Self-consciousness is a distinctive literary trait in postmodernist literature.

nooo

DonaldBarthelmesself-conscious.pdf

Home >Literature homework help >Self-consciousness is a distinctive literary trait in postmodernist literature.

THE SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR IN DONALD BARTHELME

AND VLADIMIR NABOKOV

DONALD HUTTON STANLEY

B.A., Honours, University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1969

M.A., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1972

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

i n

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

October, 1978

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t . f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my department or h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

(Donald Hutton Stanley)

ABSTRACT

The l i t e r a r y d e v i c e of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s p r e v a l e n t

i n the works of Donald Barthelme and V l a d i m i r Nabokov. However,

the themes and world view of the works are not predetermined by

any q u a l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . D e s p i t e

a c u r r e n t c r i t i c a l tendency to suppose t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s a p r o b l e m a t i c or s o l i p s i s t i c stance towards

both r e a l i t y and t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

remains a m a l l e a b l e d e v i c e which can be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n with

t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m , and which can be shaped a c c o r d i n g to the

unique purposes of a p a r t i c u l a r author.

A tendency among c e r t a i n contemporary t h e o r i s t s -- Robert

A l t e r , Susan Sontag, Maurice Beebe and o t h e r s — would make

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , r a t h e r than r e a l i s m , c e n t r a l to the t r a d i t i o n

of the n o v e l . T h i s tendency r e p r e s e n t s a phase i n the h i s t o r i c a l

p a t t e r n by which the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r goes i n and out of

f a s h i o n . In the e i g h t e e n t h century E n g l i s h novel he appeared to

be a s p r i g h t l y v a r i a n t of the formal r e a l i s m of Defoe and R i c h a r d -

son, i n t h a t he i n t e r r u p t e d the n a r r a t i v e to comment on n a r r a t i v e

technique, and to emphasize the a r t i f i c i a l or c o n t r i v e d aspect

of what were otherwise presented as r e a l events. D e s p i t e an

e a r l y f r u i t i o n i n Sterne, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ' s p o p u l a r i t y

d e c l i n e d , and c r i t i c s came to regard him as an a b e r r a t i o n , and

an impediment to the novel's " i m p l i c i t methods." He r e v i v e d

i n the modern e r a , and a t present s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i t s e l f i s

assumed by some c r i t i c s to be "at the h e a r t of the modernist

consciousness i n a l l the a r t s . " T h i s somewhat exaggerated s t a t u s

of l i t e r a r y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s leads to a corresponding condes-

c e n s i o n towards t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m , a condescension which i s

r e v e a l e d i n the c r i t i c a l response to Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r .

Some of the c r i t i c i s m of Nabokov i s v i t i a t e d by the s i m p l i s t i c

assumption t h a t Nabokov, the wizard of m i r r o r s and word games,

has banished from h i s novels a l l t r a c e s of the r e a l world. In

f a c t , however, Nabokov's n a r r a t o r s c o n t r i b u t e to a unique world

view i n which there i s an i m p l i e d i d e n t i t y between the f i c t i o n a l

world of a r t and the r u l e s of the u n i v e r s e . The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r emphasizes the a r t i f i c e of the n a r r a t i v e , but a t the

same time he p e r s o n i f i e s , as i t were, c e r t a i n n a r r a t i v e conven-

t i o n s , and adds what C h a r l e s Kinbote c a l l s a "human r e a l i t y . "

His ongoing d i a l o g u e with the reader helps the reader to r e c o g n i z e

the f a l s e a r t i f i c e of t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e s and t o t a l i t a r i a n a r t ,

and teaches the reader to regard f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s w i t h a

sympathetic eye. In the words of A l b e r t Guerard, "Within Nabokov's

i n v o l u t i o n s , behind h i s many screens, l i e r e a l people."

Donald Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s might a t f i r s t

appear to be r a t h e r t y p i c a l spokesmen f o r c e r t a i n c l i c h e s of avant

garde theory: o n t o l o g i c a l chaos, the breakdown of language and

meaning, e x i s t e n t i a l dread. But the n a r r a t o r s are a l s o s a t i r i s t s

of avant garde theory, p a r t i c u l a r l y the theory t h a t the l i t e r a r y

past has been d i s c r e d i t e d and language no longer communicates.

Rather than i n t i m i d a t i n g the reader, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

sometimes a c t s as h i s a l l y , i n v i t i n g the reader to check the f i c t i o n

a g a i n s t c o n d i t i o n s i n the reader's own world ("Look f o r y o u r s e l f , "

i v

says one n a r r a t o r ) . S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s shown to be p a r t of

a malaise i n s o c i e t y i t s e l f , a malaise t h a t i s o c c a s i o n e d not

so much by e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l breakdown as by moral f a i l u r e . S e l f -

consciousness i s a symptom of a s o c i e t y t h a t i s a t h e a r t e v i l

and murderous.

Barthelme and Nabokov employ t h e i r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s

to d i f f e r e n t ends: Nabokov's g i f t e d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

c o n t r i b u t e s to Nabokov's serene sense of an i d e n t i t y between

a r t and r e a l i t y ; Barthelme d i s c o v e r s a moral f a i l u r e a t the

heart of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s o c i e t y . The works and world views

of each author are made p o s s i b l e by a unique t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of

a t r a d i t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e convention.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I THE PEDIGREE OF THE SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR 20

I n t r o d u c t i o n I 20 N a r r a t i v e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s Defined ' 22 The S e l f - c o n s c i o u s 'Narrator I l l u s t r a t e d 24 The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r i n the E i g h t e e n t h Century 34 The D e c l i n e of the S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r 39 The Inhuman N a r r a t o r 46 S o c i a l Realism 55 The Breakdown of S o c i a l Realism 61 The Return of the S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r 65

CHAPTER I I THE "GIFT" OF THE SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR:

THE FICTION OF VLADIMIR NABOKOV 7 5

I n t r o d u c t i o n 75 Nabokov's P r i v a t e L i f e 80 The I n t r u s i v e N a r r a t o r 90 The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r as A r t i s t 98 The M u l t i p l e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r 109 The P e r s u a s i v e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r 123 The Metaphysics of S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s 132

CHAPTER I I I THE MURDEROUS SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR:

THE FICTION OF DONALD BARTHELME 139

I n t r o d u c t i o n 139 The Urban N e u r o t i c 143 The Philosophy of Chaos 148 Language Problems: The L i s t 154 Language Problems: M a l f u n c t i o n 161 Language Problems: The Loss of Emotion 167 S e l f - C o n s c i o u s L i t e r a t u r e 172 The Other Side of the Avant Garde 185 The N a r r a t o r as Plain-Speaker 191 The O r i g i n a l , A u t h e n t i c S e l f as a D i r t y

Great V i l l a i n 204 C o n c l u s i o n 215

CONCLUSION 217

BIBLIOGRAPHY 221

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to acknowledge the a s s i s t a n c e of my d i s s e r t a t i o n

committee, J e r r y Wasserman ( s u p e r v i s o r ) , Roger Seamon and Graham

Good.

v i

INTRODUCTION

My s u b j e c t i s the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n the f i c t i o n of

V l a d i m i r Nabokov- and Donald Barthelme. N e i t h e r of these w r i t e r s

has e s t a b l i s h e d a monopoly on the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , whose

presence i n contemporary American l i t e r a t u r e has become p e r v a s i v e .

His u b i q u i t y i s a symptom of a change i n the t r a d i t i o n of the n o v e l ,

a change characterized by the d i m i n i s h i n g c r i t i c a l s t a t u s of r e a l i s m .

