a certain quality of solitude, one that he later experiences when he finds a very deep and personal connection with nature and, ultimately, God: “To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society” (10). One should note that Emerson specifically indicates the necessity to leave both his connections with home and the society that his home is located in; in fact, he indicates the need to sever his ties from others even further by realizing that being physically alone, being at home without anyone else around, is not necessarily enough, for even when he reads and writes in solitude he is still connected with those whose thoughts he might read and for those whom he might write. To best find the truest sense of the solitary, he explains one should look to the brilliance of the heavens and its many stars, for this is how one can feel truly disconnected from the rest of the world. The stars, Emerson writes, “will separate” man “between him and what he touches” (10). In other words, those who look to the brilliance of the stars will see something filled with such immensity they will feel a sense of awe that separates them from all that is material, all that is touchable, and, as a result, leave them to feel alone and solitary in the face of such grandeur. But the stars are not just beautiful. They also fill one with the sense of the sublime, a word which not only describes the sheer beauty and grandeur of the lights that fill the night but also indicates the power of the stars, a power and intensity that elicits veneration and respect and awe and, thus, a touch of uneasiness. That fear, that respect, that reverence, is essential to understanding what Emerson wishes to communicate because the heavens in all their vastness and mystery are, in his words, “the city of God” (10). So, ultimately, Emerson equates the intensity of this quality of solitude he seeks with the intensity of connecting with God, but, at this point, God is high in the heavens and out of his reach.

Next, he shifts from the reverence and awe one might feel for the stars to reverence for the many facets of nature down here on earth, writing that that the stars are “inaccessible,” that we can never touch them and that, in the end, this is an essential part of the reason why they “awaken a certain reverence” (10)— “awaken” implying our senses and spirit have been asleep or dulled and that through this experience those inactive senses are stirred up, excited, and aroused. And this is precisely where Emerson associates that same awakening, that same awe, that same reverence for the majesty of the nighttime sky with all and any “natural objects” (10), the phrase “kindred impression” (10) connecting the stars to all “natural objects” (all of which we can touch, unlike the stars, if we choose). “Kindred” denotes there is a definite similarity between the stars and the natural objects of the earth, but even though they are not the same, they do, in a sense, come from the same natural origin (later in the essay, the “Universal Being”). “Impression” indicates the effect something has on the mind, the conscience, and one’s feelings. So, when combined in this context, these two words indicate, once again, that Emerson is drawing a connection between the intensity and awe we hold for the stars and the awe and reverence that we might have for any natural object, but, for this to happen, the mind must be “open to their influence” (10). “Influence” is the key word here, for it indicates that experiencing these natural objects and surroundings can affect one’s moods and feelings, that one can experience the same awe for the stars in the entirety of nature if one is open to seeing that influence, that, ultimately, nature is as grand and awe-inspiring as those stars (and, by connection, one can also experience God in and through nature).

Emerson then shifts to explaining how the wise person— i.e., the person whose mind is open to the influence of nature— recognizes that nature does not act meanly, that nature is not a trivial toy to be played with, that nature never ceases to amaze and intrigue the person who experiences it, and, perhaps most importantly, the truly wise person realizes the best moments experiencing nature as an adult return one to the wonder which childhood was often filled with, to a time before the experiences of being an adult deadened and dulled the innocence and curiosity of childhood experiences in nature. In other words, one of the deepest consequences of opening one’s mind to the influence of nature is that it awakens, in part, some of that lost wonder of our childhood. Emerson then connects this reawakened mind to a “most poetical sense” of how we see things. To see things poetically is to see them as they are and not in an analytical or purely functional way; the poet sees nature in its entirety and not by its material divisions. He offers the example of the woodcutter— who sees a tree only for its potential

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materials— and the poet, who sees the tree for what it is: as a whole tree with all the beauty one might associate with a tree— as well as a “natural object” that shares a “kindred impression” with the stars that invokes a sense of awe, reverence and wonder. He further explains this poetical perception by describing a walk through a variety of farms and woods, in which he sees all these parcels of individually owned land as one landscape and not a landscape divided by ownership. The poetically-awakened mind realizes one can possess a deed to some land, but one can never own the landscape, the view, the experience (and the awe and the wonder it can invoke if one’s mind is open to the influence) .

And it is this poetical sense of mind that Emerson sees through when he later goes for a walk in the woods at twilight. The poetically-minded individual is the one whose mind, heart, spirit and eyes, “whose inward and outward senses,” are “still truly adjusted to each other; who has retained the spirit of infancy even into the era of manhood” (10). Indeed, the “lover of nature,” as Emerson refers to it, sees nature not only with the eyes but with a curiosity and exhilaration that has not been deadened, one that can continually be reawakened. As he takes his walk, he feels a perfect exhilaration and his senses are filled with delight, recognizing that every season brings its own delights and reactions and that, very importantly, one can feel a sense of excitement even when one feels sad. For Emerson, experiencing nature is like a ritual, one that offers him an opportunity to communicate with both the heavens and the earth, for God can be found— if one’s mind is open to such influence, to such awe and reverence— in both those celestial stars he discusses at the beginning of the essay and the natural world that he is now taking a walk in. He recognizes that a man (woman) can “cast off his years” and “what period soever of life” be always a child (10). So, before he describes the very intense connection with the natural world that he is about to have, Emerson once again connects the feeling of childhood wonder and the awe of nature that can be found if one’s mind is open to their influence. In fact, this connection is so intense he likens it to a “perennial festival,” which implies that a walk of this kind is very similar to a ritual one might experience in a church, but, in this case, no building is necessary, for nature, itself, is the place of worship, the place of ritual. He also takes the reader back to the beginning of the essay by saying that a person would never tire of this ritual in even a thousand years, which brings us back to how even more intense the stars in the night sky would be if they only appeared every thousand years. But, in this case, he states that one would never tire of what is clearly there, what can be clearly touched.

And it is in this state of “perfect exhilaration” that one returns to reason and faith, these words being essential because, for Emerson and his fellow transcendentalists, the spiritual and the scientific were never in competition with one another. They generally believed that the world could be understood through spiritual intuition, but they also accepted scientific doctrine. For some, this might be difficult to understand— especially since he is about to speak about his very deep, mystical connection with nature in exceptionally poetic terms— but that poetic outlook is exactly what fuels his direct experience. It may be poetic, but it is also reasoned through a connection to what is there, to what he sees in terms of what these natural objects actually are. And with this focused attention on his surroundings, he then writes about the intensity of his connection to both the natural landscape and God:

There I feel that nothing can befall me in life, -- no disgrace, no calamity, (leaving me my eyes,) which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground, -- my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, -- all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God (10).

At first glance, Emerson’s words seem to suggest an almost hallucinatory experience, but when one considers the reverence, the childhood wonder, and the most poetical sense of mind that he has already introduced us to, one can see the absolute delight and awe he has for such an intense experience, a moment of experience in which he fully absorbs his surroundings, the intensity of the connection itself being what instructs and connects him. Indeed, he speaks in mystical terms, in a connection through which he purely experiences the moment itself as if he is there, but not there, and, in that state, connects with God. In this perennially festive moment, he lets the self, the “mean egotism” go, and it is as if he joins, in that moment, the same “infinite space” where one would find the stars and the “city of God,” as if he has bridged the “intercourse with heaven and earth” (10). To be transparent is to be opaque, as if you are there but cannot be seen. One might also think of a substance like water which is sheer and allows light to shine through, as if in those moments the light of everything in the universe, viz., the “Universal Being,” radiate through him thus allowing him to absorb everything in his surroundings. The “eye,” the organ through which we see, can also be seen as a pun on the personal pronoun “I,” which

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connects this experience to the self, and, as a result, the self, the “I,” is also made transparent and one then becomes nothing, as if one is no longer there, and then becomes a “part” of God or a minute particle of God, both indicating that he has connected and become part of nature and part of God. At the very least, one sees the absolute intensity by which he finds this connection, one that is bound to reverence, to wonder, and to a most distinctly poetical sense of mind.

Emerson clarifies one last time the wonder he has for nature by explaining that every time he sees the “waving of the boughs in the storm,” it “is new to” him “and old,” for it takes him “by surprise, and yet is not unknown” (10). At first this might seem paradoxical, for how can something one sees often be both known and surprising? The answer lies in the wonder of the poetical mind open to the influence of nature. Regardless of the amount of times, he has seen such things and experienced such moments, he always feels wonder for them (as if each experience is “new”). Finally, he ends by pointing out that nature itself does not provide the emotional connection. It is the individual who connects in this way—and he calls this connection a “higher thought” or “better emotion,” both suggesting that one must, again, be open to such influences. For, after all, one could go for a walk in the woods and feel nothing but boredom, for it is the mood of the individual that sets the experience. Earlier, he said that nature “never wears a mean appearance” (10) and then ends with the observation that nature “always wears the color of the spirit” (10), a claim that clearly states that nature itself does not control our mood—though it can certainly affect our mood.

Ultimately, Emerson has written about experiencing an intense, mystical-like connection with the natural world, one that is, in fact, so intense that he has, at times, connected to the “Universal Being.” In order to explain the depth of this experience, he writes about the reverence and awe one can have for nature if one’s mind is open to the influence of such things— so much so that he connects the awe one might have for the brilliant, shining stars in the nighttime sky to the awe one can have for all natural things in this world down below those stars. To open one’s mind to nature in this way is to see nature poetically, to see it with a wonder that links one back to a similar wonder and curiosity one had for nature as a child. He represents the intensity of this awe and wonder by using a metaphor of “becoming a transparent eyeball” (10), a comparison which offers the perspective that when he experiences this intense connection, it is so intense he becomes one with both nature and God. Early in the essay, he refers to the unreachable stars as the “City of God” (10), and later in the essay he refers to nature as the“plantations of God” (10). By doing so, Emerson expresses his belief that the unreachable God he reveres so much in those unreachable stars can be experienced in and through the beauty and awe of nature experienced down here on earth. But, again, one must be open to such possibilities, such influences.

I underlined the entire conclusion because all of it can be seen as a thesis for what Emerson ultimately “does” in his essay—as well as “how” he “does” it. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Essay 2: Deductive Analysis Essay -- “Seeing” (100 points) Length: 6-7 pages Due Date: Check Canvas Task: Write an analysis of how Dillard, in her essay, explores a variety of ways for what it means to see, both literally (the natural obvious) and figuratively (the artificial obvious), and how she connects and builds from them throughout her essay so that by the end of the essay she comes to a realization about a kind of seeing that is more visionary than it is biological or neurological. • Very important: Your task is to analyze what Dillard says and how she says it (and how everything is

interrelated)—and not what you think she says or how you feel about what she says. You need to provide a clear connection between the points and observations she makes in her essay.

• Do not write from the perspective that Dillard is trying to show us how to see or how to better enjoy our lives or be happy. Dillard is writing about her thoughts and experiences. You are analyzing that so write from that perspective.

 Audience: Your audience will be familiar with this piece, so you should not retell everything that she writes about. Instead, focus on those passages that you choose to analyze in order to build and expand your thesis. You should summarize, paraphrase and quote those passages that will help you to demonstrate the different ways that Dillard discusses what it means to see. Look for ways to connect those passages so that your reader can see what your analysis of them equals (thus allowing you to carefully connect everything to come to an overall conclusion about how Dillard explores what it means to see). You should demonstrate an awareness of what the essay, overall, is about.  Essay Structure: (1) Make sure your introduction establishes the nature of what Dillard does in her essay—and then make sure that your introduction is introducing us to your thesis and the analysis you will be covering in your body paragraphs. (2) Your thesis should be a specific claim about how Dillard ponders what it means to see and how those different “ways and meanings” lead to the end of her essay where she experiences a visionary-like moment. (3) Your body paragraphs should connect your various analyses of the passages you cover (and directly relate to the claim that you make in your thesis and where you are going in your conclusion). They should also provide your reader the material needed to understand how you came to your conclusion. (4) Your conclusion should tie together everything you say in your body paragraphs and tell us, ultimately and conclusively, how Dillard’s various explorations of “seeing” lead to her visionary moment at the end of the essay. Your conclusion should be specifically connected to your thesis / your thesis should be specifically linked to your conclusion.  MLA Formatting: • In your introductory paragraph, refer to the title of the book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek and the author’s full name

(Annie Dillard). Make it clear that “Seeing” is a chapter from that book.  In “Seeing,” the second chapter from her book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Annie Dillard writes about a variety

of different meanings for what it means “to see.” • For the rest of the essay, use the author’s last name (Dillard). Do not repeat her full name again. • Once you have mentioned the title, do not mention it again. Do not write “in the essay.” We will know that you

are discussing the essay. • For in-text citations / quotations, use the page number from the course reader. You do not need to mention the

author’s last name in the citation because once you have introduced us to the title and the author’s name, we will know that you are only quoting that source because your task is to analyze that essay and that essay only

• Provide a works cited page. Here is the correctly formatted bibliographical citation. Pay attention to the italicized title of the course reader.

Dillard, Annie. “Seeing.” English 1A Course Reader. Edited by Nathan Wirth, Nathan’s Mind, Inc. 2019  Make sure your sentences are focused and that you take the time to effectively combine sentences using coordination and subordination.  Make sure you meaningfully and effectively use coordinators, subordinators, conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions to provide, where appropriate, clear transitions between your ideas.  Make sure you provide meaningful and relevant context for your quotations, paraphrasing, and summaries. Be sure you also provide (a) relevant explanations of them and (b) specific analysis.  Do not use “I” or “you.”  Final Draft: Upload your final draft to Canvas. Check the course schedule for due dates and the upload link.  Process Letter: You must also include a process letter, in which you write about your writing process for the essay. Please make this the first page of your document (and it does not count as one of the required pages). You can find a sample process letter in this course reader.  Formatting: Check the formatting requirements in this course reader before you upload your essay.

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"Seeing” by Annie Dillard This is Chapter Two from the book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Harper Perennial, 1974)

When I was six or seven years old, growing up in Pittsburgh, I used to take a precious penny of my own and hide it for someone else to find. It was a curious compulsion; sadly, I’ve never been seized by it since. For some reason I always “hid” the penny along the same stretch of sidewalk up the street. I would cradle it at the roots of a sycamore, say, or in a hole left by a chipped-off piece of sidewalk. Then I would take a piece of chalk, and, starting at either end of the block, draw huge arrows leading up to the penny from both directions. After I learned to write I labeled the arrows: SURPRISE AHEAD or MONEY THIS WAY. I was greatly excited, during all this arrow-drawing, at the thought of the first lucky passer-by who would receive in this way, regardless of merit, a free gift from the universe. But I never lurked about. I would go straight home and not give the matter another thought, until, some months later, I would be gripped again by the impulse to hide another penny.

It is still the first week in January, and I’ve got great plans. I’ve been thinking about seeing. There are lots

of things to see, unwrapped gifts and free surprises. The world is fairly studded and strewn with pennies cast broadside from a generous hand. But—and this is the point—who gets excited by a mere penny? If you follow one arrow, if you crouch motionless on a bank to watch a tremulous ripple thrill on the water and are rewarded by the sight of a muskrat kid paddling from its den, will you count that sight a chip of copper only, and go your rueful way? It is dire poverty indeed when a man is so malnourished and fatigued that he won’t stoop to pick up a penny. But if you cultivate a healthy poverty and simplicity, so that finding a penny will literally make your day, then, since the world is in fact planted in pennies, you have with your poverty bought a lifetime of days. It is that simple. What you see is what you get.

I used to be able to see flying insects in the air. I’d look ahead and see, not the row of hemlocks across the road, but the air in front of it. My eyes would focus along that column of air, picking out flying insects. But I lost interest, I guess, for I dropped the habit. Now I can see birds. Probably some people can look at the grass at their feet and discover all the crawling creatures. I would like to know grasses and sedges—and care. Then my least journey into the world would be a field trip, a series of happy recognitions. Thoreau, in an expansive mood, exulted, “What a rich book might be made about buds, including, perhaps, sprouts!” It would be nice to think so. I cherish mental images I have of three perfectly happy people. One collects stones. Another—an Englishman, say— watches clouds. The third lives on a coast and collects drops of seawater which he examines microscopically and mounts. But I don’t see what the specialist sees, and so I cut myself off, not only from the total picture, but from the various forms of happiness. Unfortunately, nature is very much a now-you-see-it, now-you-don’t affair. A fish flashes, then dissolves in the water before my eyes like so much salt. Deer apparently ascend bodily into heaven; the brightest oriole fades into leaves. These disappearances stun me into stillness and concentration; they say of nature that it conceals with a grand nonchalance, and they say of vision that it is a deliberate gift, the revelation of a dancer who for my eyes only flings away her seven veils. For nature does reveal as well as conceal: now-you- don’t-see-it, now-you-do. For a week last September migrating red-winged blackbirds were feeding heavily down by the creek at the back of the house. One day I went out to investigate the racket; I walked up to a tree, an Osage orange, and a hundred birds flew away. They simply materialized out of the tree. I saw a tree, then a whisk of color, then a tree again. I walked closer and another hundred blackbirds took flight. Not a branch, not a twig budged: the birds were apparently weightless as well as invisible. Or, it was as if the leaves of the Osage orange had been freed from a spell in the form of redwinged blackbirds; they flew from the tree, caught my eye in the sky, and vanished. When I looked again at the tree, the leaves had reassembled as if nothing had happened. Finally I walked directly to the trunk of the tree and a finally hundred, the real diehards, appeared, spread, and vanished. How could so many hide in the tree without my seeing them? The Osage orange, unruffled, looked just as it had looked from the house, when three hundred red-winged blackbirds cried from its crown. I looked downstream where they flew, and they were gone. Searching, I couldn’t spot one. I wandered downstream to force them to play their hand, but they’d crossed the creek and scattered. One show to a customer. These appearances catch at my throat; they are the free gifts, the bright coppers at the roots of trees.

It’s all a matter of keeping my eyes open. Nature is like one of those line drawings of a tree that are puzzles for children: Can you find hidden in the leaves a duck, a house, a boy, a bucket, a zebra, and a boot? Specialists can find the most incredibly well-hidden things. A book I read when I was young recommended an easy way to find caterpillars to rear: you simply find some fresh caterpillar droppings, look up, and there’s your caterpillar. More recently an author advised me to set my mind at ease about those piles of cut stems on the ground in grassy fields. Field mice make them; they cut the grass down by degrees to reach the seeds at the head. It seems that when the grass is tightly packed, as in a field of ripe grain, the blade won’t topple at a single cut through the stem; instead, the cut stem simply drops vertically, held in the crush of grain. The mouse severs the bottom again and again, the stem keeps dropping an inch at a time, and finally the head is low enough for the

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mouse to reach the seeds. Meanwhile, the mouse is positively littering the field with its little piles of cut stems into which, presumably, the author of the book is constantly stumbling.

If I can’t see these minutiae, I still try to keep my eyes open. I’m always on the lookout for antlion traps in sandy soil, monarch pupae near milkweed, skipper larvae in locust leaves. These things are utterly common, and I’ve not seen one. I bang on hollow trees near water, but so far no flying squirrels have appeared. In flat country I watch every sunset in hopes of seeing the green ray. The green ray is a seldom-seen streak of light that rises from the sun like a spurting fountain at the moment of sunset; it throbs into the sky for two seconds and disappears. One more reason to keep my eyes open. A photography professor at the University of Florida just happened to see a bird die in midnight; it jerked, died, dropped, and smashed on the ground. I squint at the wind because I read Stewart Edward White: “I have always maintained that if you looked closely enough you could see the wind—the dim, hardly-made-out, fine debris fleeing high in the air.” White was an excellent observer, and devoted an entire chapter of The Mountains to the subject of seeing deer: “As soon as you can forget the naturally obvious and construct an artificial obvious, then you too will see deer.”

But the artificial obvious is hard to see. My eyes account for less than one percent of the weight of my head; I’m bony and dense; I see what I expect. I once spent a full three minutes looking at a bullfrog that was so unexpectedly large I couldn’t see it even though a dozen enthusiastic campers were shouting directions. Finally I asked, “What color am I looking for?” and a fellow said, “Green.” When at last I picked out the frog, I saw what painters are up against: the thing wasn’t green at all, but the color of wet hickory bark.

The lover can see, and the knowledgeable. I visited an aunt and uncle at a quarter-horse race in Cody, Wyoming. I couldn’t do much of anything useful, but I could, I thought, draw. So, as we all sat around the kitchen table after supper, I produced a sheet of paper and drew a horse. “That’s one lame horse,” my aunt volunteered. The rest of my family joined in: “Only place to saddle that one is his neck”; “Looks like we better shoot the poor thing, on account of those terrible growths.” Meekly, I slid the pencil and paper down the table. Everyone in that family, including my three young cousins, could draw a horse. Beautifully. When the paper came back it looked as though five shining, real quarter horses had been corralled by mistake with a papier-mâché moose; the real horses seemed to gaze at the monster with a steady, puzzled air. I stay away from horses now, but I can do a creditable goldfish. The point is that I just don’t know what the lover knows; I just can’t see the artificial obvious that those in the know construct. The herpetologist asks the native, “Are there snakes in that ravine?” “Nosir.” And the herpetologist comes home with, yessir, three bags full. Are there butterflies on that mountain? Are the bluets in bloom, are there arrowheads here, or fossil shells in the shale?

Peeping through my keyhole I see within the range of only about thirty percent of the light that comes from the sun; the rest is infrared and some little ultraviolet, perfectly apparent to many animals, but invisible to me. A nightmare network of ganglia, charged and firing without my knowledge, cuts and splices what I do see, editing it for my brain. Donald E. Carr points out that the sense impressions of one-celled animals are not edited for the brain: “This is philosophically interesting in a rather mournful way, since it means that only the simplest animals perceive the universe as it is.”

A fog that won’t burn away drifts and flows across my field of vision. When you see fog move against a backdrop of deep pines, you don’t see the fog itself, but streaks of clearness floating across the air in dark shreds. So I see only tatters of clearness through a pervading obscurity. I can’t distinguish the fog from the overcast sky; I can’t be sure if the light is direct or reflected. Everywhere darkness and the presence of the unseen appalls. We estimate now that only one atom dances alone in every cubic meter of intergalactic space. I blink and squint. What planet or power yanks Halley’s Comet out of orbit? We haven’t seen that force yet; it’s a question of distance, density, and the pallor of reflected light. We rock, cradled in the swaddling band of darkness. Even the simple darkness of night whispers suggestions to the mind. Last summer, in August, I stayed at the creek too late.

Where Tinker Creek flows under the sycamore log bridge to the tear-shaped island, it is slow and shallow,

fringed thinly in cattail marsh. At this spot an astonishing bloom of life supports vast breeding populations of insects, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. On windless summer evenings, I stalk along the creek bank or straddle the sycamore log in absolute stillness, watching for muskrats. The night I stayed too late I was hunched on the fog staring spellbound at spreading, reflecting stains of lilac on the water. A cloud in the sky suddenly lighted as if turned on by a switch; its reflection just as suddenly materialized on the water upstream, flat and floating, so that I couldn’t see the creek bottom, or life in the water under the cloud. Downstream, away from the cloud on the water, water turtles as smooth as beans were gliding down with the current in a series of easy, weightless push- offs, as men bound on the moon. I didn’t know whether to trace the progress of one turtle I was sure of, risking sticking my face in one of the bridge’s spider webs made invisible by the gathering dark, or take a chance on seeing the carp, or scan the mudbank in hope of seeing a muskrat, or follow the last of the swallows who caught at my heart and trailed after them like streamers as they appeared from directly below, under the log, flying upstream with their tails forked, so fast.

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But shadows spread, and deepened, and stayed. After thousands of years we’re still strangers to darkness, fearful aliens in an enemy camp with our arms crossed over our chests. I stirred. A land turtle on the bank, startled, hissed the air from its lungs and withdrew into its shell. An uneasy pink here, and unfathomable blue there, gave great suggestion of lurking beings. Things were going on. I couldn’t see whether that sere rustle I heard was a distant rattlesnake, slit-eyed, or a nearby sparrow kicking in the dry flood debris slung at the foot of a willow. Tremendous action roiled the water everywhere I looked, big action, inexplicable. A tremor welled up beside a gaping muskrat burrow in the bank and I caught my breath, but no muskrat appeared. The ripples continued to fan upstream with a steady, powerful thrust. Night was knitting over my face an eyeless mask, and I still sat transfixed. A distant airplane, a delta wing out of a nightmare, made a gliding shadow on the creek’s bottom that looked like a stingray cruising upstream. At once a black fin slit the pink cloud on the water, shearing it in two. The two halves merged together and seemed to dissolve before my eyes. Darkness pooled in the cleft of the creek and rose, as water collects in a well. Untamed, dreaming lights flickered over the sky. I saw hints of hulking and underwater shadows, two pale splashes out of the water, and round ripples rolling close together from a blackened center.

At last I stared upstream where only the deepest violet remained of the cloud, a cloud so high its underbelly still glowed feeble color reflected from a hidden sky lighted in turn by a sun halfway to China. And out of that violet, a sudden enormous black body arced over the water. I saw only a cylindrical sleekness. Head and tail, if there was a head and tail, were both submerged in cloud I saw only one ebony fling, a headlong dive to darkness; then the waters closed, and the lights went out.

I walked home in a shivering daze, up hill and down. Later I lay open-mouthed in bed, my arms flung wide at my sides to steady the whirling darkness. At this latitude I’m spinning 836 miles an hour round the earth’s axis; I often fancy I feel my sweeping fall as a breakneck arc like the dive of dolphins, and the hollow rushing of wind raises hair on my neck and the side of my face. In orbit around the sun I’m moving 64,800 miles an hour. The solar system as a whole, like a merry-go-round unhinged, spins, bobs, and blinks at the speed of 43,200 miles an hour along a course set east of Hercules. Someone has piped, and we are dancing a tarantella until the sweat pours. I open my eyes and I see dark, muscled forms curl out of the water, with flapping gills and flattened eyes. I close my eyes and I see stars, deep stars giving way to deeper stars, deeper stars bowing to deepest stars at the crown of an infinite cone.

“Still,” wrote van Gogh in a letter, “a great deal of light falls on everything.” If we are blinded by darkness, we are also blinded by light. When too much light falls on everything, a special terror results. Peter Freuchen describes the notorious kayak sickness to which Greenland Eskimos are prone. “The Greenland fjords are peculiar for the spells of completely quiet weather, when there is not enough wind to blow out a match and the water is like a sheet of glass. The kayak hunter must sit in his boat without stirring a finger so as not to scare the shy seals away… The sun, low in the sky, sends a glare into his eyes, and the landscape around moves into the realm of the unreal. The reflex from the mirror-like water hypnotizes him, he seems to be unable to move, and all of a sudden it is as if he were floating in a bottomless void, sinking, sinking, and sinking… Horror-stricken, he tries to stir, to cry out, but he cannot, he is completely paralyzed, he just falls and falls.” Some hunters are especially cursed with this panic, and bring ruin and sometimes starvation to their families.

Sometimes here in Virginia at sunset low clouds on the southern or northern horizon are completely invisible in the lighted sky. I only know one is there because I can see its reflection in still water. The first time I discovered this mystery I looked from cloud to no-cloud in bewilderment, checking my bearings over and over, thinking maybe the ark of the covenant was just passing by south of Dead Man Mountain. Only much later did I read the explanation: polarized light from the sky is very much weakened by perfection, but the light in clouds isn’t polarized. So invisible clouds pass among visible clouds, till all slide over the mountains; so a greater light extinguishes a lesser as though it didn’t exist.

In the great meteor shower of August, the Perseid, I wail all day for the shooting stars I miss. They’re out there showering down, committing hara-kiri in a flame of fatal attraction, and hissing perhaps at last into the ocean. But at dawn what looks like a blue dome clamps down over me like a lid on a pot. The stars and planets could smash down and I’d never know. Only a piece of ashen moon occasionally climbs up or down the inside of the dome, and our local star without surcease explodes on our heads. We have really only that one light, one source for all power, and yet we must turn away from it by universal decree. Nobody here on the planet seems aware of this strange, powerful taboo, that we all walk about carefully averting our faces, this way and that, lest our eyes be blasted forever.

Darkness appalls and light dazzles; the scrap of visible light that doesn’t hurt my eyes hurts my brain. What I see sets me swaying. Size and distance and the sudden swelling of meanings confuse me, bowl me over. I straddle the sycamore log bridge over Tinker Creek in the summer. I look at the lighted creek bottom: snail tracks tunnel the mud in quavering curves. A crayfish jerks, but by the time I absorb what has happened, he’s gone in a billowing smokescreen of silt. I look at the water: minnows and shiners. If I’m thinking minnows, a carp will fill my

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brain till I scream. I look at the water’s surface: skaters, bubbles, and leaves sliding down. Suddenly, my own face, reflected, startles me witless. Those snails have been tracking my face! Finally, with a shuddering wrench of the will, I see clouds, cirrus clouds. I’m dizzy, I fall in. This looking business is risky.

Once I stood on a humped rock on nearby Purgatory Mountain, watching through binoculars the great autumn hawk migration below, until I discovered that I was in danger of joining the hawks on a vertical migration of my own. I was used to binoculars, but not, apparently, to balancing on humped rocks while looking through them. I staggered. Everything advanced and receded by turns; the world was full of unexplained foreshortenings and depths. A distant huge tan object, a hawk the size of an elephant, turned out to be the browned bough of a nearby loblolly pine. I followed a sharp-shinned hawk against a featureless sky, rotating my head unawares as it flew, and when I lowered the glass a glimpse of my own looming shoulder sent me staggering. What prevents men on Palomar from falling, voiceless and blinded, from their tiny, vaulted chairs?

I reel in confusion; I don’t understand what I see. With the naked eye I can see two million light-years to the Andromeda galaxy. Often I slop some creek water in a jar and when I get home I dump it in a white china bowl. After the silt settles I return and see tracings of minute snails on the bottom, a planarian or two winding round the rum of water, roundworms shimmying frantically, and finally, when my eyes have adjusted to these dimensions, amoebae. At first the amoebae look like muscae volitantes, those curved moving spots you seem to see in your eyes when you stare at a distant wall. Then I see the amoebae as drops of water congealed, bluish, translucent, like chips of sky in the bowl. At length I choose one individual and give myself over to its idea of an evening. I see it dribble a grainy foot before it on its wet, unfathomable way. Do its unedited sense impressions include the fierce focus of my eyes? Shall I take it outside and show it Andromeda, and blow its little endoplasm? I stir the water with a finger, in case it’s running out of oxygen. Maybe I should get a tropical aquarium with motorized bubblers and lights, and keep this one for a pet. Yes, it would tell its fissioned descendants, the universe is two feet by five, and if you listen closely you can head the buzzing music of the spheres.

Oh, it’s mysterious lamplit evenings, here in the galaxy, one after the other. It’s one of those nights when I wander from window to window, looking for a sign. But I can’t see. Terror and a beauty insoluble are a ribband of blue woven into the fringes of garments of things both great and small. No culture explains, no bivouac offers real haven or rest. But it could be that we are not seeing something. Galileo thought comets were an optical illusion. This is fertile ground: since we are certain that they’re not, we can look at what our scientists have been saying with fresh hope. What if there are really gleaming, castellated cities hung upside-down over the desert sand? What limpid lakes and cool date palms have our caravans always passed untried? Until, one by one, by the blindest of leaps, we light on the road to these places, we must stumble in darkness and hunger. I turn from the window I’m blind as a bat, sensing only from every direction the echo of my own thin cries.

I chanced on a wonderful book by Marius von Senden, called Space and Sight. When Western surgeons

discovered how to perform safe cataract operations, they ranged across Europe and America operating on dozens of men and women of all ages who had been blinded by cataracts since birth. Von Senden collected accounts of such cases; the histories are fascinating. Many doctors had tested their patients’ sense perceptions and ideas of space both before and after the operations. The vast majority of patients, of both sexes and all ages, had, in von Senden’s opinion, no idea of space whatsoever. Form, distance, and size were so many meaningless syllables. A patient “had no idea of depth, confusing it with roundness.” Before the operation a doctor would give a blind patient a cube and a sphere; the patient would tongue it or feel it with his hands, and name it correctly. After the operation the doctor would show the same objects to the patient without letting him touch them; now he had no clue whatsoever what he was seeing. One patient called lemonade “square” because it pricked on his tongue as a square shape pricked on the touch of his hands. Of another postoperative patient, the doctor writes, “I have found in her no notion of size, for example, not even within the narrow limits which she might have encompassed with the aid of touch. Thus when I asked her to show me how big her mother was, she did not stretch out her hands, but set her two index-fingers a few inches apart.” Other doctors reported their patients’ own statements to similar effect. “The room he was in… he knew to be but part of the house, yet he could not conceive that the whole house could look bigger”; “Those who are blind from birth… have no real conception of height or distance. A house that is a mile away is thought of as nearby, but requiring the taking of a lot of steps… The elevator that whizzes him up and down gives no more sense of vertical distance than does the train of horizontal.”

For the newly sighted, vision is pure sensation unencumbered by meaning: “The girl went through the experience that we all go through and forget, the moment we are born. She saw, but it did not mean anything but a lot of different kinds of brightness.” Again, “I asked the patient what he could see; he answered that he saw an extensive field of light, in which everything appeared dull, confused, and in motion. He could not distinguish objects.” Another patient saw “nothing but a confusion of forms and colors.” When a newly sighted girl saw photographs and paintings, she asked, “’Why do they put those dark marks all over them?’ ‘Those aren’t dark

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marks,’ her mother explained, ‘those have shape. If it were not for shadows many things would look flat.’ ‘Well, that’s how things do look,’ Joan answered. ‘Everything looks flat with dark patches.’”

But it is the patients’ concepts of space that are most revealing. One patient, according to his doctor, “practiced his vision in a strange fashion; thus he takes off one of his boots, throws it some way off in front of him, and then attempts to gauge the distance at which it lies; he takes a few steps towards the boot and tries to grasp it; on failing to reach it, he moves on a step or two and gropes for the boot until he finally gets a hold of it.” “But even at this stage, after three weeks’ experience of seeing,” von Senden goes on, “’space,’ as he conceives it, ends with visual space, i.e. with color-patches that happen to bound his view. He does not yet have the notion that a larger object (a chair) can mask a smaller one (a dog), or that the latter can still be present even though it is not directly seen.”

In general the newly sighted see the world as a dazzle of color-patches. They are pleased by the sensation of color, and learn quickly to name the colors, but the rest of seeing is tormentingly difficult. Soon after his operation a patient “generally bumps into one of these color-patches and observes them to be substantial, since they resist him as tactual objects do. In walking about it also strikes him—or can if he pays attention—that he is continually passing in between the colors he sees, that he can go past a visual object, that a part of it then steadily disappears from view; and that in spite of this, however he twists and turns—whether entering the room from the door, for example, or returning back to it—he always has a visual space in front of him. Thus he gradually comes to realize there is also a space behind him, which he does not see.”

The mental effort involved in these reasoning’s proves overwhelming for many patients. It oppresses them to realize, if they ever do at all, the tremendous size of the world, which they had previously conceived of as something touchingly manageable. It oppresses them to realize that they have been visible to people all along, perhaps unattractively so, without their knowledge or consent. A disheartening number of them refuse to use their new vision, continuing to go over objects with their tongues, and lapsing into apathy and despair. “The child can see, but will not make use of his sight. Only when pressed can he with difficulty be brought to look at objects in his neighborhood; but more than a foot away it is impossible to bestir him to the necessary effort.” Of a twenty- one-year-old girl, the doctor relates, “Her unfortunate father, who had hoped for so much from this operation, wrote that his daughter carefully shuts her eyes whenever she wishes to go about the house, especially when she comes to a staircase, and that she is never happier or more at ease than when, by closing her eyelids, she relapses into her former state of total blindness.” A fifteen-year-old boy, who was also in love with a girl at the asylum for the blind, finally blurted out, “No, really, I can’t stand it any more; I want to be sent back to the asylum again. If things aren’t altered, I’ll tear my eyes out.”

Some do learn to see, especially the young ones. But it changes their lives. One doctor comments on “the rapid and complete loss of that striking and wonderful serenity which is characteristic only of those who have never yet seen.” A blind man who learns to see is ashamed of his old habits. He dresses up, grooms himself, and tries to make a good impression. While he was blind, he was indifferent to objects unless they were edible; now, “a sifting of values sets in… his thoughts and wishes are mightily stirred and some few of the patients are thereby led into dissimulation, envy, theft and fraud.”

On the other hand, many newly sighted people speak well of the world, and teach us how dull is our own vision. To one patient, a human hand, unrecognized, is “something bright and then holes.” Shown a bunch of grapes, a boy calls out, “it is dark, blue and shiny… It isn’t smooth, it has bumps and hollows.” A little girl visits a garden. “She is greatly astonished, and can scarcely be persuaded to answer, stands speechless in front of the tree, which she only names on taking hold of it, and then as ‘the tree with the lights in it.’” Some delight in their sight and give themselves over to the visual world. Of a patient just after her bandages were removed, her doctor writes, “The first things to attract her attention were her own hands; she looked at them very closely, moved them repeatedly to and fro, bent and stretched the fingers, and seemed greatly astonished at the sight.” One girl was eager to tell her blind friend that “Men do not really look like trees at all,” and astounded to discover that her every visitor had an utterly different face. Finally, a twenty-two-old girl was dazzled by the world’s brightness and kept her eyes shut for two weeks. When at the end of that time she opened her eyes again, she did not recognize the objects, but, “the more she now directed her gaze upon everything about her, the more it could be seen how an expression of gratification and astonishment overspread her features; she repeatedly exclaimed: ‘Oh God! How beautiful!’”

I saw color-patches for weeks after I read this wonderful book. It was summer; the peaches were ripe in

the valley orchards. When I woke in the morning, color-patches wrapped round my eyes, intricately, leaving not one unfilled spot. All day long I walked among shifting color-patches that parted before me like the Red Sea and closed again in silence, transfigured, wherever I looked back. Some patches swelled and loomed, while others vanished utterly, and dark marks flitted at random over the whole dazzling sweep. But I couldn’t sustain the illusion of flatness. I’ve been around for too long. Form is condemned to an eternal danse macabre with meaning: I

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couldn’t unpeach the peaches. Now can I remember ever having seen without understanding; the color patches of infancy are lost. My brain then must have been smooth as any balloon. I’m told I reached for the moon; many babies do. But the color-patches of infancy swelled as meaning filled them; they arrayed themselves in solemn ranks down distance which unrolled and stretched before me like a plain. The moon rocketed away. I live now in a world of shadows that take shape and distance color, a world where space makes a kind of terrible sense. What Gnosticism is this, and what physics? The fluttering patch I saw in my nursery window—silver and green and shapeshifting blue—is gone; a row of Lombardy poplars takes its place, mute, across the distant lawn. That humming oblong creature pale as light that stole along the walls of my room at night, stretching exhilaratingly around the corners, is gone, too, gone the night I ate of the bittersweet fruit, put two and two together and puckered forever my brain. Martin Buber tells this tale: “Rabbi Mendel once boasted to his teacher Rabbi Elimelekh that evenings he saw the angel who rolls away the light before the darkness, and mornings the angel who rolls away the darkness before the light. ‘Yes,’ said Rabbie Elimelekh, ‘in my youth I saw that too. Later on you don’t see these things any more.’”

Why didn’t someone hand those newly sighted people paints and brushes from the start, when they still didn’t know what anything was? Then maybe we all could see color-patches too, the world unraveled from reason, Eden before Adam gave names. The scales would drop from my eyes; I’d see trees like men walking; I’d run down the road against all orders, hallooing and leaping.

Seeing is of course very much a matter of verbalization. Unless I call my attention to what passes before

my eyes, I simple won’t see it. It is, as Ruskin says, “not merely unnoticed, but in the full, clear sense of the word, unseen.” My eyes alone can’t solve analogy tests using figures, the ones which show, with increasing elaborations, a big square, then a small square in a big square, then a big triangle, and expect me to find a small triangle in a big triangle. I have to say the words, describe what I’m seeing. If Tinker Mountain erupted, I’d be likely to notice. But if I want to notice the lesser cataclysms of valley life, I have to maintain in my head a running description of the present. It’s not that I’m observant; it’s just that I talk too much. Otherwise, especially in a strange place, I’ll never know what’s happening. Like a blind man at the ball game, I need a radio.

When I see this way I analyze and pry. I hurl over logs and roll away stones; I study the bank a square foot at a time, probing and tilting my head. Some days when a mist covers the mountains, when the muskrats won’t show and the microscope’s mirror shatters, I want to climb up the blank blue dome as a man would storm the inside of a circus tent, wildly, dangling, and with a steel knife claw a rent in the top, peep, and, if I must, fall.

But there is another kind of seeing that involves a letting go. When I see this way I sway transfixed and

emptied. The difference between the two ways of seeing is the difference between walking with and without a camera. When I walk with a camera I walk from shot to shot, reading the light on a calibrated meter. When I walk without a camera, my own shutter opens, and the moment’s light prints on my own silver gut. When I see this second way, I am above all an unscrupulous observer.

It was sunny one evening last summer at Tinker Creek; the sun was low in the sky, upstream. I was sitting

on the sycamore log bridge with the sunset at my back, watching the shiners the size of minnows who were feeding over the muddy sand in skittery schools. Again and again, one fish, then another, turned for a split second across the current and flash! The sun shot out from its silver side. I couldn’t watch for it. It was always just happening somewhere else, and it drew my vision just as it disappeared: flash, like a sudden dazzle of the thinnest blade, a sparking over a dun and olive ground at chance intervals from every direction. Then I noticed white specks, some sort of pale petals, small, floating from under my feet on the creek’s surface, very slow and steady. So I blurred my eyes and gazed towards the brim of my hat and saw a new world. I saw the pale white circles roll up, roll up, like the world’s tuning, mute and perfect, and I saw the linear flashes, gleaming silver, like stars being born at random down a rolling scroll of time. Something broke and something opened. I filled up like a new wineskin. I breathed an air like light; I saw a light like water. I was the lip of a fountain the creek filled forever; I was ether, the leaf in the zephyr; I was flesh-flake, feather, bone.

When I see this way I see truly. As Thoreau says, I return to my senses. I am the man who watches the baseball game in silence in an empty stadium. I see the game purely; I’m abstracted and dazed. When it’s all over and the white-suited players lope off the green field to their shadowed dugouts, I leap to my feet; I cheer and cheer.

But I can’t go out and try to see this way. I’ll fail, I’ll go mad. All I can do is try to gag the commentator, to

hush the noise of useless interior babble that keeps me from seeing just as surely as a newspaper dangled before my eyes. The effort is really a discipline requiring a lifetime of dedicated struggle; it makes the literature of saints and monks of every order East and West, under every rule and no rule, discalced and shod. The world’s spiritual

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geniuses seem to discover universally that the mind’s muddy river, this ceaseless flow of trivia and trash, cannot be dammed, and that trying to dam it is a waste of effort that might lead to madness. Instead you must allow the muddy river to flow unheeded in the dim channels of consciousness; you raise your sights; you look along it, mildly, acknowledging its presence without interest and gazing beyond it into the realm of the real where subjects and objects act and rest purely, without utterance. “Launch into the deep,” says Jacques Ellul, “and you shall see.”

The secret of seeing is, then, the pearl of great price. If I thought he could teach me to find it and keep it forever I would stagger barefoot across a hundred deserts after any lunatic at all. But although the pearl may be found, it may not be sought. The literature of illumination reveals this above all: although it comes to those who wait for it, it is always, even to the most practiced and adept, a gift and a total surprise. I return from one walk knowing where the killdeer nests in the field by the creek and the hour the laurel blooms. I return from the same walk a day later scarcely knowing my own name. Litanies hum in my ears; my tongue flaps in my mouth Ailinon, alleluia! I cannot cause light; the most I can do is try to put myself in the path of its beam. It is possible, in deep space, to sail on solar wind. Light, be it particle or wave, has force: you rig a giant sail and go. The secret of seeing is to sail on solar wind. Hone and spread your spirit till you yourself are a sail, whetted, translucent, broadside to the merest puff.