The long t r a d i t i o n t h a t r e a l i s m i s c e n t r a l to the novel

has been r e v i s e d ; as i s usual with r e v i s i o n i s t t h e o r i e s , t h e r e i s

an element of d i s t o r t i o n . Contemporary t h e o r i s t s tend to argue

t h a t the presence of d e l i b e r a t e a r t i f i c e and n a r r a t i v e s e l f -

consciousness w i t h i n a work i m p l i e s a r e j e c t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l

r e a l i s m , and, perhaps, a s o l i p s i s t i c stance towards both language

and meaning. Joyce C a r o l Oates, w r i t i n g i n r e a c t i o n to the new

t h e o r i e s , asks, q u e r u l o u s l y , "Why i s i t t h a t our c l e v e r e s t w r i t e r s ,

pushed forward by e d i t o r s , c r i t i c s and f e l l o w - w r i t e r s a l i k e , have

f o l l o w e d so e a g e r l y the s o l i p s i s t i c examples of Nabokov, Beckett

and, more r e c e n t l y and most p o w e r f u l l y , Borges?""^

Oates o v e r - g e n e r a l i z e s , but her f r e t f u l q u e s t i o n i s germane;

w i t h r e f e r e n c e to our p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r , i t i s c l e a r t h a t some c r i t i c s c o n s i d e r him the bearer

of o v e r t l y a r t i f i c i a l and c o n t r i v e d f i c t i o n , f i c t i o n which, to

(1) Joyce Carol Oates, "Whose Side Are You On?/The Guest Word," New York Times Book Review, 4 June 1972, p. 63.

evoke Page Stegner on Nabokov, escapes i n t o a e s t h e t i c s . Contem-

porary c r i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c s w i t h a l l e g i a n c e s to the avant

garde, tend to smuggle t h e i r preconceptions a c r o s s the border

of a g i v e n work by means of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; but

the n a r r a t o r , l i k e the c r i t i c , i s j u s t a t o u r i s t w i t h i n the abso-

l u t e d i c t a t o r s h i p of the author. Hence the t h e s i s of the p r e s e n t

work: The p h i l o s o p h i c and a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r i n a g i v e n work by Barthelme or Nabokov i s determined

by the author, and not by any i n h e r e n t and i n e s c a p a b l e q u a l i t y

of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e i t s e l f . Barthelme and Nabokov bend

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r own unique

aims and o b s e s s i o n s . They e x e r c i s e complete c o n t r o l over t h e i r

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s , i n c l u d i n g the e f f e c t of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r on r e a l i s m ; they do not f o n d l y suppose t h a t i f the

n a r r a t o r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n i s s t r o n g , the h o l d on r e a l i t y must be

weak.

Since i t might seem s e l f - e v i d e n t to argue t h a t authors

are masters of the a v a i l a b l e techniques, l e t me d e s c r i b e i n some-

what more d e t a i l c e r t a i n contemporary a t t i t u d e s towards s e l f -

conscious f i c t i o n . I t should be remembered t h a t when the novel

had the a u t h e n t i c i t y of h i s t o r y or biography, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r was thought to be an e x c e s s i v e l y p e r s o n a l and even amat-

e u r i s h i n t r u s i o n i n t o the novel's c a r e f u l v e r i s i m i l i t u d e ; to quote 2

Henry James, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r seemed " i n a r t i s t i c . "

(2) Henry James, "Anthony Trollope," in The Future of the Novel, ed. Leon Edel (New York: Random House, 1956), p. 248.

But i n contemporary theory the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s o f t e n

taken to be the a r t i s t i c s a l v a t i o n of what would otherwise be

h o p e l e s s l y p e d e s t r i a n r e a l i s m .

For example, Maurice Beebe remarks t h a t many c r i t i c s have

been w r i t i n g "about the r e f l e x i v e and s o l i p s i s t i c q u a l i t y of

Modernist l i t e r a t u r e , the way i n which i t t u r n s inward and con- 3

s i d e r s i t s e l f . " From the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s on, "most of our s i g -

n i f i c a n t a r t i s t s have i m p l i e d t h a t t h e i r v i s i o n of t h i n g s i s

more important than the t h i n g s themselves" (p. 14), and, adds

Beebe, i n a trendy t r u i s m , the " c r e a t i o n of a r t i s almost always

a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t " (p. 15). Beebe i s c a r e f u l not to take a

s i d e , and h i s argument i s f u l l of c a r e f u l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ; neverthe-

l e s s there i s a d i s c e r n i b l e tendency to t h i n k of the novel as

e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . The same c o u l d be s a i d f o r Robert

A l t e r ' s book, as one might gather from the s u b t i t l e : P a r t i a l

Magic: The Novel as a S e l f - C o n s c i o u s Genre.

A l t e r says he i s b a l a n c i n g a c r i t i c a l b i a s f o r r e a l i s m : E s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n the sphere -of E n g l i s h c r i - t i c i s m of the n o v e l , there has been a r e c u r - r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t " s e r i o u s " f i c t i o n be an i n t e n t , v e r i s i m i l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of moral s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e i r s o c i a l con- t e x t s ; and, w i t h ; few e x c e p t i o n s , t h e r e has been a lamentable l a c k of c r i t i c a l a p p r e c i - a t i o n f o r the k i n d of novel t h a t expresses i t s s e r i o u s n e s s through p l a y f u l n e s s , t h a t i s a c u t e l y aware of i t s e l f as a mere s t r u c t u r e of words even as i t t r i e s to d i s c o v e r ways of going beyond words to the experiences words seek to indicate.,.

(3) Maurice Beebe,"Refleeti ve- and Reflexive Trends in Modern L i t e r a t u r e , " in Twentieth-Century Poetry, F i c t i o n , Theory, ed. Harry R. Garvin (Lewisburg, Penn.: Bucknell Univ. Press, 1977), p. 13.

(4) Robert Alter, P a r t i a l Magic (Berkeley: Univ. of C a l i f . Press, 1975), p. ix.

The t r a d i t i o n of the novel i s informed by a " c r i t i c a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l

awareness" i n which ontology i s " e s s e n t i a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c , "

and the novel i s " l e s s c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h the s o l i d assurances

and m a t e r i a l views of bourgeois s o c i e t y than some observers

have imagined" (pp. x, x v ) . Those same p u r b l i n d observers have

missed the importance to the novel of " r e s t l e s s s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g "

(p. x v ) .

However, A l t e r stops s h o r t of p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t the novel

i s e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , or t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s c h a r a c t -

e r i z e s what he f a c e t i o u s l y terms "The Other Great T r a d i t i o n "

(p. i x ) . Other c r i t i c s have been l e s s circumspect; c o n s i d e r ,

f o r example, John D i t s k y ' s a n a l y s i s of the W i l l i a m Gass n o v e l ,

W i l l i e Masters' Lonesome Wife. D i t s k y says the novel's patron

s a i n t i s Laurence Sterne,

a reminder t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l has had a v a i l a b l e f o r c e n t u r i e s the model i t has now chosen to f o l l o w up, and a f i g u r e whose e x i s - tence makes p o s s i b l e the d i s t u r b i n g suggestion t h a t the n o v e l form has been s i d e t r a c k e d s i n c e long b e f o r e Austen.

D i t s k y here a r t i c u l a t e s a concept dear to some contemporary

c r i t i c s , t h a t Sterne's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s more c e n t r a l than

Austen's r e a l i s m , t h a t the novel as a genre has u n t i l r e c e n t l y

been " s i d e t r a c k e d . " When c r i t i c s begin to d i s t i n g u i s h h i g h roads

as opposed to s i d e t r a c k s , and p l a y the p a r l o r game of Great T r a d i t -

ions i n which o n l y approved works q u a l i f y , the unique v a l u e s of a

p a r t i c u l a r work tend to be s l i g h t e d . I t i s the s i g n of a s h i f t

(5) John Ditsky, "The Man on the Quaker Oats Box: Characteristics of Recent Experimental Fiction," Georgia Review, 26 (1972), 305.

i n f a s h i o n , a new f a d , when c r i t i c s c o n t i n u o u s l y b r i n g Sterne

on stage. We r e c o g n i z e h i s mischievous i n f l u e n c e i n D i t s k y ' s

d e s c r i p t i o n of the "conscious presence of the c r e a t i v e i n t e l l i -

gence as a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n the reader's v i c a r i o u s experience

of the f i c t i o n a l work's substance," and i n D i t s k y ' s b r e a t h l e s s

announcement t h a t "the a r t i s t - a u d i e n c e - w o r k r e l a t i o n s h i p becomes

one of a c t i v e and r a d i c a l c o n s p i r a c y — one not to be confused

w i t h the p a t r o n i z i n g h o m i l y - s e s s i o n s of an e a r l i e r day" (p. 306).

D i t s k y ' s own p a t r o n i z i n g d i s d a i n f o r the homily s e s s i o n s of an

e a r l i e r day i s p a r t of a c r i t i c a l s t r a t e g y t h a t c a l l s f o r a

" r a d i c a l " break w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l . Today's brash

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r must be d i s a s s o c i a t e d from h i s sedate

n i n e t e e n t h century a n c e s t o r s . T h e o r i e s of a r a d i c a l break w i t h

convention emphasize the n a r r a t o r ' s c r e a t i v e ( s o l i p s i s t i c )

i m a g i n a t i o n to the detriment of t r a d i t i o n a l mimesis. The f i r s t

c a s u a l t i e s of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s f i c t i o n are t h i n g s as they are —

a mercy k i l l i n g , a c c o r d i n g to some c r i t i c s .

C h a r l e s R u s s e l l , f o r example, maintains t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

l i t e r a t u r e denies r e a l i t y , or evades r e a l i t y , or gets by without

r e a l i t y , on the ground t h a t language i s i n c a p a b l e of e x p r e s s i n g

anything about the r e a l world. Value and meaning are dead i s s u e s ,

says R u s s e l l , who assumes t h a t the authors he analyzes share h i s

negations. He says c h e e r f u l l y t h a t , "as Saussure has shown, a l l g

l i n g u i s t i c systems are fundamentally a r b i t r a r y . " "Language ...

can never be more than a tenuous i m p o s i t i o n on a meaningless world.

(6) Charles Russell, "The Vault of Language: S e l f - R e f l e x i v e A r t i f i c e in Contemporary American Fiction," Modern F i c t i o n Studies, 20 (1974), 351.

U l t i m a t e l y , meaning can r e f e r o n l y to i t s own l i n g u i s t i c system.

I t has o n l y a s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . " T h e r e f o r e , " S e l f -

r e f l e c t i v e a r t r e v e a l s t h i s e x i s t e n c e centered upon i t s e l f " (p.

351). R u s s e l l ' s c l o s e d c i r c l e surrounds the l i n e s of W i l l i a m H.

Gass:

On the other s i d e of a novel l i e s the v o i d . Think f o r i n s t a n c e , of a s t r i d i n g s t a t u e ; imagine the p u r p o s e f u l i n c l i n a t i o n of the t o r s o , the a l e r t and p e n e t r a t i n g gaze of the head and i t s eyes, the o u t s t r e t c h e d arm and p o i n t i n g f i n g e r ; e v e r y t h i n g would appear to d i r e c t us toward some g o a l i n f r o n t of i t . Yet our eye t r a v e l s o n l y to the f i n g e r ' s end, and not beyond. Though p o i n t i n g , the f i n g e r b i d s us stay i n s t e a d , and we journey s l o w l y back along the t e n s i o n of the arm. In our h e a r t s we know what a c t u a l l y surrounds the s t a t u e . The same surrounds every other work of a r t : empty space and s i l e n c e . ^

But, as we w i l l argue l a t e r , Donald Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

f i c t i o n i s not s e l f - c o n t a i n e d ; h i s e x q u i s i t e l y - c a r v e d s t a t u e s

p o i n t a f i n g e r d i r e c t l y a t the reader's world. When R u s s e l l

c l a i m s t h a t V l a d i m i r Nabokov's novels are " t o t a l l y s e l f - a b s o r b e d ,

s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l l i n g u i s t i c games c l a i m i n g no entrance i n t o , no

involvement with, the phenomenal world" (p. 358), he i s t a k i n g

no account of Nabokov's p a s s i o n f o r s c i e n t i f i c accuracy and f i d -

e l i t y to the n a t u r a l world. R u s s e l l i s f o r c e d to ignore such

Nabokov s t o r i e s as "An A f f a i r of Honour," i n which the n a r r a t o r

s a d l y d e f l a t e s the daydreams of the l e a d i n g c h a r a c t e r on the 8

ground' t h a t , "Such t h i n g s don't happen i n r e a l l i f e . "

(7) William H. Gass, Fiction and the Figures of L i f e (New York: Random

House, Vintage Books, 1972), as quoted i n Russell, p. 351.

(8) Vladimir Nabokov, "An Affair of Honour," i n A Russian Beauty and

Other Stories, trans. Dmitri Nabokov, Vladimir Nabokov and Simon Karlinsky

(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), p . 115.

But to continue with R u s s e l l ' s argument. He i n s i s t s t h a t

John Barth "comprehends t h a t a l l f i c t i o n s are u l t i m a t e l y about

themselves, about the c r e a t i o n of the world by the word" (p. 358).

Barth's i r o n y : i negates any demand of the contemporary a r t i s t t o

c r e a t e a r a d i c a l l y new v i s i o n ..." (p. 359); i n f a c t , Barth and

other contemporary w r i t e r s , i n the attempt to reach toward "the

l a t e n t e x i s t e n c e of the world around us ... always r e t u r n t o the

meaning of t h a t r e a c h i n g . I f we see, or c r e a t e , meaning, i t i s

r e c o g n i z e d as one more a r t i f i c e " (p. 359). Anything t h a t resem-

b l e s meaning or t r u t h i s j u s t another i l l u s o r y l a y e r of a r t i f i c e ,

and t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s holds t r u e f o r most contemporary

f i c t i o n , s i n c e R u s s e l l assures us t h a t "both the two main d i r -

e c t i o n s to contemporary l i t e r a t u r e " r e v e a l "the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y

e x p l o r a t i v e nature of our a r t " (p. 352).

The s h o r t term f o r such t h e o r i z i n g would seem to be s o l i p -

sism, although R u s s e l l 1 s sometimes opaque argument i s never q u i t e

t h a t b l u n t . One i s t h a n k f u l , t h e r e f o r e , f o r the s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

candor.of A r l e n Hansen's t i t l e , "The C e l e b r a t i o n of S o l i p s i s m : A

New Trend i n American F i c t i o n . " A f t e r d i s c o v e r i n g s o l i p s i s m i n

Barth, Barthelme, Gass and o t h e r s , Hansen concludes t h a t contem-

porary w r i t e r s :

began i n r e a c t i o n to the d e t e r m i n i s t s ' d e n i a l of the power or s i g n i f i c a n c e of man's c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n . In the end, some may t r y to deny the adjustmental aspect of experience, and thus t h e i r v i s i o n may become too h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e and d e l u s o r y . But the moments of d e l u s i o n and p r e c i o u s n e s s might prove i n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s a small p r i c e to pay f o r a renewed a t t e n t i o n t o , and r e s p e c t f o r , man's i m a g i n a t i o n . Q

(9) Arlen J. Hansen, "The Celebration of Solipsism," Modern F i c t i o n Studies, 19 (1973), 15.

Although Hansen i s more temperate than R u s s e l l , h i s c o n c l u s i o n

r e s t s on the same assumption t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l i t e r a t u r e

downplays the "adjustmental aspect of experience" (by which

Hansen presumably means such hard f a c t s as s t i c k s and stones,

f i r i n g squads and g r a v i t y ) . The c o r o l l a r y of h i s argument i s

t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a l i s t i c novels f a i l to g i v e a t t e n t i o n t o ,

or l a c k r e s p e c t f o r , "man's i m a g i n a t i o n . " T h i s does a d i s s e r v i c e

to the numerous contemporary w r i t e r s who employ n a r r a t i v e s t y l e s

innocent of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s i n n o v a t i o n . Is i t f a i r to say t h a t

A l i c e Munro, Mordecai R i c h l e r , L a r r y McMurtry, Saul Bellow and

P h i l i p Roth l a c k r e s p e c t f o r man's imagination? When Graham

Greene says, "What I would l i k e i s to achieve an u n n o t i c e a b l e

s t y l e , " he r e p r e s e n t s a host of w r i t e r s who c r e a t e f i c t i o n t h a t

r e s p e c t s the i m a g i n a t i o n without making use of the e x h i b i t i o n i s t i c

and o v e r t l y s t y l i s h s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r .

Furthermore, the i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t

c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n i n the t h e o r i e s of R u s s e l l , Hansen'

and o t h e r s r e s u l t s i n a p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t the r e a d i n g p u b l i c t h a t

borders on e l i t i s m . Realism remains e s s e n t i a l to the n o v e l , not

j u s t . a s i d e t r a c k . Although some c r i t i c s might condemn the

a t t r a c t i o n s of " l o c a l colour, 1 ' the reader, l i k e the movie-goer,

continues to hunger f o r a sense of the t e x t u r e of the r e a l world.

F a c t s are always welcome.

Furthermore, the reader's a p p e t i t e f o r the commonplace,

f o r f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n and accuracy, i s shared by many of those

w r i t e r s who are thought to be c e l e b r a t o r s of s o l i p s i s m . For

(10) As quoted in "A Novel Sort of L i f e , " by E r i c Young and Louise Dennys, Weekend Magazine, 25 March 1978, p. 11.

example, R u s s e l l assures us t h a t Nabokov's novels are s e l f -

r e f e r e n t i a l l i n g u i s t i c games c l a i m i n g no involvement with the

phenomenal world. Yet a p r e c i s e l y o p p o s i t e a e s t h e t i c i s advanced

i n "A Guide to B e r l i n , " a s t o r y i n which, as Nabokov says i n a :

note about i t s t r a n s l a t i o n , "two or three s c a t t e r e d phrases have

been added f o r the sake of f a c t u a l clarity.""'"''"