When her doctor took her bandages off and led her into the garden, the girl who was no longer blind saw

“the tree with the lights in it.” It was for this tree I searched through the peach orchards of summer, in the forests of fall and down winter and spring for years. Then one day I was walking along Tinker Creek thinking of nothing at all and I saw the tree with the lights in it. I saw the backyard cedar where the mourning doves roost charged and transfigured, each cell buzzing with flame. I stood on the grass with the lights in it, grass that was wholly fire, utterly focused and utterly dreamed. It was less like seeing than like being for the first time seen, knocked breathless by a powerful glance. The flood of fire abated, but I’m still spending the power. Gradually the lights went out in the cedar, the colors died, the cells unflamed and disappeared. I was still ringing. I had been my whole life a bell, and never knew it until at that moment I was lifted and struck. I have since only very rarely seen the tree with the lights in it. The vision comes and goes, mostly goes, but I live for it, for the moment when the mountains open and a new light roars in spate through the crack, and the mountains slam.

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An Outline of the Essential Key Points of Dillard’s Essay I. Story about Hiding the Penny A. The value of encountering the surprise B. The arrows and words that lead one to the surprise II. She equates the value of the surprise of finding a penny to the value of encountering the quick glimpses of the things she encounters in nature A. The value of encountering these quick glimpses is not a monetary / material value B. These quick glimpses are very much a “now-you-see-it, now-you-don’t” experience C. Nature reveals and conceals 1. Example of the blackbirds suddenly flying out of the Osage Orange tree

D. Knowledge improves your chances of seeing these things that are often hidden (you have a better chance of finding where they are hidden if you have knowledge) E. Natural Obvious

1. How you biologically and neurologically see (the literal sense of “seeing”) F. Artificial Obvious

1. All the ways we see that lie beyond the biological and neurological (the figurative sense of “seeing”)

G. Misty fog covers the pines (example of conceal / reveal) leads to next section about how darkness light conceals

1. We edit what we see (in other words, we do not look at everything so that we can focus on specific things)

III. She stays too late at Tinker Creek (a section that looks at our vision being blinded, obscured, lessened, tricked)

A. Fading light as twilight transitions into dark B. Seeing in the dark (even though she cannot “see,” her eyes are still processing) C. Too much light blinds / heavy glare confuses D. How our vision can be confused

1. binoculars / observatory E. Do we really see what we see (in other words, is our knowledge of “what things are” and “how they are what they are” accurate?)

IV. She writes about formerly blind people who struggle with learning how to see? A. They cannot, at first, discern shapes, space, distance, depth, etc.

1. They had not learned how to as we have—so they must learn to see B. In general, they see the world in “color patches” C. She is particularly fascinated by the image of the “tree with the lights in it” (important later in the essay)

V. She, imaginatively speaking, sees color patches (in other words, she is trying to see in the way those who had not yet learned how to see are seeing). A. But you cannot undo how you have learned to see (you cannot “unpeach a peach’). VI. Seeing is a matter of verbalization A. In other words, seeing, which is bound to experience and knowledge, is bound to language. B. When we see, we use language.

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VII. She suggests there is another kind of seeing, one in which we attempt to “let go” of being bound to verbalization. A. She offers the example of seeing with a camera vs. seeing without a camera VIII. She describes seeing the minutiae at Tinker Creek as if she becomes these things. A. An example of “letting go” B. An attempt to see in a way that is not bound to knowledge and experience

C. She claims this is seeing more truly 1. It is “more true” because it is not as edited and not as bound to how we have learned

to understand the things we see

IX. One cannot sustain this for very long because we provide ourselves a never-ending dialog in our head that “narrates” everything we see (constant verbalization of what we perceive and see and know and ponder, etc.) A. We, again, cannot cause things we wish to see to appear 1. Conceal / Reveal – Now you see it, now you don’t

2. The secret of “seeing” gives great reward (associated with insight / spiritual illumination) but it also cannot be demanded and called for – you encounter it when you encounter it)

B. She associates light with spiritual illumination (deep understanding – a kind of understanding that lies beyond “reason,” a moment of insight (deeper understanding)  totally related to “artificial obvious” C. We cannot call for the light / illumination to appear; all we can do is place ourselves in its path when it is there.

1. See the “arrows” that lead to the “pennies” when they are there. 2. Ride the solar wind (the continual flowing of particles from the sun that permeate

the entire solar system).

X. She ends by describing a “vison-like” moment that is manifested by her finally seeing “the tree with the lights on it” A. Vision = an experience that appears visibly to the mind, but it is not present B. She wanted to see it / had looked for it C. When she encountered it, she was not thinking about it

D. What she describes lies outside of “reason,” outside of the natural obvious (she had never seen it before)

E. But she was aware of it / open to its possibility F. It was a now you see it, now you don’t moment G. It was a “precious penny” / it was a different kind of seeing H. She compares herself to a bell that has finally been rung

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Sample Paragraphs for Writing about Annie Dillard’s “Seeing” Note: This would not be an introduction— more likely the first two body paragraphs of an essay

Dillard begins her exploration of seeing by offering a story from her childhood, when she used to

hide pennies, among other places, in the nooks and crannies of the street and a sycamore tree. To ensure that people would find the pennies, she drew arrows and labels with chalk in order to lead people to the hidden pennies that she quite clearly saw as treasures. However, she never waited around to witness anyone encountering them. Dillard’s retelling of this story illustrates how enamored she still is with the joy of leading someone to discover the unexpected little surprises she left behind, her fascination focused on the pleasure and value of encountering the unexpected. After all, she never waited around to witness the person happening upon the penny, such a stance implying a very different kind of seeing because it takes the experience of witnessing something with one’s eyes and infuses it with the excited feeling one has when one encounters the unexpected (even if that something has an arrow pointing to it). After all, many would pass by the seemingly-obvious, chalk-drawn arrows and labels without noticing them, in part, because one might just not care about such things or be far too preoccupied with other concerns and thoughts. Dillard’s story not only illustrates her own passion for encountering such moments but also recognizes how easily such things pass by us unnoticed— even the more obvious and common ones. For, as she explains, nature is “very much a now-you-see-it, now-you-don’t affair,” adding later that it is also a “now-you-don’t-see-it, now-you-do” experience (18, 19). Indeed, for Dillard the surprise of the experience of seeing such “pennies”— whether they be a flash of a bird or a splash of a muskrat or a fish— is equally important to the actual experience of witnessing them—especially since they pass us by so quickly: there in a flash and gone in a flash. Her story reminds one that while finding a penny or witnessing fleeting, quick moments in nature may not be so valuable in monetary and material terms, one can find riches in the experiences of encountering such things. All in all, such experiences are very much a matter of how one sees— literally in the sense that our eyes witness them when we encounter them and fail to see them when they pass us by— but also figuratively in the sense of the meanings and interpretations that we bring to them as well as how we remember them, recreate them, describe them. Dillard represents this value of encountering such moments by describing the experience of seeing an Osage orange tree that, at first, appeared simply as all trees do— as a large trunk with branches and leaves— but suddenly and unexpectedly hundreds of blackbirds take off into flight. At first, she explains the wonder she feels for witnessing such a sight, but soon she processes her description of what she literally saw with her eyes and reimagines it in far more poetic terms:

Not a branch, not a twig budged: the birds were apparently weightless as well as invisible. Or, it was as if the leaves of the Osage orange had been freed from a spell in the form of redwinged blackbirds; they flew from the tree, caught my eye in the sky, and vanished. When I looked again at the tree, the leaves had reassembled as if nothing had happened (19).

She recreates, even reimagines, the experience of beholding such a sight through a creative expression of the tree’s leaves seemingly casting off some magical spell that transforms the leaves into birds, the tree then magically reassembling itself. Dillard’s shift from the actual to an other further illustrates how seeing is both literal— in the sense that the tree and seeing the birds take flight from it is what it is, and figurative, by the way she richly and poetically describes the experience, transforming it into a metaphor through which she compares the tree and the birds taking flight to something it is not, a tree whose leaves are freed as if part of some magical spell. Her comparison adds a sense of wonder to her experience, a sense of awe, a sense of mystery, and even a sense of reverence. Such metaphors are key to how Dillard explores, throughout the entire chapter, what it means to see. On the one hand, she recognizes the possibilities and limitations of our eyes’ ability to visually take in what we encounter, but, on the other, she explores what it means to observe, witness, perceive, interpret, remember, create, recreate, and imagine— all verbs that find their root experience in how we understand and process what our eyes visualize, each of these verbs having to do with understanding and realizing and elaborating on what we simply see with our eyes. For Dillard, seeing more clearly and fully is inextricably bound to knowledge and language …

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Essay 3: Personal Essay -- “Kimmerer” (50 pts.) Length: 4-6 pgs. Due Date: Check Canvas Task: Select one of the two options below and write a personal essay that responds to the questions and quotes. Option One In “Allegiance to Gratitude,” Kimmerer introduces the Thanksgiving Address used by indigenous people to give thanks to the land. She states that “it is the credo for a culture of gratitude” (115). In fact, throughout the chapter she writes about gratitude and reciprocity: You can’t listen to the Thanksgiving Address without feeling wealthy. And, while expressing gratitude seems innocent enough, it is a revolutionary idea. In a consumer society, contentment is a radical proposition. Recognizing abundance rather than scarcity undermines an economy that thrives by creating unmet desires. Gratitude cultivates an ethic of fullness, but the economy needs emptiness. The Thanksgiving Address reminds you that you already have everything you need. Gratitude doesn’t send you out shopping to find satisfaction; it comes as a gift rather than a commodity, subverting the foundation of the whole economy (33-34). --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cultures of gratitude must also be cultures of reciprocity. Each person, human or no, is bound to every other in a reciprocal relationship. Just as all beings have a duty to me, I have a duty to them. If an animal gives its life to feed me, I am in turn bound to support its life. If I receive a stream’s gift of pure water, then I am responsible for returning a gift in kind. An integral part of a human’s education is to know those duties and how to perform them (36-37). How can having an outlook of gratitude and reciprocity change one’s view of one’s relationship with the world and its, to quote Emerson, “natural objects?” How is the American Pledge of Allegiance different from the Thanksgiving Address? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Option Two What exactly is, according to Kimmerer, a grammar of animacy? What does it mean to see the animacy of the world and use a language that perceives it as such? How would such a perspective change our / your understanding of the world we live in? What are your thoughts about the following words: “Maybe a grammar of animacy could lead us to whole new ways of living in the world, other species a sovereign people, a world with a democracy of species, not a tyranny of one— with moral responsibility to water and wolves, and with a legal system that recognizes the standing of other species [; it’s] all in the pronouns” (40)? How can adapting a grammar of animacy offer us a fuller understanding of the world we live in (and, to quote Emerson, the “natural objects” that we can share a “kindred impression” with if our minds are open to their influence)? What does she mean by it’s “all in the pronouns”? Because this is a personal essay, you do not need a formal introduction or conclusion, nor should you include a traditional thesis statement, but you do need to craft an organized narrative that addresses these questions in a personal way-- and that narrative needs to lead to your final insights and answers. You can consider the following outline if you think it would help you to organize your writing.

1. Begin by introducing your reader to the fact that you are considering these questions (introduce us to the title, the author, a brief and general summary of what the chapter is about and then the nature of the questions). I would like you to frame your discussion around a story (for example going for a walk and thinking about these things—or visiting a specific place). A personal essay is both formal and creative. The story helps the reader to better understand the nature of why you are pursuing answers to this question (something much more interesting and valuable than the reality that I told you to address these questions).

2. In order to offer your very personal views about these questions, discuss and analyze some of the key passages in the chapter. Make sure that you specifically analyze and explain those passages before you discuss your views on them. As with the analysis essays you have already written, do not state that Kimmerer says anything she does not actually say.

3. For the final paragraph, take everything you have discussed and analyzed and come to a final insight about your views.

Note: This is not a formal essay; however, you still need to pay attention to your writing and make sure that you organize your narrative carefully. You are allowed, for this essay, to use “I” or “you.”  MLA Formatting:

1. In your introductory paragraph, refer to the title of the book Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants and the author’s full name (Robin Wall Kimmerer). Make it clear that the “essay” you are writing about is a chapter from that book. Example

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• In “Allegiance to Gratitude,” from her book Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants, Robin Wall Kimmerer writes about the importance of gratitude and reciprocity.

2. For the rest of the essay, use the author’s last name (Kimmerer). Do not repeat her full name again. 3. Once you have mentioned the title, do not mention it again. Do not write “in the essay.” We will know that

you are discussing the essay. 4. For in-text citations / quotations, use the page number from the course reader. You do not need to mention

the author’s last name in the citation because once you have introduced us to the title and the author’s name, we will know that you are only quoting that source because your task is to analyze that essay and that essay only.

5. Provide a works cited page. Here is the correctly formatted bibliographical citation. Pay attention to the italicized title of the course reader.

Kimmerer, Robin Wall. “Allegiance to Gratitude.” English 1A Course Reader. Edited by Nathan Wirth, Nathan’s

Mind, Inc. 2019

Kimmerer, Robin Wall. “Learning the Grammar of Animacy.” English 1A Course Reader. Edited by Nathan Wirth, Nathan’s Mind, Inc. 2019

 Checklist  Make sure your sentences are focused and that you take the time to effectively combine sentences using coordination and subordination. Make sure that you are taking advantage of adjective clauses and noun phrase appositives.  Make sure you meaningfully and effectively use coordinators, subordinators, conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions to provide, where appropriate, clear transitions between your ideas.  Make sure you provide meaningful and relevant context for your quotations, paraphrasing, and summaries. Be sure you also provide (a) relevant explanations of them and (b) specific analysis.  Do not use “I” or “you.”  Final Draft: Upload your final draft to Canvas. Check the course schedule for due dates and the upload link.  Process Letter: You must also include a process letter, in which you write about your writing process for the essay. Please make this the first page of your document (and it does not count as one of the required pages). You can find a sample process letter in this course reader.  Formatting: Check the formatting requirements in this course reader before you upload your essay.

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Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address Greetings to the Natural World

Pronounced: HO DEN OH SAW NEE The People Today we have gathered and we see that the cycles of life continue. We have been given the duty to live in balance and harmony with each other and all living things. So now, we bring our minds together as one as we give greetings and thanks to each other as people. Now our minds are one. The Earth Mother We are all thankful to our Mother, the Earth, for she gives us all that we need for life. She supports our feet as we walk about upon her. It gives us joy that she continues to care for us as she has from the beginning of time. To our mother, we send greetings and thanks. Now our minds are one. The Waters We give thanks to all the waters of the world for quenching our thirst and providing us with strength. Water is life. We know its power in many forms- waterfalls and rain, mists and streams, rivers and oceans. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to the spirit of Water. Now our minds are one. The Fish We turn our minds to the all the Fish life in the water. They were instructed to cleanse and purify the water. They also give themselves to us as food. We are grateful that we can still find pure water. So, we turn now to the Fish and send our greetings and thanks. Now our minds are one. The Plants Now we turn toward the vast fields of Plant life. As far as the eye can see, the Plants grow, working many wonders. They sustain many life forms. With our minds gathered together, we give thanks and look forward to seeing Plant life for many generations to come. Now our minds are one.

The Food Plants With one mind, we turn to honor and thank all the Food Plants we harvest from the garden. Since the beginning of time, the grains, vegetables, beans and berries have helped the people survive. Many other living things draw strength from them too. We gather all the Plant Foods together as one and send them a greeting of thanks. Now our minds are one. The Medicine Herbs Now we turn to all the Medicine herbs of the world. From the beginning they were instructed to take away sickness. They are always waiting and ready to heal us. We are happy there are still among us those special few who remember how to use these plants for healing. With one mind, we send

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greetings and thanks to the Medicines and to the keepers of the Medicines. Now our minds are one. The Animals We gather our minds together to send greetings and thanks to all the Animal life in the world. They have many things to teach us as people. We are honored by them when they give up their lives so we may use their bodies as food for our people. We see them near our homes and in the deep forests. We are glad they are still here and we hope that it will always be so. Now our minds are one The Trees We now turn our thoughts to the Trees. The Earth has many families of Trees who have their own instructions and uses. Some provide us with shelter and shade, others with fruit, beauty and other useful things. Many people of the world use a Tree as a symbol of peace and strength. With one mind, we greet and thank the Tree life. Now our minds are one. The Birds We put our minds together as one and thank all the Birds who move and fly about over our heads. The Creator gave them beautiful songs. Each day they remind us to enjoy and appreciate life. The Eagle was chosen to be their leader. To all the Birds-from the smallest to the largest-we send our joyful greetings and thanks. Now our minds are one. The Four Winds We are all thankful to the powers we know as the Four Winds. We hear their voices in the moving air as they refresh us and purify the air we breathe. They help us to bring the change of seasons. From the four directions they come, bringing us messages and giving us strength. With one mind, we send our greetings and thanks to the Four Winds. Now our minds are one.

The Thunderers Now we turn to the west where our grandfathers, the Thunder Beings, live. With lightning and thundering voices, they bring with them the water that renews life. We are thankful that they keep those evil things made by Okwiseres underground. We bring our minds together as one to send greetings and thanks to our Grandfathers, the Thunderers. Now our minds are one. The Sun We now send greetings and thanks to our eldest Brother, the Sun. Each day without fail he travels the sky from east to west, bringing the light of a new day. He is the source of all the fires of life. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to our Brother, the Sun. Now our minds are one. Grandmother Moon We put our minds together to give thanks to our oldest Grandmother, the Moon, who lights the

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night-time sky. She is the leader of woman all over the world, and she governs the movement of the ocean tides. By her changing face we measure time, and it is the Moon who watches over the arrival of children here on Earth. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to our Grandmother, the Moon. Now our minds are one. The Stars We give thanks to the Stars who are spread across the sky like jewelry. We see them in the night, helping the Moon to light the darkness and bringing dew to the gardens and growing things. When we travel at night, they guide us home. With our minds gathered together as one, we send greetings and thanks to the Stars. Now our minds are one. The Enlightened Teachers We gather our minds to greet and thank the enlightened Teachers who have come to help throughout the ages. When we forget how to live in harmony, they remind us of the way we were instructed to live as people. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to these caring teachers. Now our minds are one. The Creator Now we turn our thoughts to the Creator, or Great Spirit, and send greetings and thanks for all the gifts of Creation. Everything we need to live a good life is here on this Mother Earth. For all the love that is still around us, we gather our minds together as one and send our choicest words of greetings and thanks to the Creator. Now our minds are one.

Closing Words We have now arrived at the place where we end our words. Of all the things we have named, it was not our intention to leave anything out. If something was forgotten, we leave it to each individual to send such greetings and thanks in their own way. Now our minds are one. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- This translation of the Mohawk version of the Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address was developed, published in 1993, and provided, courtesy of: Six Nations Indian Museum and the Tracking Project All rights reserved. Thanksgiving Address: Greetings to the Natural World English version: John Stokes and Kanawahienton (David Benedict, Turtle Clan/Mohawk) Mohawk version: Rokwaho (Dan Thompson, Wolf Clan/Mohawk) Original inspiration: Tekaronianekon (Jake Swamp, Wolf Clan/Mohawk)

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The Pledge of Allegiance

Original 1892 Pledge of Allegiance: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

Note: Written in August 1892 by the socialist minister Francis Bellamy [1855-1931]. Bellamy had hoped that the pledge would be used by citizens in any country.

1923 Version: I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

Note: At this time, the words, "the Flag of the United States of America" were added

1954 Version: I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

Note: In 1954, in response to the Communist threat, President Eisenhower encouraged Congress to add the words "under God.” Bellamy's daughter objected to this alteration.

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Allegiance to Gratitude by Robin Wall Kimmerer (from her book: Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants)

There was a time, not so long ago, when my morning ritual was to rise before dawn and start the oatmeal and coffee before waking the girls. Then I would get them up to feed the horses before school. That done, I would pack lunches, find lost papers, and kiss pink cheeks as the school bus chugged up the hill, all before filling bowls for the cats and dog, finding something presentable to wear, and previewing my morning lecture as I drove to school. Reflection was not a word frequently on my mind those days.

But on Thursdays, I didn’t have a morning class and could linger a little, so I would walk the pasture to the top of the hill to start the day properly, with birdsong and shoes soaked in dew and the clouds still pink with sunrise over the barn, a down payment on a debt of gratitude. One Thursday I was distracted from the robins and new leaves by a call I received from my sixth-grade daughter’s teacher the night before. Apparently, my daughter had begun refusing to stand with the class for the Pledge of Allegiance. The teacher assured me she wasn’t being disruptive, really, or misbehaving, but just sat quietly in her seat and wouldn’t join in. After a couple of days other students began following suit, so the teacher was calling “just because I thought you’d like to know.”

I remember how that ritual used to begin my day, too, from kindergarten through high school. Like the tap of the conductor’s baton, it gathered our attention from the hubbub of the school bus and the jostling hallway. We would be shuffling our chairs and putting lunch boxes away in the cubbies when the loudspeaker grabbed us by the collar. We stood beside our desks facing the flag that hung on a stick at the corner of the blackboard, as ubiquitous as the smell of floor wax and school paste.

Hand over heart, we recited the Pledge of Allegiance. The pledge was a puzzlement to me, as I’m sure it is to most students. I had no earthly idea what a republic even was, and was none too sure about God, either. And you didn’t have to be an eight-year-old Indian to know that “liberty and justice for all” was a questionable premise.

But during school assemblies, when three hundred voices all joined together, all those voices, in measured cadence, from the gray-haired school nurse’s to the kindergarteners’, made me feel part of something. It was as if for a moment our minds were one. I could imagine then that if we all spoke for that elusive justice, it might be within our reach.

From where I stand today, though, the idea of asking schoolchildren to pledge loyalty to a political system seems exceedingly curious. Especially since we know full well that the practice of recitation will largely be abandoned in adulthood, when the age of reason has presumably been attained. Apparently my daughter had reached that age and I was not about to interfere. “Mom, I’m not going to stand there and lie,” she explained. “And it’s not exactly liberty if they force you to say it, is it?”

She knew different morning rituals, her grandfather’s pouring of coffee on the ground and the one I carried out on the hill above our house, and that was enough for me. The sunrise ceremony is our Potawatomi way of sending gratitude into the world, to recognize all that we are given and to offer our choicest thanks in return. Many Native peoples across the world, despite myriad cultural differences, have this in common—we are rooted in cultures of gratitude.

Our old farm is within the ancestral homelands of the Onondaga Nation and their reserve lies a few ridges to the west of my hilltop. There, just like on my side of the ridge, school buses discharge a herd of kids who run even after the bus monitors bark “Walk!” But at Onondaga, the flag flying outside the entrance is purple and white, depicting the Hiawatha wampum belt, the symbol of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. With bright backpacks too big for their little shoulders, the kids stream in through doors painted the traditional Haudenosaunee purple, under the words Nya wenhah Ska: nonh a greeting of health and peace. Black-haired children run circles around the atrium, through sun shafts, over clan symbols etched on the slate floor.

Here the school week begins and ends not with the Pledge of Allegiance, but with the Thanksgiving Address, a river of words as old as the people themselves, known more accurately in the Onondaga language as the Words That Come Before All Else. This ancient order of protocol sets gratitude as the highest priority. The gratitude is directed straight to the ones who share their gifts with the world.

All the classes stand together in the atrium, and one grade each week has responsibility for the oratory. Together, in a language older than English, they begin the recitation. It is said that the people were instructed to stand and offer these words whenever they gathered, no matter how many or how few, before anything else was done. In this ritual, their teachers remind them that every day, “beginning with where our feet first touch the earth, we send greetings and thanks to all members of the natural world.”

Today it is the third grade’s turn. There are only eleven of them and they do their best to start together, giggling a little, and nudging the ones who just stare at the floor. Their little faces are screwed

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up with concentration and they glance at their teacher for prompts when they stumble on the words. In their own language they say the words they’ve heard nearly every day of their lives.

Today we have gathered and when we look upon the faces around us we see that the cycles of life continue. We have been given the duty to live in balance and harmony with each other and all living things. So now let us bring our minds together as one as we give greetings and thanks to each other as People. Now our minds are one.10

There is a pause and the kids murmur their assent.

We are thankful to our Mother the Earth, for she gives us everything that we need for life. She supports our feet as we walk about upon her. It gives us joy that she still continues to care for us, just as she has from the beginning of time. To our Mother, we send thanksgiving, love, and respect. Now our minds are one.

The kids sit remarkably still, listening. You can tell they’ve been raised in the longhouse. The Pledge has no place here. Onondaga is sovereign territory, surrounded on every side by the

Republicforwhichitstands, but outside the jurisdiction of the United States. Starting the day with the Thanksgiving Address is a statement of identity and an exercise of sovereignty, both political and cultural. And so much more.

The Address is sometimes mistakenly viewed as a prayer, but the children’s heads are not bowed. The elders at Onondaga teach otherwise, that the Address is far more than a pledge, a prayer, or a poem alone.

Two little girls step forward with arms linked and take up the words again:

We give thanks to all of the waters of the world for quenching our thirst, for providing strength and nurturing life for all beings. We know its power in many forms—waterfalls and rain, mists and streams, rivers and oceans, snow and ice. We are grateful that the waters are still here and meeting their responsibility to the rest of Creation. Can we agree that water is important to our lives and bring our minds together as one to send greetings and thanks to the Water? Now our minds are one.

I’m told that the Thanksgiving Address is at heart an invocation of gratitude, but it is also a material,

scientific inventory of the natural world. Another name for the oration is Greetings and Thanks to the Natural World. As it goes forward, each element of the ecosystem is named in its turn, along with its function. It is a lesson in Native science.

We turn our thoughts to all of the Fish life in the water. They were instructed to cleanse and purify the water. They also give themselves to us as food. We are grateful that they continue to do their duties and we send to the Fish our greetings and our thanks. Now our minds are one.

Now we turn toward the vast fields of Plant life. As far as the eye can see, the Plants grow, working many wonders. They sustain many life forms. With our minds gathered together, we give thanks and look forward to seeing Plant life for many generations to come. Now our minds are one.

When we look about us, we see that the berries are still here, providing us with delicious foods. The leader of the berries is the strawberry, the first to ripen in the spring. Can we agree that we are grateful that the berries are with us in the world and send our thanksgiving, love, and respect to the berries? Now our minds are one.

10 *The actual wording of the Thanksgiving Address varies with the speaker. This text is the widely publicized version of John Stokes and Kanawahientun, 1993.

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I wonder if there are kids here who, like my daughter, rebel, who refuse to stand and say thank you to the earth. It seems hard to argue with gratitude for berries.

With one mind, we honor and thank all the Food Plants we harvest from the garden, especially the Three Sisters who feed the people with such abundance. Since the beginning of time, the grains, vegetables, beans, and fruit have helped the people survive. Many other living things draw strength from them as well. We gather together in our minds all the plant foods and send them a greeting and thanks. Now our minds are one.

The kids take note of each addition and nod in agreement. Especially for food. A little boy in a Red Hawks lacrosse shirt steps forward to speak:

Now we turn to the Medicine Herbs of the world. From the beginning they were instructed to take away sickness. They are always waiting and ready to heal us. We are so happy that there are still among us those special few who remember how to use the plants for healing. With one mind, we send thanksgiving, love, and respect to the Medicines and the keepers of the Medicines. Now our minds are one.

Standing around us we see all the Trees. The Earth has many families of Trees who each have their own instructions and uses. Some provide shelter and shade, others fruit and beauty and many useful gifts. The Maple is the leader of the trees, to recognize its gift of sugar when the People need it most. Many peoples of the world recognize a Tree as a symbol of peace and strength. With one mind we greet and thank the Tree life. Now our minds are one.

The Address is, by its very nature of greetings to all who sustain us, long. But it can be done in

abbreviated form or in long and loving detail. At the school, it is tailored to the language skills of the children speaking it.

Part of its power surely rests in the length of time it takes to send greetings and thanks to so many. The listeners reciprocate the gift of the speaker’s words with their attention, and by putting their minds into the place where gathered minds meet. You could be passive and just let the words and the time flow by, but each call asks for the response: “Now our minds are one.” You have to concentrate; you have to give yourself to the listening. It takes effort, especially in a time when we are accustomed to sound bites and immediate gratification.

When the long version is done at joint meetings with non-Native business or government officials, they often get a little fidgety— especially the lawyers. They want to get on with it, their eyes darting around the room, trying so hard not to look at their watches. My own students profess to cherish the opportunity to share this experience of the Thanksgiving Address, and yet it never fails that one or a few comment that it goes on too long. “Poor you,” I sympathize. “What a pity that we have so much to be thankful for.”

We gather our minds together to send our greetings and thanks to all the beautiful animal life of the world, who walk about with us. They have many things to teach us as people. We are grateful that they continue to share their lives with us and hope that it will always be so. Let us put our minds together as one and send our thanks to the Animals. Now our minds are one.

Imagine raising children in a culture in which gratitude is the first priority. Freida Jacques works at the

Onondaga Nation School. She is a clan mother, the school-community liaison, and a generous teacher. She explains to me that the Thanksgiving Address embodies the Onondaga relationship with the world. Each part of Creation is thanked in turn for fulfilling its Creator-given duty to the others. “It reminds you every day that you have enough,” she says. “More than enough. Everything needed to sustain life is already here. When we do this, every day, it leads us to an outlook of contentment and respect for all of Creation.”

You can’t listen to the Thanksgiving Address without feeling wealthy. And, while expressing gratitude seems innocent enough, it is a revolutionary idea. In a consumer society, contentment is a radical proposition. Recognizing abundance rather than scarcity undermines an economy that thrives by creating unmet desires.

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Gratitude cultivates an ethic of fullness, but the economy needs emptiness. The Thanksgiving Address reminds you that you already have everything you need. Gratitude doesn’t send you out shopping to find satisfaction; it comes as a gift rather than a commodity, subverting the foundation of the whole economy. That’s good medicine for land and people alike.

We put our minds together as one and thank all the birds who move and fly about over our heads. The Creator gave them the gift of beautiful songs. Each morning they greet the day and with their songs remind us to enjoy and appreciate life. The Eagle was chosen to be their leader and to watch over the world. To all the Birds, from the smallest to the largest, we send our joyful greetings and thanks. Now our minds are one.

The oratory is more than an economic model; it’s a civics lesson, too. Freida emphasizes that hearing the

Thanksgiving Address every day lifts up models of leadership for the young people: the strawberry as leader of the berries, the eagle as leader of the birds. “It reminds them that much is expected of them eventually. It says this is what it means to be a good leader, to have vision, and to be generous, to sacrifice on behalf of the people. Like the maple, leaders are the first to offer their gifts.” It reminds the whole community that leadership is rooted not in power and authority, but in service and wisdom.

We are all thankful for the powers we know as the Four Winds. We hear their voices in the moving air as they refresh us and purify the air we breathe. They help to bring the change of seasons. From the four directions they come, bringing us messages and giving us strength. With one mind we send our greetings and thanks to the Four Winds. Now our minds are one.

As Freida says, “The Thanksgiving Address is a reminder we cannot hear too often, that we human beings

are not in charge of the world, but are subject to the same forces as all of the rest of life.” For me, the cumulative impact of the Pledge of Allegiance, from my time as a schoolgirl to my adulthood,

was the cultivation of cynicism and a sense of the nation’s hypocrisy—not the pride it was meant to instill. As I grew to understand the gifts of the earth, I couldn’t understand how “love of country” could omit recognition of the actual country itself. The only promise it requires is to a flag. What of the promises to each other and to the land?

What would it be like to be raised on gratitude, to speak to the natural world as a member of the democracy of species, to raise a pledge of Interdependence? No declarations of political loyalty are required, just a response to a repeated question: “Can we agree to be grateful for all that is given?” In the Thanksgiving Address, I hear respect toward all our nonhuman relatives, not one political entity, but to all of life. What happens to nationalism, to political boundaries, when allegiance lies with winds and waters that know no boundaries, that cannot be bought or sold?

Now we turn to the west where our grandfathers the Thunder Beings live. With lightning and thundering voices they bring with them the water that renews life. We bring our minds together as one to send greetings and thanks to our Grandfathers, the Thunderers.

We now send greetings and thanks to our eldest brother the Sun. Each day without fail he travels the sky from east to west, bringing the light of a new day. He is the source of all the fires of life. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to our Brother, the Sun. Now our minds are one.

The Haudenosaunee have been recognized for centuries as masters of negotiation, for the political

prowess by which they’ve survived against all odds. The Thanksgiving Address serves the people in myriad ways, including diplomacy. Most everyone knows the tension that squeezes your jaw before a difficult conversation or a meeting that is bound to be contentious. You straighten your pile of papers more than once while the arguments you have prepared stand at attention like soldiers in your throat, ready to be deployed. But then the Words That Come Before All Else begin to flow, and you start to answer. Yes, of course we can agree that we are grateful for Mother Earth. Yes, the same sun shines on each and every one of us. Yes, we are united in our respect for the

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trees. By the time we greet Grandmother Moon, the harsh faces have softened a bit in the gentle light of remembrance. Piece by piece, the cadence begins to eddy around the boulder of disagreement and erode the edges of the barriers between us. Yes, we can all agree that the waters are still here. Yes, we can unite our minds in gratitude for the winds. Not surprisingly, Haudenosaunee decision¬ making proceeds from consensus, not by a vote of the majority. A decision is made only “when our minds are one.” Those words are a brilliant political preamble to negotiation, strong medicine for soothing partisan fervor. Imagine if our government meetings began with the Thanksgiving Address. What if our leaders first found common ground before fighting over their differences?

We put our minds together and give thanks to our oldest Grandmother, the Moon, who lights the nighttime sky. She is the leader of women all over the world and she governs the movement of the ocean tides. By her changing face we measure time and it is the Moon who watches over the arrival of children here on Earth. Let us gather our thanks for Grandmother Moon together in a pile, layer upon layer of gratitude, and then joyfully fling that pile of thanks high into the night sky that she will know. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to our Grandmother, the Moon.

We give thanks to the Stars who are spread across the sky like jewelry. We see them at night, helping the Moon to light the darkness and bringing dew to the gardens and growing things. When we travel at night, they guide us home. With our minds gathered as one, we send greetings and thanks to all the Stars. Now our minds are one.

Thanksgiving also reminds us of how the world was meant to be in its original condition. We can

compare the roll call of gifts bestowed on us with their current status. Are all the pieces of the ecosystem still here and doing their duty? Is the water still supporting life? Are all those birds still healthy? When we can no longer see the stars because of light pollution, the words of Thanksgiving should awaken us to our loss and spur us to restorative action. Like the stars themselves, the words can guide us back home.

We gather our minds to greet and thank the enlightened Teachers who have come to help throughout the ages. When we forget how to live in harmony, they remind us of the way we were instructed to live as people. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to these caring Teachers. Now our minds are one.

While there is a clear structure and progression to the oratory, it is usually not recited verbatim or

exactly the same by different speakers. Some renditions are low murmurs, barely discernible. Some are nearly songs. I love to hear elder Tom Porter hold a circle of listeners in the bowl of his hand. He lights up every face and no matter how long the delivery, you wish it was longer. Tommy says, “Let us pile up our thanks like a heap of flowers on a blanket. We will each take a corner and toss it high into the sky. And so our thanks should be as rich as the gifts of the world that shower down upon us,” and we stand there together, grateful in the rain of blessings.

We now turn our thoughts to the Creator, or Great Spirit, and send greetings and thanks for all the gifts of Creation. Everything we need to live a good life is here on Mother Earth. For all the love that is still around us, we gather our minds together as one and send our choicest words of greetings and thanks to the Creator. Now our minds are one.

The words are simple, but in the art of their joining, they become a statement of sovereignty, a political

structure, a Bill of Responsibilities, an educational model, a family tree, and a scientific inventory of ecosystem services. It is a powerful political document, a social contract, a way of being—all in one piece. But first and foremost, it is the credo for a culture of gratitude.

Cultures of gratitude must also be cultures of reciprocity. Each person, human or no, is bound to every other in a reciprocal relationship. Just as all beings have a duty to me, I have a duty to them. If an animal gives its life to feed me, I am in turn bound to support its life. If I receive a stream’s gift of pure water, then I am

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responsible for returning a gift in kind. An integral part of a human’s education is to know those duties and how to perform them.

The Thanksgiving Address reminds us that duties and gifts are two sides of the same coin. Eagles were given the gift of far sight, so it is their duty to watch over us. Rain fulfills its duty as it falls, because it was given the gift of sustaining life. What is the duty of humans? If gifts and responsibilities are one, then asking “What is our responsibility?” is the same as asking “What is our gift?” It is said that only humans have the capacity for gratitude. This is among our gifts.

It’s such a simple thing, but we all know the power of gratitude to incite a cycle of reciprocity. If my girls run out the door with lunch in hand without a “Thanks, Mama!” I confess I get to feeling a tad miserly with my time and energy. But when I get a hug of appreciation, I want to stay up late to bake cookies for tomorrow’s lunch bag. We know that appreciation begets abundance. Why should it not be so for Mother Earth, who packs us a lunch every single day?

Living as a neighbor to the Haudenosaunee, I have heard the Thanksgiving Address in many forms, spoken by many different voices, and I raise my heart to it like raising my face to the rain. But I am not a Haudenosaunee citizen or scholar—just a respectful neighbor and a listener. Because I feared overstepping my boundaries in sharing what I have been told, I asked permission to write about it and how it has influenced my own thinking. Over and over, I was told that these words are a gift of the Haudenosaunee to the world. When I asked Onondaga Faithkeeper Oren Lyons about it, he gave his signature slightly bemused smile and said, “Of course you should write about it. It’s supposed to be shared, otherwise how can it work? We’ve been waiting five hundred years for people to listen. If they’d understood the Thanksgiving then, we wouldn’t be in this mess.”

The Haudenosaunee have published the Address widely and it has now been translated into over forty languages and is heard all around the world. Why not here in this land? I’m trying to imagine how it would be if schools transformed their mornings to include something like the Thanksgiving Address. I mean no disrespect for the whitehaired veterans in my town, who stand with hand on heart as the flag goes by, whose eyes fill with tears as they recite the Pledge in raspy voices. I love my country too, and its hopes for freedom and justice. But the boundaries of what I honor are bigger than the republic. Let us pledge reciprocity with the living world. The Thanksgiving Address describes our mutual allegiance as human delegates to the democracy of species. If what we want for our people is patriotism, then let us inspire true love of country by invoking the land herself. If we want to raise good leaders, let us remind our children of the eagle and the maple. If we want to grow good citizens, then let us teach reciprocity. If what we aspire to is justice for all, then let it be justice for all of Creation.

We have now arrived at the place where we end our words. Of all the things we have named, it is not our intention to leave anything out. If something was forgotten, we leave it to each individual to send such greetings and thanks in their own way. And now our minds are one.

Every day, with these words, the people give thanks to the land. In the silence that falls at the end of those words I listen, longing for the day when we can hear the land give thanks for the people in return.

Learning the Grammar of Animacy by Robin Wall Kimmerer (from her book: Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants) To be native to a place we must learn to speak its language. I come here to listen, to nestle in the curve of the roots in a soft hollow of pine needles, to lean my bones against the column of white pine, to turn off the voice in my head until I can hear the voices outside it: the shhh of wind in needles, water trickling over rock, nuthatch tapping, chipmunks digging, beechnut falling, mosquito in my ear, and something more—something that is not for me, for which we have no language, the wordless being of others in which we are never alone. After the drumbeat of my mother’s heart, this was my first language. I could spend a whole day listening. And a whole night. And in the morning, without my hearing it, there might be a mushroom that was not there the night before, creamy white, pushed up from the pine needle duff, out of the darkness to the light, still glistening with the fluid of its passage. Puhpowee. Listening in wild places, we are audience to conversations in a language not our own. I think now it was a longing to comprehend this language I hear in the woods that led me to science, to learn over the years to speak fluent botany. A tongue that should not, by the way, be mistaken for the language of plants. I did learn another language in science, though, one of careful observation, an intimate vocabulary that names each little part. To

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name and describe you must first see, and science polishes the gift of seeing. I honor the strength of the language that has become a second tongue to me. But beneath the richness of its vocabulary and its descriptive power, something is missing, the same something that swells around you and in you when you listen to the world. Science can be a language of distance which reduces a being to its working parts; it is a language of objects. The language scientists speak, however precise, is based on a profound error in grammar, an omission, a grave loss in translation from the native languages of these shores. My first taste of the missing language was the word Puhpowee on my tongue. I stumbled upon it in a book by the Anishinaabe ethnobotanist Keewaydinaquay, in a treatise on the traditional uses of fungi by our people. Puhpowee, she explained, translates as “the force which causes mushrooms to push up from the earth overnight.” As a biologist, I was stunned that such a word existed. In all its technical vocabulary, Wester science has no such term, no words to hold this mystery. You’d think that biologists, of all people, would have words for life. But in scientific language our terminology is used to define the boundaries of our knowing. What lies beyond our grasp remains unnamed. In the three syllables of this new word I could see an entire process of close observation in the damp morning woods, the formulation of a theory for which English has no equivalents. The makers of this word understood a world of being, full of unseen energies that animate everything. I’ve cherished it for many years, as a talisman, and longed for the people who gave a name to the life force of mushrooms. The language that holds Puhpowee is one that I wanted to speak. So when I learned that the word for rising, for emergence, belonged to the language of my ancestors, it became a signpost for me. Had history been different, I would likely speak Bodewadmimwin, or Potawatomi, an Anishinaabe language. But, like many of the three hundred and fifty indigenous languages of the Americas, Potawatomi is threatened, and I speak the language you read. The powers of assimilation did their work as a chance of hearing that language, and yours too, was washed from the mouths of Indian children in government boarding schools where speaking your native tongue was forbidden. Children like my grandfather, who was taken from his family when he was just a little boy of nine years old. This history scattered not only our words but also our people. Today I live far from our reservation, so even if I could speak the language, I would have no one to talk to. Ut a few summers ago, at our yearly tribal gathering, a language class was held and I slipped into the tent to listen. There was a great deal of excitement about the class because, for the first time, every single fluent speaker in our tribe would be there as a teacher. When the speakers were called forward to the circle of folding chairs, they moved slowly—with canes, walkers, and wheelchairs, only a few entirely under their own power. I counted them as they filled the chairs. Nine. Nine fluent speakers. In the whole world. Our language, millennia in the making, sits in those nine chairs. The words that praised creation, told the old stories, lulled my ancestors to sleep, rests today in the tongues of nine very mortal men and women. Each in turn addresses the small group of would-be students. A man with long gray braids tells how his mother hid him away when the Indian agents came to take the children. He escaped boarding school by hiding under an overhung bank where the sound of the stream covered his crying. The others were all taken and had their mouths washed out with soap, or worse, for “talking that dirty Indian language.” Because he alone stayed home and was raised up calling the plants and animals by the name Creator gave them, he is here today, a carrier of the language. The engines of assimilation worked well. The speaker’s eyes blaze as he tells us, “We’re the end of the road. We are all that is left. If you young people do not learn, the language will die. The missionaries and the U.S. government will have their victory at last.” A great-grandmother from the circle pushes her walker up close to the microphone. “It’s not just the words that will be lost,” she says. “The language is the heart of our culture; it holds our thoughts, our way of seeing the world. It’s too beautiful for English to explain.” Puhpowee. Jim Thunder, at seventy-five the youngest of the speakers, is a round brown man of serious demeanor who spoke only in Potawatomi. He began solemnly, but as he warmed to his subject his voice lifted like a breeze in the birch trees and his hands began to tell the story. He became more and more animated, rising to his feet, holding up rapt and silent although almost no one understood a single word. He paused as if reaching the climax of his story and looked out at the audience with a twinkle of expectation. One of the grandmothers behind him covered her mouth in a giggle and his stern face suddenly broke into a smile as big and sweet as a cracked watermelon. He bent over laughing and the grandmas dabbed away tears of laughter, holding their sides, while the rest of us looked on in wonderment. When the laughter subsided, he spoke at last in English: “What will happen to a joke when no one can hear it anymore? How lonely those words will be, when their power is gone. Where will they go? Off to join the stories that can never be told again.” So now my house is spangled with Post-it notes in another language, as if I were studying for a trip abroad. But I’m not going away, I’m coming home.