The horse-drawn tram has vanished, and so w i l l the t r o l l e y , and some e c c e n t r i c B e r l i n w r i t e r i n the twenties of the t w e n t y - f i r s t century, wishing t o p o r t r a y our time , w i l l go to a museum of t e c h n o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y and l o c a t e a hundred-year-old s t r e e t c a r , yellow, uncouth, w i t h o l d - f a s h i o n e d curved s e a t s , and i n a museum of o l d costumes d i g up a b l a c k , shiny-buttoned conductor's uniform. Then he w i l l go home and compile a d e s c r i p t i o n of B e r l i n s t r e e t s i n bygone days. E v e r y t h i n g , every t r i f l e , w i l l be v a l u a b l e and meaningful: the conductor's purse, the advertisement over the window, t h a t p e c u l i a r j o l t i n g motion which our g r e a t - g r a n d c h i l d r e n w i l l perhaps imagine -- e v e r y t h i n g w i l l be ennobled and j u s t i f i e d by i t s age.

I t h i n k t h a t here l i e s the sense of l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n : to p o r t r a y o r d i n a r y o b j e c t s as they w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n the k i n d l y m i r r o r s of f u t u r e times; to f i n d i n the o b j e c t s around us the f r a g r a n t tenderness t h a t o n l y p o s t e r i t y w i l l d i s c e r n and a p p r e c i a t e i n the f a r - o f f times when every t r i f l e of our p l a i n everyday l i f e w i l l become e x q u i s i t e and f e s t i v e i n i t s own r i g h t ... (pp. .93-94).

T h i s s t o r y , or m i l d manifesto, was w r i t t e n i n 1925, when Nabokov's

audience was minimal, which p a r t l y e x p l a i n s the i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t

h i s contemporary B e r l i n audience was i n c a p a b l e of a p p r e c i a t i n g

r e a l i t y ' s " f r a g r a n t tenderness." The p o i n t remains t h a t h i s

a e s t h e t i c depends on f i d e l i t y to the t r i f l e s of everyday l i f e ,

from buttons to s t r e e t c a r s . One can j u s t i f y a c e r t a i n s k e p t i c i s m

(11) Vladimir Nabokov, "A Guide to B e r l i n , " in Details of a Sunset, trans. Dmitri Nabokov and Vladimir Nabokov (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), p. 90.

when a c r i t i c announces c o y l y t h a t ,

The " r e a l " world, such as i t i s , such as i t i s rumored to be, has been i n c r e a s i n g l y s u b j e c t e d to abuse l a t e l y , both from the w r i t e r s of v a r i o u s s o r t s of " f i c t i o n s " and "new n o v e l s , " and a l s o from t h e i r defenders i n the new c r i t i c a l a n t i - w o r l d t h a t has grown up around such e x p e r i - mentation. ^

C e r t a i n of these experimental new n o v e l i s t s are l e s s abusive

towards the r e a l world than the c r i t i c s might t h i n k . Ronald Suken-

i c k , who humorously champions a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e i n which

one of the main q u a l i t i e s i s " o p a c i t y , " n e v e r t h e l e s s maintains

t h a t "the movement of f i c t i o n should always be i n the d i r e c t i o n 13

of what we sense as r e a l . " A l a i n R o b b e - G r i l l e t , a noted

exponent of the new n o v e l , has been known to speak f a v o u r a b l y of

f i d e l i t y to the r e a l world: A l l w r i t e r s b e l i e v e they are r e a l i s t s . None ever c a l l s h i m s e l f a b s t r a c t , i l l u s i o n i s t i c , c h i m e r i c a l , f a n t a s t i c , f a l s i t i c a l .... And no doubt we must b e l i e v e them a l l , on t h i s p o i n t . I t i s the r e a l world which i n t e r e s t s them; each one attempts as best as can to c r e a t e "the r e a l . " ^

Even John Barth, o f t e n taken as the l e a d i n g exemplar of

the contemporary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n o v e l i s t , does not r e p r e s e n t a

complete break w i t h the v a l u e s of the c o n v e n t i o n a l n o v e l , and w i t h

the phenomenal world; a t l e a s t , he does not r e p r e s e n t as complete

a break as some c r i t i c s would suggest. For example, Robert Scholes

leans h e a v i l y on. B a r t h 1 s works i n h i s p r o p o s a l f o r a new n a r r a t i v e genre, which Scholes c a l l s " t a b u l a t i o n " : " D e l i g h t i n design,

(12) Ditsky, p. 297. (13) Ronald Sukenick, "The New Tradition," Partisan Review, 39

(1972), 587, 583. (14) Alain Robbe-Grillet, For A New Novel, trans. Richard Howard

(New York: Grove Press, 1965), p. 157.

.11

and i t s concurrent emphasis on the a r t of the d e s i g n e r , w i l l

serve i n p a r t to d i s t i n g u i s h the a r t of the f a b u l a t o r from the

work of the n o v e l i s t or the s a t i r i s t . Of a l l n a r r a t i v e forms, 15

f a b u l a t i o n puts the h i g h e s t premium on a r t and j o y . " Scholes

says h i s term " f a b u l a t o r " i s "an honest attempt to f i n d a word f o r

something t h a t needs one." (We should note h i s disarming a s i d e

t h a t the term i s "of course a gimmick, an a t t e n t i o n - g e t t e r " [ p . 6 ] . )

But i s i t t r u e t h a t a n a r r a t o r who d e l i g h t s i n n a r r a t i v e d e s i g n

cannot be understood i n terms of both the novel genre and the

long t r a d i t i o n of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ? " F a b u l a t i o n "

might be merely a novel t h a t f e a t u r e s a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

i n a c h e e r f u l phase. Since l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m does not l a c k

f o r c o n f u s i n g terminology, perhaps we should r e s i s t a t t e n t i o n -

g e t t i n g gimmicks p r e d i c a t e d on the n o t i o n t h a t contemporary

w r i t e r s are so r a d i c a l t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l c r i t i c a l terms no

longer apply. John Barth h i m s e l f o f f e r s support f o r our r e s i s t a n c e

i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n with Joe David Bellamy, i n which Bellamy des-

c r i b e s a type of f i c t i o n "which tends to s t a r t t a l k i n g about

the formal nature of the s t o r y and the process of i t s d e s c r i p -

t i o n " (that i s , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s f i c t i o n ) . Bellamy asks Barth i f .

there i s "a b a s i c c o n f l i c t between t h a t k i n d of a n t i - i l l u s i o n i s t i c

w r i t i n g and the s t o r y - t e l l i n g impulse?": B a r t h : No, I don't t h i n k t h e r e ' s a c o n f l i c t , o n l y a k i n d of t e n s i o n , which can be used. When we t a l k about i t t h i s way i t a l l sounds d r e a d f u l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , i n v o l u t e d , v e r t i - ginous, d u l l . In the a c t u a l e x e c u t i o n i t

(15) Robert Scholes, The Fabulators (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), p. 10.

doesn't have to be t h a t a t a l l ; i t can be charming, e n t e r t a i n i n g ; i t can even be i l l u s i o n i s t . -. r 16

S o r t i n g through the terms, i t seems t h a t Barth r e j e c t s

the n o t i o n t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s p r e c l u d e r e a l i s m (the

t r a d i t i o n a l i l l u s i o n i s t i c " s t o r y t e l l i n g impulse"). I t i s a

mistake to t h i n k t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s novels have nothing i n

common w i t h r e a l i s t i c n o v e l s , and i t i s a worse mistake to t h i n k

t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s novels are s u p e r i o r i n k i n d to r e a l i s t i c

n o v e l s . One must p r o t e s t what D i t s k y c a l l s "the l a t e s t French

t h i n k i n g i n the l a t e s t Sontag abridgment," p a r t i c u l a r l y when i t

l e a d s Susan Sontag (among o t h e r s , as we s h a l l see i n the t h i r d

chapter) to argue t h a t our contemporary r e a l i s t i c novels " r e p r e -

sent b a r e l y noteworthy products of a r e t a r d e d or r e a c t i o n a r y

consciousness." In f a c t , however, both the r e a l i s t i c and the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s novel must be f a i t h f u l to the s t o r y t e l l i n g impulse

and the "adjustmental aspect of experience"; the s i g n of a

" r e t a r d e d consciousness" would be a novel t h a t went too f a r i n

the d i r e c t i o n of a r t i f i c e and s o l i p s i s m . In the words of A l b e r t

Cook: A l l a r t , of course, envisages r e a l i t y : any work of a r t i s , among other t h i n g s , an i n t u i - t i v e statement about our experience of the world. And any work of a r t , a t the same time, i n t e r e s t s i t s e l f ... i n i t s own appear- ance, the a r t i f i c e i t c o n s t i t u t e s of p a i n t or sound or words • • • «]_g

(16) Joe David Bellamy, "John Barth," in The New F i c t i o n , ed. Bellamy (Urbana: Univ. of I l l i n o i s Press, 1974), p. 10.

(17) Ditsky, p. 298; Susan Sontag, Pref., Writing Degree Zero, by Roland Barthes, trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith (New York: H i l l and Wang, 1968), p. ix.

(18) Albert Cook, The Meaning of F i c t i o n (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1960), p. 24.

Cook c a l l s t h i s a r t i f i c e " r e f l e x i v i t y , " which, l i k e any l i t e r a r y

d e v i c e ,

does not, or should not operate i n a v o i d : a r t i f i c e s would be v a i n i f they c o u l d be p u r e l y a r t i f i c i a l ; they cannot because they must i n some way d e s i g n a t e the r e a l i t y from which they s p r i n g . When a novel uses r e f l e x i v i t y i t must d i s c o v e r a r e a l i t y . Otherwise we f e e l i t to be g r a t u t i o u s l y a r t i f i c i a l ..... (p. 25) .

I t i s r e f r e s h i n g to f i n d i n Cook a c r i t i c who can d i s c o v e r

r e f l e x i v i t y " i m p l i c i t i n the formalism of most well-made novels

s i n c e F l a u b e r t " (p. 25), and y e t r e f r a i n from p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t

the novel has been s i d e t r a c k e d i n t o f u t i l e r e a l i s m s i n c e Austen.

S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s should be thought of as one more d e v i c e by

which the a r t i s t can f a s h i o n h i s v i s i o n of the world, s i n c e i t

by no means commits the a r t i s t to a s o l i p s i s t i c v i s i o n i n which

l a y e r s of a r t i f i c e . i n f i n i t e l y r e g r e s s from the r e a l world; i n

f a c t , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s can strengthen the reader's sense

of t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m . T h i s apparent paradox can be i l l u s t r a t e d

by b r i e f l y r e f e r r i n g to the works of two American authors who

are not u s u a l l y l i s t e d among the promoters of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

f i c t i o n .

Consider t h i s passage from a s h o r t s t o r y by C h a r l e s

Bukowski:

So, reader, l e t ' s f o r g e t Mad Jimmy f o r a minute and get i n t o A r t h u r — which i s no b i g problem — what I mean i s a l s o the way I w r i t e : I can jump around and you can come r i g h t along and i t won't matter a b i t , y o u ' l l s e e . , Q

(19) Charles Bukowski, "Nut Ward Just East of Hollywood," in Erections, Ejaculations, Exhibitions and General Tales of Ordinary Madness (San Francisco: City Lights, 1972), p. 264.

Bukowski here uses what we w i l l see i n the next chapter are some

of the e s s e n t i a l d e v i c e s of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r : the

n a r r a t o r c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to h i m s e l f , and emphasizes the a r t i f i c e

of h i s n a r r a t i v e . But, taken i n the l a r g e r context of Bukowski 1 s

f i c t i o n , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s have the p a r a d o x i c a l e f f e c t

of making the n a r r a t i v e seen n a t u r a l and r e a l i s t i c , the o p p o s i t e

of c o n t r i v e d .

Bukowski's n a r r a t o r s g e n e r a l l y pretend to p r e s e n t t r u e

s t o r i e s from the slums and the mean s t r e e t s ; the form of Bukowski's

f i c t i o n i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from the o s t e n s i b l e n o n - f i c t i o n

i n h i s columns i n a now defunct underground newspaper. The

n a r r a t o r i s o f t e n named Bukowski, or some t r a n s p a r e n t pseudonym,

adding to the i l l u s i o n t h a t the n a r r a t i v e i s the r e c o r d of

an a c t u a l occurrence. The n a r r a t o r i s c a r e f u l to d i s t i n g u i s h

h i m s e l f from those American a r t i s t s who, i n Bukowski*s o p i n i o n ,

are e l i t i s t s preoccupied w i t h a r t i f i c e to the detriment of

meaning and communication:

poetry i s s t i l l the b i g g e s t snob-racket i n the A r t s ... i n essence, the g e n e r a l l y accepted p o e t r y of today has a k i n d of g l a s s o u t s i d e to i t , s l i c k and s l i d i n g , and sunned down i n s i d e t h e r e i s a j o i n i n g of word to word i n a r a t h e r m e t a l l i c inhuman summation or semi-secret angle. t h i s i s a poetry f o r m i l l i o n a i r e s and f a t men of l e i s u r e so i t does get backing and i t does s u r v i v e because 1 the s e c r e t i s i n t h a t those.who belong really belong and to h e l l with the r e s t , but the p o e t r y i s d u l l , very d u l l , so d u l l t h a t the d u l l n e s s i s taken f o r hidden meaning — the meaning i s hidden, a l l r i g h t , so w e l l hidden t h a t there i s n ' t any meaning. but i f YOU can't f i n d i t , you l a c k s o u l , s e n s i t i v i t y and so f o r t h , so you BETTER FIND IT OR YOU DON'T BELONG, and i f you don't f i n d i t , KEEP QUIET.„ n

(20) Charles Bukowski, :'Eyes Like the Sky," in Erections, p. 417.

Thus the n a r r a t o r e s t a b l i s h e s a r h e t o r i c a l bond w i t h the reader.

He i s the reader's f r i e n d (and f e l l o w ignoramus), and t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l bypass the formidable f o r m a l i t y of contem-

porary l i t e r a t u r e . For example, "Non-Horseshit Horse Advice"

says, " f o r those of you u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of 21

horse-wagering, a l l o w me to d i v e r t you •with a few b a s i c s . "

"Allow me to d i v e r t you" -- the n i n e t e e n t h century i n g r a t i a t i n g

tone, combined w i t h l o w l i f e s u b j e c t matter and a d e l i b e r a t e l y

u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t y l e , r e s u l t i n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s which i s

anything but s o l i p s i s t i c . The n a r r a t o r attempts to convince

the reader t h a t he i s the o n l y a r t i s t s t i l l connected with r e a l i t y

i n America; he and the readers are a l l i e s a g a i n s t s o p h i s t r y and

a r t i f i c e .

Joyce C a r o l Oates employs a s i m i l a r technique i n her

Expensive People. In t h i s c u r i o u s novel a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t o r

d e s c r i b e s the unhappy c h i l d h o o d i n which he may or may not have

murdered h i s mother. The n a r r a t o r i s extremely s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

i n the novel's opening pages, and i n s c a t t e r e d l a t e r passages —

f o r example, he d i s c u s s e s h i s l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e s , which i n c l u d e

an a r t i c l e i n the Amateur Penman, " J u s t What Is R e a l l y Necessary

i n Your W r i t i n g ? " He asks p e r m i s s i o n to use " c e r t a i n r h e t o r i c a l

f l o u r i s h e s and t r i c k s , and the p a t h e t i c M e l v i l l i a n d e v i c e of 22

enormous b u i l d - u p s f o r f l a b b y walk-ons . . . . " Yet long s t r e t c h e s

(21) Charles Bukowski, "Non-Horseshit Horse Advice," in Erections, p. 99. (22) Joyce Carol Oates, Expensive People (1968; rpt. New York:

Fawcett, 1970), pp. 89-90.

of the novel are not s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a t a l l , as though the

n a r r a t o r had f o r g o t t e n about h i m s e l f i n the e f f o r t of producing

a t a l e of h i g h emotion and melodrama. The remaining s e l f -

consciousness does not c o n t r i b u t e to a theme o f a r t i f i c e and

l i t e r a r y e x h i b i t i o n ; on the c o n t r a r y , the n a r r a t o r argues t h a t

h i s s t o r y i s not f i c t i o n , but t r u t h . He says h i s "memoir"

i s not "well rounded or hemmed i n by f a t e i n the shape of n o v e l -

i s t i c a r c h i t e c t u r e . I t c e r t a i n l y i s n ' t w e l l planned. I t has

no c o n c l u s i o n but j u s t d r i b b l e s o f f , i n much the same way i t

begins. T h i s i s l i f e " (p. 6). The n a r r a t o r , l i k e Bukowski's

n a r r a t o r , wants to "minimize the t e n s i o n between w r i t e r and

r e a d e r . . . . You t h i n k I am t r y i n g to put something over on you,

but t h a t i s n ' t t r u e . I t i s n ' t t r u e . I am honest and dogged and

e v e n t u a l l y the t r u t h w i l l be t o l d ..." (pp. 6-7). The f a c t i s ,

says the n a r r a t o r , " t h i s i s not f i c t i o n . T h i s i s l i f e " (p. 7).