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Ni pi je ezhyayen? Asks the little yellow sticky note on my back door. My hands are full and the car is running, but I switch my bag to the other hip and pause long enough to respond. Odanek nde zhya, I’m going to town. And so I do, to work, to class, to meetings, to the bank, to the grocery store. I talk all day and sometimes write all evening in the beautiful language I was born to, the same one used by 70 percent of the world’s people, a tongue viewed as the most useful, with the richest vocabulary in the modern world. English. When I get home at night to my quiet house, there is a faithful Post-it note on the closet door. Gisken I gbiskewagen! And so I take off my coat. I cook dinner, pulling utensils from cupboards labeled emkwanen, nagen. I have become a woman who speaks Potawatomi to household objects. When the phone rings I barely glance at the Post-it there as I dopnen the giktogan. And whether it is a solicitor or a friend, they speak English. Once a week or so, it is my sister from the West Coast who says Bozho. Moktthewenkwe nda—as if she needed to identify herself: who else speaks Potawatomi? To call it speaking is a stretch. Really, all we do is blurt garbled phrases to each other in a parody of conversation: How are you? I am fine. Go to town. See bird. Red. Frybread good. We sound like Tonto’s side of the Hollywood dialogue with the Lone Ranger. “Me try talk good Injun way.” On the rare occasion when we actually can string together a halfway coherent thought, we freely insert high school Spanish words to fill in the gaps, making a language we call Spanawatomi. Tuesdays and Thursdays at 12:15 Oklahoma time, I join the Potawatomi lunchtime language class, streaming from tribal headquarters ia the Internet. There are usually about ten of us, from all over the country. Together we learn to count and to say pass the salt. Someone asks, “How do you say please pass the salt?” Our teacher, Justin Neely, a young man devoted to language revival, explains that while there are several words for thank you, there is no word for please. Food was meant to be shared, no added politeness needed; it was simply a cultural given that one was asking respectfully. The missionaries took this absence as further evidence of crude manners. Many nights, when I should be grading papers or paying bills, I’m at the computer running through Potawatomi language drills. After months, I have mastered the kindergarten vocabulary and can confidently match the pictures of animals to their indigenous names. It reminds me of reading picture books to my children; “Can you point to the squirrel? Where is the bunny?” All the while I’m telling myself that I really don’t have time for this, and what’s more, little need to know the words for bass and fox anyway. Since our tribal diaspora left us scattered to the four winds, who would I talk to? The simple phrases I’m learning are perfect for my dog. Sit! Eat! Come here! Be quiet! But since she scarcely responds to these commands in English, I’m reluctant to train her to be bilingual. An admiring student once asked me if I spoke my native language. I was tempted to say, “Oh yes, we speak Potawatomi at home”— me, the dog, and the Post-it notes. Our teacher tells us not to be discouraged and thanks us every time a word is spoken—thanks us for breathing life into the language, even if we only speak a single word. “But I have no one to talk to, “I complain. “None of us do,“ he reassures me, “but someday we will.” So I dutifully learn the vocabulary but find I hard to see the “heart of our culture” in translating bed and sink into Potawatomi. Learning nouns was pretty easy; after all, I’d learned thousands of botanical Latin names and scientific terms. I reasoned that this could not be too much different—just a one-for-one substitution, memorization. At least on paper, where you can see letters, this is true. Hearing the language is a different story. There are fewer letters in our alphabet, so the distinction among words for a beginner is often subtle. With the beautiful clusters of consonants of zh and mb and shwe and kwe and mshk, our language sounds like wind in the pines and water over rocks, sounds our ears may have been more delicately attuned to in the past, but no longer. To learn again, you really have to listen. To actually speak, of course, requires verbs, and here is where my kindergarten proficiency at naming things leaves off. English is a noun-based language, somehow appropriate to a culture so obsessed with things. Only 30 percent of English words are verbs, but in Potawatomi that proportion is 70 percent. Which means that 70 percent of the words have to be conjugated, and 70 percent have different tenses and cases to be mastered. European languages often assign gender to nouns, but Potawatomi does not divide the world into masculine and feminine. Nouns and verbs both are animate and inanimate. You hear a person with a word that is completely different from the one with which you hear an airplane. Pronouns, articles, plurals, demonstratives, verbs—all those syntactical bits I never could keep straight in high school English are all aligned in Potawatomi to provide different ways to speak of the living world and the lifeless one. Different verb forms, different plurals, different everything apply depending on whether what you are speaking of is alive. No wonder there are only nine speakers left! I try, but the complexity makes my head hurt and my ear can barely distinguish between words that mean completely different things. One teacher reassures us that this will come with practice, but another elder concedes that these close similarities are inherent in the language. As Stewart King, a knowledge keeper and great teacher, reminds us, the Creator meant for us to laugh, so humor is

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deliberately built into the syntax. Even a small slip of the tongue can convert “We need more firewood” to “Take off your clothes.” In fact, I learned that the mystical word Puhpowee is used not only for mushrooms, but also for certain other shafts that rise mysteriously in the night. My sister’s gift to me one Christmas was a set of magnetic tiles for the refrigerator in Ojibwe, or Anishinabemowin, a language closely related to Potawatomi. I spread them out on my kitchen table looking for familiar words, but the more I looked, the more worried I got. Among the hundred or more tiles, there was but a single word that I recognized: megwech, thank you. The small feeling of accomplishment from months of study evaporated in a moment. I remember paging through the Ojibwe dictionary she sent, trying to decipher the tiles, but the spellings didn’t always match and the print was too small and there are way too many variations on a single word and I was feeling that this was just way too hard. The threads in my brain knotted and the harder I tried, the tighter they became. Pages blurred and my eyes settled on a word—a verb, of course: “to be a Saturday.” Pfft! I threw down the book. Since when is Saturday a verb? Everyone knows it’s a noun. I grabbed the dictionary and flipped more pages and all kinds of things seemed to be verbs: “to be a hill,” “to be red,” “to be a long sandy stretch of beach,” and then my finger rested on Wiikwegamaa: “to be a bay.” ” Ridiculous!” I ranted in my head. “There is no reason to make it so complicated. No wonder no one speaks it. A cumbersome language, impossible to learn, and more than that, it’s all wrong. A bay is most definitely a person, place, or thing—a noun and not a verb.” I was ready to give up. I’d learned a few words, done my duty to the language that was taken from my grandfather. Oh, the ghosts of the missionaries in the boarding schools must have been rubbing their hands in glee at my frustration. “She’s going to surrender,” they said. And then I swear I heard the zap of synapses firing. An electric current sizzled down my arm and through my finger, and practically scorched the page where that one word lay. In that moment I could smell the water of the bay, watch it rock against the shore and hear it sift onto the sand. A bay is a noun only if water is dead. When bay is a noun, it is defined by humans, trapped between its shores and contained by the word. But the verb wiikwegamaa—to be a bay—releases the water from bondage and lets it live. “to be a bay” holds the wonder that, for this moment, the living water has decided to shelter itself between these shores, conversing with cedar roots and a flock of baby mergansers. Because it could to otherwise—become a stream or an ocean or a waterfall, and there are erbs for that too. To be a hill, to be a sandy beach, to be a Saturday, all are possible verbs in a world where everything is alive. Water, land, and even a day, the language a mirror for seeing the animacy of the world, the life that pulses through all things, through pines and nuthatches and mushrooms. This is the language I hear in the woods; this is the language that lets us speak of what wells up all around us. And the vestiges of boarding schools, the soap-wielding missionary wraiths, hand their heads in defeat. This is the grammar of animacy. Imagine seeing your grandmother standing at the stove in her apron and then saying of her, “Look, it is making soup. It has gray hair.” We might snicker at such a mistake, but we also recoil from it. In English, we never refer to a member of our family, or indeed to any person, as it. That would be a profound act of disrespect. It robs a person of selfhood and kinship, reducing a person to a mere thing. So it is that in Potawatomi and most other indigenous languages, we use the same words to address the living world as we use for our family. Because they are our family. To whom does our language extend the grammar of animacy? Naturally, plants and animals are animate, but as I learn, I am discovering that the Potawatomi understanding of what it means to be animate diverges from the list of attributes of living beings we all learned in Biology 101. In Potawatomi 101, rocks are animate, as are mountains and water and fire and places. Beings that are imbued with spirit, our sacred medicines, our songs, drums, and even stories, are all animate. The list of the inanimate seems to be smaller, filled with objects that are made by people. Of an inanimate being, like a table, we say, “What is it?” And we answer Dopwen yewe. Table it is. But of apple, we must say, “Who is that being?” And reply Mshimin yawe. Apple that being is. Yawe—The animate to be. I am, you are, s/he is. To speak of those possessed with life and spirit we must say yawe. By what linguistic confluence do Yahweh of the Old Testament and yawe of the New World both fall from the mouths of the reverent? Isn’t this just what it means, to be, to have the breath of life within, to be the offspring of Creation? The language reminds us in every sentence, of our kinship with all of the animate world. English doesn’t give us many tools for incorporating respect for animacy. In English, you are either a human or a thing. Our grammar boxes us in by the choice of reducing a nonhuman being to an it, or it must be gendered, inappropriately, as a he or a she. Where are our words for the simple existence of another living being? Where is our yawe? My friend Michael Nelson, an ethicist who thinks a great deal about moral inclusion, told me about a woman he knows, a field biologist whose work is among other-than-humans. Most of her companions are not two-legged, and so her language has shifted to accommodate her relationships. She kneels along the trail to inspect a set of moose tracks, saying, “Someone’s already been this way this morning.” “Someone is in my hat,” she says, shaking out a deerfly. Someone, not something.

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When I am in the woods with my students, teaching them the gifts of plants and how to call them by name, I try to be mindful of my language, to be bilingual between the lexicon of science and the grammar of animacy. Although they still have to learn scientific roles and Latin names, I hope I am also teaching them to know the world as a neighborhood of nonhuman residents, to know that, as ecotheologian Thomas Berry has written, “we must say of the universe that it is a communion o subjects, no a collection of objects.” On afternoon, I sate with my field ecology students by a wiikwergamaa and shared this idea of animate language. One young man, Andy, splashing his feet in the clear water, asked the big question. “Wait a second,” he said as he wrapped his mind around this linguistic distinction, “doesn’t this mean that speaking English, thinking in English, somehow gives us permission to disrespect nature? By denying everyone else the right to be persons? Wouldn’t things be different if nothing was an it?” Swept away with the idea, he said I felt like an awakening to him. More like a remembering, I think. The animacy of the world is something we already know, but the language of animacy teeters on extinction—not just for Native peoples, but for everyone. Our toddlers speak of plants and animals as if they were people, extending to them self and intention and compassion—until we teach them not to. We quickly retrain them and make them forget. When we tell them that the tree is not a who, but an it, we make that maple an object; we put a barrier between us, absolving ourselves of moral responsibility and opening the door to exploitation. Saying it makes a living land into “natural resources.” If a maple is an it, we can take up the chain saw. If a maple is a her, we think twice. Another student countered Andy’s argument. “But we can’t say he or she. That would be anthropomorphism.” They are well-schooled biologists who have been instructed, in no uncertain terms, never to ascribe human characteristics to a study object, to another species. It’s a cardinal sin that leads to a loss of objectivity. Carla pointed out that “it’s also disrespectful to animals. We shouldn’t project our perceptions onto them. They have their own ways—they’re not just people in furry costumes.” Andy countered, “But just because we don’t think of them as humans doesn’t mean they aren’t beings. Isn’t it even more disrespectful to assume that we’re the only species that counts as “persons”? The arrogance of English is that the only way to be animate, to be worthy of respect and moral concern, is to be a human. A language teacher I know explained that grammar is just the way we chart relationships in language. Maybe it also reflects our relationships with each other. Maybe a grammar of animacy could lead us to whole new ways of living in the world, other species a sovereign people, a world with a democracy of species, not a tyranny of one—with moral responsibility to water and wolves, and with a legal system that recognizes the standing of other species. It’s all in the pronouns. Any is right. Learning the grammar of animacy could well be a restraint on our mindless exploitation of land. But there is more to it. I have heard our elders give advice like “You should go among the standing people” or “Go spend some time with those Beaver people.” They remind us of the capacity of others as our teachers, as holders of knowledge, as guides. Imagine walking through a richly inhabited world of Birch people, Bear people, Rock people, beings we think of and therefore speak of as persons worthy of our respect, of inclusion in a peopled world. We Americans are reluctant to learn a foreign language of our own species, let alone another species. But imagine the possibilities. Imagine the access we would have to different perspectives, possibilities, the things we might see through other eyes, the wisdom that surrounds us. We don’t have to figure out everything by ourselves: there are intelligences other than our own, teachers all around us. Imagine how much less lonely the world would be. Every word I learn comes with a breath of gratitude for our elders who have kept this language alive and passed along its poetry. I still struggle mightily with verbs, can hardly speak at all, and I’m still most adept with only kindergarten vocabulary. But I like that in the morning I can go for my walk around the meadow greeting neighbors by name. When Crow caws at me from the hedgerow, I can call back Mno gizhget andushukwe! I can brush my hand over the soft grasses and murmur Bozho mishkos. It’s a small thing, but it makes me happy. I’m not advocating that we all learn Potawatomi or Hopi or Seminole, even if we could. Immigrants came to these shores bearing a legacy of languages, all to be cherished. But to become native to the place, if we are to survive here, and our neighbors too, our work is to learn to speak the grammar of animacy, so that we might truly be at home. I remember the words of Bill Tall Bull, a Cheyenne elder. As a young person, I spoke to him with a heavy heart, lamenting that I had no native language with which to speak to the plants and the places that I love. “They love to hear the old language,” he said, “it’s true.” “But,” he said, with fingers on his lips, “You don’t have to speak it here.” “if you speak it here,” he said, patting his chest, “They will hear you.”

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Research Essay: Why Do We Garden? (200 Points) Length: 8-10 pages Check Canvas for Due Dates The Task: Craft a thesis that explores and addresses the connections between the following questions: (1) What is a garden (in other words—what makes a garden a garden, what defines it)? (2) Why do we garden (what are we looking for in the art-- the pastime, the pleasure, the challenge, the satisfaction, the escape, the sanctuary-- of gardening)? Please note that it is absolutely essential that you specifically and thoroughly address and respond to these questions in your essay. In other words, your essay must provide possible answers to BOTH of these questions and show the inherent link between them. If you do not do this or you only do so vaguely, you will not have fulfilled the task. Quick List of Assignments Required for the Project (Due Dates for Each Can Be Found on Canvas) (1) Online Library Skills Workshops (See Canvas for schedule, links and due dates – Upload Badges to Canvas) (2) Garden Visits (5 points)  Upload to Canvas (3) Garden Supply Stores Visits (5 points)  Upload to Canvas (4) Interviews (5 points)  Upload to Canvas (5) Prospectus (5 points)  Upload to Canvas (7) Annotated Bibliography (10 points)  Upload to Canvas (8) Final Draft (200 points)  Upload to Canvas Many of you more than likely have little or no experience with gardening. This is precisely why you will need to research what gardens are and why many choose to garden (and why many choose to stop gardening). Please keep in mind that you may not end up using all of your research. The advantage of completing all of these tasks is that they will help you to better understand what a garden is and why people garden. To best familiarize you with gardening and prepare you for writing this research essay, you must complete the following steps. Step 1. Completing the Online Library Tutorials: Failure to complete them will result in a loss of your entire participation grade (25 points). The required workshops are listed on Canvas, where you will also find a link to the library website where the tutorials are offered (as well as links to upload your badges that prove you completed the workshop). Step 2. Garden Visits: Visit a minimum of two “kinds” of gardens (a public garden, a friend or acquaintance’s garden, a community garden, your own garden, a radically different kind of garden). As you visit these places, take notes about your observations and ask yourself, based on what you observe, “what a garden is” and “why we garden.” Then write a 3-page informal narrative (basically a free write) that explains how what you saw helps you address these questions (and provide some possible answers). The more detailed and informative your discussion, the more points you will receive. Your task is to begin writing your thoughts about how to answer these questions. Double spaced. Check Canvas for due date. (10 pts) Step 3. Garden Supply Store Visit: Visit at least one store that sell plants and gardening supplies (e.g. Sloat Garden Center, Home Depot, Orchard Supply Hardware, a local nursery). As you visit this store (or these stores), take notes about your observations and ask yourself, based on what you observe, “what a garden is” and “why we garden.” Then write a 3-page informal narrative (basically a free write) that explains how what you saw helps you address these questions (and provide some possible answers). For this assignment, also include what you learned from visiting the two different gardens and how visiting a garden supply store has contributed to your further understanding of these questions. Double spaced. Check Canvas for the due date. (10 pts) Step 4. Interviews: Interview at least three people and ask them “what a garden is” and “why we garden”—as well as any other questions that you think will be relevant to your research. Note: try and talk to people who have gardens or gardening experience. (Hint: interview people at the gardens and garden supply stores that you visit; you can even interview me if you wish!). Then write a 3-page informal narrative (basically a free write) that explains how the answers to your interview questions help you address those questions. For this assignment, also include what you learned from visiting the two different gardens and a garden supply store and how these interviews have contributed to your further understanding of these questions. Double-spaced. Check Canvas for due date. (10 pts)

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Step 5. The Prospectus: Sit down and prepare a prospectus that outlines what you intend to research/ write about. Your prospectus should introduce your basic working thesis, the research you intend to pursue, and the basic outline of how you plan to present it. You should already be coming to some conclusions about “what a garden is” & “why we garden” so that you will have something specific to explore. Check Canvas for due date. (5 pts)  You are not bound to your prospectus. You are allowed to change your mind. However, if you do change your mind / direction significantly, please submit a new prospectus for my approval.  Your prospectus must be more specific than, “I plan to do research and find out why people garden and what a garden is.” I am looking for the specific direction and an outline of at least several things you wish to research. Step 6. Do Your Research Keeping in mind your specific focus, research everything you can about (A) Gardens (e.g. their history, practices, garden styles) (B) Reasons why people garden (e.g. spiritual, practical, relaxation, challenges, etc.) (C) The specific direction you have chosen to research Note: You are required to use and quote William Fitzgerald’s “The Impermanence of Order,” Jim Nollman’s “The How-To Garden,” and Michael Pollan’s “Gardening Means War.” Note: You must find and use a minimum of six additional sources. Two of those sources may come from Internet sites, but the other four must come from printed sources. However, if your source was originally a printed source but has since been stored electronically online, then you may use that source (for example, articles, essays or books found through an online database). Note: The best approach for a research project is to gather more information than you need for the essay. Your goal is to find a substantial amount of research to draw from while writing your essay. Also keep in mind, that you will not necessarily find sources that specifically address these questions. You will need to process and think critically about the information you find and ask yourself how your research can help you address the questions of what a garden is and why we do it. Note: As you work on your research, you don’t need to know exactly what you are going to write about, but you should have a general goal. Think of the research portion of this essay as an opportunity to let your experiences and observations help you figure out what you later want to write about. However, everything you gather and think about should be focused on answering the questions put forth in this prompt: “what a garden is” and “why we garden.” Step 8. Annotated Bibliography: List the sources you will be using for your essay. Do not number the sources. You must follow all the MLA formatting rules for biographical citations (see the course reader for correct formatting and a sample annotated bibliography). Check Canvas for the due date. 10pts.  Below each citation, you must provide a short summary of what, overall, the source is about and how you intend

to use that source. Your summary must be very, very, very specific. I am not looking for generalizations. Make sure that the summary of the source is on a different line than the citation itself (refer to the sample annotated bibliography in the course reader).

 Remember: you need a total of 9 sources: (1) Michael Pollan’s “Gardening Means War,” (2) William Fitzgerald’s “The Impermanence of Order,” and (3) Jim Nollman’s “The How-To Garden” PLUS six additional sources that you find via research.

 Of those six additional sources, two may come from Internet sites, but the other four must come from printed sources. However, if your source was originally a printed source but has since been stored electronically online, then you may use that source (for example, articles, essays or books found through an online database).

 For the articles in this course reader, use this reader as your source (use the page numbers from this reader). For example (note the exact formatting):

Fitzgerald, William. “The Impermanence of Order: The True Nature of Gardens.” English 1A Course Reader. Edited by Nathan Wirth, Nathan’s Mind Inc., 2019.

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Things That You Must Do/Remember (Check this List Before You Are Ready to Upload Your Final Draft) 1) Your essay must follow the requirements listed in this prompt and respond to the questions asked in the task

(What is a Garden? / Why do we Garden?). If you go way off topic or do not address the questions, your essay will not be successful.

2) Important: this is not an essay about your experiences visiting gardens and stores to gather information; rather,

it is an essay that explains what a garden is and why we garden— nor is it a personal essay about why you like or don't like gardening (or even what you, personally, think about gardening). To that end, you are not allowed to use “I” in the essay (or “you”).

3) As we will have discussed in class, your essay is not a dumping ground for quotations. Keep in mind our discussions about using research to meaningfully contribute to the discussion in your essay (use your sources to support points, to address ideas and possibilities, to provide valuable insights for answering these questions, etc.). Remember our class discussions about providing context for the sources that you use. Many students, over the years, have told me in their process letters that they struggled to find sources that agree with and/or support their ideas and points. This is not the correct approach to a research essay. You are supposed to learn from your research; in other words, your research should lead you to new insights and help you shape your responses to these questions.

4) You must write a minimum of eight full, complete pages and no more than twelve. Essays that do not reach the

required minimum might receive less points and / or not receive a passing grade. 5) You must include a formal, properly formatted works cited page (do not use your annotated bibliography).

Make sure that you also follow all of the proper MLA formatting for in-text citations. If you have many MLA errors and / or no works cited page, I will have to reduce your grade, so make sure that you take the time to properly format your in-text citations / works cited page.

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SAMPLE PROSPECTUS Miley Cyrus

English 1A

Prospectus for Gardening Research Paper

Prospectus

I am going to explore the idea that a garden only maintains its shape as long as one does the upkeep. This

reality, in my opinion, defines a garden. No matter what kind of design one chooses, that design will only last if

you do the work necessary to preserve it. Furthermore, I want to explore the idea that many of us garden because

we love the challenge of that upkeep. Many of us also garden because even though it is very hard work, we find it

peaceful and rewarding—even spiritual.

In order to explore these ideas, I plan to research several different kinds of gardens.

(1) The formal English garden.

(2) The Zen Garden

(3) Natural Gardens

(4) Guerilla Gardening

By looking at the differences between these garden styles, I plan to discuss how the different designs and

approaches reveal the various ways we shape the garden. These gardens range from rigid designs to random seed

dispersion, but all of them reflect the intention and desire of the “gardener.” Why does the gardener wish to

pursue any of these? What satisfaction does she get from all the hard work? Finding answers to these questions

should help me better understand how these different styles appeal to different people. Furthermore, I plan to

explore how these designs help us to understand what a garden is— and how these designs reflect our desire to

“control” and “shape” nature (knowing full well that it will last only as long as we put the work in).

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SAMPLE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY (Follow the Formatting EXACTLY) Miley Cyrus English 1A Annotated Bibliography for Gardening Research Paper

Kunitz, Stanley. The Wild Braid: A Poet Reflects on a Century in the Garden. Norton, 2005.

Kunitz’s book explores his love for gardening and how it has shaped his attention to poetry. His

book reflects the gardener who has become very old and knows that he will soon die and that his

garden will not likely last once he is gone. I plan to use this to help support the spiritual benefits

of gardening.

Pollan, Michael. Second Nature: A Gardener’s Education. Grove, 1991. Pollan explores the gardener’s

almost intimate relationship with nature. The various essays in the book reflect his successes

and his many failures with gardening. He considers the ways that the garden permits us to study

wilderness while at the same time admitting the folly of our desire to control it. I think Pollan’s

book will be very useful for supporting my discussions about the gardener’s desire to control

nature—and the likely inevitably that we will ultimately fail.

Yamaguchi, Akira. “The Essence of Nature and Spirit in the Placing of Stones.” Sacred Space: The Art of

the Zen Garden. Vintage, 1978. Yamaguchi discusses the spiritual aesthetics of the Zen garden by

exploring how it reflects nature. I plan to use this source to show that even though the rock

garden typically has few or no plants, it requires a significant amount of maintenance.

Furthermore, the typical Zen gardener continually changes and moves around the elements of

the garden while also accepting that nature will inevitably undo his patterns and designs.

Spiritual at their core, these gardens reflect a gardener’s perception of nature.

Zucher, Brown. “The Free Form Garden: Beyond Tradition.” Gardening, 24 Jan 72, pp 29-38.

Throughout much of the article, Zucher argues that the free form garden offers the perfect

opportunity for someone to watch nature freely form in the confines of the garden, but he also

recognizes that even though this kind of garden is random, it still reflects some kind of intention

by the gardener. I think this will be very helpful for my thesis that gardening is very significantly

bound to the intent of the gardener.

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Sample Outline for Research Essay I. Introduction (could be more than one paragraph)

A. Establish the questions 1. What is a garden? and Why do we garden? B. Ponder possible answers

1. The idea is to possible ways that we might consider what a garden is and why we do it C. Thesis: Your specific response to the questions (DO NOT USE … People garden for many different reasons and gardens mean different things to different people or In this essay I will explore the different ways / reasons, etc. INSTEAD, BE SPECIFIC ... MAKE A CLAIM)

II. Rose Gardens (could easily be more than one paragraph) A. Provide a transition from the introduction / thesis that shows / explains to your reader why considering different

garden styles will help answer these questions. B. Describe, specifically, what a rose garden is

1. What are its various elements? a) Order? / Structure? / Formal?

2. Rules / Requirements C. Why do people choose to cultivate a rose garden?

1. This should be various things – each of which helps to explain why / what D. Your conclusions about how your discussion of a rose garden answers the questions why people garden / what a

garden is.

III. Natural Gardens (could easily be more than one paragraph) A. Provide a transition from the previous paragraph(s) about Rose Gardens. Something that picks up off of the

conclusion about what makes a rose garden a rose garden and how this relates to why people garden / what a garden is.

B. Describe, specifically, what a natural garden is 1. What are its various elements?

a) Order? / Structure? / Formal? 2. Rules / Requirements

C. Why do people choose to cultivate a natural garden as opposed to a more traditional garden? 1. This should be various things – each of which helps to explain why / what

D. Your conclusions about how your discussion of a natural garden design answers the questions why people garden / what a garden is.

IV. You should draw some conclusions about how your discussion of the two garden forms so far helps us to understand what a garden is and why we garden. Think of this as an opportunity to give relevance to your discussions of the two garden forms.

A. Take some time to consider how they are different but only do this so that you can consider what is similar about them.

B. From these conclusions, transition into the next garden form. V. Zen Gardens (could easily be more than one paragraph)

A. Provide a transition from the previous paragraph to this third garden style. How is it different from the other two – but is still similar and how does it help us to understand why people garden / what a garden is.

B. Describe, specifically, what a Zen garden is 1. What are its various elements?

i. Order? / Structure? / Formal? / symbolism? 2. Rules / Requirements

C. Why do people choose to cultivate a Zen garden? 1. This should be various things – each of which helps to explain why / what

D. Your conclusions about how your discussion of a Zen garden answers the questions why people garden / what a garden is.

VI. Conclusion (could easily be more than one paragraph)

A. What the various styles / forms considered together tell us about what a garden is 1. How those differences still help us to understand how / why / what 2. How, despite their differences they all help us to understand how/ why / what

B. What, ultimately, are your responses to the questions? 1. What is a garden? 2. Why do people garden?

Please keep in mind that this is only an example, one that serves the purpose of providing a means for discussion about structure / transitions / etc. There are many different ways that you could organize / discuss / research / consider your responses to the task set forth in the essay prompt. In other words, you can use this outline, but you are not required to follow this direction.

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The Impermanence of Order: The True Nature of Gardens by William Fitzgerald

Gardening is not a rational act. - Margaret Atwood -

The earliest evidence of gardening takes civilization back to the symmetrical rows of acacia and

palms found in 15th century B.C. Egyptian tomb paintings; in fact, even the most perfunctory survey of gardening throughout its long history reveals an attention to symmetry— a conclusion that suggests a significant element of gardening is grounded in the aesthetic and practical desire to bring order to things. The poet Stanley Kunitz wrote that “the garden is a domestication of the wild, taking what can be random and, to a degree, ordering it so that it is not merely a transference from the wild” (13). Kunitz’s observation emphasizes that gardening is not just a happenstance practice of transferring a perennial, a shrub, or a tree from one part of nature to another, but, rather, a planned act— one that reminds us that this ordering can only be accomplished “to a degree,” that the design, the shape, of a garden can be as formal as the gardens of Versailles or as haphazard as randomly disseminating seeds into a backyard and waiting to see what happens. In other words, even the most disorganized, seemingly random garden reflects some form of human instrumentality, some act of creation. As a result, gardens— like almost any creative endeavor— represent and reflect the human struggle to bring harmony to disorder, that order, in this case, being the manipulation of nature. This is, perhaps, what most significantly differentiates the garden from the wild. Indeed, in the end, the gardener, wishing, perhaps, to play God, to be a creator, imposes his own sense of order onto a world of randomness, but that same world will reclaim any effort he has made to shape it as soon as he loses interest in the back-breaking labor it takes to sustain that often creative imposition.

Anyone who wants to create a garden has a plan, some kind of design— even those who want to develop something decidedly un-garden-like. Indeed, even the goal of making a garden as “un-gardenly” as possible requires at least some thought, some purposeful act. Most gardeners, however, have a specific design in mind, and typically both the seasoned and would-be gardener shapes their patch of land in organized clusters of rows, circles, rectangles, triangles and squares. Humans tend to be naturally drawn to the beauty of symmetry, and while one might argue that the symmetry of a garden stands in direct contrast to the randomness of the wild, making it almost the opposite of what nature intends, such an observation fails to recognize how we see nature. At the very least, if one looks more closely, one sees such beauty and balance in the shape of a leaf, in the curve of a trunk, in a splash of color, and even in the fragmented oval shape of a pond of water after heavy rainfall. The symmetry we so relish comes from nature itself, from those places and moments where the shapes and curves of mountains, rivers, and trees seem almost planned by human intervention or a benevolent being that shares our love for the potential harmony of order. But it is equally important to recognize that even though we first recognized this sense of symmetry in nature, we, through the language of experience, impose our sense of symmetry onto nature. A shrub does not know it grows in a conical shape, or that it spreads across the ground like a carpet, nor does a flower know that it has a bulbous shape or that its oval splotches of purple balance perfectly with its white petals. These observations, as well as our language of understanding them as such, belong only to us— and the garden, in a sense, reflects our desire to recreate that same symmetry however we see fit.

So, on the one hand, the design of a garden reflects the way we see nature, but, on the other, it is entirely an illusion. A garden only retains the shape that we impose on it for as long as we are willing to sustain that imposition. One might take this thought a step further, as Michael Pollan does in his book Second Nature, and recognize that nature will eventually reclaim anything that we create. As he takes a walk in the woods near his house, Pollan, who is in a battle with the inevitable forces of animals and pests that want to eat the vegetation of his garden, realizes that “every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed— all was done to slow the advance of the forest” (46). Pollan comes to this conclusion after he discovers that these woods have reclaimed what used to be an agricultural village— and through this experience he realizes that the forest is what is normal, and that “the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens” are an “ecological vacuum that nature will not abide for long” (46). Indeed, if nature itself is a constant reminder of the impermanence of things, then the garden serves as a profound reminder that any human attempt to force purpose or design upon it only ends in its eventual reclamation.

If nature is an inevitable force of reclamation, then how does one stall this affront long enough to sustain the aesthetic shape of the garden—no matter how illusionary and impermanent it may be? The obvious answer should be: through hard, back breaking work. Indeed, the design and purpose of nature,

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if we choose to anthropomorphize it as such, is to grow, evolve and survive, a process that consumes and recycles everything in its path. Nature is not concerned about death or destruction or preservation. Death, destruction, famine, floods, fire, and extinction are nature— just as aphids, snails, gophers and blights are nature. Such forces are, after all, merely doing what they do. We, in the end, are the ones that are working against the natural flow of things. Pollan suggests that a garden is “a place that is at once of nature and unapologetically set against it,” an observation that cautions the gardener to be aware he is cultivating something impermanent (53). The poet Robert Frost once famously wrote, in his poem “Nothing Gold Can Stay,” that “Nature’s first green is gold / Her hardest hue to hold” (1-2). Frost’s poem reveals the melancholy beauty of the transience of nature, and life itself, through these fleeting flashes of brilliance found in the first budding leaves of early spring, which begin to fade as soon as they have opened. The gardener lives for those mere hours before “leaf subsides to leaf,” and knows that the measure of the seasons brings blistering cold, searing heat, flooding rains and generous measures of light and life-giving drops of rain. Eleanor Perényi, in her book Green Thoughts, cautions that “the seasons can’t be rushed, or halted” (68). The would-be gardener who does not understand these subtleties soon learns that he must learn them because— if one wants to play god and shape their own slice of nature— there are rules, rules that even the seasoned gardener looking for a risk or two cannot always overcome.

One might argue that nature, in all of its randomness, has no rules or that, even if it does have them, those rules often change on a whim, but when one imposes design, shape, and symmetry onto nature, one, as Pollan suggests, is doing something that is “unapologetically set against” nature (46). In other words, if one seeks the beauty found in the folds of a rose, one must realize that (a) one will not be rewarded with those fragrant swirls of petals until the summer and (b) one should not plant a rose in a rainy climate because the moisture will lead to mildewed leaves. If a gardener loves the brilliant explosion of leafless flowers on a cherry tree, he will only witness them in the early weeks of spring. If a gardener wants a beautiful showy garden of petunias, violets, zinnias, snapdragons and daisies he cannot plant them in the sand outside a beach house. And, perhaps most importantly, whatever a gardener wants in a garden, it will not survive without water— which often means he must bring the water to the garden (as well as sometimes having to figure out a way to channel the excess water out of the garden). In the “real world” of nature, plants develop to particular kinds of soil, frequencies of rainfall, and exposure to light— so one might well think that all one needs to do is to choose the plants that best match the soil and climate of one’s little patch of earth. Many gardeners, however, often want what they want when they want it and where they want it, so, if one wishes to experiment, one must know at least something about each plant’s limitations.

And where does one find this knowledge: books, magazines, websites, garden nurseries, friends who garden, professional gardeners? All these equally helpful sources are part of a culture’s folklore, a rich history of tips and methods culled from centuries of gardening. As Noel Kingsbury, author of The New Perennial Garden, points out, whatever “the exact nature of a particular natural garden” might be, “it is almost inevitably managed in some way; in other words, it is still a cultural artifact” (102). Kingsbury is writing specifically about the natural garden, a style of gardening that involves much less human intervention than more formal gardens, but his observation applies to all gardens. In other words, anyone who gardens takes part in a cultural act that has a long and varied tradition— regardless of whether they are planting a small vegetable patch, creating the splashes of color found in a cottage garden, or planting flowers and trees in plastic tubs in a back alley in a poor neighborhood— a tradition that stretches even further back than those 15th Century B.C. Egyptian tomb painting and as far forward as gardens created by the homeless in New York slums.

In his book Gardens: An Essay on the Human Condition, Robert Pogue Harrison, an Italian literature professor at Stanford University, writes about his fascination with these New York slum gardens, which are made up of objects and items found in the streets, things that might be thought of as garbage by most. What fascinates him, however, is not the fact that this kind of garden stretches our idea of what a garden is or can be, but that it asks questions about what motivates these people, who have virtually nothing, to spend so much of their time and effort finding and arranging items when none of it helps them with the basics of surviving (42). At the very least, they are motivated, as most gardeners are, to create, to “express, fashion and beautify,” a kind of self-expression that Harrison reminds us is “a basic human urge” (42). This spark of creativity, this desire to create, to design, to shape, is part of what sets gardening apart from farming. Indeed, no one actually knows which came first, but conventional theories suggest that gardening is either a creative response to farming or a kind of prototype for agriculture. Harrison, however, argues that one could just as easily recognize that the earliest primitive gardens were created for ritual purposes, citing the “fundamental” craving “in human beings to transfigure reality, to adorn it with costume and illusion, and thereby to respiritualize our experience of it” (40). Harrison’s

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observation reminds us that the garden can be a cultural expression of art, one that not only reflects the creativity, skills, and vision of its creator, but also the visitor’s appreciation of and desire for beauty, symmetry, and harmony. And it is this creative spark that often draws both creator and appreciator to the garden.

Even a superficial consideration of writings about gardening reveals that many gardeners and garden visitors are looking for such seemingly disparate experiences as escape, solitude, purpose, peace, spiritual grounding, pride, privacy, control, blessings, freedom, self-expression, silence, and a communal relationship with nature. All of these suggest something entirely self-absorbed about the experience of either creating or visiting a garden. We often want to be alone with our thoughts as we soak in the beauty or to escape from our worries as we bury ourselves in the labor of cultivation. Indeed, many gardeners simply want the escape from their daily lives and obligations and, instead, embrace the opportunity to be alone with soiled hands and knees. However, many people have a garden simply because they want to impress others, some even hoping to earn bragging rights. In this light, many gardeners strive not only for their own sense of perfection but what they think others see as perfection. Often this need to “show off” applies to those who hire gardeners and designers to create something for them. Indeed, gardening is not for the lazy, for it requires constant maintenance and many are unwilling or unable to commit to such an enterprise. Anyone who has tried to plant a garden and then given up can attest to both the frustration and inevitability of how easily and quickly plants and shrubs resist your will to shape them to your vision. Perhaps even more curious is the fact that many home owners feel culturally obligated to have a garden because that is what is expected of a homeowner (many neighborhood associations even require homeowners to have a well-kept, well-manicured garden lawn in front of their homes). In the end, the reasons for planting and creating one, or simply having it all done by someone else, are as varied as the many different styles of gardens and flora to choose from.

So, why then do people garden? Whatever the exact answer to that question might be, its possible answers are inextricably bound to what makes a garden a garden, a question that also has a myriad of possible answers. At the very least, gardening continues to be as popular as ever, evidenced by the multi-billion-dollar industry that has grown around it, a thriving industry that offers the tools, materials, and cultural expectations that every seasoned and newbie gardener could ever possibly need. Furthermore, every style, every garden form, has its own jargon, its own books, its own tools, its own styles. For example, a traditional English garden features very formal elements such as a graveled walkway, a birdbath or gazebo, and organized beds of flowers. The traditional rose garden showcases one’s favorite, prize roses in order to highlight their various colorful and fragrant qualities. In fact, many gardens simply highlight various colors and fragrances and various shapes and symmetries organized to be visually appealing— sometimes very symmetrically and other times somewhat haphazardly. Some gardeners specifically design their creations to attract desired visitors such as hummingbirds and butterflies. Some disperse seeds with reckless abandon and wait to see what springs from the ground. Some people grow food. Some only garden in containers placed on apartment decks because they have no other space. Others garden inside, bringing tropical plants into their various rooms. Others turn to decidedly very un-garden-like styles such as Zen gardens, which typically eschew plants in favor of organized rocks and raked patterns in the sand that, symbolically, reflect the forces and shapes of the larger natural world. One can even see something very gardenlike in a single bonsai, a miniature tree that has been carefully shaped and cultivated in a small pot or tray.

Gardens also stretch beyond the cultivators and designers to the garden visitor, thus allowing one to include public parks, which people can wander around in or simply sit and relax, and community gardens, which provide urban gardeners with no space of their own to plant food and flowers. Many prisons have gardening programs so that inmates can learn the value and satisfaction of hard work while also producing something they can eat (also serving as a system to reward good behavior). Guerilla gardeners sneak into private property, often abandoned, and plant a garden as a political statement that seeks to question the neglect and misuse of that property. Each of these— even though they take us away from the garden as a home-based endeavor— are still bound to ideas of cultivation, order, and intent, three very specific elements that clearly help us to understand what a garden is and why so many do it. Indeed, to cultivate is to work and prepare the land, which both gardeners and farmers do. Indeed, to plant is to labor. Both farmers and gardeners order, or organize, the plants; however, farmers tend to limit such organization to even rows so that they can easily harvest their crops. Consequently, even though farms are bound to a kind of symmetry, the intent of such order and structure is purely to yield a product for profit in the most efficient way possible. Gardeners, on the other hand, typically seek symmetry as a creative act, one that can be bound to an artistic-like vision or simply just the desire to plant something of one’s own, to create something from seemingly nothing. In the end, one can argue

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incessantly about whether gardens and farms are really all that different, neither side of the argument ever offering anything entirely conclusive or undebatable. Nevertheless, much of gardening is bound to aesthetics and personal satisfaction and goals— and on a dramatically smaller scale than farming, which is far more associated with commercial activity practiced on large tracts of land. If we boil down everything discussed in this essay, we see that the typical gardener seeks something personal— the typical garden occupying a limited space that is manipulated and ordered to some specific end. And while the circumstances and intentions are as varied as the possible styles and approaches, all of them are bound to some form of expression or purpose, one that often fulfills a specific goal or vision.

So, ultimately, what exactly is a garden? Is it merely a matter of: it all depends on what one cultivates, where one cultivates, how one cultivates, and why one cultivates? Simply stated: a garden can be planted for various reasons, cultivated and ordered in a variety of styles, but all of it, in the end, is merely an illusion of order imposed on the chaos of nature, for no matter how or why or what one plants, such an imposition of structure and order can only last if one invests the time and work into cultivating such an illusion. This, however, does little to stop anyone who wishes to garden from gardening, for such is the very essence of all gardens and the act of gardening itself. In fact, if one wished to be so bold, one might very well conclude that the act of cultivating something that cannot, ultimately, last— something that is inevitably fated to one day be reclaimed by the very nature that a garden reflects, something whose success is subject to the whims and stresses of our busy lives— curiously mirrors the very fact of the impermanence of our own lives. Therefore, one might conclude that we garden because we wish to shape our surroundings for as long as we remain alive.