The context of an a r t i s t ' s work governs the e f f e c t s of a

p a r t i c u l a r l i t e r a r y d e v i c e . The p r e v a l e n c e of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

d e v i c e s i n contemporary w r i t e r s has l e d to c e r t a i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

about the p h i l o s o p h i c b a s i s f o r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and of

course these g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are p a r t l y t r u e ; but the percentage

of t r u t h i s g r e a t l y attenuated when the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are

a p p l i e d to a p a r t i c u l a r w r i t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y a w r i t e r of any

o r i g i n a l i t y . One suspects t h a t a work which corresponded i n

every r e s p e c t to the s t r i c t u r e s of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s would be,

i n Barth's words, " i n v o l u t e d , v e r t i g i n o u s , d u l l . " Instead of

conforming to the a l l e g e d r u l e s of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , however,

the a r t i s t causes a metamorphosis of h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s

u n t i l they c o n t r i b u t e to the unique context o f a g i v e n work.

Whatever i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s these s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d e v i c e s may

c o n t a i n i n theory, the a r t i s t transforms them i n the e x e c u t i o n .

The f i r s t chapter d e f i n e s the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ,

and i l l u s t r a t e s the d e f i n i t i o n w i t h examples taken from s e v e r a l

contemporary w r i t e r s ; the examples w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r s vary as much as the authors they r e p r e s e n t .

The chapter argues t h a t the t r a d i t i o n of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r goes back a t l e a s t as f a r as the e i g h t e e n t h century;

i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a g r e a t e r f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the antecedents

of the contemporary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r might have prevented

c r i t i c s from t r y i n g to c a s t him i n the r o l e of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y

l e a d e r of a r a d i c a l a e s t h e t i c . The b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l survey

w i l l a l s o show t h a t c r i t i c s i n past eras have managed to f i n d

what seemed to them good and s u f f i c i e n t reasons f o r j u s t i f y i n g

t h e i r preconceptions about the n a r r a t o r ' s r o l e . The chapter

concludes by s k e t c h i n g i n some of the themes t h a t r e c u r i n

contemporary f i c t i o n ; these i n c l u d e the image of the i s o l a t e d

a r t i s t , the use of experimental language, and the s t r e s s on

i n n o v a t i v e n a r r a t i v e techniques.

The second chapter, on V l a d i m i r Nabokov, argues t h a t

Nabokov transforms h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s i n t o agents f o r

Nabokov's own f i e r c e l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a e s t h e t i c . The s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r becomes the exponent of the g l o r y of the

human i m a g i n a t i o n , d e s p i t e such c o n s t r a i n t s on the i m a g i n a t i o n

as p o l i c e s t a t e s and l i t e r a r y conventions. However, Nabokov's

n a r r a t o r s a r e n o t e x p o n e n t s o f h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d w o r d - w o r l d s .

The n a t u r a l w o r l d r e t a i n s a n h o n o u r e d p l a c e i n N a b o k o v ' s f i c t i o n

( w i t n e s s h i s s c r u p u l o u s , s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f n a t u r e ) ,

and t h e n a r r a t o r i s p a r t o f a p h i l o s o p h i c s y s t e m t h a t i n c o r p o r -

a t e s b o t h a r t i f i c e and r e a l i t y ; i n ' f a c t , t h e n a r r a t o r ' s i m a g -

i n a t i v e f o r a y s o f t e n c o r r e s p o n d i n a m y s t e r i o u s manner t o t h e

l a w s o f t h e u n i v e r s e . The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e

( a l l N a b o k o v ' s w o r k s m i g h t be t h o u g h t o f a s p a r t i a l adumbra-

t i o n s ) , b u t i t i s c l e a r l y n o t a n a r t i f i c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t f o r

c r o s s w o r d p u z z l e p u p p e t s : " W i t h i n N a b o k o v ' s i n v o l u t i o n s , 23

b e h i n d h i s many s c r e e n s , l i e r e a l p e o p l e . "

The t h i r d c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h D o n a l d B a r t h e l m e . I n

B a r t h e l m e ' s w o r k s , a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s o c i e t y h a s a d e b i l i t a t i n g

e f f e c t o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I n "What To Do N e x t , " a c h a r a c t e r

i s s a i d t o be " h o p e l e s s l y c o m p r o m i s e d " by " l i s t e n i n g t o t h e

i n s t r u c t i o n s o f o t h e r s , o r t o t h e w h i s p e r s o f y o u r h e a r t , w h i c h

i s i n i t s e l f s u s p e c t , i n t h a t i t h a s b e e n t a u g h t t o b e h a v e ... 24

by t h e v e r y c u l t u r e t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d t h e d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n . "

The i n d i v i d u a l f i n d s h i m s e l f s o c i a l l y programmed f o r s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s f u t i l i t y .

However, t h e s t o r i e s do n o t c e l e b r a t e t h e s o l i p s i s t i c

i n t e l l e c t . They r e v e a l t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s r o o t e d

i n s o m e t h i n g d e e p e r , w h i c h i s t h e g e n e r a l m o r a l f a i l u r e : b a r -

b a r i t y , g r e e d , m u r d e r o u s n e s s . A l t h o u g h B a r t h e l m e ' s n a r r a t o r s (23) Albert J. Guerard, "Notes on the Rhetoric of A n t i - R e a l i s t F i c t i o n , "

TriQuarterly, No. 30 (1974), p. 25. (24) Donald Barthelme, "What to Do Next," in Amateurs (New York:

Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1976), p. 81.

appear to be p l a y f u l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s a t i r i s t s , they are

g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l e d to be p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a grave moral drama;

i t seems "the c e n t r e of your d i f f i c u l t i e s ... i s the f a c t t h a t

you are no good" (p. 84).

Ours i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e argument. Although both Nabokov

and Barthelme are i n n o v a t i v e a r t i s t s , Barthelme h a r d l y p r o v i d e s

t i d y textbook examples f o r avant garde t h e o r i s t s , and Nabokov's

works r e s t on an understanding o f , and even a reverence f o r ,

l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . Thus the i n t r o d u c t i o n has attempted to

discourage c e r t a i n preconceptions t h a t would, perhaps, make i t

a l l too easy to e x p l a i n the use of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r .

The chapters t h a t f o l l o w attempt to be i n d u c t i v e r a t h e r than

d e d u c t i v e ; the f a c t t h a t Barthelme and Nabokov c r e a t e

f i c t i o n a l worlds so different from one another, d e s p i t e u s i n g

s i m i l a r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s methods, suggests t h a t the i n d u c t i v e

method i s p r e f e r a b l e . At any r a t e , we should be able to a v o i d

the mistake of c o n f u s i n g what the a r t i s t c r e a t e d w i t h what he

was expected to c r e a t e .

THE PEDIGREE OF THE SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR

I n t r o d u c t i o n

The argument i s t h a t the p h i l o s o p h i c and a e s t h e t i c import

of the works of Barthelme and Nabokov i s not predetermined by-

c e r t a i n i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . On

the c o n t r a r y , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s a m a l l e a b l e d e v i c e

which the authors bend i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r own s p e c i a l

l i t e r a r y aims. The f u n c t i o n of t h i s f i r s t chapter i s to show t h a t

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s not a commanding f i g u r e on the

l i t e r a r y scene, but r a t h e r a f a m i l i a r f i g u r e who has gone i n and

out of l i t e r a r y f a s h i o n . At one time he wore the sedate vestments

of the n i n e t e e n t h century gentleman, and d u r i n g the era of n o v e l -

i s t i c i m p e r s o n a l i t y he was so drab as to appear almost i n v i s i b l e .

His s t a r t l i n g , avant garde, and indeed r e v o l u t i o n a r y appearance

i n contemporary l i t e r a t u r e i s due mainly to the s t a r t l i n g , avant

garde, and r e v o l u t i o n a r y wardrobe a f f o r d e d him by contemporary

c r i t i c s .

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s d e f i n e d as a n a r r a t o r who

i n t r u d e s on the n a r r a t i v e to comment on h i s n a r r a t i v e techniques,

and to emphasize the a r t i f i c i a l and c o n t r i v e d q u a l i t y of what are

otherwise presented as r e a l events. The d e v i c e developed i n step

with the development of the E n g l i s h novel i n the e i g h t e e n t h century.

Most of the r a m i f i c a t i o n s of the contemporary novel are r e p r e -

sented i n the c y c l e t h a t began w i t h Defoe's v e r i s i m i l i t u d e and

ended w i t h Sterne's v e r y o b t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r . Sterne i s of

course now c o n s i d e r e d c e n t r a l to the n o v e l , but f o r c e n t u r i e s

the novel was much c l o s e r to the formal r e a l i s m of Defoe and

Richardson. Although n i n e t e e n t h century novels c o n t a i n Shandean

elements, the i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r operates w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t -

a t i o n s , and the t y p i c a l n i n e t e e n t h century omniscient n a r r a t o r was

e a s i l y d i s c a r d e d when the novel s e t t l e d i n t o the mold of imper-

s o n a l i t y and s o c i a l r e a l i s m . There was l i t t l e need f o r a s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r when t h e o r i s t s c a l l e d f o r a dehumanized a r t

and: an a u t h o r i a l v o i c e r e f i n e d out of e x i s t e n c e . The s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r went i n t o e c l i p s e , an e c l i p s e which i n a sense

has never ended. C e r t a i n l y i n the American n o v e l , our s p e c i a l

i n t e r e s t , a case c o u l d be made t h a t the r e a l i s t i c novel ( o f t e n

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an o b j e c t i v e and impersonal, r a t h e r than a s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s , n a r r a t o r ) has remained the dominant mode, i n both

c r i t i c a l and popular terms, s i n c e James.