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Basic Outline of “The Impermanence of Order” (What is a Garden? | Why do we garden?) I. Introduction Question(s) Addressed A. Gardens have been bound to symmetry since their inception What is a Garden? 1. Symmetry comes from appreciation of / the desire to organize things What is a Garden? B. Symmetry is designed What is a Garden? 1. Such design is related to our desire to create Why do we garden? 2. Symmetry is related to our desire to bring harmony to dis order Why do we garden? Thesis: By gardening, we impose order on that which cannot retain order. Both questions. Note: The first paragraph introduces the reader to the main focus of the essay: that gardens, in general, are creative expressions of symmetry and order in the face of the reality that this order is imposed and will not last unless one does the necessary upkeep to sustain that shape, that imposition. Moreover, gardeners wish to bring harmony to disorder--all of which serves as an introduction to not only the overall essay and eventual conclusion but also, quite specificall, in this paragraph, the thesis. (This is the real purpose of an introduction). --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II. Garden Design and Symmetry Question(s) Addressed A. All gardeners have a design / plan What is a Garden? B. Symmetry comes from nature What is a Garden? C. We recreate that symmetry found in nature What is a Garden? Note: The first body paragraph builds off the thesis and introduction by furthering the discussion about how most gardens are based on designs … and that many of those designs are based in symmetry, which comes from our perceptions, fully realized or not, of the shapes found in nature. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- III. Garden Design / Shape is an Illusion Question(s) Addressed A. Shape is only retained if we do the upkeep What is a Garden? B. Pollan story about Dudleytown What is a Garden? 1. Illustrates how nature reclaims anything we design / plant What is a Garden? Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by transitioning into the fundamental fact that the imposed shape and design of a garden will only last as long as its upkeep. Pollan’s story of encountering Dudleytown illustrates this point, followed by an explanation for why that illustration is relevant. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- IV. Maintaining the Shape / Design Question(s) Addressed A. One needs to do the necessary upkeep What is a Garden? B. Nature is always trying to reclaim through its agents of reclamation What is a Garden? ? C. Frost poem reveals nothing lasts / everything is impermanent What is a Garden? D. To keep shape, one must follow the rules What is a Garden? Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by exploring how nature continually seeks to reclaim anything we plant or create. The Frost poem serves as an illustration for the impermanence of all things. One must, therefore, know the rules in order to keep the illusion of shape / order. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- V. The Importance of the Rules of Gardening Question(s) Addressed A. A Garden goes against the rules of nature What is a Garden? B. Examples of rules that must be followed (growing requirements/water) What is a Garden? C. Necessity of knowing the rules What is a Garden? Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by building off of that necessity for knowing the rules by illustrating some of the rules of gardening and why it is necessary to know them. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- VI. The Culture and Knowledge of Gardening Question(s) Addressed A. Gardening knowledge can be found in a variety of places What is a Garden? B. Gardening and the knowledge of it are part of culture What is a Garden? C. It is a cultural act that stretches over time What is a Garden? 1. Goes back to Egyptian tomb paintings of early gardens What is a Garden? 2. And stretches forward to slum gardens, which are quite un-gardenlike What is a Garden?

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Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by illustrating some of the sources for where one can acquire the knowledge of those rules and then transitioning into a discussion of how all those sources are bound to culture (thus showing that gardening—even the most un-garden-like forms— is, by its very nature, a cultural act). See Next Page --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- VII. The Creative Impulse of Gardening Question(s) Addressed A. Harrison considers slum gardens (an illustration) What is a Garden? 1. They are very un-gardenlike What is a Garden? 2. They reflect the need to express creativity Why do we garden? B. Creativity is an essential part of why we garden Why do we garden? Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by picking up from the previous paragraph’s discussion of slum gardens. Harrison’s discussion of slum gardens illustrates the fact that most gardens are born from a desire to create, to express. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- VIII. Many Reasons for Why People Garden Question(s) Addressed A. List of experiences / needs that gardeners and garden visitors seek to fulfill Why do we garden? B. People, in the end, garden for many reasons Why do we garden? Note: This paragraph connects to the previous paragraph by building off the need to express and offering a series of illustrations that offer a myriad of possible reasons / emotions / experiences and desires for why people garden. The paragraph more or less ends the body paragraphs by concluding that the reasons for why people garden are many (which paves the way for the concluding paragraphs to consider possible answers to the question more deeply). Please note this serves as a way to dig deeper into the question and not to just say that there are many reasons and be done with it. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- IX. Conclusion Begins – Why People Garden Bound to What a Garden Is Question(s) Addressed A. The answer to why people garden is bound to what a garden is Both questions. B. Multibillion dollar industry serves the needs of those who wish to do it Both questions. C. Different garden forms / styles have their own jargon rules Both questions. 1. list of different styles and their goals Both questions. Note: The first conclusion paragraph begins to provide possible answers to the questions by linking them together. After a quick discussion of gardening industry the paragraph then segues into some of the different kinds of gardening styles. [Yes, the conclusion is three paragraphs long. The overall goal of a conclusion is to build off the body paragraphs and come to an actual conclusion about why we garden and what a garden is. A conclusion is not simply a restatement of what you have said; instead, it is what you have been arguing towards for the whole essay. These paragraphs set up the opportunity to consider the commonalities found in the differences, allowing one to show the relationship between gardens and gardening. These paragraph notes clearly show how the body paragraphs are connected—along with their overall line of reasoning] --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- X. More Conclusion: Cultivation / Order / Intent Question(s) Addressed A. Cultivate: How different and similar to farming Both questions. B. Order: How different and similar to farming Both questions. C. Intent: How different and similar to farming Both questions. 1. How intent really differentiates gardening from farming Both questions. D. Cultivation, order, intention all bound to expression, goals, and purpose. Both questions. Note: The second conclusion paragraph transitions from the common garden styles traditional home gardeners follow to the public types so that the commonalities that are shared between all of the garden styles and approaches can be discussed” cultivate, order, and intent. The discussion of these three common elements is presented through a discussion of how farming and gardening are different in order to better demonstrate what makes a garden a garden and why people do it (the overall goal of the entire essay). --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XI. Final Conclusion Question(s) Addressed A. Reconsiders and expands on thesis Both questions. 1. We impose order on that which cannot retain order Both questions. 2. But this does not stop us from doing it anyways Both questions. Note: The final conclusion paragraph reconsiders the initial thesis that a garden is a specific design that we impose and that imposition only lasts as long as we do the work that is necessary to keep that design. This does not stop us from gardening— and this also approach to the impermanence of the garden reflects how we shape our lives in the face f our impermanence.

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Gardening Means War by Michael Pollan I CAME TO THE COUNTRY from the city and brought along many of the city man's easy ideas about the landscape and its inhabitants. One had to do with the problem of pests in the garden, about which I carried the usual set of liberal views. To nuke a garden with insecticide, to level a rifle sight at the back of a woodchuck in flat- footed retreat, to erect an electric barricade around a vegetable patch: such measures struck me as excessive, even irresponsible. Respect for nature's fragility was an article of faith with me. Deploying superior firepower to crush local opposition to my plans for the land seemed a reckless act of environmental imperialism. Besides, these animals had arrived long before the gardener, so who was the interloper? And what was gardening about if not working out a more harmonious relationship with nature? One of gardening's virtues is to clear the mind of easy sentiments about nature in general, and its fauna in particular. The first challenge to your romance of animals comes in April, after you've turned the soil, humped heavy bags of peat moss and manure from the car trunk to the garden, dug these in by pitchfork, and then laid out in scrupulous rows the seedlings of early crops—lettuce, broccoli, cabbage. Do all that, then see how you feel next morning when that orderly parade ground of seedlings has been mowed down by a woodchuck out snacking. It's not just the wasted time, effort and cash. Consider the forlorn appearance of the mowed-down seedlings, neatly snipped off a half-inch above the ground, as if by someone with a pair of scissors and all the time in the world. This is what tells you a woodchuck is responsible: they devour a crop systematically, whereas a deer— nervous, and possessing perhaps a more developed sense of shame—will snip a shoot here and there, and then, startled by a falling leaf or something equally perilous to a 200-pound mammal, will dash off before the meal is done. The woodchuck approaches your plants less as a thief than a relative. He does not worry that you will interrupt his repast, and he fully intends to return tomorrow for seconds. And the gardener will oblige. He is not about to fold his garden in the face of this impertinence. A rodent whose cerebrum could be packed into a thimble might win a battle or two, but finally the war must go to the larger, more developed brain. What is our species doing on this planet if not winning precisely this kind of contest? At least, that's how I saw matters the first time, a year or two ago, when I awoke to the evidence of a predawn April raid on my freshly planted vegetable garden. I thought the problem through, and determined to take the battle to the woodchuck's own territory, I went looking for his burrow. My vegetable garden is laid out on a small, flat lawn that ends at the base of a small slope, which is covered by a tangle of blackberry bushes and a couple of Russian olive trees—perfect cover for a woodchuck burrow, and not five chuck-size paces from the nearest garden row. Woodchucks, nearsighted and slow-footed, prefer to set up house as close to their favorite dining spot as prudence will allow. I whacked at the brush with a machete, and there it was: a large, ugly mouth set into the hillside, with a pile of freshly dug soil arranged beneath it like a fat bottom lip. This woodchuck was not only visiting my garden, he had moved in for the summer. This called for a program of behavior modification. I gathered a half dozen fist-size rocks and squeezed them into the hole. Then I mounded a few shovelfuls of earth on top and stomped on it a few times to jam the rock and earth down into the tunnel. This ought to persuade him to move elsewhere, I thought, with the confidence of someone who understood not the first thing about woodchucks. The next day the hole had yawned open and spit out the rocks and the soil. Hungry from his excavation work, the woodchuck had polished off a fresh row of lettuce seedlings. THE READER MIGHT REASONABLY wonder why I had no fence. I can offer a few practical explanations—expense, building competence—but the real reasons, I suspect, were more visceral. Fences just didn't accord with my view of gardening. A garden should be continuous with the natural landscape, in harmony with its surroundings. The idea that a garden might actually require protection from nature seemed absurd. I had also absorbed the traditional American view that fences were Old World, out of place in the American landscape, a notion that crops up repeatedly in 19th-century American writing about the landscape. Early landscape architects, such as Frank Scott, campaigned tirelessly against the fence, which was considered a feudal holdover from Britain. In 1870, Scott wrote that ''to narrow our own or our neighbor's views of the free graces of Nature'' was selfish and undemocratic. The American prejudice against fences probably has its origins in the first settlers' views of nature. The Puritans saw the American landscape as sacred. The transcendentalists, too, considered nature ''God's second book,'' and taught us to read it for moral instruction. Residues of this view persist. It may be that in nature writing today guilt has taken the rhetorical place of transcendentalist ecstasy, but the essential religiosity remains. Once we accept the landscape as a moral and spiritual space, how can we presume to remake God's landscape? It is one thing to cultivate the earth for our sustenance—the Bible speaks of that—but to do so for

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esthetic reasons has until very recently struck Americans as frivolous, or worse. Even when we plan gardens today, we avoid anything that looks designed or artificial. We favor gardens that resemble natural landscapes, and that leaves little room for fences. MY OWN EFFORTS to design a perennial border that flowed seamlessly into the surrounding landscape met with derision from the local inhabitants, who quickly took advantage of my naive romanticism. The deer feasted on the young day lily and delphinium shoots. The grasses from the meadow have found that so-called hardy perennials are, in fact, pushovers. Instead of the flower border pushing back toward the meadow, the meadow is pushing forward to the house. Without my intervention, the border would not have stood the season. Under the pressure of this many-fronted assault, I have come to understand the distance between naturalists, who gaze benignly on all of nature's operations, and the experienced gardener, who perforce has developed a somewhat less sentimental view. Particularly toward woodchucks. I am not ready to see them banished from the planet altogether—they must have some ecological purpose—but I seriously doubt that news of some form of woodchuck megadeath in this part of the country would put me in an elegiac frame of mind. But in giving up my romantic views of the local fauna, I may have gone overboard in the opposite direction. I tried everything I could think of to eliminate my woodchuck problem, in an escalating series of measures William Westmoreland would have understood. I started with elaborate campaigns of behavior modification—my send-in-a- few-advisers phase, in which I confidently deployed the accumulated wisdom of Western civilization. I had done my reading and learned that woodchucks can't stand getting their fur dirty. Thinking I had located my adversary's Achilles' heel, I introduced a few choice items into his tunnel: a dozen eggs, smashed and dribbled down its side; a jar of molasses; half a can of motor oil; a dead field mouse. And, lastly, a quart of creosote, vile stuff so sticky he'd need his fur steam-cleaned. When this didn't work—evidently, my woodchuck lacked his species' Felix Unger gene—I found myself attracted to less cerebral approaches. It's astonishing, actually, how much anger an animal's infiltration of your garden can incite. I would not, after all, go hungry as a result of his depredations. No, this was no longer about any cool calculations of self-interest. This was about winning. A rifle was out of the question; I've always been afraid of guns, and have never owned one. But I came up with something equally unsentimental: I found a somewhat flattened woodchuck along the highway, scooped it into a crate and brought it home. I hacked the corpse into several pieces and jammed them into the burrow. This amounted to terrorism, I admit. But either he did not get it, or he did not care, because in two days' time he had dug a detour around the corpse and the pillaging resumed. Next, I decided to incinerate the woodchuck in his burrow. I poured maybe a gallon of gasoline down his tunnel, waited a few minutes for it to fan out along the various passageways, and struck a match. Evidently, there was not enough oxygen down there, because the flames shot in the wrong direction—up, toward my face. I leapt back before I was singed too badly, and watched a black-orange fountain of flame flare up toward an olive tree. I managed to smother the fire with earth before the entire garden went up. I guess this was my destroy-the-village-in-order-to-save-it phase. MY BRUSH WITH CONFLAGRATION among the vegetables shocked me out of my Vietnam approach to garden pests before I had a chance to defoliate the neighborhood. I also began to think that there might be more going on here than a cartoonish war between me and a woodchuck. I realized that during a long walk one late afternoon last April in the woods near my house. Most of the land around here is post-agricultural hardwood forest; the farms were abandoned starting around the turn of the century, and the forest has made quick work of reclaiming large parts of the countryside. You might think this oak forest was primordial if not for the stone walls and other lingering signs of one-time cultivation: wolf trees (specimens with broad crowns, signifying they matured in open, uncompetitive spaces); the anomalous bloom of a garden flower, faint plow furrows visible in the snow cover. But on this particular walk I found an even ghostlier set of signs. Following an old logging trail, I came to an area that somehow seemed more ordered than the surrounding woods. On both sides of the trail were stone walls—linear piles, really—marking small rectangular enclosures among the trees. Within each square was a rectangular pit lined with stones: the foundation of a small house. I HAD STUMBLED UPON Dudleytown, an abandoned 19th-century settlement that I had often been told was nearby but had never been able to locate. Traces of former habitation were everywhere, like shadows on the landscape, even though the forest had completely recolonized the area. Oaks, hickories, ash and sycamores had spread out evenly over the village like a blanket, rising up in the former yards and fields and even in the middle of cellar pits, jutting heedlessly through spaces that once had been organized into kitchens and bedrooms, warm spaces that had vibrated with human sounds.

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If you blotted the trees from sight and followed the contours of the land, you could make out the organization of the village. Houses lined a main street. The stone walls marked each family's yard; in some stood gnarled apple trees on their last legs, starved for sunlight by the new forest canopy. A few clumps of day lily survived, along with deep green patches of myrtle and vinca: remnants of dooryard gardens that the forest had failed to defeat. Some yards opened onto what must have been fields or pastures. Stone walls, which had once marked boundaries and kept cows from straying, threaded arbitrary paths through the trees, accomplishing nothing. To the gardener in me, Dudleytown quickly assumed a spectral presence. Every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed—all was done to slow the advance of the forest that had reclaimed Dudleytown. It made me see that the woodchuck was no free-agent pest, snacking strictly on his own account. He labored on behalf of the oncoming forest. Not only the animals, but the insects, the weeds, even the fungi and bacteria, were working together to erase my garden—and after that, my lawn, my driveway, my patio, even my house. My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence. She deploys her various agents to undo our work in the garden. But to what end? Now I grasped her local teleology: Dudleytown. The forest, I now understand, is ''normal''; everything else—the fields and meadows, the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens—is an ecological ''vacuum'' that nature will not abide for long. Here the soil is richest and most frequently turned over. What softer, sweeter, more hospitable bed could an airborne weed seed ever find to lie down on? Other weeds don't even have to find your garden: thousands of their seeds lie dormant in every cubic foot of garden soil, patiently waiting for a pleasing combination of light and moisture so they can move on your plants. And your plants are sitting ducks. Just as cultivated soil constitutes a kind of vacuum in the environment, so do most of the plants grown in it. Most cultivated fruits and vegetables contain nutrients in greater concentration than ordinary plants. They stick out in the natural landscape like rich kids in a tough neighborhood. Enter the animals. The woodchucks and deer are the flora's great levelers, making sure there are no undue concentrations of nutritional wealth in the landscape. They want to redistribute my protein. Should the vertebrates fail to drive me out of my garden, a dozen insect species, each with its own distinctive tactics, will march on my plants in a series of waves beginning in April and unrelenting till frost: cutworms, which saw off seedlings at ground level; aphids, specks of pale green that cluster on the undersides of leaves, sucking the vital fluids; loathsome slugs, naked bullets of flesh that emerge at sunset to travel the garden on their own avenues of slime; and last to arrive, the vast, farflung beetle family, which mounts a massive airborne invasion beginning in midsummer. Like the vertebrates, this exoskeletal mob is drawn by the nutritional extravagance of the vegetable garden, as well as by the fact that most garden plants are nature's weaklings. We breed garden plants for qualities that appeal to us, not ones that might help insure survival. Rather than school them in the martial arts, we enter into a tacit pact with our plants: in exchange for their beauty and utility, we shield them from the horrors of Darwinian struggle. So please don't talk to me about the harmony of gardens and the natural landscape. The forest is so vigorous around here, so well served by its advance guard of animals, bugs and weeds, that a single season of neglect would blast my garden back to meadow; a decade would find the forest licking at my front stoop. And in 50 years: Dudleytown. A cellar pit with a sycamore rising through it. WHAT WAS THE right approach to pests in the garden? How could I halt the advance of Dudleytown without turning my garden into a toxic waste site? These questions quickly led to bigger ones about how we choose to confront the natural landscape. Domination or acquiescence? As developers or naturalists? I no longer think the answers are so obvious. Domination, in suburban or rural terms, means lawn, a demilitarized zone patrolled weekly with a rotary blade. The lawn holds great appeal; it looks sort of natural—it's green, it grows. But, in fact, it represents a subjugation of the forest as utter as a parking lot. Every species is forcibly excluded from the landscape but one, and this is forbidden to grow longer than the owner's little finger. A lawn is nature under totalitarian rule. On the other side is acquiescence: the benign gaze of the naturalist. Certainly, his ethic sounds nice and responsible, but have you ever noticed that the naturalist never tells you where he lives? Unless you live in the city or a tent, the benign gaze is totally impractical—sooner or later it leads to Dudleytown. The trick is somehow to find a middle ground. That is what gardening is, or should be: a midspace between Dudleytown and the parking lot, a place that admits of both nature and human habitation. The choice is not, as Americans often seem to assume, simply between raping the land or sealing it away in a preserve. That the first approach is bankrupt goes without saying. Yet, right as it sounds, the second one is a dead end, too. We need not, like the naturalist, shrink before our own power to alter nature. To renounce that power is

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in some sense to renounce our humanity—our nature, which is no less real than the nature we seem to think exists only out there. Shakespeare's Polixenes has it right in ''The Winter's Tale.'' In response to Perdita, who rejects the hybridized flower as unnatural, he says: ''This is an art/ Which does mend nature—change it rather; but/ The art itself is nature.'' For the gardener, breaking free of the notion that art negates nature is liberating. A promising strategy against pests can begin to take shape. For starters, one can re-examine the American taboo against fences. Fences may offend American ideas about democracy, limitlessness and the landscape's sanctity, but perhaps we need to consider the possibility that their absence offends the idea of a garden. FOR MOST OF HISTORY, people have been making gardens, and most of their gardens have been walled or fenced. ''Garden'' derives from the Old German word for enclosure, and the Oxford English Dictionary definition begins ''an enclosed piece of ground. . . .'' (Compare that to American dictionary definitions, which omit the idea of enclosure.) The long history of gardens, which traverses many very different cultures, suggests that perhaps there is something natural about erecting a wall against the landscape on one side and society's gaze on the other. We number the beaver dam among nature's creations; why not also the garden wall? IT WAS TIME FOR ME to put up a fence. I went with five feet of galvanized steel mesh stretched across posts that had been treated with arsenic to resist rot and then sunk three feet into the earth. The bottom edge of the fence runs a foot underground, to deter tunnelers. It doesn't look at all bad, and even though you can see through the wire mesh, when I close the garden gate behind me I feel as though I've entered a privileged space. But more important, the woodchuck so far respects the fence; the cabbages have reached softball size unmolested. He has not abandoned his burrow, however, and I picture him jealously pacing the garden perimeter at dawn, scheming, looking for an angle. I remain on alert. Now four feet of fence won't impede a doe with snap beans on her mind, but I can take care of that. Six inches above the top of the fence, I'll string a wire that pulses every second with several hundred volts of electric current. I've been told to smear the wire with peanut butter in order to introduce the deer to the unprecedented and memorable sensation of electric shock, after which they should be gone for good. The power will run off a solar panel that sits atop one of the posts, reaching toward the sun like some gigantic high-tech blossom. This last touch strikes me as a nice bit of jujitsu, turning nature's power against a few of her own. Intervening against the insects is not so straightforward; but here, too, there may be an art that ''itself is nature.'' The key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities. Most chemical pesticides represent a crude form of knowledge about insects: that, for example, a powerful chemical, such as malathion, cripples the nervous system of most organisms, so a little of the stuff should kill bugs but (probably) not bigger creatures. Even though this knowledge has been produced by humans wearing lab coats, it is not nearly as sophisticated or precise as the knowledge a ladybug, say, possesses on the subject of aphids. The ladybug is not smart, but she knows one thing exceedingly well: how to catch 40 or 50 aphids every day without hurting anybody else. If you think of evolution as a billion-year-long laboratory experiment, and the gene pool as the store of information accumulated during that experiment, then you realize that nature has far more extensive knowledge about her operations than we do. The trick is to put her knowledge to our purpose in the garden. So far, the only way to harness the ladybug gene for aphid capture is by obtaining whole ladybugs, and this can be done through the mail. For about $10, you can order 3,500 ladybugs from a company that specializes in ''biological controls.'' The ladybugs come in a drawstring pouch that can be kept in the refrigerator; you spoon out the bugs onto the leaves of infested plants. They also sell praying mantis egg cases, which should be sewn onto a tree branch near the garden; when the weather warms in spring, the nymphs emerge, to take up stations on the upper leaves of your plants. Their patience and stillness are extraordinary, as are their reflexes: a praying mantis can snatch flying insects right out of the air. Not all of the biological controls on the market are insects; some are bacteria. You can buy a powder inoculated with Bacillus thuringiensis, for example, and start a plague among the cabbage loopers and other leaf- eating caterpillars without harming anything else. Biological controls won't solve every pest problem—there are still too few controls, for one thing. But the approach holds promise, and suggests what can be accomplished when we learn to exploit nature's self-knowledge and stop thinking of art and technology as being necessarily opposed to nature. For how are we to categorize Bacillus thuringiensis as a form of human intervention in the landscape? Is it technological, or natural? The categories are no longer much help, at least in the garden. I won't know until the end of the season whether I've completely solved my pest problem. But, puttering in my newly fenced garden, watching the mantises standing sentry on the tops of my tomatoes and the ladybugs

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running search-and-destroy missions among the eggplants, I feel a lot more relaxed about it. Though Dudleytown remains over the next hill, I know I can stall its advance for as long as I continue to put my thought and sweat into this patch of land. There are going to be setbacks; gardening is not a once-and-for-all thing. But I think I've drawn a workable border between me and the forest. Could it prove to be a Maginot line? I don't think so—it doesn't depend on the invincibility of technology. Nor does it depend on the benignity of nature. It depends on my acting like a sane human, which is to say as a creature whose nature it is to remake his surroundings and whose culture can guide him on questions of esthetics and ethics. What I'm making here is a middle ground between nature and culture, a place that is at once of nature and unapologetically set against it; what I'm making is a garden.

The How-To Garden by Jim Nollman (from his book Why We Garden)

Although there are many books and courses on the subject of how to garden, ultimately we learn about gardening by doing it. The how-to garden is thus defined as the place we go to encounter our own gardening education. Like the sentient garden, this one is an experiential garden. That is the reason the story of a how- to garden’s planning, digging, and planting is also told most accurately in the first person. Also like the sentient garden, this garden clearly speaks to us, offering counsel in its own good time. Unlike the sentient garden, the how-to garden is rarely a self-conscious garden that persistently focuses our sensibilities upon itself. The how-to garden is more passive, more like a playing field that focuses our sensibilities upon the activity manifested within its borders.

So far, this book has referred to my personal garden only obliquely—as if it were a diving board from which I continually spring off into large notions about a sense of place, paradise, sentience, history, the future, and so on. It now seems an appropriate moment to step off that conceptual diving board to sketch in an experiential biography of one particular how-to garden as told through the eyes of its own pet gardener, namely me.

Because any account of the how-to garden is inevitably strung together from a framework of the first- person voice, its telling occasionally stumbles on the same problems of distancing that confront proud parents discussing their children. Before segueing into this discussion of my own how-to garden, we might all benefit from first considering the strange case of the fictitious botanist Kamikochi Kiyomasa, who ran into his own problem of distancing while studying the equally fictitious flower Anadea taludensis:

Kamikochi decided to take a closer look at the flowers and so started walking towards the hilltop. On the way he realized that something very bizarre was taking place. Unlike what usually happens when we approach an object we have seen from a distance—it gradually appears larger until, when we are near enough to touch it, it assumes its proper dimensions—these plants did not seem to get any bigger as the biologist approached them. When Kamikochi reached the hilltop they turned out to be just as small as they had appeared from a hundred meters away.

I started my garden ten years ago by focusing entirely on masses of colorful annuals. The bigger and brasher the hybrid the better it would look in my brand-new garden. I was the guy standing in front of you in line at the local gardening store juggling ten six-packs of those red-and-white-striped petunias with the blue-and- white mottled rim that spelled out the message “Support our troops.” But seriously, although they provide an instant blaze of bright color, hybrid bedding annuals like petunias and begonias often trumpet a grand statement of impermanence born of gardening inexperience. By the end of that first season gardening on six very wild acres, I watched the petunias and the potted geraniums wither into oblivion and realized that I had planted nothing whatsoever to nurture a deeper connection between myself and this unique place that surrounds me—even though the connection to this place would probably endure through the rest of my life. I sought an enduring garden. There are annuals, and then there are annuals. The term annual simply defines any herbaceous plant that germinates, flowers sets seed, and dies all in one season. This succinct life cycle also signifies that an annual follows a survival strategy that devotes all its energy toward effusive flower production capable of attracting whatever pollinator it needs in order to achieve the goal of generous seed production. As all this oversimplified botany refers to gardening, the primary virtue of any annual is providing an instant splash of color to patch up the tattered spaces in a garden bed.

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Likewise, there are splashes, and there are splashes. Six-packs of so-called improved mixed colors actually means that some marketing person sitting within the bowels of some seed company office has decided to employ the great American advertising gambit of playing on the customer’s vanity by naming something the slightest bit new and unusual as, well improved. It is a word germinated in the very same bed as seed catalogs that describe each of twenty different broccoli varieties as being the best of the best; this fact is ostensibly demonstrated by the glossy inclusion of twenty one-inch-square photographs that look suspiciously like the very same broccoli plant shot from twenty different angles using twenty different lens filters. Improved rarely means “better,” only occasionally means “different,” sometimes means “more” or “larger,” and always means “buy.” It almost always means “hybrid,” going a long way to explain why the seed catalogs lavish so many extra columnar inches promoting them. A hybrid, for the uninitiated gardening penny- pincher, might be defined this way; If we happen to like that pack of “improved mixed colors,” we are going to have to buy another pack of twenty sees at $1.98 next year from that same company, because probably none of the thousand seeds we might have saved from this year’s model will reseed true to form. The parents are different, the underlying genetics don’t equate. Those thousand seeds will germinate, instead, into smaller plants bearing smaller flowers. If we are very lucky, we won’t start cursing the progeny of the hybrids, referring to them as weeds when they start popping up uninvited everywhere we never planted them. We gardeners refer to these uninvited as volunteers. I suppose it is an attempt to put a positive spin on what often amounts to many hours of extra weeding. Mixed is another dubious adjective. Unfortunately, mixed colors of just about anything planted in a garden rarely achieve more than a grand confusion to the eye while trumpeting a lack of clarity by the gardener. Mixed colors sit in the bed as a sampler of the hybridist’s art, a summation of all the possibilities on the same order as those six-packs of cold cereal we buy to decide which flavor we actually like. Planted together, mixed colors treat the garden as a container of tints, and variations on some company’s marketing scheme. At best, they may elicit the collector’s curious emotion of having one of each. If there are annuals and annuals, splashes and splashes, then “improved mixed colors” might best be regarded as the horticultural equivalent to splashing into a kid’s plastic wading pool. The one that was never meant to last beyond one season. Despite the very striking petunias planted at key locations around the perimeter of the house, the flowers that actually held my attention the longest that first summer were the so-called old-fashioned annuals. If improved mixed annuals are the Billboard Top Ten of flowers, the old-fashioneds are the old standards—the ones that have stood the test of time—like purple bachelor’s buttons (Centaurea), yellow calendulas, and the extraordinary, spidery, gray-blue love-in-a-mist (Nigellla). Each of these pieces grew, flowered and set seed without much watering on my part. And today, nearly ten years later, the progeny of those same three standards still grace the edges of several borders. All it takes to ensure their return each year is to grab a handful of seed heads and cast them a bit beyond what the plants are able to muster on their own. Sometimes I forget to do this. And yet, like reruns of “Star Trek,” the “old-fashioned” always return. Like rereading Moby Dick for the tenth time, they still pique my senses all over again. Significantly, the so-called improved species never last, which seems another way of saying that the ability to bond to place is bred right out of them. At the end of my first gardening season, I had also learned the names, favored habitat, and flowering period of several of the tiny wildflower species that flourish at the edge of the woods. I paid close attention to the fact that early dandelions are soon followed in quick succession by pink filarees, followed by calypso orchids, buttercups, chocolate lilies, oral root, camas, and centaury. Roughly in that order. By the following spring I added my first long-term investments in what was still a highly unformed gardening vision: in this instance, the relatively foolproof choices of a red-leafed Japanese maple and a star magnolia. In my ignorance I had thought I was buying trees that would eventually shade a substantial area. What I got was trees the size of shrubs. After nearly ten years, the maple had grown to seven feet tall, and the magnolia barely to six. In another twenty years, I and told, neither should attain more than twice its current height. I have long grown to love both trees, although for reasons a nongardener can hardly hope or appreciate second-hand. The star magnolia’s primary trait is its awesome ability to unfold a lavish spread of the softest white, fragrant, and exceedingly thick-pedaled flowers. Quite honestly, if I did not personally experience my own front walk glowing with the show of those four-inch-wide flowers in early spring and someone chose to slop me a photo of this same tree in full bloom, I might believe the photo to be a practical joke: the canny result of a trickster pinning huge tissue-paper blooms on the branches just to test the limits of my credulity. This floor show of a bloom lasts less than three weeks. It leaves behind a fond memory of the flower’s sweet vanilla fragrance, and occasional out-of-sync bloom in mid-August, and a thickly leaved, two- trunked shrub with otherwise unremarkable characteristics. If the star magnolia had nothing to offer besides a three-week bloom—no matter how spectacular—I would have planted it at the end of some garden cul-de-

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sac, thus precipitation an annual spring pilgrimage just to pay homage to a very special tree in full bloom. But I planted it, instead, right beside the front porch. That’s because I also observe it to be the most hopeful plant in the entire garden (although someone else might continue calling it a trickster). It wins that appellation by virtue of the forty of fifty flower buds that bloom to such excess in April. Those buds start showing themselves way back in September. Its display of swelling buds continues throughout the winter. The general effect on my own state of mind is joyous anticipation. By late January—when almost nothing else in the garden is happening, and the ground is soggy and sometimes frozen, and normal human being can’t seem to put his finger on what the world spring actually refers to – chancing upon those magnolia buds growing slightly larger every day offers a generous ray of hope as well as a grand illusion of all that is to come. By late January, the buds have developed a furry silver casing that makes them look not unlike a hyperthyroid pussy willow. Every bud shouts out that spring is not far away. But it is still only January. Spring seems very far away indeed. And the hopeful magnolia has tricked me again. The Japanese maple achieves an entirely different effect. Whereas the magnolia looks remarkable for a very short time and then transforms into a hopeful trickster for most of the rest of the year, the maple puts on a worthy display just about all the time. The leaves are a brilliant red, especially during the spring when they first unfurl. The high sun of early June reflects through those bloodred leaves, causing them to light up from right inside themselves. The tree glows as it were a cultivar introduced from a collection Moses himself brought down from Mount Sinai. The maple puts me in a paradise garden anytime I choose to visit it. If the effect of the magnolia is hopeful, the effect of the maple is unexpectedly nostalgic, I’m lying on the ground just to the north of that tree on a breezy June afternoon, head propped up on my elbows. The tree appears to pulse in time with each gust of the soft breeze. The sun tosses shards of bloodred light through the shimmery fingerlike leaves; the audacious flicker soon causes me to reminisce about a time, many years ago now, when we were all younger and mind-altering drugs enjoyed a brief meteoric renaissance before being relegated, once again, to the death row of societal icons. Sixties songs like “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds,” sixties images like Jimi Hendrix in full psychedelic regalia, start flashing in front of my eyes. I see the rockets’ red glare of Southeast Asia, and it rekindles in me the experience of that crazy, inspiring, youthful, dangerous counterculture. But then the breeze stops gusting; the tree lies inert. Just as suddenly, I intuit what it was that caused the psychedelic generation to vanish until who knows when. No pun intended. Still, the answer, my friend, is blowing in the wind… Nostalgic is the only word for that tree. Yet I also imagine the Japanese maple being favored by architects. The leaves possess a wonderful structure of their own. The Japanese Bloodgood maple is one cultivar whose twiny branches and bowl-like shape invoke a splendid garden architecture even when devoid of leaves. The tree is a sight to behold even during the dead of winter when the leaves and all their reminiscences are fast asleep waiting for spring. Knowledge and experience. Some garden writers assert that a mastery of their art occurs primarily through an accumulation of knowledge wed to the direct experience of plant identification, soil chemistry, landscape design, and perhaps the finer points of the color spectrum. Once we learn enough of these basics, we should be ready to set off on our own to exert that blessed sense of control over nature that is the contemporary definition of gardening. However, any thorough examination of the science of horticulture—when to plant, what to plant, why to plant, et cetera—will also be seen to offer nothing at all in the way of explaining the process by which a casual gardener suddenly explodes full-blown upon the scene as a compulsive gardener. The analytical approach to gardening mainly offers up choice tips and pointers to aid in the education of a gardener. But mere knowledge rarely leads to mastery because it overlooks both the sweaty passion and the poetry. As the nowhere garden has already foretold, gardening is creativity on a grand Utopian scale. We consult a nonexistent compass and so set off on a journey to Eden, which actually ends when we encounter a sense of place. The how-to garden teaches us grounding: how to keep our eyes firmly locked on the path and not lose our way. Our lives are constantly bombarded with information. One result is that most of us “know” more than we experience. Some of us go so far as to believe, erroneously, that knowing is in fact the same thing as experiencing. But what that conviction primarily lacks is grounding. To quote an old saw, experience is the best teacher—not our thoughts and stories about our experiences; and certainly no the data we may collect while experiencing. The practice of gardening offers on of the premier pathways leading ot a direct experience of the Earth. It does so far ore directly than any discussion about gardening. It does so even better than the production of that practice: the garden itself.

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A first-rate education grows in our own backyards. The education displays all the characteristics of matriculation, final exams, degree credits, failing and passing grades. A gardening education combines the unexpected and the revelations with the methodical. I plant a Japanese maple in my own how-to-garden not only because the color and shape are right for any particular spot but because the tree possesses an unexplainable charisma capable of lifting my spirits to crazy daydreaming on a sunny June afternoon. The unpredictable process of choosing that tree thus borrows as much from spiritual development as it does from craft or science. I would submit that it is to the bones-throwing, entrails-divining, and especially sweat- producing aspects of the gardening experience that we must surrender if we are to transform our controlling hand into a nurturing one. A key aspect of my own epiphany occurred shortly after I discovered the gift of the glacier. A glacier retreated across the land I garden about fifteen thousand years ago. I am told that the ice was three thousand feet thick, which explains why the surface of my front yard is mostly a slab of polished granite bedrock. The scarring and gouging of the rock runs decidedly southeast to northwest. The knoll drops off precipitously to the northwest. When my wife and I first moved here and built our house, the flat plain beyond the edge of this northwest-facing cliff was composed entirely of scrubby Oregon grape alder, and willow. The very noticeable lack of forest trees indicated that the ground there probably had no topsoil. The presence of the moisture-loving alders and willows strongly hinted at a local water-retentive blue clay. When we dug a pond on that spot five years later, we were very happy, although not surprised, that the clay plunged below ground to a depth greater than our fifteen-foot hole. When the winter rains do their job and fill the pond to overflow, Tarzan himself could dive off that cliff and hit deep water. The opposite edge of the knoll, the southeast quadrant, possesses a very different sort of geology. This is a gradual slope that descends into a second-growth fir, madrones and pine forest possessed of an understory of serviceberry trees that fill the forest with white flowers each April. Between the bedrock knoll and the beginning of the forest there is a uniquely bumpy ground of widely spaced, stunted trees. While digging there seven years ago in preparation for an eventual artichoke bed, I discovered a jumble of pumpkin- sized boulders covered over by just a few inches of topsoil. Since no human being had ever lived here before, I deduced that the stone must have been deposited in the same glacial withdrawal that left so much clay on the opposite side of the knoll. These heavy boulders were the detritus given up by the ice in its northwest retreat across the boulder catcher that was my knoll. The discovery of a seemingly bottomless pile of boulders has since proven to be the most influential factor in determining both the shape and the form of the resultant garden. I started excavating the fifty-to-a- hundred-pound boulders, on at a time, by pick and shovel and wheelbarrow and soon started mortaring them together to construct terraced garden beds all along the varying slopes of the bedrock. Over the years these terraces have grown ever more sophisticated and ambitious as my skills increased. While most of the boulders are of the same mineral composition as the bedrock itself. I have also discovered bubbly pieces of lava, large quartz crystals, and even a heavy piece of lumpy iron that looks suspiciously like a meteorite. They are all gifts of the glacier-rocks, each one with a story of its own to tell; each one adding to the composition of the growing garden. I do most of the rock work in the late fall, during the two-month period when the garden is going to sleep but the cold weather has not yet arrived to mar he setup time of mortar. When the rocks are in place, I immediately start filling the boulder-framed beds with whatever organic material I have on hand. My main source of the gardener’s gold and diamonds known as compost is kitchen scraps mixed with barrels of seaweed and bales of hay, augmented with the abundant horse manure I gather by the truckload from a neighboring stable. When the bed is full, I let the mass simmer for a winter or even longer, until nothing remains but sweet-smelling compost. Since the finished product is much denser than the original, I start adding in more wheelbarrowsful of decomposed horse manure until the top of the terrace is overflowing with it. I let it sit for another few weeks and then plant. I follow no recipe for building compost and therefore provide no fount of knowledge about how anyone else should proceed. With a plethora of how-to books on the market, I have preferred to consult my how-to garden directly. Actually, there are many excellent books teaching a gardener how to build a proper composter. Every book recommends that we turn the mess regularly with a fork, adding as much air as possible for the benefit of the aerobic bacteria. Turning also kills the stench. I have not yet discovered, however, any how-to book that will tell me how to deal with garbage when it’s thirty degrees outside and the composter itself is already overflowing and the breakdown of all that organic matter is progressing so much more painfully slow than the how-to book says it’s supposed to do. And every time I put a fish carcass in the composter, some dog or raccoon manages to get into it and makes a mess all over the year. But I can’t figure

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out how the animal gets in. Then again, maybe that dog is doing me a favor. She is turning the compost and I’m not, which accounts for both the overflow and the stench. Actually, my own bottom-line advice about composters is less than clinical. It demands that instead, we follow the advice of an old pop song. Get whatever composter suits your fancy. Build it, buy it, dig it, do it. Place if as far from your house as is geographically possible without also getting yourself into a lawsuit whenever the wind shifts toward your neighbors. Turn it every so often. Buy a few bales of hay. Whenever you empty the garbage can into the bins, heap a few wads of hay on top. Besides that simple advice, que sera- —whatever will be, will be. Flies, smells messes; one or another of them is going to creep up once in a while, no matter how sanitary a person tries to be—and no matter how many times that how-to book says it shouldn’t happen. My own rock terrace cum composters have been developing for several years now. Constructing the boulders into terraces, filling them with garbage, planting them several seasons later, and building stone stairways to connect them all have since turned into the most labor-intensive tasks of my life. Reiterating the goals of Joe Hollis’ paradise garden, terrace building offers me the reintegration of my leisure activities. It is the ongoing source of my physical well-being—my jogging, elliptical trainer, and aerobics. It is the largest art project I will ever confront, a labor of love and spirit that now writhes across the knoll like a series of waves. I could never have imagined the extent of these terraces in advance. They were completed on at a time. And only when the current terrace is finished do I start imagining the placement and depth of the next one. They are all constructed to the shape of the land, out of the land, and filled to the brim with yet more of the same land. Notice that this description has made no mention of the plants that ended up in the various terraces. This points out an important distinction between gardening and landscaping. If gardening is the experience of growing plants, then landscaping is the experience of growing gardens. Gardeners keep their eyes to the ground and the greenery. Landscapers develop a peripheral vision, always scanning the larger environment called home. In many ways, the two terms, gardening and landscaping, are not much more than two different viewpoints of the same relationship to place. In this book I sometimes use the two terms synonymously. In my confusion of suddenly facing so many new unplanted gardening beds, the how-to garden spoke to me of the virtues of setting seed in one season, then herbaceous perennials grow year after year if sited in an auspicious location. They put down roots both literally and figuratively. It was during the fall of my third gardening season that I started accumulating perennials. As perennials tend to do, the newly planted peonies, oriental poppies, lychnis, and polemonium soon taught me the important lesson of appreciating leaf texture and plant shape as easy equals to the lavishness of their flowers. Over time, I find myself personally favoring flowers on the blue end of the spectrum and round, mounding plants over tall or short ones. Captivated by those two criteria, I convinced myself that the round ball of a crater-lake veronica, with its bluest of blue flowers, must be the epitome of flowering perennials. But when that pregnant mound of greenery grew so large that it finally collapsed outward under its own weight, I concluded that its new bird’s-nest shape looked inelegant and sloppy or even wrong. I fought the sprawl by artfully employing green twine to lasso the collapsed bundle into a mound again. Success was a twine skeleton that could hardly be seen at all. Two years later, while immersed in the now-established task of stringing up the veronica to fit my agenda, I suddenly recognized that the plant’s yearly collapse closely reflected the process that individual flowers undergo when they open their petals from the center outward. Here was a plant busily engaged in its own normal growth cycle, and I wanted to incarcerate it inside a green string prison for committing the crime of aesthetic disobedience. I stopped tying ad soon started observing the veronica’s outward sprawl as an opportunistic strategy evolved for dropping seeds over a far greater plot of ground than a tight mound would ever permit. As one might guess, this was also the year I developed an appreciation for the sprawling, falling, ground-hugging torus shape. This kindergartener finally listened to the solicitations of a humble veronica and was soon taught to observe the self-seeding of perennials as nature’s way of cultivating groups of plants rather than individual specimens. This newfound sensitivity to the growth dynamics of a crater-lake blue veronica had surely affected my gardening aesthetic. It also gave me my first tantalizing peek at the Mayan compass, which set me on a long faltering journey leading to an ever-increasing relinquishment of control over my garden. The how-to garden soon pointed me towards unusual perennials, downright Dr. Seuss-looking perennials, so that soon I was choosing such relative rarities as rosey incarvilleas, twirling euphorbias, and spiny everlasting eryngiums over the much more common salvias and rudbeckias. I became transfixed by formerly unheeded gardening events, perhaps exemplified by the remarkable way the Alchemilla mollis focuses a dewdrop right at the center of its thick, perfectly round, blue-green leaves.