However, i n r e c e n t American l i t e r a t u r e , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r has r e t u r n e d . The eventual breakdown of s o c i a l r e a l i s m

o f f e r e d him new o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Authors used him to dramatize the

l o n e l y i n t e g r i t y of the a r t i s t , and to experiment with language

and w i t h n a r r a t i v e techniques. Consequently, i t i s now t y p i c a l

of a growing number of contemporary works t h a t the n a r r a t o r of

Barthelme's Snow White should i n t e r r u p t the n a r r a t i v e t o ask the

reader, "Have you understood, i n r e a d i n g to t h i s p o i n t , t h a t Paul

i s the prince-figure?"''" I n e v i t a b l y , the c r i t i c s conclude t h a t

(1) Donald Barthelme, Snow White (New York: Atheneum, 1967), p. 82.

the times "demand" s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s :

The modernist s e n s i b i l i t y does indeed demand a degree of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , an o v e r t acknowledg- ment on the p a r t of the a r t i s t of h i s awareness of the i d e n t i t y of h i s m a t e r i a l , techniques and p r o c e s s e s . That a r t i s i l l u s i o n , and the r e v e l - a t i o n of the nature of t h i s i l l u s i o n ... are a t the h e a r t of the modernist consciousness i n a l l the a r t s . 2

"The age demanded an image/ Of i t s a c c e l e r a t e d grimace," says the 3

s a r d o n i c speaker i n Pound's "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley," which should

c a u t i o n us a g a i n s t an e n t h u s i a s t i c and u n c r i t i c a l acceptance of the

new s t a t u s of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , who now stands "at

the heart of the modernist consciousness i n a l l the a r t s . " The

purpose of t h i s chapter i s to keep the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , even i f p e r s p e c t i v e d i m i n i s h e s h i s

p h i l o s o p h i c s t a t u s .

N a r r a t i v e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s Defined

In "The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r i n Comic F i c t i o n Before T r i s t - ram Shandy," Wayne Booth analyzes what he c a l l s the " i n t r u d i n g "

n a r r a t o r . Booth says a l l n a r r a t o r s are i n t r u s i v e i n the sense

t h a t they choose what they t a l k about, and t h a t t h i s primary form

of i n t r u s i o n should not be t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e d e v i c e . Booth

d e f i n e s a second c l a s s o f n a r r a t i v e i n which the n a r r a t o r i s the

hero or main t o p i c of h i s own account; t h i s second c l a s s i s almost

(2) Barbara Rose, "Wolfeburg," The New York Review of Books, 26 June 1975, p. 26.

(3) Ezra Pound, "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley," in Selected Poems (New York: New Directions, 1957), p. 61.

(4) Wayne Booth, "The Self-Conscious Narrator in Comic F i c t i o n Before Tristram Shandy," PMLA, 67 (1952), 163.

as general and variable as the f i r s t : "Indeed, a l l f i r s t - p e r s o n

narrators ... 'intrude' quite e x p l i c i t l y ..." (p. 164). A t h i r d

type of narrator "indulges i n ' r h e t o r i c a l ' commentary on the

characters or events of his story, i n order to induce appropriate

attitudes i n the reader. These comments may range from the simplest

kind of weighted language ... to f a i r l y extended commentary on

the i n t e l l e c t u a l issues involved ...." Refining t h i s t h i r d class

one step further, Booth arrives at the "self-conscious narrator,"

"who intrudes into his novel to comment on himself as a writer,

and on his book, not simply as a series of events with moral

implications, but as a created l i t e r a r y product" (pp. 164, 165).

The self-conscious narrator comments on himself as a writer,

and comments on his narrative as a created l i t e r a r y product.

Booth's d e f i n i t i o n was designed to f i t the works surrounding the

eighteenth century's Tristram Shandy, but i t i s very useful i n

terms of contemporary self-consciousness as well. However, there

are two s a l i e n t features of contemporary self-consciousness which

are perhaps i m p l i c i t i n Booth's d e f i n i t i o n , but which for our

purposes need to' be emphasized.

F i r s t , the self-conscious narrator i n contemporary l i t e r a t u r e

has developed i n reaction to the p r e v a i l i n g impersonality of the

novel during the modern period (broadly defined as James to the

Second World War). James, Flaubert, and others had reacted i n

t h e i r turn against sentimentality and overt moralizing, and had

developed an impersonal and objective narrative voice. This new

modernist s p i r i t would, i n the words of Stephane Mallarme,

minimize the author's " o r a t o r i c a l presence" and d i s c r e d i t "the

2 4

o l d l y r i c a l a s p i r a t i o n or the e n t h u s i a s t i c p e r s o n a l d i r e c t i o n 5

of the sentence." T h e r e f o r e the contemporary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r o f t e n adopts a q u i r k y , i d i o s y n c r a t i c , all-too-human v o i c e ,

which i s a t times g u i l t y of a d o c t r i n a i r e s u b j e c t i v i t y .

A second f e a t u r e o f the contemporary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

i s h i s a s s o c i a t i o n with metaphysical u n c e r t a i n t y . The n o t i o n of

a p r o b i n g , i r o n i c n a r r a t o r a t odds w i t h l i t e r a r y convention and

bourgeois epistemology i s perhaps i m p l i c i t i n both Booth's theory

and Sterne's p r a c t i c e , but i n contemporary f i c t i o n the p r o b l e m a t i c

aspect has been exaggerated.

But r a t h e r than c o n t i n u i n g to speak i n t h e o r e t i c a l terms,

l e t us c o n s i d e r s e v e r a l i l l u s t r a t i v e examples of the contemporary

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . The examples are designed to i n d i c a t e

the v a r i e t y of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s ( d e s p i t e the p r e s c r i p t i v e

t h e o r i e s surrounding them), and a l s o to show, w i t h i n the l i m i t s

of b r i e f examples, t h a t the n a r r a t o r s tend to conform to the

s p e c i f i c purposes of a s p e c i f i c author i n a s p e c i f i c work.

The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r I l l u s t r a t e d

John Fowles' p s e u d o - V i c t o r i a n narrative, The French Lieutenant's

Woman, p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l l y b l a t a n t example of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r . One scene ends i n a c l o s e - u p of the h e r o i n e , Sarah,

her face wet w i t h s i l e n t t e a r s . "Who i s Sarah?" asks a disem-

bodied v o i c e . "Out of what shadows does she come?"

(5) Mallarme, as quoted in Erich Kahler, The Disintegration of Form in the Arts (New York: George B r a z i l l e r , 1968), pp. 75,76.

Chapter 13 answers the q u e s t i o n as f o l l o w s :

I do not know. T h i s s t o r y I am t e l l i n g i s a l l i m a g i n a t i o n . These c h a r a c t e r s I c r e a t e never e x i s t e d o u t s i d e my own mind. I f I have pretended u n t i l now to know my c h a r a c t e r s ' minds and i n n e r - most thoughts, i t i s because I am w r i t i n g i n ( j u s t as I have assumed some of the vocabulary and " v o i c e " of) a convention u n i v e r s a l l y accepted a t the time of my s t o r y : t h a t the n o v e l i s t stands next to God .... But I l i v e i n the age of A l a i n R o b b e - G r i l l e t and Roland Barthes; i f t h i s i s a n o v e l , i t cannot be a novel i n the modern sense of the word.