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Perennials teach gardeners to look beyond the climax of flower blooming and to appreciate, with equanimity, every aspect of a flowering plant’s growing cycle. In my case, I started to pay closer attention to the moment a perennial first breaks soil, noticing, for instance, that a large grouping of columbines are up and spurting toward the sky long before the platycodons show anything at all. When the platycodons make their anticipated appearance at soil level they look a lot like a colony of tiny asparagus. A week after that event, I finally notice that one of the plants I formerly identified as a columbine is actually a thalictrum with columbine-shaped leaves. As another week comes and goes, the columbine remains close to soil level and has started to plump up its stems. Meanwhile, the individual stems and leaves of the thalictrum have started to look much more delicate than any columbine. Within another week the thalictrum has grown a foot taller than either the columbines or the platycodons. So it goes throughout the seasons. This recognition of attributes beyond just flower was a sure sign that I had ascended onto another gardening level. The classical approach to landscape gardening insists we learn our own personal gardening aesthetic after first immersing ourselves in the best of the traditional styles. It is an approach borrowed from traditional art education. Students first study the theories and techniques utilized by masters like Cezanne and Rembrandt and Picasso before they ever allow themselves to experiment on their own. We draw a better picture and, by inference, plant a better garden after we learn the technique and tolls of the masters. Certainly, it’s all useful, all helpful. Ad I followed this model, I would have adopted on faith specific plantings utilized by, for instance landscape architect Russell Page and probably would have learned to appreciate conifers a good ten years before I actually did so. Today those conifers would be ten years fuller and more mature than the trees I finally got around to planting last spring. On the other hand, ten years ago I had not yet discovered the local resource of buried boulders and so had not yet begun building terraces. With a front ear of bedrock, I did not yet possess deep enough beds to plant those hypothetical conifers. Ten years ago I would have viewed those conifers as “element” in my own version of a four-tree garden. And alas, it seems quite certain that they would be long gone by now, scarified on the altar of their own exuberant growth. It is said that the difference between successful people and those who just get by is that successful people tend to fail more often. One important lesson that the classical approach sometimes forgets to mention is that the vast majority of the so-called masters were renegades or outright failures in their own time. They were revolutionaries who believed that relying on too many old-fashioned rules stifles creativity. As that statement pertains to music, I once knew a local subculture of five year olds who loved to play music. They continued loving to play music until they started taking violin lessons at six and had their creativity suffocated in favor of a rote recitation of the classical technique. None of them picked up and instrument again until they turned thirteen and had recovered from their former torture enough to pick out their own favorite tunes to play on a piano and guitar. As the premise relates to gardening, the Japanese garden style, as one example, developed over several hundred years. Its basic principles were constantly being refined and expanded upon by inspired although rebellious gardeners who continually rejected and refurbished the established rules of the time. In other words, straying from anyone’s idea of the traditional path does not imply either weakness of tradition or lack of talent. It is the tradition and leads to the continued evolution of artistic expression. It is therefore best to regard the old revered traditions no as laws set in stone, but as free tips by long dead masters. Much of what passes for gardening aesthetics (including my own developing style) is actually a fashion statement masquerading as objectivity. Orthodox call about height, color, texture, and the like have more to do with correctness than truth. They mirror any issue of Vogue magazine where the models are supposed to represent the perfect woman, though in fact only a certain stratum of the female population covets that hollow-cheeked, gaunt look. Reflecting the Vogue vision of female perfection, some gardening styles have likewise become institutionalized. There is a good reason for this: style offers guidance to people unable, for whatever reason, to work things out for themselves. It is, in many ways, the horticultural equivalent of those picture books where children connect the dots and so draw a clever picture. Watching my own children connect the dots with great concentration, I cannot say that the pastime has either helped or hindered their ability to draw on their own. Likewise, following preconceived notions of style provides an easy roadmap leading to a rudimentary sense of place. It neither helps nor hinders the development of a knockout garden. If any particular style persists for a long enough period of time, we start referring to it as a classic. Having stood the test of time, the classics are internally integrative, always historically pertinent, and occasionally beautiful. The redwood deck, for instance, has emerged as a classic gardening element in the United States.

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Get enough of these classic gardens started in one locale and a tradition emerges: the French tradition, the English landscape tradition, the Italian tradition, and so on If the various classical traditions often reflect a sense of the place they originated (although not necessarily anywhere else), they likewise reflect a strong sense of the lifestyle and fashion tastes of the landed aristocracy of that particular place. The traditional French garden, for example, follows a set of conventions dictating geometrically sheared hedges enclosing great beds of monochromatic flowers. It is a landscape invented for the precise purpose of being viewed from above, from great terraces and bedroom patios, and granting much the same overall effect of a giant Persian rug covering the floor of one’s grand landscaped estate. The French garden thus necessitates a large manor for viewing, a large staff for maintenance, and inevitably, a bottomless financial capability to pay for that high maintenance and control. The English landskip tradition is the direct ancestor of the modern American garden. It is perhaps best exemplified by the work of one Lancelot Brown, better known to history as Capability brown. Brown meticulously constructed naturalistic appearing pastoral landscapes (landskips) that presumed to emulate Arcadia, the bucolic Greek paradise garden where centaurs and fauns were said to reside. Brown’s constructed view of paradise can be seen in Walt Disney’s Fantasia, which includes a segment with Arcadia as the visual accompaniment to Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony. The man’s work seems a paradox. This “capability” of his caused Brown to sacrifice great parcels of the natural ecosystem of England—as well as many of the formal gardens constructed during the English Renaissance—in the cause of creating a naturalistic artifact meant to resemble an idealized Greek image of paradise. Brown leveled entire villages to the ground just to keep the view around the manor open and naturalistic. But he is also responsible for tree planting on a vast scale. His staff planted one hundred thousand trees on the estate of Lord Donegall alone. The English landskip tradition has exerted an enormous effect upon twentieth century Western culture, perhaps best reflected in that exemplar of the modern garden: the clipped lawn. In many respects, the idea of a vast stretch of lawn was splendidly matched to the English countryside and the aristocratic lifestyle from which it originated. The upkeep of the baronial lawn was overseen by a large workforce of gardeners whose fastidious maintenance of acres upon acres of grass was attained entirely by driven machines. It has even been argued that the landskip tradition was socially beneficial because it proved to be such a bountiful employer of the otherwise disenfranchised servant class. This high-maintenance task was utterly dependent upon the abundant rainfall, deep soils, and clement temperature variations of the English countryside. The idea of emulating the garden tradition of one specific culture and place doesn’t always translate well into other cultures and other places. While the lawn was once the highly refined gardening tradition of a few hundred wealthy scions of Empire on the grand scale, it is now the garden cliché of tens of millions of homeowners on a much-reduced scale. Over the past hundred years, the lawn has democratized and humbled itself and finally emerged as the quintessential icon of suburban America. Yet it rarely receives either the traditional high-maintenance hand care or the climactic blessings that did so well to mediate an equilibrium between British culture and the British ecosystem. If the physical necessities of that original balance have essentially vanished in places like Tucson, Minneapolis, and Orlando, what is retained from the original is its insidious cultural base: the definition of a garden as a place to be controlled. Where place is unfriendly, culture turns more assertive. In places like Spokane, Palm Springs, Houston, and Montreal, achieving the ideal of a beautiful lawn often develops into a matter of poisoning the ecosystem. Our lawn-tending ways have led to an ecological crisis of some magnitude. The high- nitrogen fertilizer needed to keep any lawn green also pollutes any body of water located downstream. Fifty billion acres of American lawn at an annual maintenance cost of thirty billion dollars(2) demands vast foot- acres or irrigation, which places unendurable stress upon already diminished water supplies across North America. The amount of herbicides utilized to keep the creeping incursion of weeds at bay far outweighs the amounts used even by commercial farming. Because herbicides harm many other organisms in their path— whether they be out-of-sight fish swimming downstream, or pets and children who happen to play on the typical lawn’s well-poisoned surfaces—the choice of planting a lawn today shares something essential with other ecological irresponsibilities such as refusing to recycle, buying gas-hogging cars, driving off-road vehicles to tour the desert, et cetera, ad infinitum. In every case, a once socially acceptable action continues to be fostered in an increasingly overpopulated world and without any consideration of its cumulative detriment. There are, of course, other ways to cover up dirt in a suburban front yard without recruiting artificial fertilizers, excessive watering, and herbicidal poison. Discover ground covers. Or cordon off a little parcel of the front yard and plant low-maintenance grasses, which don’t demand artificial stimulation. We might also start to regard the lawn the same way many semivegetarians now regard meat: as a condiment rather than as

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the main course. Surround a much-reduced lawn with flowerbeds and shrubs. In the process, reinvent yet another English landscaping style known as the garden room. Although my how-to garden has as yet resisted the temptation of the lawn, it has borrowed several conventions from the Japanese gardening tradition. The Japanese developed their elegant style within a temperate and wet climate bestowed with natural stylistic elements (e.g., moss, river-polished rocks, water, and dense evergreens) interpenetrating with vistas of natural features (e.g., mountains and sky). These attributes closely reflect my own environment. The rules that embody the Japanese style demand a close adherence to shape, shadow, light reflection, and greenery. Those gardens that mirror the rules most strictly are often very subdued. Like the English landskip tradition, they are “naturalistic” devices that skillfully hide the controlling hand of the gardener. They are planted primarily as a source of serenity. And when done well, they often achieve their purpose. Regard the concept of shakkei, (3) which translates literally as “borrowed landscape.” An already existent view of a mountain, a pond, perhaps a temple, or a waterfall, is incorporated into the general garden design by carefully framing it with trees. In a few exceptional cases, every single tree, herbaceous plant, and manmade addition to the garden is placed not so much to hold one’s attention through its own individualistic beauty but rather to lead the eye naturally to the view beyond. Pruning the trees to frame the vista has transformed into a high art form. No saw cuts are ever seen by a visitor’s casual glance at the trunk. Shakkei and the English lawn are both landscape devices, although the former is a perceptual device, while the latter is physical. Shakkei exists independent of place. The Japanese physical prerequisites of stone, water, and climate need not necessarily be adopted. What is pivotal, instead, is the view itself and the subtle way we go about framing it. The lawn, by contrast, is a physical entity that demands green grass wherever it grows. In my own attempt to adapt shakkei, I have never fretted very much if the trees are planted in such a way as to make some prototypical Mr. Toyota break out in deep contented grunts. I also find that when the concept of shakkei is adopted successfully the result is so exceedingly subtle that most observers rarely perceive that the plantings were made specifically to blend and focus any particular view. Shakkei also serves as its own garden compass. The eye is led to a specific viewpoint and the feet soon follow down that path. The garden and the view interpenetrate to accent a sense of place. The how-to garden spoke strongly to me during the winter of my fifth season on the land. The garden was in hibernation, and quite honestly, there was little to enjoy besides the boulders, the wild Oregon grape that frequents so much of the Pacific Northwest, the fir trees, and an exceedingly mossy hillside. Of those things I had planted myself, the bare but evocative Japanese maple proved to be the one notable exception. By now it had spread more outward than up, and a few of the mahogany-colored branches were snaking around one another like braided rope dispensing a wonderful shape and tint to the otherwise drab winter garden. One day in early December my family visited the Seattle Zoo, where I found myself more mesmerized by the bunches of luminous lavender berries crowding the branches of a Callicarpa bush than by any of the sadly aloof caged animals. These berries were as brilliant as any flower, and yet four inches of snow lay on the ground. It caused me to embark on a study of the relative merits of shrubs and small trees, and to conclude that shrubs are obviously an expression of commitment and longevity in the garden. Flowers come and go, but shrubs and trees are permanent. Book after book on the subject reinvoked the basic concept that shrubs and small conifers are best thought of as the bones of a garden. It is an apt metaphor. Evidently my garden was telling me that it lacked bones. The resultant acquisition of several shrubs and trees presented a practical solution to a perennial garden that was consuming entirely too much time and precious water. Any gardener with an unlimited appetite for increased garden area must eventually realize that all those enormously fanciful gardens photographed in so many coffee table gardening books are predominantly the playthings of the wealthy or the outright obsessive. My actual garden area encompassed nearly an acre. Being neither wealthy nor obsessive, any serious consideration about further expansion hinged upon what I have named the three garden constraints of time, money, and environment. First, time. My career is not farming, gardening, or landscaping. The labor commitment to my gardening avocation was now displaying signs of strain. If I wished to expand yet again, then every other part of the entire garden had to become commensurately more self-sufficient. My choice of plants altered

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drastically toward the self-sufficient, the long-term, and away from the needy. I sought out plants capable of taking care of themselves without extra pampering from me. I became a fledgling botanist noticing that bearded irises and peonies thrive in conditions far drier than we gardeners usually allot them—a function of their Spanish and Central Asian heritage. I stopped watering them altogether. I noticed those places where sun and trees created shadows during the long hot days of August and planted accordingly. A frost pocket got a different planting. A west-facing rocky outcrop that baked during the summer got something else. I commenced a garden worthy of winter by acquiring two Callicarpa bushes. Another choice was a Vibernum Burkwoodii, a shrub possessing the dual virtues of shiny evergreen leaves of great merit and clusters of exceedingly fragrant white flowers produced profusely very early in spring. Continuing my love for blue flowers, I bought several evergreen ceanothus, a xeriscaping species capable of thriving on no water at all through the thirsty days of late summer. The second constraint is money. The purchase of new plants and gardening hardware costs plenty. I discovered that a $1.98 packet of buddleia seeds proved no more difficult to germinate than radishes, and I soon had more six-inch pots filled with one foot-tall buddleias than I could ever use myself. They proved wonderful presents for gardening friends, some of whom had never heard of the plant. Buddleias have the added advantage of attaining up to ten feet in height and flowering late during their first season. They put out long racemes of sweetly fragrant flowers during August when not much else is blooming. They attract butterflies better than anything else this side of a bergamot. Certain cultivars seem to possess an ability to attract ants, which don’t seem to damage the shrub. I soon planted several in places far away from the house where I could appreciate the endemic ant mounds. I like to think that the buddleias keep the ants happy, in effect communicating a contractual agreement, a coexistence ideogram analogous to my chicken-wire fence ideogram. Likewise, the buddleias teach me the difficult lesson of how to coexist with ants. The source of all this robust growth, fragrance, color, butterfly feast, and ant retreat starts life as a seed no larger than a particle of dust. The third constraint is environment. Whatever I choose to plant, I could not permit myself to further strain the limited natural resources, especially a limited water supply. Gardening thus becomes a matter of what we manifest when we have the time, the money, and the natural resources. From then on, the three constraints dictated my growing style every bit as much as my love for blue flowers. Another year passed. Ornamental fruit trees were the next season’s great discovery. Because ornamentals feed the eye and not the stomach, the nonutilitarian “idea” of them seemed disdainful or my deeply ingrained obeisance to the great American work ethic. In the process of discovering them, I also recognized that apple pie is the yardstick by which we measure traditional American values because apple trees themselves are such halcyon edproducers. But one day, mostly in response to a ridiculously low price, I responded to a local nursery offering Prunus (Japanese cherries) and Malus (crab apple) species. They now flourish along the rim of my pond like a line of prima ballerinas whose outstanding virtues include striking red bud color followed by profuse pink flower production, interesting bark texture, and an unusual reddish-green leaf color in summer and fall. The waxy yellow crab apples that hang from the bare limbs of the Brandywine crab apple have long since become one of the high-lights of my winter garden. Crab apples also meet the demands of the third constraint. They never need extra watering no matter how hot and dry the summer gets. Inexpensive ornamentals unveil a hidden bonus of the second constraint, finances. Because shrubs and trees cost so much, what better reason to study up on all those mysterious crafts utilized by the nursery trade? In fact, learning how to propagate all manner of plants through layering and grafting need not be any more difficult to master than learning to tile a bathroom or setting up a computer database. Two years ago I received the wonderful gift of a beautiful and relatively expensive mock orange cultivar. I immediately scraped a bit of bark off the soil side of six branch nodules and dropped those branches (still attached to the mother plant) under the dirt with a rock on top to keep them down. Twelve weeks later I had rooted six additional mock oranges. I cut the branches just above the roots and a year later had succeeded at naturalizing mock oranges all over this land. No doubt due to the origination of its wild ancestor in central Oregon, all those naturalized plants now seem much happier in their untended, unamended dirt than the original did in its rich bed of topsoil with weekly watering. Like buddleias, mock oranges are now among the most appreciated gifts I give to others. Or another easy gift: start lilacs by planting the seed heads gathered from an existing plant. Like buddleias, lilac seeds are no more difficult to germinate than radishes. However, quite unlike radishes, the plants may take seven or eight years to grow large enough to reach flowering size. Then again, any such intimation of the tortoise timetable always proves to be an important gift on its own behalf. The slow passage

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of time counted from the yearly growth of shrubs and trees pays homage to the fact that the giver knows the recipient is home. I cannot leave this quirky education from my garden without mentioning the conifers—the cone bearers—a class of tree that has taken me nearly eight years to learn “how to” admire. The reason for that insensitivity relates directly to place. My knoll is surrounded by a thick second-growth forest composed predominantly of conifers. Planting conifers directly into the knoll’s terraced beds seemed too much like carrying coals to Newcastle. The change in my attitude came in a flash. I was at a nursery, being shown the location of a shrub, when the proprietor stopped to admire the beauty of a Boulevard cypress just then in the process of opening new needles. This is a slow growing columnar-shaped conifer of the Chamaecyparis genus that may eventually grow to fifteen feet high and six feet wide. Its bark is a deep red-brown, which provides a striking contrast to the thick, silvery-blue needles that seem to corkscrew like a Shirley Temple hairdo. “I’ve never appreciated conifers,” I remarked to the salesman. He looked me over as if I had just announced that I’ve never appreciated love or beauty, and commented, “I look at conifers as the fur and feather bearers of the plant world. Very sensual stuff.” A customer soon pulled the salesman away, leaving me to wander the aisles on my own. I ended up in the conifer section. Rubbing my palm against the soft bristles of an arborvitae, the feathery plumage of an incense cedar, the hedgehog prickliness of a blue spruce, and the downy softness of an Austrian pine, I was suddenly transformed into a true believer. I purchased two tine Boulevard cypresses, two Elwood cypresses, two blue-green Irish junipers, a yellow-ochre-colored Rheingold arborvitae, a spidery-branched golden conifer known as a thujopsis, and the fateful sequoia that soon got planted into a one-tree garden. The next two are more rounded and squat and seem lit up from inside when spied from a distance. The sequoia is of course, an ambassador to future generations. As both my garden and I enter middle age, the established beds seem ever more capable of taking care of themselves. I have tried many different gardening fashions, committed several monumental planting blunders, and felt compelled to try more categories of plants than either this limited history or the soil is able to nurture. I now find myself looking away from the actual plants and toward the landscape as a unity, although I am also convinced that this projected sense of unity is as much a matter of self-deception—smoke and mirrors—as it is the result of sophisticated planting technique. For example, every place my bedrock knoll drops off toward forest or pond offers a natural cascade of rock outcroppings, moss, lichen, sedum, and wildflowers. A rock gardener in the Japanese style might spend an entire lifetime trying to emulate what those cliffs gather to themselves naturally. But whereas I once considered the cliffs to be “wild,” meaning outside my gardening domain, a slight shift in perception now lets me regard them as exemplars of the well- integrated garden. Yet I have planted nothing on those cliffs besides a few scattered hen-and-chickens. Any more tampering would simply cause one or another of the three constraints (time, money, or resources) to rear its ugly head. This sensibility for wild areas is an example of the Findhorn (4) notion of always leaving one area in a garden as a natural sanctuary. Consider it safe ground, sacred ground, and an homage to the biota that preceded the garden. Garden ecologist Forest Shomer asserts that the sanctuary “represents the mystery or unconscious from which non-mental possibilities can emerge and is the resting place of the nature spirits and elementals who don’t often take up residence in the control areas of the garden.”(5) This perception of a wild area harmonizing with the cultivated garden now seems the next direction to explore. It also implies its opposite—that the cultivated garden is capable of being perceived as an integrated extension of the wild environment. In such a manner, the garden offers a heightened perception of nature in microcosm.

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English 1A - Group Presentation Due: See Canvas 50 points Background: In his book, The Botany of Desire, Michael Pollan suggests that our selective tastes for certain plants can be best understood in terms of our co-evolution with those plants. In other words, humans, for various reasons, have favored certain plants and through cross breeding and careful cultivation have virtually assured that plant a long life on the evolutionary ladder. According to Pollan, we manipulate the tulip because we are obsessed with beauty and form, the apple because we crave the relief and pleasure of sweetness, marijuana because we seek, at different times, the opportunity to both dull and heighten our senses, and, finally, the potato because it is in our nature to control by playing the role of creator. As perfect as Pollan’s examples may be, it is difficult, as one reads this book, not to consider other plants that could just as easily fit into his categories of sweetness, beauty, intoxication, and control.

• Sweetness: What about the strawberry? Not only is the strawberry sweet, but it also often represents a desire for the erotic, which, for many of us, is a desire that can be never satiated. Dip a strawberry into chocolate (another candidate for this project) and you have a combination of the erotic and a temporary band-aid for the despair of loneliness. Possibilities: strawberries, sugar cane, cocoa bean (but must be mixed with sugar), and cherries.

• Beauty: As popular as the tulip is, what about the rose? The rose fills our senses with its intoxicating swirls of beauty, its rich smell (extended into perfumes and lotions and oils), velvety touch, rich colors, and syrupy taste (rose tea). Possibilities: roses, orchids, dahlias, cacti.

• Intoxication: Man has cultivated the grape for wine and hops for beer as far back as Egyptian times— and, while wine and beer may be legal, and, therefore, less taboo than marijuana, wine and beer have been inextricably tied to many cultures for thousands and thousands of years. Possibilities: grapes (for wine), poppies (opium), coffee plant (caffeine), coca plant (cocaine), tobacco (nicotine).

• Control: Both wheat and rice are agricultural staples that many companies have sought to create new genetic strains for, some even produce seeds that cannot reproduce new crops, so the grower has to buy more seed from the seed manufacturer (and not get it from “Mother Earth” for free). Possibilities: wheat, rice, corn, soy.

The Task: For your group presentation, using Pollan’s book as a model, choose a plant that you, as a group, feel humankind has cultivated to fulfill one of Pollan’s categories. Your presentation will need to consider (a) why we favor this plant, (b) what its biology, cultural history, and cultural identity reveals about our connections to it and (c) what its cultural identity is in our society. Your overall presentation must reflect how this plant fulfills our desire for beauty, sweetness, intoxication or control. If it does not, your presentation will not be successful. Due for the Class Meeting of Your Presentation: Summary and Annotated Bibliography Actual Presentation: 20-25-minute group presentation (do not exceed the time limit). 30 points Annotated Bibliography: a properly formatted, formal Annotated Bibliography with correctly formatted MLA citations and summaries. 15pts Summary: Bullet Point Summary of what will be covered and a list of group member names along with an explanation of what each person (full names please) contributed (or did not contribute). 5 pts  The Process: In order to complete all this work in a timely and organized fashion, you will need to communicate as a group (some in-class time will be provided). How you choose to disseminate the work and what you choose to present is entirely up to you. Because some students tend to be difficult to motivate, you need to let me know who these people are so that I can speak with them about the importance of the project if they are not contributing. Each member will be graded individually so that those who do not do the work will not jeopardize the grades of those who do complete the work.  The Research: For this presentation to be successful, you will need to research the plant’s biological and cultural history and its commercial uses. In other words, find out as much about the plant as you can. Each member of the group is responsible for a minimum of three unique sources. So, for example, if there are five members in the group, the group is responsible for a total of 15 unique sources.  Important Notes (1) You must be present to give the presentation (2) Each member of the group will be graded individually. (3) You must turn in (a) the summary (see above) and (b) the properly MLA formatted Annotated Bibliography (4) Your presentation cannot go over the 25-minute time limit. Note: I need to know what plant you will be presenting at least one week before the final class.

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Sentence Patterns Pattern One Sentences: Subject + Intransitive Verb (+ *Adverby Stuff) *adverby is not a word Subj. IV Emerson writes [about his connection] [with God] [in nature]. Pattern Two Sentences: Subject + Linking Verb + Noun Complement Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective Complement Subj. LV NC Subj. LV AC Emerson was a transcendentalist writer. // Emerson’s writings [about nature] are intriguing. Pattern Three Sentences: Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object Subj. TV DO Emerson wrote the essay Nature [in the early 19th Century) Passive: The essay Nature was written by Emerson in the early 19th century. The essay Nature was written in the early 19th century. (“by Emerson” has been deleted) Pattern Four Sentences: Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object Subj. TV IO DO Emerson shows his readers interesting approaches [for understanding nature]. Passive: Readers are shown interesting approaches for understanding nature by Emerson. Readers are shown interesting approaches for understanding nature. (“by Emerson” has been deleted) Interesting approaches for understanding nature are shown to readers by Emerson. Interesting approaches for understanding nature are shown to readers. (“by Emerson” has been deleted Pattern Five Sentences: Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Objective Complement (Adj. or Noun) Subj. TV DO OC (Adj) Many readers consider Emerson’s writings too mystical. Subj. TV DO OC (Noun) Many people consider the “transparent eyeball” an interesting symbol [for connecting spiritually with nature]. Passive: Emerson’s writings are considered too mystical by many readers. Emerson’s writings are considered too mystical. The transparent eyeball is considered an interesting symbol for connecting spiritually with nature by many people. The transparent eyeball is considered an interesting symbol for connecting spiritually with nature. There is / There are Cleft delayed subject modified by adjective clause There are many readers who consider Emerson’s writing too mystical. VS. Subj. TV DO Many readers consider Emerson’s writings too mystical.  more clear, more focused

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Clauses – Phrases – Sentence Focus Clauses - Phrases When we write, we are, typically, crafting something that will be read by someone else, so we owe it to our potential readers to construct sentences that are as focused and clear as possible. But what might we mean by focused and how might we go about accomplishing such a task? After all, one can construct a sentence and say more or less the same thing in a variety of ways. That said, one can make certain choices that might help a sentence to be more focused, more clear, more exact-- all of which implies that sentence focus is more about fine tuning your writing, which is an issue of style, and not one based in rules; in other words, sentence focus is not about being "right" or "wrong"; rather it helps you to achieve greater clarity in your writing by making you look more closely at the choices you have made. Sentence focus is a state of mind, one that you will most often enter during the revision process. We begin with a careful examination of clauses. Arguably, the two most important slots in any clause are the subject and the verb:

John arranged the flowers (in his garden) so the colors flowed (like the hues) (of a rainbow). The words in bold are the subjects of the two clauses that make up the sentence, and the italicized words are the verbs (in this case, they are active verbs). The groups of words in the parentheses are prepositional phrases that modify the subjects and/or verbs [“in his garden” tells you where the flowers were arranged and “like the hues” and “of a rainbow” tell you how the colors flowed]. But before we continue further, let’s take a minute to briefly review what we mean by clauses and phrases. *** Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and verb *** S IV John fell down.  Pattern One (Independent Clause) S LV AC John is tired.  Pattern Two (Independent Clause) S LV NC John is a man.  Pattern Two (Independent Clause) S TV DO John grabbed the chair.  Pattern Three (Independent Clause) S TV IO DO John gave Bill the money.  Pattern Four (Independent Clause) S IV Because he tripped over the wire.  Pattern One (Dependent Clause) S IV As he fell to the floor.  Pattern One (Dependent Clause) S IV That he had borrowed from him.  Pattern One (Dependent Clause) We refer to the clauses in the first group as independent clauses because they can stand alone. The second group of clauses, however, cannot stand alone because each one requires something else to complete them. You are left wondering why he tripped over the wire, what caused him to fall to the floor or what he was doing as he fell to the floor, and what he had borrowed or when he had borrowed it. We call these kinds of clauses dependent clauses because they need more information to make sense. If you leave them all by their lonesome selves, you will likely see them marked as fragments. They can be easily fixed, however, by attaching them to an independent clause.

John fell down because he tripped over the wire. John grabbed the chair as he fell to the floor. John gave Bill the money that he had borrowed from him.

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*** Phrases are groups of words that are missing either a subject or a verb or both *** (a) under the boardwalk - prepositional phrase (b) a rundown, shoddy wooden structure - noun phrase (c) hoping to consummate his love - verbal phrase (d) his passion barely contained - absolute phrase Each of these word groupings is missing a subject, a verb or both. But you might notice that all four phrases offer detail and information about something. While phrases serve a variety of purposes, one of the most useful is for adding details about the nouns in your sentences: Hoping to consummate his love, John, his passion barely contained, convinced Emily to meet him under the boardwalk, a rundown shoddy wooden structure (that teenagers often gathered under to smoke weed). I underlined the base clause (the clause that the phrases are attached to) so that you can better see how the phrases are adding detail to the overall sentence/independent clause.

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Sentence Focus With a basic understanding of clauses and phrases behind us, let’s now return to our discussion of the importance of subjects and verbs in the sentences/clauses that we construct. John arranged the flowers (in his garden) so that the colors flowed (like the hues) (of a rainbow). Please note that this sentence contains two independent clauses— John arranged the flowers (in his garden) and the colors flowed (like the hues) (of a rainbow)— joined together with the coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) so. We need to make note of this because we have two clauses—and you will often need to check to see if one or more clauses in a sentence needs to be better focused. Both the second and the first clause have clear, specific subjects and verbs. For the purpose of our discussion, I want to look more closely at the first clause – John arranged the flowers (in his garden) – in which we see (a) a specific, concrete subject, John, (b) a strong active verb arranged and (c) a receiver of the action, flowers. In fact, we, whether we recognize it or not, the English language is filled with this subject-verb-direct object (SVO) relationship, so much so that we come to expect it, and, arguably, it is one of the easiest constructions for a reader to understand. To better illustrate this point, let’s create some less focused constructions for the same clause:

(A) The flowers (in the garden) were arranged by John. (B) There are some flowers in the garden that were arranged by John. (C) The flowers that were arranged by John are in the garden. (D) In the garden, there are some flowers that were arranged by John. (E) Those flowers (that John arranged) are in the garden.

In each of these examples, the clear focused relationship— of (a) John as the agent, the doer, of the sentence, (b) arranged as the clear action of the sentence and (c) flowers as the receiver of that action— has been lost. Keep in mind, however, that the sentences still make sense, but the clarity and ease and resulting focus of— John arranged the flowers in the garden— has been lost. In examples A, B, C and D the strong, active agent of the sentence has been moved away from the subject slot of the clause and been either replaced by an empty, non-specific subject (there) or the thing (flowers) that previously received the action (by using the passive voice). Let’s take a closer look at the “there is/it is” construction. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *** Sentence Focus Issue - Make what you are writing about the subject of your sentence *** *** Sentence Focus Issue - Choose concrete subjects, avoid empty abstract subjects *** Try to avoid using abstract empty subjects, favoring, instead, subjects that are human or concrete (for example, "there is" uses an empty, vague subject). In the same vein, strive to choose subjects that represent exactly what you are writing about. Note that often you can find these more specific subjects elsewhere in your sentence:

(A) The choosing of a garden style, which ranges from tightly structured rows to free form “see what you get” approaches,” is a choice faced by many would be gardeners. (B) Disagreements about aesthetic decisions such as the right amount of color to place in different sections of the garden may be a point of difference among couples who are planning a new garden for the first time.

In example A, “choosing” is an abstract choice for this sentence’s subject— especially considering that the choice is ultimately being made by the “would be gardeners,” who have been placed all the way at the end of the sentence (you might also notice that the sentence is a passive). For example B, “disagreements” is, in the end, what the couples are potentially having, and the couples are the ones who are having them (the couples being the agents/doers of the sentence).. So both sentences would be better focused if one chose the clearer, far more specific subjects—“would be gardeners” and “couples”— both of which also happen to be (a) the actual doers/agents of the sentence and (b) what is actually being written about in the sentences: (A) Would be gardeners face a choice between a variety of garden styles that range from tightly structured rows to free form “see what you get” approaches.

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(B) Couples, who are planning a new garden for the first time, often disagree about aesthetic decisions such as the right amount of color to place in different sections of the garden. When writing academic papers, we often use a transition as a subject to indicate movement to a new point/topic. However, when we use these kinds of transitions as the subject of the sentence, they often render the sentence less focused because the agent/doer of the sentence is moved elsewhere by the transitional phrase or word: A second reason why we garden is because we are trying to play god over our little plots of land. Instead, choose a transition that allows you to keep a concrete, specific subject: (A) Secondly, we garden because we are trying to play god over our little plots of land. (B) Furthermore, we garden because we are trying to play god over our little plots of land. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *** Sentence Focus Issue - Do Not Overuse the "there is / it is" construction *** First of all, there is nothing inherently wrong about using this construction. It, after all, exists for a reason, but, as a writer who is trying to communicate as clearly as possible to your readers, you lose a lot of potential focus in your sentence when you use that construction. After all they are not specific and often they are not what your sentence is about. Typically, we use the “there is” construction to express that something exists:

(A) There are some people over there that want food. (i.e. there exist some people over there) (B) The people over there want food. (more focused)

Sentence A certainly expresses clearly enough the existence of these tired people, but, especially when compared to sentence B, the sentence is not as focused as it could be. The second sentence gives us that SVO relationship that we feel so comfortable encountering as readers. Sentence B is also more direct and to the point. Typically, as readers, we come to expect the subject of the sentence to be (a) clear and (b) what the sentence is actually about, so whenever we deviate from that expectation, we, as writers, need to be very careful and aware of what we have done, so we can make sure that we have crafted the sentence as clearly as possible. We typically use the “it is” construction to rearrange the clause so we can establish a different kind of focus than the typical SVO construction.

It was a garden that he filled with rainbow colors. Vs. He filled the garden with rainbow colors. (A) It is because Emerson finds the solitude appealing that he is drawn to nature. (not focused) (B) Emerson is drawn to nature because he finds the solitude it offers appealing. (more focused)

Like the “there is” construction, the “it is” construction takes away much of the focus of a sentence, and if you are not intentionally taking that focus away to produce an effect, then you should consider a different way to construct your sentence. With both the “there is” and “it is” constructions (also called the “there cleft” and the “it cleft”), you also run the risk of sounding repetitive if you utilize them too much (and many writers do this, creating a series of sentences that feel not only repetitive, but also unfocused). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *** Sentence Focus Issue - Do Not Overuse the "passive construction" *** Now, let’s turn our attention to the passive voice. Many of us were taught (by high school teachers) that you should never use the passive voice. This is not only incorrect, but quiet limiting to you as a writer because the passive, like the “there is/it is” constructions offers you another way to develop your sentences. However, one needs to be aware of what one is doing when this choice is made (or if it is being made unconsciously, why you might need to rethink the clause/sentence when you revise your essay). Let’s take another look at the example we have been considering:

John arranged the flowers (in his garden).

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Once again, we see that SVO pattern, with a clear subject (John), an active verb (arranged), and a noun that receives the action (flowers). We call this the active voice. Now let’s take a look at example A from above:

The flowers (in the garden) were arranged by John. You should note that flowers, which was previously the receiver of the action, is now the subject of the sentence and what was formerly the doer, the agent, of the sentence has been moved to a slot after the verb. When you do this, you remove the agency from the subject and, as a result, reduce the focus of the sentence. Let’s take a closer look at the construction of the passive:

Subject + to be + past participle + (by + agent) The flowers (in the garden) were arranged by John

To create the passive, you (a) take the direct object, the receiver of the action, and move it to the subject slot, (b) transform the active verb to the passive verb by converting it to a past participle and adding a “to be” verb, and (c) then move the previous subject (which is the doer of the sentence) into a prepositional phrase that begins with by. Keep in mind that many writers (and you whether you notice or not) often drop that by + agent phrase:

Passive Voice: The flowers in the garden were arranged so that the colors of the rainbow could be displayed. -- The flowers in the garden were arranged (by John), so that the colors of the rainbow could be displayed (by him). Active voice: John arranged the flowers in the garden, so he could display the colors of the rainbow.

So, when considering if you wish to keep the passive, you also need to be able to recognize when that by + agent phrase has been dropped. The real question here, however, is whether the “active” or the “passive” is the better choice, and the answer to such a question is: it depends. Both clearly express that John arranged the flowers in his garden so that one could see the colors. The passive, however, is not as focused as the active because, by its very nature, the passive voice is less focused than the active voice. You will have to decide for yourself whether or not the passive clearly expresses what you wish to say. The important lesson here is that you need to be able to recognize when you have used the passive so you can make a choice. Our considerations of both the passive and the “there is/it is” constructions can help us to understand more clearly how important it is that we take the time to consider how we have chosen to fill the subject and verb slots, a consideration that leads to a discussion about choosing the best words to fill those slots. As a rule of thumb, you should always strive to (a) choose the most concrete, specific subjects that you can, (b) make what you are writing about the subject of your sentence and (c) whenever possible choose strong, active verbs (as opposed to consistently relying on the to be verbs – is, are, were, was, am, be, been—or other weaker verbs like go, went, have, etc.). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ** Sentence Focus Issue - Don't bury the "real" subject in an introductory phrase*** We also sometimes bury the “real” subjects of our sentences in introductory phrases: (A) According to the nursery worker, he said that many people garden because they feel a spiritual satisfaction from getting their hands in the soil. (B)At the local garden center, there are a variety of different roses to choose from. (C) In the many gardens of Golden Gate Park, it is beautiful but you don’t get the satisfaction of creating your own garden. In example A, the nursery worker is the one who says why many people garden. In example B, the local garden center is where you will find the roses. In example C, Golden Gate Park is the beautiful place. These sentences would be much better focused if we recast them with those nouns as the subjects:

(A) The nursery worker said that many people garden because they feel a spiritual satisfaction from getting their hands in the soil. (B) The local garden center offers a variety of different roses to choose from. (C) The many smaller gardens of Golden Gate Park are beautiful, but you don’t get the satisfaction of creating your own garden.

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** Sentence Focus Rule - Strive to use strong, active verbs whenever possible *** Whenever possible, try to use the strongest, active verb you can find. For example, if I write—I went to the store – then you know that I, simply, went to the store, but if I write—I stumbled to the store—then you have a strong, active verb that suggests I might be drunk, uncoordinated, etc. This second choice of an active verb reveals a much richer, more detailed, more focused sentence. Sometimes the best choice of verb is masquerading as a noun: An emphasis for color is placed on the garden by many first time gardeners. “Emphasis” is not the clearest subject, especially since the first time gardeners are the ones who are really placing the emphasis on the garden. You should also notice that we have a passive verb, which, by its very nature, is not as strong as an active verb. Also—we need to ask whether “placing the emphasis” is really the true focus of the sentence—or are the gardeners more specifically “emphasizing.” (A) Many first time gardeners place emphasis on color. (B) Many first time gardeners emphasize color. Which is stronger? B is the more likely answer because “emphasize” is the stronger choice of verb and really expresses to the reader exactly what the first time gardeners do. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ** Sentence Focus Issue - Pruning out unnecessary verbiage *** The final benefit—and for some drawback— of sentence focus is that it helps you to prune out the unnecessary fluff dragging your sentence into a potential pit of unclear babble. In other words, sentence focus is also about making economical choices in your writing: --One reason behind why some people choose to garden is because they want to feel the satisfaction of cultivating life. In this example, the writer has stretched the words so thin that the sentence inevitably sounds long winded and filled with unnecessary words. If we take a close look at it, we see that the subject (a noun phrase) is: “the main reason behind why some people choose to garden.” We could easily focus this clause more clearly by choosing instead: Some people choose to garden. After all, if you tell us that “Some people choose to garden because they want to feel the satisfaction of cultivating life” then you have given us a reason, so there is little need to include “one reason behind why.” Finally, you should strive to keep the subject as economical as possible. Be cautious when you write a subject that takes a long time to get through before you reach the verb. We, as readers who love that SVO structure, expect to get from the subject to the verb without a lot of unnecessary effort on our part. Please do note that there are ways to successfully craft a sentence with a long subject, but this can often be a difficult feat to pull off effectively:

Many hours of back breaking work and frequent maintenance, including the deadheading of flowers and the pulling of weeds and the constant need to water the plants are all the expectations of taking care of a garden.

On the one hand, this sentence is full of rich details, but, on the other, you have to read through— “many hours of back breaking work, frequent maintenance, including the deadheading of flowers and the pulling of weeds, and the constant watering”— before you get to the little “to be” verb. If you choose a stronger, more economical subject and a strong active verb, you can construct a much more focused sentence: The gardener should expect many hours of back breaking work and frequent maintenance, including the deadheading of flowers and the pulling of weeds and the constant need to water the plants. Now the reader clearly knows that the sentence is about the “the gardener”; furthermore, the details about the work that needs to be done is nicely placed in the direct object slot as the receiver of the action of the subject—which brings us right back to that neat SVO structure that we, as readers, come to expect in the sentences that we read from professional and academic writers.

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Option One So, on the one hand, the idea behind the design of a garden is that it is a reflection of the way we see nature, but, on the other hand, there is a sense that it is also entirely an illusion. The fact of the matter is that a garden only retains the shape that is imposed on it by us which only lasts for as long as that imposition is sustained by our willingness to do it. There are many reasons for why one might take this thought a step further, as the author Michael Pollan does in his book he wrote called Second Nature, he recognizes that nature will eventually reclaim anything created by us. There is a point in the book when he takes a walk in the woods near his house. At that point Pollan is in a battle with the inevitable forces of animals and pests that want to eat the vegetation of his garden. This is when he realizes that “every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed— all was done to slow the advance of the forest” (46). Pollan is coming to this conclusion after his discovery that these woods have reclaimed what used to be an agricultural village. It is through this experience that he realizes that what we call normal is the forest . Then there is the point that he realizes in the book that “the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens” are an “ecological vacuum that nature will not abide for long” (46). Indeed, he now knows that nature itself is constantly reminding him of the impermanence of things. And there is reason to now conclude that the garden is serving as a profound reminder that any human attempt of forcing purpose or design upon it is only going to end in nature reclaiming it. Option Two So, on the one hand, the design of a garden is a reflection of the way we see nature, but, on the other, it is entirely an illusion. A garden only retains the shape that we impose on it for as long as we are willing to sustain that imposition. One might take this thought a step further, as Michael Pollan does in his book Second Nature, and recognize that nature will eventually reclaim anything that we create. As he takes a walk in the woods near his house, Pollan, who is in a battle with the inevitable forces of animals and pests that want to eat the vegetation of his garden, realizes that “every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed— all was done to slow the advance of the forest” (46). Pollan comes to this conclusion after he discovers that these woods have reclaimed what used to be an agricultural village— and through this experience he realizes that the forest is what is normal, and that “the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens” are an “ecological vacuum that nature will not abide for long” (46). Indeed, if nature itself is a constant reminder of the impermanence of things, then the garden serves as a profound reminder that any human attempt to force purpose or design upon it only ends in its eventual reclamation. What to bring away from this lesson • A Clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. • There are two kinds of clauses: independent (which stand alone) and dependent (which cannot stand alone) • A phrase is a group of words that is missing either a subject, or a verb— or both. • When we think about sentence focus, the two most important slots in the sentence are the subject and the verb

When we think about sentence focus, here are the most important "rules" to consider:

1. Make what you are writing about the subject of your sentence 2. Use, whenever possible, concrete, specific subjects 3. Do not overuse the “there is/it is” construction. 4. Do not overuse the passive voice 5. Strive to use strong, active verbs whenever possible 6. Be economical, prune unnecessary words from your sentences. 7. Check to see if you buried the “real subject of your sentence” in an introductory phrase

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Exercise Sheet - Clauses, Phrases and Sentence Focus Part One: Place (parentheses) around the independent clauses, [brackets] around the dependent clauses, 'single quotation marks' around the phrases and then an S above all the subjects, a V above all the verbs, and a DO above all the direct objects. S V D.O.

1. 'In the hopes of expressing her vision', (the gardener shapes the design 'of her garden') 'according to her aesthetic wishes'.

2. The gardener removes weeds, prunes branches, and deadheads old flowers because she wants to preserve her design.

3. Michael Pollan finally chooses to build a fence because he wants to build a “middle ground between nature and culture” (7).

4. Gardening is back breaking work.

5. Garden styles have been developed by many cultures over the years.

6. The idea of seeing, really seeing, is pondered by Annie Dillard in her book The Pilgrim at Tinker Creek.

7. If you feel the garden must be protected at all costs, there is reason to understand why you might want to kill it, but regret will be experienced when you see its dead, furry face.

8. Garden styles have been developed by many cultures over the years.

9. The question of what makes a garden is pondered by many who decide to begin such an endeavor.

10. The worry that Adam and Eve might eat from the Tree of Life is the cause for why God throws them out of the

Garden of Eden. Part Two: Figure out what you think the sentence focus issue(s) is/are and then focus/fix the following clauses.

1. Garden styles have been developed by many cultures over the years. Focus Issue- Don't Overuse Passive // Focused sentence - Many cultures have developed garden styles over the years

2. Gardening is back breaking work. 3. The idea of seeing, really seeing, is pondered by Annie Dillard in her book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. 4. If you feel the garden must be protected at all costs, there is reason to understand why you might want to

kill it, but regret will be experienced when you see its dead, furry face. 5. The question of what makes a garden is pondered by many who decide to begin such an endeavor. 6. The worry that Adam and Eve might eat from the Tree of Life is the cause for why God throws them out of

the Garden of Eden. 7. We garden for many reasons, but one of the many reasons why we garden is because we are hoping that

the forces of nature will be controlled by our desire to craft them into our unique vision. 8. A second reason why we toil so hard in the garden is because the yield of beautiful flowers brings us great

satisfaction. 9. At the Home Depot Garden Center, there are many different varieties of flowers to choose from. 10. The idea behind why we might choose to create a Zen Garden is that the curves of nature are expressed in

the shapes made in the sand

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Sentence Combining Review Coordination is the linking of two syntactically equal units, such as independent clauses. We coordinate independent clauses by using either (a) coordinating conjunctions or (b) conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases/expressions. When we use these individual words or short phrases to combine independent clauses, we create an equal logical relationship between the information/ideas in the clauses that we are combining (and the exact relationship is determined by the word we choose). A. Coordinating conjunctions join independent clauses and create a logical relationship between the ideas in those clauses. Many students, in order to memorize them, also know them as FANBOYS. For (cause and result): I planted the seeds in even rows, for I wanted a very linear garden design. And (addition): I watered the plants, and my father pruned the bushes. Nor (addition of negative statements): I did not bother to water the plants, nor did I bother to weed the garden. But (opposition/contrast): I considered planting a Zen garden, but I really wanted a garden filled with colorful flowers. Or (alternatives): One can plant the flowers in organized rows, or one can freely disseminate seeds in random patterns. Yet (opposition/contrast): Roses produce gorgeous, odiferous flowers, yet they also easily succumb to fungal diseases. So (cause/result): Raul wanted to attract hummingbirds and butterflies into his garden, so he planted a row of salvia. Punctuation Note that in each of the previous sentences, I placed a comma after the first independent clause, followed by the coordinating conjunction and then the second independent clause. The rule is: when you combine two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, you need to use a comma (which you place after the first independent clause and before the coordinating conjunction). IC 1 + comma + coord. Conj. + IC 2 Raul wanted to attract hummingbirds and butterflies into his garden, so he planted a row of delphiniums. Exception to the rule: when the two clauses are fairly short, some writers choose to omit the comma: Mary planted her roses and Bill fertilized them. ABOY: It is also worth noting that four of these conjunctions— and, but, or, yet— are also used to join any like grammatical unit (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses). Keeping this in mind, let’s take a closer look at a few of the sentences from above: (a) I considered planting a Zen garden, but I really wanted a garden filled with colorful flowers. (b)One can arrange the flowers in organized rows, or one can freely plant seeds in random patterns. (c) Roses produce gorgeous, odiferous flowers, yet they also succumb to fungal diseases like botrytis. For each one of these sentences, the independent clauses share the same subject and can be reduced. Keep in mind that— since you are no longer combining independent clauses when you drop the subject in the second clause— you no longer use the comma (you’re actually combining verb phrases—which I have underlined in the examples below). (a) I considered planting a Zen garden but really wanted a garden filled with colorful flowers. (b)One can arrange the flowers in organized rows or freely plant seeds in random patterns. (c) Roses produce gorgeous, odiferous flowers yet also succumb to fungal diseases like botrytis.

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B. Conjunctive adverbs and Transitional Phrases also join independent clauses and provide a logical relationship between the ideas in each independent clause, but they do not have the grammatical power to join independent clauses (so we use a semi colon whenever we use them to combine independent clauses). Conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases function in the same exact fashion. The only significant difference between these two is that conjunctive adverbs are single words (however, therefore, etc) and transitional phrases are made up of two or more words (in other words, on the other hand). They also function as transition words, providing more than just a logical connection between clauses. They help to move your ideas forward from one sentence to the next. Here is a list of some of the more common ones as well as the relationships that they provide: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Furthermore, also, moreover, in addition= and Historians trace the first gardens back to ancient Babylonian times; moreover, we follow their same attention to symmetry today. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- However,*nevertheless,*nonetheless, still, at the same time= but Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds; however, even that randomness takes a bit of planning. * Please note that nonetheless and nevertheless are each one word—and not none the less or never the less. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Therefore, consequently, hence, thus, as a result= so Gardens require many hours of back breaking work; consequently, many give up on their gardens soon after they plant them. *If you are going to use therefore, you need to make sure that whatever conclusion you draw from the first clause, can be supported by the second clause. For example: Gardens provide many rewards; therefore, everyone should be required to have one. In this example, the first independent clause does not support the second. Even if you provided much more information about what those rewards are, you can’t really justify the conclusion that everyone should be required to have one. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Instead = in place of Many Americans do not want to take the time to maintain a garden; instead, they plant a lawn, thinking it requires less maintenance. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- On the contrary = in opposition to what has been stated Many Americans plant a lawn, thinking that it requires a lot less work; on the contrary, lawns also take many hours of maintenance. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * On the other hand = another point of view Gardens provide much pleasure and satisfaction; on the other hand, many would-be-gardeners quickly lose interest. *Whenever you use on the other hand, you need to make sure that you have previously discussed something that could be on the one hand. In other words, these two transitional phrases form a visual of comparing something on the one hand to something on the other hand. On the one hand, gardens can provide much satisfaction and pleasure. On the other hand, many would-be-gardeners lose interest soon after they realize how much work it actually requires. You don’t always have to provide a clause with on the one hand, but you need to make sure that you, at the very least, provide a clause that could be placed on the one hand. However, if you do provide a clause that places something on the one hand, you need to make sure that you provide something that can be placed on the other hand. Finally, make sure that you don’t accidentally write— on the hand— which will imply that whatever you are discussing is located on your hand. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Meanwhile, at the same time = happening simultaneously Chemical pesticides are a fairly effective tool for controlling pests; at the same time, they pose a variety of health risks.

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For example, for instance = in illustration Many gardens showcase the amazing variety of a particular flower; for example, many gardeners choose to cultivate various roses. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In fact, as a matter of fact = certainly, without a doubt, actually Americans spend million of dollars on plants that die soon after they purchase them; as a matter of fact, one might argue that the gardening industry is as much about death as it is about life. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- After all = everything else having been considered, ultimately Many Americans let their lawns fall into disrepair; after all, who really wants to mow a lawn once a week? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Similarly = in a like manner Roses are often rich in color, texture and odor; similarly, orchids offer a wide variety of colorful hues, shapes and smells. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *In other words = clarification and restatement Gardens are, in a sense, a futile effort to control nature; in other words, any attempt to shape a garden only lasts as long as you are willing to put in the work to maintain that shape. *In other words is particularly useful for offering an illustration about a quotation. Example: Michael Pollan writes that gardening is “a middle ground between culture and nature”; in other words, gardening finds it roots, its meaning, in both how we perceive nature and how we have learned, culturally, to shape it (53). -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Then, next, subsequently, finally = following that Many Americans don’t want to put in the necessary work to maintain a garden; subsequently, the garden soon loses its shape. Some other common conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases (there are many more in addition to these): First, second, third, unquestionably, accordingly, namely, still, anyway, besides, incidentally, next, thereafter, certainly, indeed, now, likewise, otherwise, undoubtedly, balanced against, although this may be true, for the same reason, in any case, once in a while, in spite of, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate, without a doubt Punctuation Conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases do not have the grammatical power to combine sentences, so you need to use a semi colon whenever you use them to join two independent clauses together. If you look at the examples above, you will notice that we place the semi colon after the first independent clause, then the conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase, and then a comma after the conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase (and then the second independent clause follows): IC 1 + semi colon + ca/tp + comma + IC 2 Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds; however, even that randomness takes a bit of planning. We also need to take note of the fact that you can move conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases around in the clause. If you do this, and you are still combining the clauses, then you must keep the semi colon in place and surround the conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase with commas (or if you place it at end of the clause, use a comma and then a period to end the sentence). Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds; even that randomness, however, takes a bit of planning. Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds; even that randomness takes a bit of planning, however. You also, of course, have the option of choosing two separate independent clauses: Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds. However, even that randomness takes a bit of planning Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds. Even that randomness, however, takes a bit of planning. Free form gardens are planted by randomly disseminating seeds. Even that randomness takes a bit of planning, however. One might argue, however, that since the relationship between the ideas in each clause is still present, the stronger choice is to combine them with the semi colon. The choice, of course, is yours.

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Subordination is the process we use to combine two clauses of unequal importance. Unlike coordination, which shows an equal relationship between the ideas in the combined independent clauses, subordination combines a dependent clause with an independent clause and shows an unequal relationship. Subordinating Conjunctions: When you place a subordinating conjunction in front of an independent clause, that clause (a) becomes dependent and (b) receives less emphasis than the independent clause that you are combining it with. DC + IC Because many would-be-gardeners do not want to put in the necessary effort, they let their gardens grow wild. Note that this sentence begins with a dependent clause— because many would-be-gardeners do not want to put in the necessary effort— and is followed by an independent clause— they let their gardens grow wild. You form the dependent clause by placing the subordinating conjunction because in front of the independent clause many would-be-gardeners do not want to put in the necessary effort. Here are some common subordinating conjunctions and the relationship they offer you as a writer (at best, this is a short list): Although, though, even though = concession Even though gardening requires a lot of time and effort, many gardeners feel that it is more than worth all the hard work.

Whereas, while = contrast/opposition While many gardeners plant showy displays of color, many others choose, instead, to grow vegetables and fruit to eat.

When, as = time (at the same time) When May finally arrives, bulbs such as tulips, daffodils, crocuses, and paperweights begin to emerge from the ground.

After, before = time (not at the same time) Before you plant flowers in a garden filled with rocky, clay soil, you must amend it with nutrients.

Whenever = time (every time) Whenever you plant flowers, you must first break up the root ball.

If, provided, as long as = conditional Many Americans will only plant a garden if they can afford to pay someone to take care of it.

Even if = in spite of the fact that Many Americans will let their gardens die even if they spent hundreds of dollars on it.

Because, since = cause and effect Many Americans pave over the backyard because they do not want to bother trying to maintain a garden or a lawn.

Until = time (up to the time of) Until you prune those rose bushes, they will remain gangly and unattractive.

Unless = exception Most camellias, rhododendrons, and azaleas will not thrive unless you choose an acidic soil. So that = in order to Many Americans plant a lawn in their front yard so that their children can have a place to play. More Subordinating Conjunctions (look up their meanings in the dictionary before you use them): as long as, as much as, as soon as, if only, if when, if then, inasmuch, in order that, just as, lest, now, now since, now that, now when, once, provided that, rather than, supposing, than, where if, wherever, whether

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Punctuation Whether you use a comma to separate the independent clause and the dependent clause depends on which of the clauses comes first. If you begin your sentence with the dependent clause (or subordinate clause as they are often called), then you must use a comma after the dependent clause and before the independent clause. If the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, then you do not use a comma: Sub. Conj. + DC + comma + IC While many gardeners plant showy displays of color, many others choose, instead, to grow vegetables and fruit to eat. IC + DC Most camellias, rhododendrons, and azaleas will not thrive unless you choose an acidic soil. Concession All subordinators deemphasize the clauses they are connected to, but the following subordinators—although, even though, though (and to a lesser extent: while, and whereas) — show not only contrast between the clauses they join but also concession. When someone concedes a point, they recognize that it has value, a fact that makes concessive subordinators particularly useful for argumentative writing because they make it possible for one to both deemphasize the importance of an opposing view and recognize that it has merit. When writing argumentatively, it is important to avoid appearing one sided; in other words, recognizing the value of an opposing viewpoint provides depth to your argument because it shows that you, as a writer, are aware of the complexity of the issue and have taken the time to consider the opposition. At the same time, concessive subordinators make it possible to deemphasize that value in favor of the strengths of your viewpoint. Although gardening can take an incredible amount of time and effort, its rewards of satisfaction are often worth all the struggles. Even though using biological methods such as ladybugs are not as effective and swift as chemical options, the far safer, less risky, use of biological pest controls is much safer for both you and the environment. We can switch the emphasis by placing the concessive subordinators in front of the other clause: Although its rewards of satisfaction are often worth all the struggles, gardening can take an incredible amount of time, effort and struggle. Even though the far safer, less risky, use of biological pest controls is much safer for both you and the environment, using biological methods such as ladybugs are not as effective and swift as chemical options. What You Should Take Away from this Lesson • Use coordination (coordinating conjunctions (aka FANBOYS), conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases) to combine

independent clauses by showing an equal logical relationship between the ideas in the clauses you are combining. • When using the FANBOYS, use a comma between the two independent clauses (IC + , + CC + IC.). • When using the FANBOYS, if you drop the subject of the second independent clause then drop the comma. • You can use and, but, or, yet to join together any like grammatical structures. • When using a conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase, use a semi colon between the two clauses (IC + ; + CA/TP + , + IC). • You can move the IC / TP within the sentence. Keep the semi colon in place if you are combining the two clauses. • When you use a subordinating conjunction to combine two independent clauses, two things happen to the clause you

place the subordinator in front of: (a) the clause becomes dependent (b) the clause receives less emphasis. As a result, you create an unequal logical relationship between the ideas in the clauses you are combining.

• If the subordinate clause (SC) appears first, then use a comma (SC + , + IC.). • If the subordinate clause appears second, do not use a comma (IC + SC). • Concession provides an opportunity for you to recognize the value of a point of view / argument while deemphasizing it;

thus giving you the opportunity to emphasize the other idea in the independent clause.

Remember: Stop relying on a limited amount of subordinators and coordinators (most writers seem to only use and, but, or, yet, so, because, since, even though, although, though, however and therefore). There are many other words to use from— many of which offer very unique and valuable logical relationships that will push your writing forward.

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Sentence Combining Exercise Combine the following sentences using coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs/transitional phrases (feel free to remove unnecessary words wherever necessary). Look for more than one way to combine them. 1. You’ve been working hard in the garden all day. Why don’t you sit down? I’ll bring you a nice cold drink. 2. You need to mow the lawn. You need to prune the shrubs. You need to water the flower beds. The garden

will surely die. 3. Many people garden. They are looking for the satisfaction that comes from getting their fingernails dirty. Few

first-time gardeners recognize how much work is actually involved. 4. John may have purchased all the plants. He hired a gardener to plant them. He hired a gardener to take care

of them. 5. Everything that Jerry grows yields beautiful, fragrant flowers and abundant fruit. Everything I plant dies

several days later. Jerry obviously has a green thumb. I think I have a brown thumb. 6. The flowers started to die. John hired a gardener. The garden has flourished ever since. 7. I planted several rows of vegetables in my garden. I read about the health benefits of growing your own food

in Mick Jagger’s book, You Can’t Always Get What You Plant (But Sometimes You Plant What You Need). I now only eat homegrown vegetables. I feel healthier than I have for years.

8. Many gardeners suggest that you rotate the kinds of vegetables you grow each season. You are less likely to

invite unwanted insects that feed on your food. 9. Gardens cost lots of money. They require lots of time. They are very rewarding. They offer you the chance to

create your own little slice of nature. 10. The price of store bought vegetables keeps increasing. Many Americans have started their own organic

gardens. Not everyone has the space. Many Americans are taking advantage of community gardens.

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Run Together Sentences Run Together Sentences (RTS): Many of us think that a run on sentence merely indicates that we are rambling. For example:

I want to buy some ice cream, but I have no money, yet I am really craving it, for I love the sweet taste, so I hope I can borrow some money from my girlfriend because she has lots of money and owes me many favors due to the fact that I helped her get her job, yet she often tells me I eat too much ice cream, so I hope she doesn’t deny my request; however, I know that I can make her feel guilty because she is so easy to manipulate, but, just in case you think so, I do actually, really love her, so I don’t really want to make her feel bad, and, in the end, all I really want is some ice cream.

While this sentence jumps from thought to thought and sounds like babble, the sentence is grammatically correct (though it is also an example of very poor writing). When we speak of run on sentences— or what I want you to call run together sentences (RTS)— we are talking about joining two or more independent clauses without using a semi colon or a word that combines them; in other words, when you combine two independent clauses as if they were one sentence, you have made a grammatical error: Example 1: I decided not to visit the Sutro Baths for my essay I thought it would make more sense to go to the park. Example 2: I decided not to visit the Sutro Baths for my essay, I thought it would make more sense to go to the park. In the first example, the writer combined two independent clauses without using any punctuation (a fused sentence). In the second example, the writer used a comma to combine the two independent clauses (a comma splice). Both of these are incorrect. To fix them, you need to do one of the following (a) create two separate sentences, (b) join the independent clauses with a semi colon, or (c) find a legal joining word to combine the independent clauses: (a) I decided not to visit the Sutro Baths for my essay. I thought it would make more sense to go to the park (b) I decided not to visit the Sutro Baths for my essay; I thought it would make more sense to go to the park (c) I decided not to visit the Sutro Baths for my essay because I thought it would make more sense to go to the park Option C is the best choice because whenever you use a word to combine clauses, you establish a clear logical relationship between the ideas/thoughts in those two clauses. Option A is a reasonable choice, but if you use too many short sentences in a row then your writing will likely sound choppy. Option C is the weakest choice because you are not utilizing the advantages of finding a word that builds a relationship between the clauses. We have already reviewed coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and transitional phrases— all strong choices for finding the best word to establish a relationship between the ideas and thoughts between independent clauses— so if you are still struggling to find words to combine clauses, then refer to the handout (available on the class website). That said— I would like to remind you that when you use a conjunctive adverb or a transitional phrase to combine two independent clauses, you must use a semi colon or you end up with a comma splice: Incorrect: Stow Lake, no matter how much you may try to forget, sits in an urban park in the middle of a major city, however, one still feels a connection to the wild when they encounter the many hawks, blue herons, and turtles that live or pass through there. Correct: Stow Lake, no matter how much you may try to forget, sits in an urban park in the middle of a major city; however, one still feels a connection to the wild when they encounter the many hawks, blue herons, and turtles that live or pass through there.

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Practice Sheet: Run Together Sentences (RTS) Directions: First find all the RTS and then rewrite them in the space below the paragraph, so you have a new paragraph filled with short, choppy sentences. Second, using coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs / transitional phrases, combine those sentences so that you have a paragraph that flows much more smoothly. In 1867, a chef at a hotel in Saratoga Springs accidentally dropped some thinly sliced potatoes into hot

cooking oil, instantly the world found a new delicacy: the potato chip. At the time, Saratoga Springs was

America’s most fashionable resort, fads that started there usually found immediate success. Almost

overnight, the potato chip became Saratoga’s hottest item. The wide, tree-lined avenues were filled

with people eating potato chips, the huge veranda of the United States Hotel was no different it was

filled with chip-eaters too. Some of the richest, most powerful people in the world consumed them

regularly, for instance, the Vanderbilts could often be seen daintily plucking chips from paper cups on

their stroll back to their mansion. The elegant “Saratoga chips” remained the delicacy of the wealthy

until 1925, when the first chip factory was constructed in Albany, New York. The potato chip was no

longer the snack of only the rich and famous, it had become a common household item. Of course,

potato chips have changed a great deal in the last hundred years, now they come in various textures and

flavors, some are even packaged in paper tubes. Still, the next time you grab a handful of greasy, flavor-

dusted chips, you might pause to remember the noble origins of that humble food.

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Free Modifiers Part One – Adjective Clauses (ACs)

When we wish to make our sentences more detailed, we often turn to modifiers to supply more information, the most common typically being the adjective:

The beautiful and ornate landscape of the Japanese Tea Garden attracts many visitors each year. Both beautiful and ornate tell us more about the landscape of “the Japanese Tea Garden.” While these adjectives certainly offer us a more descriptive image of the garden, but how else might we add more detail about the Japanese Tea Garden? The adjective clause offers you a potentially more vivid and descriptive structure than simply using an adjective or two. Very simply, an adjective clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb that is used to modify a noun, a modification that often supplies more detail and information about that noun:

The beautiful and ornate landscape of the Japanese Tea Garden [, which attracts many visitors each year, ] sits in Golden Gate Park.

Grammatically speaking, adjective clauses are formed from independent clauses (IC). For example, looking at the example above, we see that the adjective clause can be removed and converted back to an independent clause: IC 1: The beautiful and ornate landscape of the Japanese Tea Garden sits in Golden Gate Park. IC 2: The garden attracts many visitors each year. Taking this into consideration, we see that both independent clauses above share the same noun: the Japanese Tea Garden. The adjective clause is formed by replacing the garden with the relative pronoun which and then placing the clause next to the noun being modified (in fact, adjective clauses are also often referred to as relative clauses because we use relative pronouns to introduce the clause). Your choice of which relative pronoun to use will depend on the noun that you are replacing; Forming Adjective Clauses Who: use to replace nouns or pronouns that refer to persons (he, she, they, Michael Pollan, Annie Dillard, the transcendentalists, etc). IC 1: Michael Pollan argues that we are attracted to the apple because it fulfills our desire for sweetness. IC 2: He has written extensively about the food we eat. Combined: Michael Pollan, who has written extensively about the food we eat, argues that we are attracted to the apple because it fulfills our desire for sweetness. IC 1: The transcendentalists argued that we lose touch with nature as we grow out of childhood. IC 2: They believed that the spirit resides in nature. Combined: The transcendentalists, who believed that the spirit resides in nature, argued that we lose touch with nature as we grow out of childhood. Whom: use to replace nouns and pronouns that refer to persons that are acting as grammatical objects in the sentence (her, him, them). Independent Clause 1: Many see Emerson as a visionary. (Emerson is the direct object of the sentence) Independent Clause 2: Emerson believed that God could be best understood through connecting with nature. Combined: Emerson, whom many see as a visionary, believed that God could be best understood through connecting with nature. Note: the correct use of whom seems to be destined to disappear because many feel that who “sounds” correct: EX: Emerson, who many see as a visionary, believed that God could be best understood by connecting with nature. However, using whom when it is not grammatically correct, sounds bizarre: EX: Emerson, whom was one of the transcendentalists, wrote about his connection with God through nature.

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Whose: use to replace nouns and pronouns that act as a possessive in the sentence (his, hers, theirs, Thoreau’s, environmentalists’) IC 1: Aldo Leopold has influenced much of the environmentalist rhetoric we see today. IC 2: His essay “A Wilderness Ethic” asks us what responsibility we have for preserving the land. Combined: Aldo Leopold, whose essay “A Wilderness Ethic” asks us what responsibility we have for preserving the land, has influenced much of the environmentalist rhetoric we see today. That: use to replace nouns and pronouns that refer to persons, places, animals, things, etc. (the Romantics, lions, nature, wilderness, place) Independent Clause 1: Timothy Treadwell lived among bears. Independent Clause 2: They more or less accepted his presence. Combined: Timothy Treadwell lived among bears that more or less accepted his presence. IC 1: Many Republicans try to discredit any environmentalists. IC 2: The environmentalists argue industry is destroying the air and water. IC 3: We breathe the air. IC 4: We drink the water. Combined: Many Republicans try to discredit any environmentalists who argue that industry is destroying the air that we breathe and the water that we drink. Note: sometimes the relative pronoun is unnecessary and can be deleted: Many Republicans try to discredit any environmentalists who argue industry is destroying the air that we breathe and the water that we drink.  see the rules for reducing adjective clauses (on the next page) Note: Do not use that to modify person’s names. Incorrect: Michael Pollan that has written extensively about the food that we eat argues we are attracted to the apple because it fulfills our desire for sweetness. Correct: Many Republicans try to discredit any environmentalists that argue industry is destroying the air we breathe and the water we drink. Which: use to replace nouns and pronouns that refer to everything that are not persons (it, those, plants, nature, place, wilderness). IC 1: Nature brings to mind, for many, images of forests, waterfalls, and woodland creatures. IC 2: Many Americans see nature as the opposite of civilization. Combined: Nature, which many Americans see as the opposite of civilization, brings to mind, for many, images of forests, waterfalls, and woodland creatures. When: use to replace nouns and pronouns that refer to time (think of it as representing “the time-when”) (then, midnight, three o’clock, the Sixties, the nineteenth century). IC 1: In the nineteenth century, Emerson and Thoreau wrote about the spiritual and physical importance of connecting with it. IC 2: Many American Christians believed nature was little more than a place for resources then. Combined: In the nineteenth century, when many American Christians believed nature was little more than a place for resources, Emerson and Thoreau wrote about the spiritual and physical importance of connecting with it.

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Where: use to replace nouns and pronouns that refer to a place as a place (think of it as representing “the place-where”) (there, nature, place, wilderness, America, the ocean). IC 1: Annie Dillard reminds us that nature is a place. IC 2: Birds and insects unfold in flashes of beauty there whether we notice them or not Combined: Annie Dillard reminds us that nature is a place where birds and insects unfold in flashes of beauty whether we notice them or not. Note: You could also write this sentence in the following way: (a) Annie Dillard reminds us that nature is a place in which birds and insects unfold in flashes of beauty whether we notice them or not. (Technically, this is a prepositional phrase with an adjective clause modifying the object of the preposition) (a) Annie Dillard reminds us that nature is a place that birds and insects unfold in flashes of beauty whether we notice them or not. Note: Just because a noun refers to a place does not necessarily mean that you should or can use where. Incorrect: The Sutro Baths, where were built at the end of the nineteenth century, mysteriously burned down in 1966. Correct: The Sutro Baths, which were built at the end of the nineteenth century, mysteriously burned down in 1966. You can test it In the following way: (A) The Sutro Baths, THE PLACE where were built at the end of the nineteenth century, mysteriously burned down in 1966. (B) I met her at the Sutro Baths, THE PLACE where we first realized that we both found the ocean waves mesmerizing. A does not make sense and sounds very clunky. B sounds correct and flows well. Try this test when you are uncertain. It is not full-proof, but it will help to give you a better idea if you are using it correctly. Reducing Adjective Clauses I. Reducing the adjective clause (direct object or object of the preposition) When an adjective clause is formed by converting a direct object or object of the preposition, we can reduce the adjective clause by omitting the relative pronoun. Look at the example below: independent clause adjective clause He works in the garden that he planted for his wife and children. Let’s break the sentence into two independent clauses by converting the adjective clause to an independent clause. S TV DO He planted the garden [for his wife and children.]  Independent Clause that was converted into an adjective clause S TV DO DO S TV He planted the garden that for his wife and children.  that he planted [for his wife and children.]  that he planted [for his wife and children.]

We can drop the relative pronoun and the sentence will still work. Correct: He works in the garden that he planted for his wife and children. Correct: He works in the garden he planted for his wife and children. Correct: Many people love the gardens that they first played in as children. Correct: Many people love the gardens they first played in as children.

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II. Reducing the adjective clause to a verbal phrase that is acting as an adjective When you have an adjective clause that contains a verbal and a to be verb, you can omit the relative pronoun and to be verb. What you are left with is a verbal phrase acting as an adjective. Corporations that are polluting the environment should be given much steeper fines. Corporations polluting the environment should be given much steeper fines. The Botany of Desire, which was written by Michael Pollan, is about how certain plants fulfill our desires. The Botany of Desire, written by Michael Pollan, is about how certain plants fulfill our desires. III. Converting an adjective clause to a noun phrase appositive. When your adjective clause is a pattern two dependent clause that has a relative pronoun + linking verb + noun complement, you can omit the relative pronoun and the linking verb. What you are left with is a noun phrase appositive. Annie Dillard, who is a Pulitzer Prize winner for her book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, later converted to Catholicism. Annie Dillard, a Pulitzer Prize winner for her book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, later converted to Catholicism. Using Several Adjective Clauses in a Single Sentence Rachel Carson, who wrote such memorable environmental classics as Silent Spring, The Edge of the Sea, and The Sea Around Us, is also remembered as an early environmentalist that was attacked by a number of politicians and many chemical companies for being an alarmist who “courageously spoke out to remind us we are a vulnerable part” of the same ecosystem that we are damaging. IC 1: Rachel Carson is also remembered as an early environmentalist. IC 1: She wrote such memorable environmental classics as Silent Spring, The Edge of the Sea, and The Sea Around Us. IC 1: She was attacked by a number of politicians and many chemical companies for being an alarmist. IC 1: She “courageously spoke out to remind us we are a vulnerable part” of the same ecosystem. IC 1: We are damaging it.

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Punctuation Whether you use commas with the adjective clause or not often depends on the context of how the clause is being used. When we consider how a clause or a phrase works as a modifier in a sentence, we often take into consideration whether that clause or phrase is restrictive or nonrestrictive. There are several different ways to consider this. 1. Restrictive Clauses Restrictive clauses provide essential information about the sentence, information so necessary that if the clause were removed, the sentence would no longer make sense. Rachel Carson and Aldo Leopold exposed many problems with the way that Americans understood their responsibility for the land, but the ones that recognized the importance of adopting a new perspective on the consequences of our actions were the most important. If you remove the adjective clauses, you are left with the following sentence, which does not really make any sense: Rachel Carson and Aldo Leopold exposed many problems with the way, but the ones were the most important. 2. Non-Restrictive Clauses On the other hand, if the clauses are supplying additional information, but do not affect the overall meaning of the sentence, then they are nonrestrictive: The deserts of Nevada, which stretch for many miles under the eyes of punishing heat, are filled with life. If you remove the clause, you are left with a sentence that, even though it is less detailed, makes perfect sense: The deserts of Nevada are filled with life. 3. Commas or No Commas? Restrictive or Non-Restrictive? As far as how to properly punctuate these clauses, you use commas for nonrestrictive clauses and no commas for restrictive clauses. However, whether a clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive is not always as obvious as the examples above; moreover, sometimes the choice to make a clause restrictive or nonrestrictive will depend on how you wish that clause to be understood (and, by extension, the clauses relationship to the noun you are modifying). The natural areas that are in the National Park system have been set aside for all to enjoy. The natural areas, which are in the National Park system, have been set aside of all to enjoy. In the first sentence, the restrictive clause implies that you are identifying the specific natural areas in the National Park system that have been set aside for everyone to enjoy-- while, in the second sentence, the nonrestrictive clause implies that you are giving extra background information about the natural areas, which are part of the park system. While the choice to use an adjective clause restrictively or non-restrictively is often a choice of focus, you can only use a “that clause” restrictively. All other adjective clauses can be used either restrictively or non-restrictively depending on the context of the sentence and however you wish to focus the sentence. However, in general, many writers tend to only use the “which clause” non-restrictively. NOTE: RULE  Adjective clauses that begin with “that” can only be used restrictively (to identify the noun) What to Take Away from This Lesson Adjectives clauses are a very effective way to add detail to your sentences. You can also use them to combine sentences especially when you have several sentences in a row that share the same subject and you are looking for a way to reduce the repetition. Use the appropriate relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where) You can reduce some adjective clauses by omitting the relative pronoun (and sometimes other words). Restrictive adjective clauses identify the nouns they are modifying. Do not use commas. Non-restrictive clauses provide background information about the nouns they are modifying. Use commas.

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Practice – Adjective Clauses

I. Directions: Underline the adjective clauses in the passages below. (1) Robert Stone never knew his father, who skipped out of his life when he was a baby, leaving him to cope with a schizophrenic mother and a series of Catholic schools and orphanages where, he says, he "learned to spell, learned grammar, learned Latin -- the only foreign language in which I ever had a literary experience -- and got hit a lot." And though Stone, at 61, refuses to feel sorry for his abandoned young self ("I had a fine childhood," he says firmly, deflecting sympathy), the story of his genesis is echoed in all of the big, brilliant novels he has written since, especially in his fascination with the absconding God of Jewish mysticism, the God who abandons his creation, leaving behind both tantalizing bits of himself and all of us, long for what those divine fragments suggest we have lost. (San Francisco Examiner Magazine (May 24, 1998): "Stone Alone", by Joan Smith. p 7) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II. Directions: Find the adjective clauses and underline them. Then decide whether they are restrictive or non-restrictive (write this above each clause). Finally make sure they are properly punctuated and fix them if necessary. (1) Many cultures of the past have considered wilderness which we might consider as those places, that we think have been left untouched by man, as places of desolation. (2) Annie Dillard who wrote Pilgrim at Tinker Creek suggests that we often miss seeing the many “events,” which often are happening all around us. (3) In the nineteenth century when many believed that God left man in charge of nature, the civilizations of the Western World believed that the resources found in nature would always be plentiful. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- III. Directions: Using adjective clauses combine these independent clauses into a single sentence: Annie Dillard wrote Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. Annie Dillard won the Pulitzer Prize in 1975. Pilgrim at Tinker Creek chronicles Dillard’s thoughts on solitude, writing, religion, and the flora and fauna of Tinker Creek. Tinker Creek is located in the Blue Ridge Mountains.

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Free Modifiers Part Two – Noun Phrase Appositives (NPAs) Noun phrase appositives (NPAs) are another handy structure for adding detail to your sentences. We already know that (a) a phrase is a group of words that is missing a subject, a verb or both and (b) that a noun is a person, place, thing, concept etc., but we have not yet discussed what an appositive is. Apposition is “the act of placing together or bringing into proximity,” or, in grammar terms, apposition is “a syntactic relation between expressions, usually consecutive, that has the same function and the same relation to other elements in the sentence, the second expression identifying or supplementing the first (dictionary.com). In the case of the NPA, a single noun or a noun phrase is placed next to a noun or noun phrase, or, more specifically, the noun or noun phrase renames the noun or noun phrase that it has been placed next to—and, through that process, the NPA clarifies, explains and/or presents other aspects. The simplest NPAs are names, titles or common tags:

1. Annie Dillard, a writer, is the author of Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. 2. The EPA, the Environmental Protection Agency, is supposed to monitor the companies that pollute. 3. Even though I already knew that Treadwell was killed by one of the bears that he was trying to protect, I

could not stop watching Grizzly Man, an interesting documentary. While these are certainly not the most effective or interesting uses of the NPA, these examples do show how the NPA basically works. Note that in each of the examples a noun or noun phrase renames another noun or noun phrase—and very often an article (a, an, or the). In the first example, writer renames Annie Dillard; in the second example, Environmental Protection Agency renames EPA, and in the third example, documentary renames Grizzly Man. The NPA, however, is a much more powerful and effective tool than shown in these examples. If we look at the third example, we see that the adjective interesting is modifying the noun documentary (which renames Grizzly Man). With this in mind, we can consider other ways to modify a noun and add even more rich detail to our sentences. For example, we might consider using the adjective clause to modify the appositive that is renaming the noun.

Even though I already knew that Treadwell was killed by one of the bears that he was trying to protect, I could not stop watching Grizzly Man, an interesting documentary that gathers together the video footage Treadwell took during his yearly expeditions to Alaska.

In this example, we see the appositive being used as an anchor to attach the adjective clause, the combination allowing us to add some useful and rich detail to the sentence. Another useful way to employ the NPA is to use them in a series:

Redwood tree forests are filled with many natural features that fill us with wonder— trees, shrubs, birds, woodland creatures, waterfalls, and the moist air. The Sutro Baths have a unique rhythm— the pull of the tides, the incessant rolling of waves, the song of birds in flight, the interview between light and water.

In both of these examples, we see a series of words that rename the noun. In first example, we see a list of features from the forest that fill us with wonder. In the second example, we see the addition of prepositional phrases, which provide more detail about the appositives that rename rhythm. Another very useful way to employ the NPA is to use it to rename an entire sentence:

Emerson felt that our minds could become one with the spirit of the natural world as if, when we convene with nature, we become much like a transparent eyeball that loses all sense of the self, an observation that suggests when we connect with nature we lose all sense of the I and just experience the natural world for what it is.

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Observation renames the entire independent clause that comes before it—and the adjective clause that follows it provides an explanation for what Emerson means when he claims that he becomes a transparent eyeball when he experiences nature. Punctuation Noun Phrase appositives, in general, are non-restrictive (though there will certainly be times when they are restrictive), so, in general, we surround them with commas: In “Non-moral Nature,” Stephen Jay Gould writes about the ichneumon fly, a wasp that passes “their larva life as parasites feeding on the bodies of other animals” (1). Michael Pollan, in his essay “Gardening Means War,” recognizes that ladybugs, insects that know “how to catch 40 or 50 aphids every day without hurting anybody else,” are a very viable alternative to pesticides (5). From time to time, you might find yourself wanting to insert a series of NPA’s between the subject and verb. When you make this choice, you need to consider the fact that, as readers who want to read as effortlessly as possible, we don’t like there to be too many words between the subject and the verb of a sentence, so it often helps to set that series off with dashes: Muir Woods—a place where giants reach for the sky, an ecosystem with roots that stretch back to the time of dinosaurs, a forest of silence that fills one with calm—was set aside as a national monument by Teddy Roosevelt in 1908.

Sentence Combining with NPA’s and Adjective Clauses As you are revising your essays, you can look for sentences that share the same nouns and see if you can reduce any of them to NPA’s and/or adjective clauses and combine them. The Sutros Baths are located on the far western edge of San Francisco. They are the leftover ruins of a building. The building used to house a large seawater fed pool. The waves of the Pacific Ocean crash against the leftover concrete barriers. The concrete barriers still reveal where the pools had once been used. The pools are now filled with feathered visitors. Some of those visitors are seagulls, ducks, pelicans, egrets and herons. The Sutro Baths— the leftover ruins of a building that used to house a large seawater fed pool— are located on the far western edge of San Francisco, where the waves of the Pacific Ocean crash against the leftover concrete barriers that still reveal where the pools had once been used, pools that are now filled with feathered visitors such as seagulls, ducks, pelicans, egrets and herons. While your goal for this class is not to write sentences as long as this, this example illustrates just how effectively you can add detail to your sentences by using NPAS, adjective clauses, and NPAs modified by adjective clauses. . Other Notes (1) You can use the same word as the one you are renaming (this can create a nice effect): In order to save our planet from the destructive and garish forces of overdevelopment, we must find solutions that bridge the gap between the need to for development and the need to conserve our resources, solutions that can satisfy the desire to acquire wealth through building new real estate and the necessity to not overbuild, solutions that will satisfy politicians and lobbyists as well as environmentalists and conservationists. (2) You can also list appositives that are followed by a pronoun: The dark green whirled leaves of skunk cabbage, the clover-like leaves of wild ginger, the frilly fronds of ferns, the gentle babble of creeks winding across the forest floor, the insistent tapping of woodpeckers— all of these are the sights and sounds of the redwood tree forest.

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Noun Phrase Appositives Practice Sheet Directions: Underline the NPAs in each sentence and italicize the noun that renames the noun you are modifying. (1) The home of good talk, then, is the third place—a meeting ground between the work place and the family circle, between the "rat race" and the "womb." (Christopher Lasch, The Revolt of the Elites) (2) When I first started to read about the emerging science of chaos, I was immediately struck with similarities to characteristics that had been ascribed to the Feminine: unpredictability, nonlinear processes, the importance of context, and the inseparable relatedness of the parts to the whole. (Linda Jean Shepard, Lifting the Veil: The Feminine Face of Science) (3) Malawi's cash crops— peanuts, tea, coffee, sugarcane, and tobacco— were unchanged, though their value on the world market continued to fluctuate. (Paul Theroux, "Malawi," National Geographic) (4) This was the old slap-on-the-fingers-if-your-modifiers-were caught-dangling stuff—correct spelling, correct punctuation, correct grammar, hundreds of itsy-bitsy rules for itsy-bitsy people. (Robert M. Pirsig, Zen and The Art of Motorcycle Maintenance) (5) Scores are important, but not as important as the process that produces them, a point of view that should surprise no one, since America was the first nation to be argued into existence. (Neil Postman, The End of Education) Directions: Create Your Own NPA/Adjective Clause Combinations (a) The lighthouse, ___________________________________________________, sits on the edge of a cliff above the Pacific Ocean. Example: The lighthouse, a shiny beacon that was built in 1876, sits at the edge of a cliff above the Pacific Ocean. (b) Timothy Treadwell, _________________________________________________, was eaten by a lion. Directions: Combine these sentences by converting them into NPA’s, adjective clauses, and NPA/adjective clause combinations. Create several independent clauses or, if you feel like it, try to create one single clause. Don't worry about whether you do it correctly. Just give it a try.

1. Taking into consideration the rise of flavorless tomatoes, one might ask whether large, commercial-run farms will ever return to growing fruit and vegetables with flavor.

2. Flavorless tomatoes are orbs of bland watery skin 3. Flavorless tomatoes are shiny red globes of genetically altered fruit. 4. Large, commercial-run farms seek to cut every possible corner to save money, 5. This is an important question to consider because the consumer is being left with a growing crop of

unappealing produce 6. It is a crop. 7. It looks incredibly delicious yet tastes like bottled water.

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Free Modifiers Part Three – Clause Modifying Verbal Phrases (CMVPs) The clause modifying verbal phrase (CMVP) is a third way to supply your sentences with more rich detail. Phrases, as we already know, are groups of words that are missing a subject, a verb or both. We also know that clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb, and we can deduce that CMVPs are verbal phrases that modify clauses. Before we can continue, we need to take a few moments to consider what a verbal is. What Are Verbals? Verbals are nonfinite, non-tense verb forms that can function as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and parts of finite verbs. There are three forms of verbals: (1) The “ing form” (aka the present participle) jumping, talking, singing, sleeping, smoking (2) The “ed” or “had” form (aka the past participle) jumped, talked, sung, had slept, smoked (3) The “to” form (aka the infinitive) to jump, to sleep, to talk, to sing, to smoke To better understand what we mean by nonfinite/non-tense, let’s take a look at the following word groupings:

1. I teaching you how to modify a clause with a verbal phrase. 2. Environmentalists dedicated to saving Redwood forests for future generations. 3. Snyder argues that we to consider how we demarcate place by looking at the biology of the region.

You have likely noticed that all three of these word grouping don’t quite make sense because something seems to be missing. Indeed, each word grouping needs a verb that provides tense:

1. I am teaching you how to modify a clause with a verbal phrase. 2. Environmentalists are dedicated to saving Redwood forests for future generations. 3. Snyder argues that we need to consider how we demarcate place by looking at the biology of the region.

You might also notice that even if those first groupings of words are missing tense, the verbals still contain action. Indeed, verbals, once again, are nonfinite, non-tense verb forms that function as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or parts of a finite verb. Wandering and meditating are two of the many rewards of hiking. The dedicated environmentalist never stops protesting against companies that pollute the air. Wandering and meditating act as the subjects of the first sentence and hiking is the object of the preposition of. In the second sentence, dedicated acts as an adjective that modifies environmentalist and protesting against companies that pollute the air acts as the direct object of the verb stops. Clause Modifying Verbal Phrases Clause modifying verbal phrases (CMVP) are phrases that (a) contain a verbal and (b) modify entire clauses (both independent and dependent). Clause modifying verbal phrases can join two actions which happen at the same time. This relationship can also be emphasized by adding “while,” “by,” or “in.” While living at Tinker Creek, Annie Dillard recorded her observations and thoughts on solitude, writing, religion, and the flora and fauna that surrounded her daily. Please also note that a CMVP can be understood as a reduced independent clause; for example, let’s look at the previous sentence. The CMVP can easily be converted to an independent clause: Annie Dillard lived at Tinker Creek. She recorded her observations and thoughts on solitude, writing, religion, and the flora and fauna that surrounded her daily. CMVPs can also imply a cause/effect relationship: Environmentalists are dedicated to making the planet a cleaner and healthier place to live. Environmentalists fight large industrial corporations and factories that pollute the water and air. Dedicated to making the planet a cleaner and healthier place to live, environmentalists fight large industrial corporations and factories that pollute the water and air.

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CMVPs can also establish actions that happen at different times by using words like after or before:

• William visited his friend’s garden. He tasted the fresh, homegrown tomatoes. • William signed up for a plot of land at the local community garden. • He planted his own tomatoes, basil and jalapeno peppers.

After visiting his friend’s garden and tasting the fresh, homegrown tomatoes, William signed up for a plot of land at the local community garden, planting his own tomatoes, basil, and jalapeno peppers. CMVPs are especially useful for supplying more information, detail and description for your sentence. Like the other free modifiers we have looked at so far, you can set them up as a series. In order to convince his readers that working with the earth helps one find a spiritual center, Jonathan Kotzel, author of Gardening As a New Age Practice, tries to impress the importance of spirituality in gardening by describing friends who have used gardening as a way to overcome depression, by interviewing inmates who have found solace and peace through working the earth, and by offering his own experiences of using gardening to get over the death of his wife. You can also move them around in the clause that you are modifying: By describing friends who have used gardening as a way to overcome depression and by interviewing inmates who have found solace and peace through working the earth, the author of Gardening As a New Age Practice, Johnathan Kotzel, in order to convince his readers that working with the earth helps one find a spiritual center, tries to impress the importance of spirituality in gardening by also offering his own experiences of using gardening to get over the death of his wife. The CMVP Rule: If you look closely at all of the previous examples, you should notice a specific pattern: all of the clauses and clause modifying verbal phrases share the same subject. Keeping this in mind, we can now take a look at the CMVP rule: the implied subject of the verbal phrase must be the same as the subject of the clause that you are modifying. By closely examining Emerson’s claim that we become a transparent eyeball when we convene with nature, his radical revisualization of nature as a place to better understand God is witnessed. Who is examining Emerson’s claim in this sentence? Is “Emerson’s radical revisualization of nature” examining his own claim? The sentence, as written, does not quite make sense (even if it kind of sounds like it does). Because the implied subject of the verbal phrase is not the same as the subject of the sentence you are modifying, the phrase does not feel like it is firmly attached to the clause it is modifying. When this happens, we say that it is dangling (thus a dangling modifier). If this happens, then you need to find a way to fix it so it no longer dangles. You have several options. You might notice that the independent clause has been written in the passive voice. What if we rewrite it in the active voice? By closely examining Emerson’s claim that we become a transparent eyeball when we convene with nature, we witness his radical revisualization of nature as a place to better understand God. In the active voice, the agent of the sentence we has been returned to the subject slot. Since we are the ones doing the examining, the implied subject and the subject of the clause being modified now work. You could also fix the sentence by converting the CMVP into a subordinate clause Moving CMVPs Around in a Clause As long as the implied subject of the CMVP is the same as the subject of the clause that you are modifying, you can move the CMVP around in the sentence until you have found the place where it works the best. The class rebelled against their professor’s unfair policies. They refused to turn in work. They wrote letters to the college president. They boycotted class meetings.

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1. Here are several options: 2. The class rebelled against their professor’s unfair practices by refusing to turn in work, writing letters to the

college president, and boycotting class meetings. 3. After refusing to turn in work, the class rebelled against their professor’s unfair practices by writing letters to

the college president and boycotting class meetings. 4. The class, refusing to turn in work, rebelled against their professor’s unfair practices by also writing letters to

the college president and boycotting class meetings. Punctuation In general, you surround CMVPs with a comma. CMVP + , + IC | CMVP + , +CMVP + , + CMVP + , +IC. | I + , + CMCP + , + IC ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CMVP — Practice Sheet Recognizing CMVPs (underline the CMVPs in the sentences below) 1) Feeling a little overwhelmed, she walked to the podium for the first time, trembling noticeably, and addressed the audience. 2) Dismayed at the lack of progress and left with few options, the students finally took over the administration building 3) To overcome his feelings of inadequacy, he took up the sport of jousting. Create your own CMVPs for the following sentences: 1) Thoreau writes, in his essay Walking, that “in wildness is the preservation of society” (8). Example: Attempting to express the importance of our connection to nature, Thoreau writes, in his essay, Walking, that “in wildness is the preservation of society” (8). 2) The Sutro Baths have been left to the erosive elements of ocean and land. Correct the dangling modifiers in the following sentences 1) The garden has been finished after completing all the necessary backbreaking work. 2) To familiarize you with the 19th century concept of the sublime and its affect on how we have come to understand the natural word, the affect it had on painting in both Europe and America is explained by William Cronon. 3) After reading your essay about cheeseburgers and their influence on how we define wilderness, several questions came to my mind. 4) Before visiting Muir Woods, transportation must be arranged. 5) The day was spent hiking the trails of Mount Tamalpais, sailing on Richardson Bay, and eating lunch in Sausalito. Try to combine these groupings of sentences by using converting them to CMVPs and attaching them to one of the clauses: The students continued their occupation of the building They were stubbornly refusing to give in to the administration. They were running low on food and water. They were sleeping in shifts. They were surrounded by squads of police and soldiers. The president deferred to her advisors. She claimed that they had studied the issue thoroughly. She argued that her own involvement should minimal. She looked tired and worn. He tried a new way of doing the recipe. He added good salsa, lime juice, sea salt and cilantro. He made the best guacamole he'd ever tasted. But he failed to make enough.

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Free Modifiers Part Four – Absolute Phrases Absolute phrases are reduced sentences that typically modify whole sentences or clauses. While they are not the most commonly used construction, they are a valuable tool when you are looking for another structure that will allow you to add additional detail to your sentences.

In “To Autumn,” Keats celebrates the beauty of autumn, its dwindling rhythms, misty fruitfulness, and intoxicating drowsiness hinting at Keats’ acceptance that he will soon die.

Comparing the independent clause (in bold) to the absolute phrase (in italics), what similarities and differences do you see? Do they both have a subject? Do they both have a verb? What makes the absolute a phrase? If you guessed that both the clause and the phrase have a subject, but the absolute phrase has no verb, then you guessed correctly. Let’s take a closer look at the absolute phrase (in italics). The full subject of the sentence is— its dwindling rhythms, misty fruitfulness, and intoxicating drowsiness— which is followed by the verbal (in this case a present participle) hinting. We can easily convert the absolute phrase into an independent clause by transforming the verbal into an active verb:

Its dwindling rhythms, misty fruitfulness, and intoxicating drowsiness hint at Keats’ acceptance that he will soon die.

With this in mind, let’s take a quick look at the two different ways that you can transform an independent clause into an absolute phrase. (1) Delete the be verb in the sentence (am is, are, was, were): Ind. Clause #1: I remember the emeralds in shop windows, lying casually in trays. Ind. Clause #2: All of them were oddly pale at the center. I remember the emeralds in shop windows, lying casually in trays, all of them were oddly pale at the center. (Joan Didion) Ind. Clause #1: In his article “The Trouble With Wilderness,” William Cronon argues that we need to rethink nature. Ind. Clause #1: His goal is to convince his readers that we are not separate from the natural world.

In his article “The Trouble With Wilderness,” William Cronon argues that we need to rethink nature, his goal is to convince his readers that we are not separate from the natural world.

(2) Transform the active verb into a verbal: Ind. Clause #1: Science is a creative human activity. Ind. Clause #2: Its geniuses act more as artists than as information processors.

Science is a creative human activity, its geniuses act acting more as artists than as information processors. (Stephen Jay Gould)

Ind. Clause #1: After describing the fleeting nature of spring, Frost shifts his attention to man’s fall from grace in the Garden of Eden. Ind. Clause #2: Frost’s use of a coordinating conjunction ties the brevity of our lives to the brevity of that first green of spring.

After describing the fleeting nature of spring, Frost shifts his attention to man’s fall from grace in the Garden of Eden, Frost’s use of a coordinating conjunction ties tying the brevity of our lives to the brevity of that first green of spring.

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Using Absolutes in a Series: Like all other like-grammatical structures, more than one absolute phrase can be arranged in a series:

In her Pulitzer Prize winning book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Annie Dillard explores what it means to see by using rich, figurative language that contemplates the different ways we see, her metaphors building connections between sight and perception, her poetic choice of words adding a musical flow to her storied observations, her tapestry of images reminding us that seeing is as much about understanding as it is about observing.

Building off of what we have learned so far this semester, let’s look at how this sentences breaks down into individual independent clauses: 1. In her Pulitzer Prize winning book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Annie Dillard explores what it means to see. 2. She uses rich, figurative language. 3. This rich figurative language contemplates the different ways we see. 4. Her metaphors build connections between sight and perception. 5. Her poetic choice of words add a musical flow to her storied observations 6. Her tapestry of images reminds us that seeing is as much about understanding as it is about observing. Quick Analysis 1. In her Pulitzer Prize winning book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Annie Dillard explores what it means to see.  base clause 2. She uses by using rich, figurative language  CMVP 3. This rich figurative language that contemplates the different ways we see.  adjective clause 4. Her metaphors build building connections between sight and perception.  absolute 5. Her poetic choice of words add adding a musical flow to her storied observations  absolute 6. Her tapestry of images reminds reminding us that seeing is as much about understanding as it is about observing. Like CMVPs, you can move absolute phrases around in the sentence. The order you choose will depend on which order sounds the best to you. Here are a few possibilities (which one sounds best to you?):

Her head thrown back, a rose clenched in her teeth, a smile on her lips, Lydia danced the tango. Lydia, her head thrown back, a smile on her lips, danced the tango, a rose clenched in her teeth. A smile on her lips, Lydia danced the tango, her head thrown back and a rose clenched in her teeth.

Punctuating Absolute Phrases Her head thrown back, Lydia danced the tango. If the absolute begins the sentence, place a comma at the end of the absolute. Lydia, her head thrown back, danced the tango. If the absolute appears in the middle of the sentence, place commas on both ends of the absolute. Lydia danced the tango, her head thrown back. If the absolute ends the sentence, place a comma at the beginning of the absolute. How are absolute phrases different from clause modifying verbal phrases? Throwing her head down, Lydia danced the tango. Her head thrown down, Lydia danced the tango. What is the difference functionally between these two phrase structures? (Hint: the answer can be best found in the way you form them). Which one is the absolute an which one is the CMVP? He drifts away, remembering sophomore year and the old Mercury he'd bought from Elvin Marsdale in French House. A big, top-heavy brute of a car, it had broken down constantly, forcing him to spend as much time in junkyards looking for parts as on the road. When, finally, his tuned ear told him the engine itself was dying--inexorable death from the inside, rings totally worn, valves gasping, driveshaft groaning--he'd sold it to an ignorant graduate student at a slight profit. Find the absolutes in this paragraph …

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Practice Sheet: Part One: (a) find and underline the absolute phrase (b) then convert the absolute phrase into an independent clause 1. She walked indolently along, with a mind at rest, its peace reflected in her innocent face. (Mark Twain)

Example: Its peace was reflected in her innocent face.

2. The spider skins lie on their sides, translucent and ragged, their legs drying in knots. (Annie Dillard)

3. Bolenciecwcz was staring at the floor now, trying to think, his great brow furrowed, his huge hands rubbing together, his face red. (James Thurber)

4. You can get a fair sense of the perils of an elevator shaft by watching an elevator rush up and down one, its counterweight flying by, like the blade on a guillotine. (Nick Paumgarten)

5. Marxism is dead, the Communist system utterly discredited by human experience, but the ghost of Marx hovers above the landscape, perhaps with a knowing smile. (William Grieder)

Part Two: Transform one of the following sentences into an absolute phrase and attach it to the other sentence:

California has many industries vital to its economy. Technology is one of the most innovative and profitable. Most Gardeners want to express something personal. Their overall designs reflect their creative selves. Gardeners have to face many problems. Pests, deer, and blight are the most common and pervasive.

Part Three: Choose a base clause and then transform the other two sentences into absolutes.

1) Their faces bubbled with excitement. The children waited for the gates to Disneyland to open. Their mouths drooled with anticipation. 2) Their native lands have been left behind. An uncertain future looms ahead. Immigrants often have many obstacles to overcome.

Part Four: Choose a base clause and then transform the other sentences into a series of absolutes. I gripped the wheel of the skidding car. My knuckles were white. My hair was standing on end. My stomach was heaving. Part Five: Create your own sentences using absolutes. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

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Coordination – Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are two-part conjunctions like these: not only …………………………………… but also not only …………………………………. but not ………………………………………….. but neither ………………………………….. nor either …………………………………….. or both ……………………………………….. and Correlative conjunctions are not only used to establish connections and logical relationships between sentences, but also to emphasize those ideas. In order for this structure to work as intended, you need to consider the following two issues whenever you attempt to include them in your writing: 1) They must join similar grammatical units used in the same way. conj. + verb phrase conj. + independent clause Incorrect: Neil Young not only plays loud, thrashing grunge, but he also plays mellow acoustic melodies. conj. + noun phrase conj. + noun phrase Correct: Neil Young plays not only loud, thrashing grunge but also mellow acoustic melodies. 2) They should be placed as closely as possible in front of the elements you are emphasizing:

conj. + independent clause conj + independent clause Okay: Not only was Jerry Garcia a great guitar player, but he was also a pretty good banjo player. conj. + noun complement conj. + noun complement Better: Jerry Garcia was not only a great guitar player but also a decent banjo player. Quick Practice

Try combining the following sentences with not only…..but AND both ……. and 1) My Uncle Larry smoked a lot of marijuana. He had boxes and boxes of funny colored pills. 2) Mary watched birds in Golden Gate Park for fun. She watched them for a living. 3) Donald Trump’s essays about poetry were not very focused. His emails to his fellow classmates were very strange. Combine the following sentences with: not …… but 1) Frankie does not like thinking. He loves playing golf. 2) The congressman does not like to give press conferences. He loves to play golf and go on vacation.

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Fragments Fragments— groups of words that are punctuated as if complete sentences— tend to come in two varieties: dependent clauses (groups of words that contain a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone) and phrases (groups of words that are missing a subject, a verb or both). And more often than not writers can fix them by simply attaching them to an independent clause that is already in the paragraph: 1) I visited the Sutro Bath ruins. A place that reminds one of an ancient civilization left to the forces of time. 2) The Redwood trees in Muir Woods remind me of the Ents from The Lord of the Rings. Because they are

ancient, tall and almost seem to be wise. 3) The lagoon at Crissy Field reminds us that we can always return the land to its original habitat. Especially since

we have the creativity. 4) I revisited the ruins of Sutro Baths because I discovered an odd music in those foghorns. Which call like fallen

angels in the night. 5) Yosemite feels like wilderness, but sometimes I feel lost in the crowds. Considering how many people visit the

park every year. Each one of these fragments can be easily fixed by simply attaching them to the clause, in fact each one fits the sentence perfectly (and continues the idea that the clause put forth). 1) I visited the Sutro Bath ruins, a place that reminds one of an ancient civilization left to the forces of time. 2) The Redwood trees in Muir Woods remind me of the Ents from The Lord of the Rings because they are

ancient, tall and almost seem to be wise. 3) The lagoon at Crissy Field reminds us that we can always return the land to its original habitat— especially

since we have the creativity. 4) I revisited the ruins of Sutro Baths because I discovered an odd music in those foghorns., which call like fallen

angels in the night. 5) Considering how many people visit the park every year, I sometimes feel lost in the crowds, but it still feels like

wilderness. Sometimes writers create fragments because they lose sight of the direction they are writing and then forget to look back at the sentence to be sure that it completes a thought (or that is has a subject and verb).

The ruins of the Sutro Baths, which are the remains of the old building that housed a large heated sea water swimming pool, which was, according to those who remember, very fun especially since it had a large slide that dumped you in the water.

This is a much more complicated fragment than the previous examples, but should be even more easily noticed because it never completes a thought (many writers never notice fragments because they don’t look back at what they previously wrote—or don’t take the time to consider what they have actually written—or if it adequately communicates what they are trying to say). If we break it down it looks like this:

(A) The ruins of the Sutro Baths [what looks like the subject] (B) which are the remains of the old building [adjective clause – modifying Sutro Baths] (C) that housed a heated sea water swimming pool [adjective clause – modifying building] (D) which was, according to those who remember, very fun [adjective clause & CMVP] (E) —especially since it had a large slide that dumped you in the water (subordinate clause + adjective clause]

The fragment has what appears to be a subject, but it is missing a verb for that subject (as well as the rest of the predicate). The only way to fix this is to make sure that the subject has a verb (and whatever else you wish to include in the predicate).

The ruins of the Sutro Baths once featured a heated, sea water swimming pool, which was, according to those who remember, very fun— especially since it had a large slide that dumped you in the water.

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Acceptable Fragments: Some fragments are generally considered acceptable, but keep in mind that some teachers will find some of these fragments unacceptable, and, with everything you write, you need to keep your audience in mind! • Used for emphasis: If we continue to spray insecticides, we may end up killing all of the natural predators for

the insects we are trying to control. A dire consequence, indeed. • To answer a question: When we wander through the park, do we see everything? Not according to Annie

Dillard. • As transitions: And now, keeping these qualities in mind, another perspective on why we should look more

closely. • Exclamations: A poorly conceived plan, indeed! • As questions: Which option should Americans choose? <-- almost universally acceptable

Practice Sheet: Fragments Directions: first underline all the fragments and then, in the space below, rewrite the paragraph by either (a) combining the fragments with a nearby clause or (b) transforming the phrase or dependent clause into an independent clause (or whatever else you think will fix the fragment): Born in 1944, in San Francisco. The son of Mexican-American, Spanish-speaking parents. Richard Rodriguez first learned English in grade school. He received a B. A. in English from Stanford University. And a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley. He writes about his regret at losing his Latino heritage. Because he was assimilated into the English-speaking world of public education. Although he disapproves of bilingual education. Which he feels causes reverse discrimination. Jesse Jackson, was born in South Carolina in 1941. He received a B.A. in sociology from North Carolina State University. And later became a Baptist minister. Following his studies at the Chicago Theological Seminary. Jackson believes in bilingual education. Since he feels that bilingual programs have been tested and proven. He feels that this is the only way to help immigrant children. Who suffer when they are forced to sit in confusing and unfriendly classrooms. Where they not only do not understand what is being said. But also are ignored and forgotten. As the regular work of the classroom goes on without them.

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Faulty Parallel Structure Source: The OWL at Purdue (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/). Parallel Structure Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or." Words and Phrases With the -ing form of words: Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling. With infinitive phrases: Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle. (Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Do not mix forms. Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle. Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle. Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed way. Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly. Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low. Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation. Clauses: A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism. Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. 0r  Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game. Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. passive Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. Lists After a Colon: Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form. Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs. Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs. Proofreading Strategies to Try • Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the

items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel. • If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel. • Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds?

For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

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Punctuation: Commas, Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes A. Commas: Contrary to common belief, commas have little to do with (1) the length of the sentence determining a need for a comma or (2) the feeling that one needs to pause— nor are commas mysterious in nature. They serve a very valuable and very specific purpose. They separate elements in a sentence and keep them from crashing into each other. This is not an exhaustive list of comma usage but should be a good start. I. Use commas to join independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. Independent Clause #1 CC Independent Clause #2 Mary Oliver often writes about the presence of the sacred in nature, but she never mentions god. DO NOT FORGET – if you are using And, But, Or, Yet and your sentences share the same subject, you can drop the second subject, BUT you must also drop the comma (because the coordinating conjunction now serves as the joining element between two verb phrases). Independent Clause #1 CC Independent Clause #2 John purchased several new books for his best friend, but he decided to keep them all for himself. Subject Verb Phrase #1 CC Verb Phrase #2 John purchased several new books for his best friend but decided to keep them all for himself. DO NOT FORGET – or be confused by the difference between a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, etc.). The conjunctive adverbs have their own rules. See the section about them earlier in the course reader:  John purchased several new books for his best friend, but he decided to keep them all for himself.  John purchased several new books for his best friend; however, he decided to keep them all for himself. II. Introductory Elements: when you include dependent clauses, various phrases, and conjunctive adverbs before am independent clause, you should use a comma to mark the boundary between the elements (thus separating the introductory element from the subject of the independent clause) 1. Use a comma after an introductory subordinate clause [SC + , + IC]. Subordinate Clause Independent Clause After a consumer notices the image in an advertisement, the advertiser can then deliver the information for the product through the text. DO NOT FORGET – when the subordinate clause comes after the independent clause, do not use a comma (the majority of the time). 2. Use a comma after most introductory phrases

a. Transitional Phrases (e.g. on the one hand, for example, on the contrary, in other words, etc. On the other hand, John cannot be trusted with keeping track of his own money. b. Verbal Phrases Considering his options carefully, John searched through the latest class schedule. c. Prepositional Phrases (generally speaking, only longer ones) After a long and critically well-received career, the brilliant actress never received an Academy Award. d. Noun Phrase Appositives A strange and oddly dressed man, the young plumber waited for his opportunity for a makeover. e. Absolute Phrases His procrastination stronger than ever, the young student went dancing instead of finishing his essay.

3. Use a comma after conjunctive adverbs at the beginning of an independent clause.  Generally, reading as much as possible will help you grow as a writer.  However, we must look at the issue more carefully.

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III. Interrupting Elements: As you become more confident with your writing and learn how to comfortably include elements that add detail and modify elements in your sentences (all of which have been covered in this reader), you will need to pay close attention to where and how they interrupt and modify elements of your sentences. In general, elements that interrupt an independent clause with additional information should be offset with commas. If the element appears at the end of the sentence, you should precede it with a comma. While not one hundred percent foolproof, if you can remove the interrupting element and the sentence is still clear, you should use commas to offset the element. 1. Use a comma to offset non-restrictive adjective clauses (adj clause) in a clause. The Sutro Baths, which were developed by the self-made millionaire Adolph Sutro, burned in 1966. DO NOT FORGET: Non-restrictive clauses add extra, additional detail to the clauses they modify while restrictive clauses identify the nouns they modify (and you do not separate them with commas). Also—do not forget the rule that adjective clauses which begin with that are ALWAYS restrictive. 2. Use a comma to offset a transitional phrase in a clause. John, in other words, cannot be trusted with keeping track of his own money. John cannot be trusted with keeping track of his own money, for example. 3. Use a comma to offset a verbal phrase in a clause. John, determined to find the most interesting classes, searched through the latest school schedule. John searched through the latest class schedule, looking for classes to fit his work schedule. 4. Use a comma to offset prepositional phrases (generally speaking, only longer ones) The brilliant actress, after a long and critically well-received career, never received an Academy Award. 5. Use a comma to offset an absolute phrase in a clause. The young student, his procrastination stronger than ever, went dancing instead of finishing his essay. The young studen went dancing instead of finishing his essay, his procrastination stronger than ever. 6. Use a comma to offset a noun phrase appositive in a clause. The young plumber, an odd and strangely dressed man, waited for his opportunity for a makeover. The hairdresser offered the young plumber her most minimal hairstyle, a clean-shaven head. 7. Use a comma to offset a conjunctive adverb in a clause. Reading as much as possible will, generally, help you grow as a writer. Reading as much as possible will help you grow as a writer, generally. We, however, must look at the issue more carefully. We must, however, look at the issue more carefully we must look at the issue more carefully, however. 8. Use a comma to offset negation in a clause. I want a new car, not another vacuum cleaner, for my anniversary gift. I want a new car for my anniversary gift, not another vacuum cleaner.

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IV. Separating Elements in a List: In general, when you use three or more of the same like grammatical structure, separate them with a commas and a coordinating conjunction (X, Y, and Z): Hortense cried, screamed, and wailed after receiving an F in her basket weaving class. John, Bill, and Horatio sang in the school choir throughout their years in high school. Billy received several new video games, a complete set of Star Wars DVDs, and a handful of books for Christmas. John pondered his options, considered some potential reactions, and prepared a plan. After considering his options carefully, creating a plan of action, and setting it in motion, John went to bed early. THE OXFORD COMMA refers to the comma between the second to last item in the series and the coordinating conjunction:  We invited the teachers, Billy, and Sammy. If we use the Oxford comma then it is clear that you are inviting three different persons (1) some teachers, (2) someone named Billy, and (3) someone named Sammy. If you remove the Oxford comma, then you end up with the following We invited the teachers, Billy and Sammy. Now, who, exactly, is being invited is no longer clear. It might still be (1) some teachers, (2) someone named Billy, and (3) someone named Sammy—BUT without that comma it also looks like Billy and Sammy are noun phrases appositives and, thus, those are the names of the teachers being invited. Here is an unfortunate example of the problem, which comes from a description of a documentary about the actor Peter Ustinov: … highlights of the global tour include encounters with Nelson Mandela, an 800-year-old demigod and a dildo collector. Without the Oxford comma, the sentence seems to be saying that the famous South African leader was an 800- year-old demigod and a collector of dildos. If you include the Oxford comma then it is clear that Peter Ustinov, in his storied life, encountered (1) Mandela, (2) an 800-year-old demigod, and (3) a dildo collector. So … what does one do and does one have to use the Oxford comma. The answers are: (1) you do not have to use the Oxford comma and (2) to avoid unfortunate mistakes, pay attention to what you have written and use the Oxford comma whenever your sentence is unclear without it. V. Using Two or More Adjectives before a Noun Sometimes, when we are describing the nouns in our sentences, we add more than one adjective in front of a given noun. Sometimes we separate those adjectives with a coordinating conjunction; sometimes we separate them with a comma, and sometimes we do not separate them. The correct choice is bound to the difference between coordinate adjectives and cumulative adjectives. Coordinate Adjectives Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives that are equally important. Most helpfully, their order can be reversed or moved around. You can either separate them with commas or use a coordinating conjunction

 The tall, clueless, awkward man smashed his head on the cupboard door.  The awkward, tall, clueless man smashed his head on the cupboard door.  The tall, clueless, and awkward man smashed his head on the cupboard door

Cumulative Adjectives Cumulative Adjectives are not equally important, and, as a result, their order cannot be reversed. DO NOT USE commas to separate cumulative adjectives.

 John finds old wooden rollercoasters equally fun and terrifying.  CORRECT You cannot reverse the order of the cumulative adjectives old wooden:

 John finds wooden old rollercoasters equally fun and exciting.  INCORRECT

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VI. Other Comma Use 1. Use a comma before introducing a quotation:

 Neil deGrasse Tyson once said, “the only people who still call hurricanes acts of God are the people who write insurance forms.”

2. Use a comma to separate each element in an address.

 I work at 50 Frida Kahlo Way, San Francisco, CA. 94112 3. Use a comma after a city-state, city-country combination within a sentence.

 I would like to someday retire in Seattle, Washington.  I have always wanted to visit Paris, France.

4. Use a comma to separate the elements in a full date (weekday, month and day, and year). Also separate a combination of those elements from the rest of the sentence with commas.

 "March 15, 2013, was a strange day.  Friday, March 15, 2013, was a strange day.  Friday, March 15, was a strange day."

Do NOT add a comma when the sentence mentions only the month and year.

 March 2013 was a strange month. 5. Use a comma when directly addressing someone in a sentence

 My dear readers, you need to look more deeply into the language our current president uses. Not doing so can lead to unfortunate mistakes:

 Let’s eat grandma.  a call for cannibalism  Let’s eat, grandma.  an invitation from you to your grandmother to sit down and eat a meal together

Other Punctuation Marks I. The Semicolon 1. Use the semicolon to link two independent clauses that are VERY closely related in thought (better— use a joining word)

 Some writers still use a typewriter; most use a word processor. 2. Use the semicolon to join two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase

 John knew he needed to study in order to pass the test; however, he went out dancing anyway. 3. Use the semicolon to separate phrases or lists that contain internal punctuation or are very long.

 My plan was to take her to a nice, but not overly expensive, dinner; go to the beach to gaze at the nighttime stars, which, by the way, shine brightly this time of year; and end the evening by serenading him with my Theremin.

 I need traffic data for the following international cities: London, Ontario; Paris, France; Paris, Ontario; Perth, Scotland; Perth, Ontario.

II. The Dash 1. Consider using the dash to set off a series in the middle or end of a sentence.

 All four cities— New York, Paris, London, and Amsterdam— have amazing art museums.  To improve our health, we should try to eat only healthy foods—vegetables, fruits, lean meats, and nuts.

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2. Consider using the dash to set off information for emphasis

 Everything I saw in my old neighborhood—from the carousel to the park benches, bookstores and bars—reminded me of my ex-wife.

3. Consider using it when you have a series of clauses that interrupt the subject and verb

 John— a well-known and reliable doctor who had a perfect success record until last night, a conscientious and caring physician that always made his patients feel at ease— showed up to surgery drunk and left his patient to die on the operating table.

III. The Colon 1. Lists/series: We covered many of the fundamentals this semester: grammar, punctuation, style, and voice. 2. Full sentence before a quote: Shakespeare explained it well: “To thine own self be true.” 3. Example/explanation example: Many graduate students discover that there is a dark side to academia: late nights, high stress, and a crippling addiction to caffeinated beverage

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PIE PARAGRAPHS

P oint I llustration (information / example) E xplanation PIE: Simply stated, PIE is a way of thinking about how to organize paragraphs, particularly in argumentative, academic papers, by considering how a paragraph serves the function and process of persuading your reader to accept your point. Please remember that an argumentative essay is not typically an argument in which you must make your reader believe your view—to the point in which you would be required to make your reader change his or her mind. On the contrary, your goal is to persuade your reader to accept that your view has merit and is, at the very least, worth considering. PIE, in this light, can help one to make sure that each paragraph best serves that persuasion goal. Point: simply put, a point is a claim, an assertion, one that relates to both your thesis and the overall direction of your discussions (in the your body paragraphs). In order to assure that your overall essay is cohesive (i.e. your body paragraphs relate to each other and are part of an overall line of reasoning that is leading to your conclusion), each and every point that you make should directly and specifically and clearly relate to your overall thesis. Every point should relate back to the previous points and anticipate / look forward to the points to follow. Illustration: it should strike one as obvious that the best way to support a point is by providing examples or specific information that relate to that point thus giving your reader the opportunity to better understand why that point is relevant or what it means. This can be done by providing specific examples are further information that helps to illustrate that point. Make sure that you always provide context11 for your points. Explanation: in general, examples and information cannot entirely speak for themselves; therefore, it is very important that one provide the necessary relevance to justify their presence by either explaining or, at the very least, addressing them. One can also explain a point. Many writers are quite capable of making points and offering illustrations, but many fail to adequately address / explain those points and illustrations. Please keep in mind that using PIE is not as formulaic as simply providing a point, then an illustration and then explaining it. It can and should be much more varied than that. The goal is to make points and to be sure that you provide illustrations and explanations. Below is an example from the sample essay that has been annotated to illustrate how this principle of organization works:

So, on the one hand, the design of a garden is a reflection of the way we see nature, but, on the other, it is entirely an illusion. ( point) A garden only retains the shape that we impose on it for as long as we are willing to sustain that imposition. ( point & explanation) One might take this thought a step further, as Michael Pollan does in his book Second Nature, and recognize that nature will eventually reclaim anything that we create. ( illustration & explanation) As he takes a walk in the woods near his house, Pollan, who is in a battle with the inevitable forces of animals and pests that want to eat the vegetation of his garden, realizes that “every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed— all was done to slow the advance of the forest” (46). ( illustration) Pollan comes to this conclusion after he discovers that these woods have reclaimed what used to be an agricultural village— and, through this experience, he realizes that the forest is what is normal, and that “the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens” are an “ecological vacuum that nature will not abide for long” (46). ( explanationt) Indeed, if nature itself is a constant reminder of the impermanence of things, then the garden serves as a profound reminder that any human attempt to force purpose or design upon it only ends in its eventual reclamation. ( point)

11 Context = the parts of something written or spoken that immediately precede and follow a word or passage and clarify its meaning.

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Should I paraphrase, summarize, or quote? In general, use direct quotations only if you have a good reason. Most of your paper should be in your own words. In research papers, you should quote from a source (as quoted from Harvard.edu):  When you plan to discuss the actual language of a text.  When you are discussing an author's position or theory and you plan to discuss the wording of a core assertion or kernel of the argument in your paper.  When you risk losing the essence of the author's ideas in the translation from her words to your own.  When you want to appeal to the authority of the author and using his or her words will emphasize that authority. You should summarize or paraphrase when  What you want from the source is the idea expressed, and not the specific language used to express it  You can express in fewer words what the key point of a source is Distinctions between Quotation, Paraphrase, and Summary: Quotation: an exact duplication of the author’s words as they appear in original source. Must be cited. In the pages that follow, you will find all the necessary rules and proper formatting conventions. Paraphrase: a restatement of the author’s words in your own words. Must be cited (no quotation marks). Summary: a brief condensation of the main point of the original source. No citation or quotation marks required; however, for hopefully obvious reasons, you should include the names(s) of the author(s) and the title (so that your reader knows what you are actually summarizing). Examples of Paraphrasing and Summarizing [Examples adapted from Owl.purdue.edu] The original passage: Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. From: [Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.] A legitimate paraphrase: In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47). An acceptable summary: In Writing Research Papers, James D. Lester cautions students to just take a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in their research paper (Lester 46- 47). A plagiarized version: Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes. Acquiring Basic Factual Knowledge and Making It Your Own As you work on your research, you will learn factual things such as the requirements for growing roses or the symbolic meaning behind different kinds of stones in a Zen garden. This is not the kind of information that you should be quoting, summarizing, or paraphrasing. You should incorporate such facts into your general knowledge and write about them entirely in your own words. For example, you might visit Wikipedia. org and learn about the overall history of how gardens have evolved. That is a fact-finding endeavor. Such information is not unique to Wikipedia.org. You, in a sense, have learned about something. However, if you use this new knowledge and do not write what you have learned entirely in your own words, then you have plagiarized. The Tricky Part Is 1. The majority of your essay needs to be written by you. 2. You should only quote, paraphrase, or summarize when you are providing something useful to your essay. 3. You should not quote basic information / facts. 4. If you just cut and paste those basic facts that you have found or simply change around some words without properly citing the source, then you have plagiarized. For example, if you learned from Wikipedia.org that Columbus first sailed to what he thought was India in 1492, you would not quote that information. Part of doing research is learning the knowledge and basic facts necessary for writing about the topic.

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Plagiarism Any use of someone else’s words or ideas without explicit and complete documentation and acknowledgement. Deliberate Plagiarism: 1) Buying another person’s work or soliciting another to do work for you. 2) Misrepresenting sources: making up information / sources or finding information in one source and attributing it to another. Also, citing sources which have not been consulted is considered deliberate plagiarism. 3) Passing off the work of other writers as your own—entire articles, paragraphs, sentences, phrases, and even ideas. Non-Deliberate Plagiarism (Incorrect Attribution of Sources) 1) Confusing the distinctions between quoting and paraphrasing 2) Not using appropriate citation formats (refer to this reader for all the rules and conventions) Other Forms of Plagiarism: 1) Submitting a paper written for another class or for another assignment without permission from the instructors (self-plagiarism). 2) Allowing a friend or tutor to add text to your paper (feedback from friends / tutors is encouraged, but all words in the paper should ultimately be your own). Quick Guidelines for Avoiding Plagiarism (1) Place all quoted material in quotation marks. (2) Correctly identify sources from which you paraphrase or summarize. (3) Give credit for the creative ideas you borrow from a source, including particular uses of anecdotes or examples. (4) When paraphrasing and summarizing, replace the structure of the passage and the language with your own (and cite the usage). (5) Acknowledge borrowed organization— use of same subtopics or same point by-point analysis. Plagiarism Quiz (1) When you use the work of another writer, you must provide documentation in all of the following cases EXCEPT when: (a) You replicate the exact words of the author, within quotation marks (b) You use the exact ideas of the writer but change the wording (c) You write your thoughts or reflections after reading the author’s text (d) You use the writer’s organizational plan or examples (2) Circle the number for each of the following acts that do constitute plagiarism (a) Meeting with another English teacher for a consultation (b) Using the exact words of another writer, within quotation marks and with a parenthetical citation (c) Submitting a paper turned in for another class (d) Allowing classmates in your peer review group to comment on your paper (e) Allowing a tutor or friend to edit your paper Identify the forms of citation used for the following passage: Passage: Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Many a man believes himself to be the master of others who is no less than they, a slave. How did this change take place? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? To this question I hope to be able to furnish an answer. 1. In an essay examining the relationship of humanity and society, Rousseau asserts that “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” (57). (a) Paraphrase (b) Quotation (c) Summary 2. Rousseau suggests that, although they come into the world uninhibited, human beings find themselves universally oppressed (57). (a) Paraphrase (b) Quotation (c) Summary 3. In his essay, “The Origin of Civil Society,” Rousseau questions his observations of humanity, which indicate that a person’s free nature and his or her actual social status are in conflict. (a) Paraphrase (b) Quotation (c) Summary

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CITING SOURCES IN-TEXT - Contextualizing Sources From now on, you are no longer allowed to do the following: “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence. She deploys her various agents to undo our work in the garden” (Pollan 27). This quote means that Pollan thinks that nature resents gardeners so it sends things to undo the garden. (A) You are not allowed to leave a quotation floating around by itself. (B) You must find a way to provide context for the quote by either introducing it or integrating it into the flow of your own sentence. [context = the parts of something written or spoken that immediately precede and follow a word or passage and clarify its meaning and justify its presence] (C) You should not use a quotation that includes more than one sentence unless you are blocking that quote. (D) Do not refer to the quote as a quote or quotation. (E) Your explanation cannot just be a restatement of what the writer said. You need to explain what the quotation means; in other words, you need to provide relevance for the quotation. [relevance = importance to the matter at hand, to what you are writing about]

I. So and so says – According to so and so – As so and so says 1. Use a comma to separate your own words from the quotation when your introductory phrase ends with a verb such as adds, compares, clarifies, confirms, responds, wonders, emphasizes, acknowledges, refutes, mentions, implies, asserts, doubts, rejects, comments, admits, agrees, suggests, challenges, observes, writes, endorses, illustrates, denies, insists, hopes, disputes, refers to, reasons, concludes, argues, reports, feels, claims, judges, implies. (Note: make sure that you know the definition for the word you choose to use.) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Pollan writes, “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence” (28). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2. Use a comma when introducing a quotation with a phrase like "According to so and so" or “As so and so says.” (a) According to Pollan, “the front lawn symbolized the collective face of suburbia, the backyard its private aspect” (25). (b) As Pollan remembers, “one of the things childhood is is a process of learning about the various paths that lead out of nature and into culture, and the garden contains many of these” (24). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3. If the introductory phrase ends with that, then you do not use a comma. Pollan realizes that “the key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities” (29). Note: When you use that in this way, you form a noun clause and the whole quotation becomes a direct object. Subject Verb Noun Clause acting as a Direct Object Pollan realizes [that “The key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge” (29).] Weak: In Michael Pollan’s article “Gardening Means War,” he concludes that “the key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities” (29). Stronger: In his article “Gardening Means War,” Michael Pollan concludes that “the key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities” (29). ********************************************************************************************* Does not work: According to Michael Pollan, in his article titled “Gardening Means War,” he says, “the key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities” (29). Fixed: According to Michael Pollan, “the key to eliminating an insect from the garden is knowledge: about its habits, preferences and vulnerabilities” (29).

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While perfectly acceptable, these three introductory methods [So and so says – According to so and so – As so and so says] are the weakest because they do not provide any context for your use of the quote other than the simple fact that someone said such and such. Providing context for your quote is essential because it offers your reader the necessary information for why you are even using the quote in the first place (and it offers you, the writer, the opportunity to figure out and explain why you are even using it in the first place). You could also consider using these methods by adding more information to the phrase (and make sure that the quote directly relates to a specific point and that you provide adequate context and explanations): So, on the one hand, the design of a garden is a reflection of the way we see nature, but, on the other, it is entirely an illusion. [ point] A garden only retains the shape that we impose on it for as long as we are willing to sustain that imposition. [explanation / information / context] One might take this thought a step further, as Michael Pollan does in his book Second Nature, and recognize that nature will eventually reclaim anything that we create. [ explanation – specific context for the point] As he takes a walk in the woods near his house, Pollan, who is in a battle with the inevitable forces of animals and pests that want to eat the vegetation of his garden, realizes that “every weed I pulled, every blade of grass I mowed, each beetle I crushed— all was done to slow the advance of the forest” (46). [ illustration] Pollan comes to this conclusion after he discovers that these woods have reclaimed what used to be an agricultural village— and through this experience he realizes that the forest is what is normal, and that “the lawns and pavements and, most spectacularly, the gardens” are an “ecological vacuum that nature will not abide for long” (46). [ illustration] Indeed, if nature itself is a constant reminder of the impermanence of things, then the garden serves as a profound reminder that any human attempt to force purpose or design upon it only ends in its eventual reclamation. [explanation / point] Bold = So and So Says – but with the addition of other context / information to boost the presence of the quote Underline= Context that sets up the point / explanation you will soon be offering Italics= Explanations that provide relevance / that relate the illustrations (quotations) to the point II. Using a sentence to introduce the quotation followed by a colon: You can also use a complete sentence to set up a quotation, an approach that is much stronger than using the previous phrases because it provides a better opportunity for you to offer some specific context and relevance for the quotation. Emerson recognizes that the immensity of the night sky inspires a certain quality of respect, a certain spiritual connection, one that he feels can also be experienced in any communion with nature: “The stars awaken a certain reverence, because though always present, they are inaccessible; but all natural objects make a kindred impression, when the mind is open to their influence” (8). However, as Emerson explains, we can only experience such awe in the natural world if we are willing to recognize that nature contains such beauty— a perspective that implies many are not open to such things. In that spirit, solitude spent in nature, offers one the opportunity to open up and discover ways to cultivate such a mindset by providing one quite moments free from the distractions of others (or the trappings of the civilized world). Bold = introductory sentence followed by a colon Italics = quotation Note: The introductory sentence not only sets up the quote but also provides the much needed context that a reader needs in order to follow along and understand why you are quoting this source. You should also notice that the sentences which follow the quotation (illustration) both address and provide an explanation for the quotation— thus giving it relevance while also allowing one to build off of it. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Context = the parts of something written or spoken that immediately precede and follow a word or passage and clarify its meaning and justify its presence Relevance = importance to the matter at hand, to what you are writing about

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III. Integrating the quotation into the words of your own sentence The strongest method is to integrate the quotation into your sentences. This method allows you to pick and choose what words you wish to use from a source and then integrate them into the flow of your sentence so that you create a seamless blend of your words / point / explanation and the writer’s words / example / argument / information. etc.

In his book Gardens: An Essay on the Human Condition, Robert Pogue Harrison, an Italian literature professor at Stanford University, writes about his fascination with these New York slum gardens, which are made up of objects and items found in the streets, things that might be thought of as garbage by most. [ summary / illustration] What fascinates him, however, is not the fact that this kind of garden stretches our idea of what a garden is or can be, but that it asks questions about what motivates these people, who have virtually nothing, to spend so much of their time and effort finding and arranging items when none of it helps them with the basics of surviving (42). [paraphrase / illustration] At the very least, they are motivated, as most gardeners are, to create, to “express, fashion and beautify,” a kind of self-expression that Harrison reminds us is “a basic human urge” (42). [ illustration] This spark of creativity, this desire to create, to design, to shape, is part of what sets gardening apart from farming. [ explanation / point] Indeed, no one actually knows which came first, but conventional theories suggest that gardening is either a creative response to farming or a kind of prototype for agriculture. [ explanation] Harrison, however, argues that one could just as easily recognize that the earliest primitive gardens were created for ritual purposes, citing the “fundamental” craving “in human beings to transfigure reality, to adorn it with costume and illusion, and thereby to respiritualize our experience of it” (40). [ illustration] Harrison’s observation reminds us that the garden can be a cultural expression of art, one that not only reflects the creativity, skills, and vision of its creator, but also the visitor’s appreciation of and desire for beauty, symmetry, and harmony. [ explanation / point] And it is this creative spark that often draws both creator and appreciator to the garden. [ point] Bold = the words taken from the quoted source and integrated into the flow of the sentence so that the quoted words and the writer’s words fuse into a single expression. Words Not in Bold = the essay writer’s words ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- When you integrate a quote into the words of your sentence you can pick and choose which words you want to use—and open and close the quote as you wish. When you use this process, you no longer need to use the ellipses (…) to point out that part of the quote has been omitted or the brackets ( [ ] ) to indicate that you have added or changed something Emerson’s original words from Nature There I feel that nothing can befall me in life, -- no disgrace, no calamity, (leaving me my eyes,) which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground, -- my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, -- all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God. Okay (the old method): Emerson, when pondering the spiritual connection he has with nature, becomes “… a transparent eyeball; [he is] nothing; [he sees] all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through [him]; [he is] part or particle of God” (8). Better (integration method]: Emerson, when pondering the spiritual connection he has with nature, becomes “a transparent eyeball”; he is nothing, sees all; “the currents of the Universal Being circulate through” him; he is “part or particle of God” (8). The Quotation Rule You can “borrow” up to four words from a quotation without it being considered plagiarism.

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IV. Blockquoting If you are quoting four or more lines, then you must block the quotation by separating the quotation from the rest of the paragraph and indenting it 5-10 spaces on either side (see example below).  Provide an introductory phrase or sentence followed by a colon.  DO NOT USE QUOTATION MARKS UNLESS WHAT YOU ARE QUOTING USES QUOTATION MARKS!  The longer the quotation, the longer the explanation needs to be.  Only include those words/quotations that are absolutely relevant to your discussion.

THE CORRECT WAY TO BLOCK A QUOTE

As a result of modern, commercial farming practices, farmers are far more concerned about the appearance of the fruit than they are about the flavor. For example, Frances Spicy Salsa, author of The Death of Flavor: Modern Practices in Farming, suggests that the commercial tomato lost its flavor years ago:

The tomato we see in the market today is ripe, watery, even juicy, potentially delicious, but when you bite into it, you get a burst of water that lacks any flavor. That red sheen, that blemish free skin is little more than a barrier between our world and the walls of pulp and water contained within (32).

What has happened to the flavor of the modern tomato? Part of the problem is that growers pick the tomato before it ripens on the vine, a reality that promises the tomato will never reach its true potential for flavor. The first 2 sentences provide context and set up the blockquote, the final 2 sentences address the blockquote.

WRONG – VERY WRONG! The tomato we see in the market today is ripe, watery, even juicy, potentially delicious, but when you bite into it, you get a burst of water that lacks any flavor. That red sheen, that blemish free skin is little more than a barrier between our world and the walls of pulp and water contained within (32).

What has happened to the flavor of the modern tomato? Part of the problem is that growers pick the tomato before it ripens on the vine, a reality that promises the tomato will never reach its true potential for flavor. Never begin a paragraph with a blockquote without a sentence or phrase to introduce it. Instead, Begin the paragraph with relevant context / setup for the quote—something that gives it purpose and connects it to your overall purpose for using it (e.g. as an illustration or part of a point or explanation).

ALSO WRONG – VERY WRONG! As a result of modern, commercial farming practices, farmers are far more concerned about the

appearance of the fruit than they are about the flavor. For example, Frances Spicy Salsa, author of The Death of Flavor: Modern Practices in Farming, suggests that the commercial tomato lost its flavor years ago:

The tomato we see in the market today is ripe, watery, even juicy, potentially delicious, but when you bite into it, you get a burst of water that lacks any flavor. That red sheen, that blemish free skin is little more than a barrier between our world and the walls of pulp and water contained within (32).

Never end a paragraph with a blockquote without a sentence or two of explanation about its relevance. Instead, follow the blockquote, in the same paragraph, with an explanation—or, at the very least, address its presence (thus giving the quotation relevance).

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THE MECHANICS OF IN-TEXT CITATIONS When you are quoting from a source, you need to provide enough information into a citation, which you place at the end of the sentence, so that your reader can easily find the full citation of the source in your Works Cited Page. MLA, APA, Chicago and other formats handle all of this in different ways. For MLA, in general, you will need to know the following information about your source: 1. the author’s last name 2. the page number 3. if you do not know the name of the author and title of the source— and the source is a website— then use the web site. What you use in the in-text citation will depend on several different factors. The goal is to provide the least amount of information necessary to make it clear to your reader what the source is (and that minimal information must clearly refer to the full citation in your works cited page).

In the end, however, we must not forget that the “defining characteristic of the garden” is that, “in essence, it is an imposition on nature, one that will only sustain its imposition if one is willing to do the labor necessary to keep its form, its shape” (Fitzgerald 79).

However, providing more information about the writer in the sentence can be helpful, particularly if you want your reader to know more about the source you are quoting.

In his 19th century essay Nature, the American transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson writes, “nothing can befall me in life, -- no disgrace, no calamity, (leaving me my eyes,) which nature cannot repair” (8).

Formatting Rules for In-Text Citations 1. The end of the sentence punctuation must be placed after the citation. The citation is part of the sentence. Correct: Pollan writes, “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence” (28). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Incorrect: Pollan writes, “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence (28).” Incorrect: Pollan writes, “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence. (28).” Incorrect: Pollan writes, “My experience as a gardener has taught me that nature resents our presence.” (28). 2. Place the citation at the end of the quotation Robert Pogue Harrison, an Italian literature professor at Stanford University, writes about his fascination with New York slum gardens, which are made up of “largely random material such as toys, stuffed animals, flags, found objects, milk cartons, recycled trash, piles of leaves” (41); in other words, even though this gathering of items seems un-gardenly, it retains the spirit of organization, presentation and creation that all gardens possess. 3. If you quote from the same source, but from two different pages, then provide the page numbers in the citations after each quotation. Parker, arguing that gardening is a waste of time for most people, insists that we “still need gardens because they remind us of our connection to the earth” (21), an observation that he feels “justifies the ridiculously large gardening industry that makes its profits off selling plants to people who don’t even bother to figure out how to keep them alive” (6).

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In-text Citations: In order to decide whether you are supposed to include the author’s last name in the citation or not, you should consider the following: Note: Anything you provide in your sentence should not be included in the citation. 1. Is it the first time you are quoting the printed source in your essay? If yes, then ask yourself what your reader needs to know about the source. (Source = “A Retired Botanist in the Garden” by Barnaby Ragu)

Barnaby Ragu, a former botanist at UCLA, pondered the folly of gardening as he planned his brutal attack on the civilization of aphids consuming his tomato plants, realizing “that nature always finds a way to reclaim anything we plant, that nothing lasts, everything fades” (976).

 If you want, you can tell your reader more about the writer or provide the name of the source, but this is not required. You need to base your decision on how relevant or necessary this information is to your reader.  For the rest of the essay, only use the author’s last name.  Once you have stated the title of the source, you, in general, do not need to mention the title again. 2. If you have already quoted the printed source in your essay, then you only need to be concerned about the author’s last name and the page number. While you must always provide the page number (if known), whether you should use the author’s last name or not will depend on the following:  Have you quoted from any other source since quoting from this source?  If no, then you only need to provide the page number (which should be placed in the citation).  If you did quote from a different source before quoting from this one again, then you need to provide both the author’s last name and the page number.  You can either provide the last name of the author in the context of the sentence or in the citation. In general, place the page number in the citation.  If you include the author’s last name in your sentence, DO NOT provide it in the citation. Note: You can always provide the author’s last name in the sentence regardless of these rules, but you must follow these rules exactly when considering when to place the author’s last name in the citation. 3. Missing Information for Sources  If you do not know the author’s name, then use an abbreviated title and the page number “Gardening in the 21st Century: A Manual for the Newbie” = (“Gardening in the 21st Century” 15).  If there are no page numbers, and you know the author’s last name, then place the author’s last name in the citation.  If there is no title and no author—and you found the source from a website—then use the website as your source. Do not include the entire web address, just the website itself.

Incorrect: http://www.geneticstoday.com/articles/2542786%rw765374799990000235@54670000 Correct: geneticstoday.com  italicize web sources when you cite them

 If there is no title, no author, or no website then you are likely not quoting an actual source …  4. Multiple Authors / Authors with the Same Name  If there are two authors for the source, then provide their last names. Ex: (Hunter and Garcia 15)  If there are three authors separate their names with commas. Ex: (Page, Plant, and Bonham 6)  If there are four or more authors, then only include the last name of the first listed author followed by “et al.” Ex: (Weir et al. 38).  If you should happen to encounter two different sources whose authors share the last name, then provide the first initial to indicate which one you have quoted. (J. Page 17) (B. Page 18)

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5. Quoting from More Than One Source by the Same Author If you are quoting from more than one source by the same author, then provide a short abbreviation of the title of the works so that your reader can differentiate between them. You can also make it clear which source you are quoting by giving your reader this information in the sentence. Greg Smith argues, in his book Tomatoes on the Frontline, that scientists “need to pay more attention to the flavor of tomatoes” (18). However, he later admits, in an article he wrote for The New York Times, that “farmers cannot just abandon these new advantages” because they “will no longer be able to sustain a large enough yield to stay in business” (“Yielding” 5). Please note that, in each of these situations, you can either provide the name(s) in the context of the sentence or in the citation. However, do not do both. And the page number, if known, must be included. 6. Quoting from Dictionaries (Print or Online) When you provide a dictionary definition, I want you to provide a signal phrase that tells us which dictionary you used or place it in a citation at the end of the sentence. Italicize titles of dictionaries (book or website)!! Ex: According to the Oxford Dictionary, a gibbosity is “a protuberance or swelling.” Ex: A gibbosity is “a protuberance or swelling” (dictionary.com) 7. Indirect Sources (a source referenced within a source)  Include the name of the writer that you are quoting in your signal sentence and then cite the source in the usual way except, in this case, also add qtd. Johnson argues that “gardens are only good for growing herbs” (qtd. In Weedmen 19).  Or just do some extra research and find the actual source and include it as one of your required sources. In-text Citations for Online Sources 1. Downloaded Online Files of Sources (e.g. pdfs and word docs)  If you download an article / essay from an online resource (e.g. databases), then follow all the same rules as the printed sources. Please note that you still need to follow the correct format for citing it as a web source in your works cited page. Refer to the examples in this course reader for more information: 2. Websites  Typically, you do not provide a page number for websites because, usually, they are not paginated.  You can refer to the author, title, or website in the context of your sentence.  However, if you choose not to, then, if known, place the author’s last name in the citation.  If the author is not known, then provide an abbreviated title of the source.  If you do not know the author’s name or the title then use the domain name (not the whole URL) Incorrect: (http://gardening.com/artcles/how-to-grow-weed.html) Correct: (gardening.com)

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Citing Sources in Your Essay as You Move Between Different Sources Here is an example to illustrate what to do when moving from one source to a new source and then back to a previous source. In general, you need to provide the minimal amount of information necessary to make it clear what source you are using (in other words, so the reader can find the full bibliographical citation on your works cited page). If known, you must always provide the page number. All the exceptions covered in this section apply. Quick Reminder 1. In general, it is good form to provide context for the source the first time you quote from it (e.g. the author’s full name, the title of the source, some other context about the writer or the nature of the source you are quoting). This is, however, not required. 2. If you quote from that source again soon after (and have not quoted from a different source since that use), then only provide the page number. You can feel free to use the author’s last name in your sentence if you think it is relevant or helpful to include it. 3. If you quote from a new source, then follow number 1. 4. If you then quote from a previous source, provide the author’s last name and page number in the citation or use the author’s last name in your sentence and provide the page number in the citation. 5. If you quote from that same source again, without quoting from a different source, follow 2. 6. Rinse and repeat accordingly … REMEMBER, WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU PROVIDE IN A SENTENCE MUST NOT BE PLACED IN THE CITATION! Example: Please note that, for the sake of providing an example, I have used more quotations than you should include in a paragraph. DO NOT INCLUDE THIS MANY QUOTATIONS IN A PARAGRAPH! --------------------------------------------- Kate Winslet, in her book Homegrown, reminds us that tomatoes, when grown in the home, are filled with a flavor that reminds one of “childhood summer days spent frolicking in the hot summer sun” (14). Indeed, commercial tomatoes, which taste like little more than water, used to be “as sweet as one’s memories of grandfathers who gardened and grandmothers who baked” (16). Nowadays, however, as Robinson Smith suggests in his article “Genetic Art: The Death of Flavor,” tomatoes look like beautiful “red clusters of genetically engineered art” (12), but taste like “plastic bags filled with water and seeds” (19). All of this suggests that consumers are far more interested in the appearance than the taste of the tomato, a point that Fergie Fergussen, in her posthumous autobiography, agrees with when she says, “we have surrendered the perfection of the summer flavor that seems to spill from the homegrown tomato, regardless of how rough around the edges it may be, for the plasticity of the store bought tomato, which taunts us with its illusionary perfection as if it had undergone plastic surgery but we are just too tired to notice” (89). We must never forget “nature herself knows how to produce the fullest, sweetest flavor better than any of us” (Winslet 29), so if it is flavor we wish to preserve, we should leave that to Mother Nature. Moreover, we must never let go of the fact that “industry only wishes to turn a profit,” so if we wish to encourage modern farmers to return to more natural methods, we can send “a message that we no longer want flavorless tomatoes by no longer buying them” (modernagriculture.com). The choice can still belong to the consumer. Sources Used in the Paragraph 1. A book Homegrown by Kate Winslet 2. An article  “Genetic Art: The Death of Flavor” by Robinson Smith. The article-- which was published

in a journal and later electronically stored-- was downloaded from a database as a pdf. 3. An eBook My Life Was a Garden by Fergie Fergussen 4. A source with no title and no author found on the following website

http://www.modernagriculture.com/stuff/what?/@35674%%$#000000456790@00000 Note: Even though sources 2 and 3 come from electronic and/or online sources, when citing them in-text, you still use author and page number. You will need to specify, in your works cited page, where you found the source.

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Punctuation When Using Quotation Marks Commas, periods, question marks and exclamation points go inside the quotation marks. Incorrect: My favorite Robert Frost poem is “The Road Not Taken”. Correct: My favorite Robert Frost poem is “The Road Not Taken.” Incorrect: My favorite Robert Frost poem is “The Road Not Taken”, but I am also very fond of “Design”. Correct: My favorite Robert Frost poem is “The Road Not Taken,” but I am also very fond of “Design.” Exception to the rule: When you are citing a quotation, the sentence ending punctuation follows the citation (parentheses). Example: Frost realizes that someday he “shall be telling this with a sigh” (10). Colons, semi-colons, and dashes go outside the quotation marks Frost beings the poem with the following lines: “Nature’s first green is gold / her hardest hue to hold”; in other words, the very first green of nature— those tender beginnings of the first leaf that sprouts from a tree after a long winter— only lasts for the briefest of moments (1-2). Italicizing Sources versus using “Quotation Marks” (These conventions apply when you use the titles in the text of your essay and the works cited page) Italicize the following titles of the following sources: (MLA convention no longer accepts underlining for titles) Movies: Avatar, The Thin Red Line, The Godfather, Mulholland Drive, When Harry Met Sally Books: The Oxford English Dictionary, Walden, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, The Botany of Desire TV Shows/Radio Programs: Lost, Survivor, Twin Peaks, 60 Minutes, Fresh Air Magazines: People, Time, Rolling Stone, Teen, Cosmopolitan, Vogue Newspapers: The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Christian Science Monitor Websites When Used as Sources: nytimes.org, wikipedia.org, ccsf.edu, psychologytoday.com, dictionary.com Plays: Waiting for Godot, Death of a Salesman, Romeo and Juliet Albums/CDs: American Beauty, Natty Dread, After the Goldrush, Blood on the Tracks Pamphlets: New Developments in AIDS Research, Common Sense, Seven Tips for Better Gardening Famous Speeches: Letter from Birmingham Jail, The Gettysburg Address Names of Vehicles: The U.S.S. Enterprise, Titanic, Challenger Note: Sacred Texts such as The Bible or The Koran are neither underlined nor italicized (unless you are quoting a specific edition (e.g. The King James Bible) Use quotation marks for the titles of the following sources: Essays/Articles: “Gardening Means War,” “Two Gardens,” “The How-To Garden” (Exception to the rule: if the essay is lengthy, such as, for example. Emerson’s Nature, then italicize it) Poems: “Nothing Gold Can Stay,” “Blackberry Picking,” “A Dream Deferred” (Exception to the rule: if the poem is lengthy, such as, for example, Milton’s Paradise Lost, then italicize it) Song Titles: “Jumping Jack Flash,” “In My Life,” “No Woman, No Cry” “Moondance” Short Story Titles: "A Rose for Emily," "A Good Man is Hard to Find," "Araby" Capitalize all the words in the title except for the following words:

Articles (the, a, an) unless it is the first word of the title Prepositions (of, in, on, for, etc.) unless it is the first word of the title Conjunctions (and, or, etc.) unless it is the first word of the title

Exceptions to the Rules  If the original title capitalizes words that are normally not capitalized, then capitalize those words.  If the original title does not capitalize words that are normally capitalized, then do not capitalize those words

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Formatting the Works Cited Page (Bibliography) The in-text citation is a shorthand reference to the works cited page, where you provide all the required information (all of which makes it as easy possible for your readers to find the source themselves so they can read more if they wish). The Works Cited page is also sometimes referred to as the “Bibliography.” They are both the same (I personally like “Works Cited”). Some students also include a “Works Consulted” list, which is reserved for those sources that you may have looked over but never actually used in your essay. Such a list, in some people’s eyes, adds more authority to your work because it indicates the full breadth of sources you considered during your research. I’ll be honest and say that for most sources, one of the best ways to format your citation is to use one of the many online sources that will format the information for you. However, these citation engines do not cover all of the possible sources that you might be using. Fortunately, this information is available from a wide variety of sources online, so, if you are confused, some quick online research will yield many websites that can show you exactly how to format the citation (for all the different formats, MLA, APA, Chicago, etc.). The course reader, in the pages that follow, includes the majority of the common sources that you will likely use. Formatting Rules 1. Organize the list of works in alphabetical order by author’s last name. 2. If the author is not known, then use the title. It should be alphabetized along with the authors’ last names. If the

title begins with the, a, or an— disregard it and use the next word. For example, if the title is “A New Approach to Genetics,” then alphabetize according to the word New.

3. If the title and author is not known— and the source is a website— then begin the citation with the website title. If the website title begins with the, a, or an— disregard it and use the next word. For example, if the website title is The Genetics World, then alphabetize according to the word Genetics. Italicize the website title.

4. If your citation fills up more than one line, then indent each subsequent line of the citation five spaces. 5. Do not number the sources. 6. You can double space or not. I leave that choice up to you; however, other teachers may have their own specific

preferences. 7. When listing two or more sources by the same author, replace the author’s last name with three hyphens and a

period ---.  and then alphabetize the sources according to the title. See the example below. A works cited page NEVER counts toward your minimum page requirements!

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Works Cited Cyrus, Miley. Personal Interview. 17 April 2018. “A Disturbing Tomato Mutation.” YouTube, uploaded by TomatoYucker, 6 June 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBlpjSEtELs. Grizzly Man. Dir. Werner Herzog. Lions Gate Films, 2005. Pollan, Michael. Second Nature. Atlantic Monthly Press, 1991. Roma, Allan. Tomatoes in Crisis. Binghamton UP, 2003. eBook. Salsa, Frances Spicy. The Death of Flavor: Modern Practices in Farming. Chronicle Books, 2001. Tomatillo, Arthur. “Genetics and Your Food.” New Science, 12 June 2004, pp 85-96. ---. “Genetics for the Future.” Genetics Today & Tomorrow, vol. 48, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest,

doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 17 April 2018. ---. “A Historical Look at Genetics,” Science Forward. 14 December 2006, scienceforward.org/ articles/

geneticstoday.htm. Accessed 21 April 2018.

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MLA-Format for Bibliographical Sources The following pages were shamefully borrowed from the Owl at Purdue Website:

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_style_introduction.html

Printed Sources Basic Book Format The author’s name or a book with a single author's name appears in last name, first name format. The basic form for a book citation is:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. City of Publication, Publisher, Publication Date.

*Note: the City of Publication should only be used if the book was published before 1900, if the publisher has offices in more than one country, or if the publisher is unknown in North America.

1. Book with One Author

Gleick, James. Chaos: Making a New Science. Penguin, 1987.

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House. MacMurray, 1999.

2. Book with More Than One Author

When a book has multiple authors, order the authors in the same way they are presented in the book. The first given name appears in last name, first name format; subsequent author names appear in first name last name format.

Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

If there are three or more authors, list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. (Latin for "and others") in place of the subsequent authors' names. (Note that there is a period after “al” in “et al.” Also note that there is never a period after the “et” in “et al.”).

Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of

Composition. Utah State UP, 2004.

3. Two or More Books by the Same Author

List works alphabetically by title. (Remember to ignore articles like A, An, and The.) Provide the author’s name in last name, first name format for the first entry only. For each subsequent entry by the same author, use three hyphens and a period.

Palmer, William J. Dickens and New Historicism. St. Martin's, 1997.

---. The Films of the Eighties: A Social History. Southern Illinois UP, 1993.

Book by a Corporate Author or Organization

A corporate author may include a commission, a committee, a government agency, or a group that does not identify individual members on the title page.

List the names of corporate authors in the place where an author’s name typically appears at the beginning of the entry.

American Allergy Association. Allergies in Children. Random House, 1998.

When the author and publisher are the same, skip the author, and list the title first. Then, list the corporate author only as the publisher.

Fair Housing—Fair Lending. Aspen Law & Business, 1985.

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Book with No Author

List by title of the book. Incorporate these entries alphabetically just as you would with works that include an author name. For example, the following entry might appear between entries of works written by Dean, Shaun and Forsythe, Jonathan.

Encyclopedia of Indiana. Somerset, 1993.

Remember that for an in-text (parenthetical) citation of a book with no author, you should provide the name of the work in the signal phrase and the page number in parentheses. You may also use a shortened version of the title of the book accompanied by the page number.

A Translated Book

If you want to emphasize the work rather than the translator, cite as you would any other book. Add “translated by” and follow with the name(s) of the translator(s).

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Translated by Richard

Howard, Vintage-Random House, 1988.

If you want to focus on the translation, list the translator as the author. In place of the author’s name, the translator’s name appears. His or her name is followed by the label, “translator.” If the author of the book does not appear in the title of the book, include the name, with a “By” after the title of the book and before the publisher. Note that this type of citation is less common and should only be used for papers or writing in which translation plays a central role.

Howard, Richard, translator. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. By Michel

Foucault, Vintage-Random House, 1988.

Republished Book

Books may be republished due to popularity without becoming a new edition. New editions are typically revisions of the original work. For books that originally appeared at an earlier date and that have been republished at a later one, insert the original publication date before the publication information.

For books that are new editions (i.e. different from the first or other editions of the book), see An Edition of a Book below.

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. 1990. Routledge, 1999.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. Perennial-Harper, 1993.

Anthology or Collection (e.g. Collection of Essays)

To cite the entire anthology or collection, list by editor(s) followed by a comma and "editor" or, for multiple editors, "editors." This sort of entry is somewhat rare. If you are citing a particular piece within an anthology or collection (more common), see A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection below.

Hill, Charles A., and Marguerite Helmers, editors. Defining Visual Rhetorics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.

Peterson, Nancy J., editor. Toni Morrison: Critical and Theoretical Approaches. Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

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An Edition of a Book

There are two types of editions in book publishing: a book that has been published more than once in different editions and a book that is prepared by someone other than the author (typically an editor).

A Subsequent Edition

Cite the book as you normally would, but add the number of the edition after the title.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.

A Work Prepared by an Editor

Cite the book as you normally would, but add the editor after the title with the label, "Edited by"

Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Edited by Margaret Smith, Oxford UP, 1998.

A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection

Works may include an essay in an edited collection or anthology, or a chapter of a book. The basic form is for this sort of citation is as follows:

Last name, First name. "Title of Essay." Title of Collection, edited by Editor's Name(s), Publisher, Year, Page range of entry.

Some examples:

Harris, Muriel. "Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers." A Tutor's Guide: Helping Writers One to One, edited by

Ben Rafoth, Heinemann, 2000, pp. 24-34.

Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as a Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University and The 'Real

World.'" The Education of a Graphic Designer, edited by Steven Heller, Allworth Press, 1998, pp. 13-24.

Note on Cross-referencing Several Items from One Anthology: If you cite more than one essay from the same edited collection, MLA indicates you may cross-reference within your works cited list in order to avoid writing out the publishing information for each separate essay. You should consider this option if you have several references from a single text. To do so, include a separate entry for the entire collection listed by the editor's name as below:

Rose, Shirley K., and Irwin Weiser, editors. The Writing Program Administrator as Researcher. Heinemann, 1999.

Then, for each individual essay from the collection, list the author's name in last name, first name format, the title of the essay, the editor's last name, and the page range:

L'Eplattenier, Barbara. "Finding Ourselves in the Past: An Argument for Historical Work on WPAs." Rose and Weiser,

pp. 131-40.

Peeples, Tim. "'Seeing' the WPA With/Through Postmodern Mapping." Rose and Weiser, pp. 153-67.

Please note: When cross-referencing items in the works cited list, alphabetical order should be maintained for the entire list.

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Poem or Short Story Examples:

Burns, Robert. "Red, Red Rose." 100 Best-Loved Poems, edited by Philip Smith, Dover, 1995, p. 26.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage,

1994, pp. 306-07.

If the specific literary work is part of the author's own collection (all of the works have the same author), then there will be no editor to reference:

Whitman, Walt. "I Sing the Body Electric." Selected Poems, Dover, 1991, pp. 12-19.

Carter, Angela. "The Tiger's Bride." Burning Your Boats: The Collected Stories, Penguin, 1995, pp. 154-69.

Article in a Reference Book (e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries)

For entries in encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference works, cite the piece as you would any other work in a collection but do not include the publisher information. Also, if the reference book is organized alphabetically, as most are, do not list the volume or the page number of the article or item.

"Ideology." The American Heritage Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1997.

A Multivolume Work

When citing only one volume of a multivolume work, include the volume number after the work's title, or after the work's editor or translator.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.

When citing more than one volume of a multivolume work, cite the total number of volumes in the work. Also, be sure in your in-text citation to provide both the volume number and page number(s).

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980. 4 vols.

If the volume you are using has its own title, cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an independent publication.

Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution. Dodd, 1957.

An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword

When citing an introduction, a preface, a foreword, or an afterword, write the name of the author(s) of the piece you are citing. Then give the name of the part being cited, which should not be italicized or enclosed in quotation marks; in italics, provide the name of the work and the name of the author of the introduction/preface/foreword/afterword. Finish the citation with the details of publication and page range.

Farrell, Thomas B. Introduction. Norms of Rhetorical Culture, by Farrell, Yale UP, 1993, pp. 1-13.

If the writer of the piece is different from the author of the complete work, then write the full name of the principal work's author after the word "By." For example, if you were to cite Hugh Dalziel Duncan’s introduction of Kenneth Burke’s book Permanence and Change, you would write the entry as follows:

Duncan, Hugh Dalziel. Introduction. Permanence and Change: An Anatomy of Purpose, by Kenneth Burke, 1935, 3rd

ed., U of California P, 1984, pp. xiii-xliv.

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Other Print/Book Sources: Certain book sources are handled in a special way by MLA style.

Book Published Before 1900

Original copies of books published before 1900 are usually defined by their place of publication rather than the publisher. Unless you are using a newer edition, cite the city of publication where you would normally cite the publisher.

Thoreau, Henry David. Excursions. Boston, 1863.

The Bible

Italicize “The Bible” and follow it with the version you are using. Remember that your in-text (parenthetical citation) should include the name of the specific edition of the Bible, followed by an abbreviation of the book, the chapter and verse(s). (See Citing the Bible at In-Text Citations: The Basics.)

The Bible. Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

The Bible. The New Oxford Annotated Version, 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2001.

The New Jerusalem Bible. Edited by Susan Jones, Doubleday, 1985.

A Government Publication

Cite the author of the publication if the author is identified. Otherwise, start with the name of the national government, followed by the agency (including any subdivisions or agencies) that serves as the organizational author. For congressional documents, be sure to include the number of the Congress and the session when the hearing was held or resolution passed as well as the report number. US government documents are typically published by the Government Printing Office.

United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. Hearing on the Geopolitics of Oil.

Government Printing Office, 2007. 110th Congress, 1st session, Senate Report 111-8.

United States, Government Accountability Office. Climate Change: EPA and DOE Should Do More to Encourage

Progress Under Two Voluntary Programs. Government Printing Office, 2006.

A Pamphlet

Cite the title and publication information for the pamphlet just as you would a book without an author. Pamphlets and promotional materials commonly feature corporate authors (commissions, committees, or other groups that does not provide individual group member names). If the pamphlet you are citing has no author, cite as directed below. If your pamphlet has an author or a corporate author, put the name of the author (last name, first name format) or corporate author in the place where the author name typically appears at the beginning of the entry. (See also Books by a Corporate Author or Organization above.)

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2006.

Your Rights Under California Welfare Programs. California Department of Social Services, 2007.

Periodicals Periodicals include magazines, newspapers, and scholarly journals. Works cited entries for periodical sources include three main elements—the author of the article, the title of the article, and information about the magazine, newspaper, or journal. MLA uses the generic term “container” to refer to any print or digital venue (a website or print journal, for example) in which an essay or article may be included.

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Use the following format for all citations: Author. Title. Title of container (self contained if book), Other contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher, Publisher Date, Location (pp.). 2nd container’s title, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Pub date, Location.

Article in a Magazine Cite by listing the article's author, putting the title of the article in quotations marks, and italicizing the periodical title. Follow with the date of publication. Remember to abbreviate the month. The basic format is as follows: Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, pages. Poniewozik, James. "TV Makes a Too-Close Call." Time, 20 Nov. 2000, pp. 70-71. Buchman, Dana. "A Special Education." Good Housekeeping, Mar. 2006, pp. 143-48.

Article in a Newspaper Cite a newspaper article as you would a magazine article, but note the different pagination in most newspapers. If there is more than one edition available for that date (as in an early and late edition of a newspaper), identify the edition after the newspaper title. Brubaker, Bill. "New Health Center Targets County's Uninsured Patients." Washington Post, 24 May 2007, p. LZ01. Krugman, Andrew. "Fear of Eating." New York Times, late ed., 21 May 2007, p. A1. If the newspaper is a less well-known or local publication, include the city name in brackets after the title of the newspaper. Behre, Robert. "Presidential Hopefuls Get Final Crack at Core of S.C. Democrats." Post and Courier [Charleston, SC],29 Apr. 2007, p. A11. Trembacki, Paul. "Brees Hopes to Win Heisman." Purdue Exponent [West Lafayette, IN], 5 Dec. 2000, p. 20. A Review To cite a review, include the title of the review (if available), then the phrase, “Review of” and provide the title of the work (in italics for books, plays, and films; in quotation marks for articles, poems, and short stories). Finally, provide performance and/or publication information. Review Author. "Title of Review (if there is one)." Review of Performance Title, by Author/Director/Artist. Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, page. Seitz, Matt Zoller. "Life in the Sprawling Suburbs, If You Can Really Call It Living." Review of Radiant City, directed by Gary Burns and Jim Brown. New York Times, 30 May 2007, p. E1. Weiller, K. H. Review of Sport, Rhetoric, and Gender: Historical Perspectives and Media Representations, edited by Linda K. Fuller. Choice, Apr. 2007, p. 1377. An Editorial & Letter to the Editor Cite as you would any article in a periodical, but include the designators "Editorial" or "Letter" to identify the type of work it is. "Of Mines and Men." Editorial. Wall Street Journal, eastern edition, 24 Oct. 2003, p. A14. Hamer, John. Letter. American Journalism Review, Dec. 2006/Jan. 2007, p. 7.

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Anonymous Articles Cite the article title first, and finish the citation as you would any other for that kind of periodical. "Business: Global Warming's Boom Town; Tourism in Greenland." The Economist, 26 May 2007, p. 82. "Women Expect to Care for Aging Parents but Seldom Prepare." Women's Health Weekly, 10 May 2007, p. 18. An Article in a Scholarly Journal A scholarly journal can be thought of as a container, as are collections of short stories or poems, a television series, or even a website. A container can be thought of as anything that is a part of a larger body of works. In this case, cite the author and title of article as you normally would. Then, put the title of the journal in italics. Include the volume number (“vol.”) and issue number (“no.”) when possible, separated by commas. Finally, add the year and page numbers. Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal, Volume, Issue, Year, pages. Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature, vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50. Duvall, John N. "The (Super)Marketplace of Images: Television as Unmediated Mediation in DeLillo's White Noise." Arizona Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 3, 1994, pp. 127-53.

Sources from the Web It is always a good idea to maintain personal copies of electronic information, when possible. It is good practice to print or save web pages or, better, use a program like Adobe Acrobat to keep your own copies for future reference. Most web browsers will include URL/electronic address information when you print, which makes later reference easy. Also, you might use the Bookmark function in your web browser in order to return to documents more easily.

MLA uses the phrase, “Accessed” to denote which date you accessed the web page when available or necessary. It is not required to do so but especially encouraged when there is no copyright date listed on a website.

Important Note on the Use of URLs in MLA: Include a URL or web address to help readers locate your sources. Because web addresses are not static (i.e., they change often) and because documents sometimes appear in multiple places on the web (e.g., on multiple databases), MLA encourages the use of citing containers such as Youtube, JSTOR, Spotify, or Netflix in order to easily access and verify sources. However, MLA only requires the www. address, so eliminate all https:// when citing URLs.

• Many scholarly journal articles found in databases include a DOI (digital object identifier). If a DOI is available, cite the DOI number instead of the URL.

• Online newspapers and magazines sometimes include a “permalink,” which is a shortened, stable version of a URL. Look for a “share” or “cite this” button to see if a source includes a permalink. If you can find a permalink, use that instead of a URL.

Abbreviations Commonly Used with Electronic Sources: If page numbers are not available, use par. or pars. to denote paragraph numbers. Use these in place of the p. or pp. abbreviation.

Basic Style for Citations of Electronic Sources (Including Online Databases): Here are some common features you should try to find before citing electronic sources in MLA style. Not every Web page will provide all of the following information. However, collect as much of the following information as possible both for your citations and for your research notes:

• Author and/or editor names (if available); last names first. • "Article name in quotation marks."

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• Title of the website, project, or book in italics. • Any version numbers available, including editions (ed.), revisions, posting dates, volumes (vol.), or issue

numbers (no.). • Publisher information, including the publisher name and publishing date. • Take note of any page numbers (p. or pp.) or paragraph numbers (par. or pars.). • URL (without the https://) DOI or permalink. • Date you accessed the material (Date Accessed)—While not required, it is highly recommended, especially

when dealing with pages that change frequently or do not have a visible copyright date. • Remember to cite containers after your regular citation. Examples of containers are collections of short

stories or poems, a television series, or even a website. A container is anything that is a part of a larger body of works.

Use the following format: Author. Title. Title of container (self contained if book), Other contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher, Publication Date, Location (pages, paragraphs and/or URL, DOI or permalink). 2ndcontainer’s title, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location, Date of Access (if applicable).

Citing an Entire Web Site

It is a good idea to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available on one date may no longer be available later. When using the URL, be sure to include the complete address for the site except for the https://.

Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). Name of Site. Version number, Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher), date of resource creation (if available), URL, DOI or permalink. Date of access (if applicable).

The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2008,

owl.english.purdue.edu/owl. Accessed 23 Apr. 2008.

Felluga, Dino. Guide to Literary and Critical Theory. Purdue U, 28 Nov. 2003, www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/.

Accessed 10 May 2006.

A Page on a Web Site

For an individual page on a Web site, list the author or alias if known, followed by an indication of the specific page or article being referenced. Usually, the title of the page or article appears in a header at the top of the page. Follow this with the information covered above for entire Web sites. If the publisher is the same as the website name, only list it once.

“Athlete's Foot - Topic Overview.” WebMD, 25 Sept. 2014, www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-

treatments/tc/athletes-foot-topic-overview.

Lundman, Susan. “How to Make Vegetarian Chili.” eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html.

Accessed 6 July 2015.

An Article in a Web Magazine

Provide the author name, article name in quotation marks, title of the web magazine in italics, publisher name, publication date, URL, and the date of access.

Bernstein, Mark. “10 Tips on Writing the Living Web.” A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 16 Aug. 2002,

alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.

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An Article in an Online Scholarly Journal

For all online scholarly journals, provide the author(s) name(s), the name of the article in quotation marks, the title of the publication in italics, all volume and issue numbers, and the year of publication. Include a URL, DOI, or permalink to help readers locate the source.

1. Article in an Online-only Scholarly Journal

MLA requires a page range for articles that appear in Scholarly Journals. If the journal you are citing appears exclusively in an online format (i.e. there is no corresponding print publication) that does not make use of page numbers, indicate the URL or other location information.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and

Society: The International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362.

Accessed 20 May 2009.

2. Article in an Online Scholarly Journal That Also Appears in Print

Cite articles in online scholarly journals that also appear in print as you would a scholarly journal in print, including the page range of the article. Provide the URL and the date of access.

Wheelis, Mark. “Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons

Convention.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol. 6, no. 6, 2000, pp. 595-600, wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/6/6/00-

0607_article. Accessed 8 Feb. 2009.

3. An Article from an Online Database (or Other Electronic Subscription Service)

Cite online databases (e.g. LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect) and other subscription services as containers. Thus, provide the title of the database italicized before the DOI or URL. If a DOI is not provided, use the URL instead. Provide the date of access if you wish.

Alonso, Alvaro, and Julio A. Camargo. “Toxicity of Nitrite to Three Species of Freshwater

Invertebrates.” Environmental Toxicology, vol. 21, no. 1, 3 Feb. 2006, pp. 90-94. Wiley Online Library,

doi:10.1002/tox.20155.

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2007,

pp. 173-96. ProQuest, doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.

E-mail (including E-mail Interviews)

Give the author of the message, followed by the subject line in quotation marks. State to whom the message was sent with the phrase, “Received by” and the recipient’s name. Include the date the message was sent. Use standard capitalization.

Kunka, Andrew. “Re: Modernist Literature.” Received by John Watts, 15 Nov. 2000.

Neyhart, David. “Re: Online Tutoring.” Received by Joe Barbato, 1 Dec. 2016.

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A YouTube Video

Video and audio sources need to be documented using the same basic guidelines for citing print sources in MLA style. Include as much descriptive information as necessary to help readers understand the type and nature of the source you are citing. If the author’s name is the same as the uploader, only cite the author once. If the author is different from the uploader, cite the author’s name before the title.

“8 Hot Dog Gadgets put to the Test.” YouTube, uploaded by Crazy Russian Hacker, 6 June 2016,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBlpjSEtELs.

McGonigal, Jane. “Gaming and Productivity.” YouTube, uploaded by Big Think, 3 July 2012,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkdzy9bWW3E.

Other Common Sources An Interview

Interviews typically fall into two categories: print or broadcast published and unpublished (personal) interviews, although interviews may also appear in other, similar formats such as in e-mail format or as a Web document.

1. Personal Interviews

Personal interviews refer to those interviews that you conduct yourself. List the interview by the name of the interviewee. Include the descriptor Personal interview and the date of the interview.

Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

2. Published Interviews (Print or Broadcast)

List the interview by the full name of the interviewee. If the name of the interview is part of a larger work like a book, a television program, or a film series, place the title of the interview in quotation marks. Place the title of the larger work in italics. If the interview appears as an independent title, italicize it. For books, include the author or editor name after the book title.

Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor, Interview by (unformatted) after the interviewee’s name and before the interviewer’s name.

Gaitskill, Mary. Interview with Charles Bock. Mississippi Review, vol. 27, no. 3, 1999, pp. 129-50.

Amis, Kingsley. “Mimic and Moralist.” Interviews with Britain’s Angry Young Men, By Dale Salwak, Borgo P, 1984.

3. Online-only Published Interviews

List the interview by the name of the interviewee. If the interview has a title, place it in quotation marks. Cite the remainder of the entry as you would other exclusive web content. Place the name of the website in italics, give the publisher name (or sponsor), the publication date, and the URL.

Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor Interview by (unformatted) after the interviewee’s name and before the interviewer’s name.

Zinkievich, Craig. Interview by Gareth Von Kallenbach. Skewed & Reviewed, 27 Apr. 2009,

www.arcgames.com/en/games/star-trek-online/news/detail/1056940-skewed-%2526-reviewed-interviews.

Accessed 15 May. 2009.

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Speeches, Lectures, or Other Oral Presentations (including Conference Presentations)

Provide the speaker’s name. Then, give the title of the speech (if any) in quotation marks. Follow with the title of the particular conference or meeting and then the name of the organization. Name the venue and its city (if the name of the city is not listed in the venue’s name). Use the descriptor that appropriately expresses the type of presentation (e.g., Address, Lecture, Reading, Keynote Speech, Guest Lecture, Conference Presentation).

Stein, Bob. “Reading and Writing in the Digital Era.” Discovering Digital Dimensions, Computers and Writing Conference,

23 May 2003, Union Club Hotel, West Lafayette, IN. Keynote Address.

A Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph

Provide the artist's name, the title of the artwork in italics, and the date of composition. Finally, provide the name of the institution that houses the artwork followed by the location of the institution (if the location is not listed in the name of the institution, e.g. The Art Institute of Chicago).

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid.

If the medium and/or materials (e.g., oil on canvas) are important to the reference, you can include this information at the end of the entry. However, it is not required.

For photographic reproductions of artwork (e.g. images of artwork in a book), treat the book or website as a container. Remember that for a second container, the title is listed first, before the contributors. Cite the bibliographic information as above followed by the information for the source in which the photograph appears, including page or reference numbers (plate, figure, etc.).

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid. Gardener's Art Through the Ages, 10th ed., by

Richard G. Tansey and Fred S. Kleiner, Harcourt Brace, p. 939.

If you viewed the artwork on the museum's website, treat the name of the website as the container (i.e., the "book"), and include the website's publisher and the URL at the end of the citation. Omit publisher information if it is the same as the name of the website. Note the period after the date below, rather than the comma: this is because the date refers to the painting's original creation, rather than to its publication on the website. Thus, MLA format considers it an "optional element."

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo del Prado, https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-

collection/art-work/the-family-of-carlos-iv/f47898fc-aa1c-48f6-a779-71759e417e74.

Films or Movies

List films by their title. Include the name of the director, the film studio or distributor, and the release year. If relevant, list performer names after the director's name.

Speed Racer. Directed by Lana Wachowski and Lilly Wachowski, performances by Emile Hirsch, Nicholas Elia, Susan

Sarandon, Ariel Winter, and John Goodman, Warner Brothers, 2008.

To emphasize specific performers or directors, begin the citation with the name of the desired performer or director, followed by the appropriate title for that person.

Lucas, George, director. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Twentieth Century Fox, 1977.

  • Essays/Written Work/Assignments/
    • Attendance/Participation/Class Discussion/Teacher-Student Conference
  • Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address
    • The People
    • The Earth Mother
    • The Waters
    • The Fish
    • The Plants
    • The Food Plants
    • The Medicine Herbs
    • The Animals
    • The Trees
    • The Birds
    • The Four Winds
    • The Thunderers
    • The Sun
    • Grandmother Moon
    • The Stars
    • The Enlightened Teachers
    • The Creator
    • Closing Words
      • Article in a Magazine
      • Article in a Newspaper
      • A Review
      • An Editorial & Letter to the Editor
      • Anonymous Articles
      • An Article in a Scholarly Journal