So perhaps I am w r i t i n g a transposed auto- biography; perhaps I now l i v e i n one of those houses I have brought i n t o the f i c t i o n ; perhaps C h a r l e s i s myself d i s g u i s e d . Perhaps i t i s o n l y a game. ... Or perhaps I am t r y i n g to pass o f f a concealed book of essays on you.^

Fowles' s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r conforms to our d e f i n i t i o n i n

t h a t he i n t r u d e s on the n a r r a t i v e to comment on h i s problems

as a w r i t e r , and to comment on h i s n a r r a t i v e as a l i t e r a r y .

c r e a t i o n . In the process of c h a l l e n g i n g the conventions of the '

V i c t o r i a n novel he addresses the reader d i r e c t l y , over the heads

of the c h a r a c t e r s , as i t were. Note the n a r r a t o r ' s symptomatic

c l a i m t h a t the innocent V i c t o r i a n technique of omniscience i s

no longer v a l i d i n the age of profound French t h e o r i z i n g . Now

t h a t the age of innocence i s over, the n o v e l i s t must f a l l i n

l i n e with newly d i s c o v e r e d o n t o l o g i c a l t r u t h s : "The n o v e l i s t i s

s t i l l a god ...; what has changed i s t h a t we are no longer the

gods of the V i c t o r i a n image, omniscient and d e c r e e i n g ; but i n the

new t h e o l o g i c a l image, w i t h freedom our f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , not

a u t h o r i t y " (p. 97). In order to f r e e h i m s e l f , the n a r r a t o r

must g i v e h i s c h a r a c t e r s t h e i r freedom: "There i s o n l y one good

(6) John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1969), pp. 94-95.

d e f i n i t i o n of God; the freedom that allows other freedoms to

e x i s t . And I must conform to that d e f i n i t i o n " (p. 97).

The narrator's notions of God and r e a l i t y are not very i n t e r -

esting i n themselves; what i s interesting i s the way i n which

the ponderous theory a f f e c t s the self-conscious device. This

p a r t i c u l a r self-conscious narrator seems to be grey-haired with

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and the s t r a i n shows as he develops something of

a whining tone: "Perhaps you suppose that a n o v e l i s t has only to

p u l l the r i g h t strings and his puppets w i l l behave i n a l i f e l i k e

manner ..." (p. 95). The tone suggests that Bellamy's fears about

an impediment to t r a d i t i o n a l s t o r y t e l l i n g are j u s t i f i e d . The

narrator's troubled musings about the narrative rules (Is the novel

a concealed book of essays, a disguised autobiography, a game?)

are indeed what Barth c a l l e d "vertiginous," not to mention involuted

and d u l l , although one of the factors that made t h i s novel a best

s e l l e r , aside"from the endless marketability of h i s t o r i c a l romance,

was the i n t e r e s t of some readers i n the behind-the-scenes, workshop

chatter. Presumably these same readers enjoyed the figure of the

a r t i s t i n the rather tedious second part of The C o l l e c t o r. At

any rate, Fowles' fascination with n o v e l i s t i c theory r e s u l t s i n

a serious and sober self-conscious narrator.

He can be contrasted with the narrator of John Updike's

novel, A Month of Sundays. The narrator, a promiscuous- c l e r i c ,

sneaks from his wife's bed to snoop on his mistress:

[He] made his way down oaken staircases flayed with moonbeams to a front door whose f a n l i g h t held i n Byzantine r i g i d i t y the ghosts of i t s Tiffany colors .... [He] pressed his thumb upon the concussive l a t c h , eased the towering

giant of a parsonage portal towards his twitter- ing- chest, stepped outside, onto granite, and bathed his legs i n the wintery a i r .

This i s fun! F i r s t you whittle the puppets, then you move them around.^

Unlike Fowles1 narrator, Updike's narrator seems to enjoy manip-

ulating his puppets. Since Tristram Shandy, i n fact, self-conscious

narrators have been associated with comic narratives. John

Barth says he prefers "a kind of f i c t i o n that, i f i t ' s going to

be self-conscious, i s at least comic about i t s own s e l f - 8

consciousness," and we noted Scholes' attempt to describe a

comically self-conscious narrative as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a new

a r t form. But the self-conscious narrator i n a cheerful phase ,

whether or not he puts "the highest premium on art and joy,"

i s merely one of the variables of the self-conscious narrator

open to the s k i l f u l n o v e l i s t . John Updike i s not necessarily

a happy " f a b u l i s t . " In the following passage he uses a s e l f -

conscious narrator, but i n t h i s case the narrator i s not A Month

of Sundays' c h e e r f u l l y naive amateur (writing as part of a pro-

gram of psychological therapy), but, i t seems, a professional

author: A blue jay l i g h t s on a twig outside my window.

Momentarily sturdy, he stands astraddle, his dingy rump towards me, his head a l e r t l y frozen i n s i l h o u - ette, the predatory curve of his beak stamped on a sky almost white above the misting tawny marsh. See him? I do, and, snapping the chain of my thought, I have reached through glass and seized him and stamped him on t h i s page. Now he i s gone. And yet, there, a few l i n e s above, he s t i l l i s ,

(7) John Updike, A Month of Sundays (New York: Knopf, 1975), p. 12. (8) "John Barth," in Bellamy, p. 11.

" a s t r a d d l e , " rump " d i n g y , " h i s h e a d " a l e r t l y f r o z e n . " A c u r i o u s t r i c k , p o s s i b l y u s e l e s s , b u t m i n e . -y

The, n a r r a t o r o f " L e a v e s " i s a t t e m p t i n g t o come t o t e r m s w i t h

n a t u r e , h i s l i t e r a r y g i f t s , a n d , n o t l e a s t i n i m p o r t a n c e , h i s

r e c e n t d i v o r c e . A l t h o u g h t h e p a s s a g e i s h i g h l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ,

t h e r e i s n o t a s e n s e o f " a r t a n d j o y , " b u t a r t and f u t i l i t y : "A

c u r i o u s t r i c k , p o s s i b l y u s e l e s s

One s h o u l d a l s o n o t e t h e e m p h a s i s on m i m e s i s i n t h e U p d i k e

p a s s a g e , a n d c o n t r a s t i t w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f r o m J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s :

F o r y e a r s now, I h a v e b e e n t e l l i n g p e o p l e I g r e w up i n t h a t p a r t o f Buenos A i r e s known a s P a l - ermo. T h i s , I ' v e come t o r e a l i z e , i s mere l i t e r - a r y b r a v a d o ; t h e t r u t h i s t h a t I r e a l l y g r e w up on t h e i n s i d e o f a l o n g i r o n p i c k e t f e n c e i n a h o u s e w i t h a g a r d e n and w i t h my f a t h e r ' s and h i s f a t h e r ' s l i b r a r y . The P a l e r m o o f k n i f e f i g h t s a n d o f g u i t a r p l a y i n g l u r k e d ( s o t h e y s a y ) o n s t r e e t c o r n e r s a n d down b a c k a l l e y s . I n 1 9 3 0 , I w r o t e a s t u d y o f E v a r i s t o C a r r i e g o , a n e i g h b o r o f o u r s , a p o e t a n d g l o r i f i e r o f t h e c i t y ' s o u t - l y i n g s l u m s . A l i t t l e a f t e r t h a t , c h a n c e b r o u g h t me f a c e t o f a c e ^ i t h E m i l i o T r S p a n i . I was o n t h e t r a i n t o M o r o n . T r a p a n i , who was s i t t i n g n e x t t o t h e window, c a l l e d me by name. F o r some t i m e I c o u l d n o t p l a c e h i m , so many y e a r s h a d p a s s e d s i n c e we'd b e e n c l a s s m a t e s i n a s c h o o l o n Thames S t r e e t . R o b e r t o G o d e l , a n o t h e r c l a s s - m a t e , may remember h i m .

... R i d i n g a l o n g , we s t r u c k up one o f t h o s e t r i v i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a t f o r c e y o u t o u n e a r t h p o i n t l e s s f a c t s a n d t h a t l e a d up t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e d e a t h o f a f e l l o w - s c h o o l m a t e who i s no l o n g e r a n y t h i n g more t h a n a name. T h e n , a b r u p t l y , T r a p a n i s a i d t o me, "Someone l e n t me y o u r C a r r i e g o b o o k , w h e r e y o u ' r e t a l k i n g a b o u t h o o d l u m s a l l t h e t i m e . T e l l me, B o r g e s , what i n t h e w o r l d c a n y o u know a b o u t h o o d l u m s ? " He s t a r e d a t me w i t h a k i n d o f w o n d e r .

" I ' v e done r e s e a r c h , " I a n s w e r e d .

'.(9) J o h n U p d i k e ' , " L e a v e s , " - i n T h e M u s i c S c h o o l (1966; r p t . New Y o r k : F a w c e t t , 1967), p . 44.

Not l e t t i n g me go on, he said, "Research i s the word, a l l r i g h t . Personally, I have no use for research — I know these people inside out." After a moment's silence, he added, as though he were l e t t i n g me i n on a secret, "I'm Juan Murana's nephew."

Of a l l the men around Palermo famous for handling a knife way back i n the nineties, the one with the widest .reputation was Murana. Trapani went on, "Florentina -- my aunt -- was his wife. Maybe y o u ' l l be interested i n t h i s story."

Certain devices of a l i t e r a r y nature and one or two longish sentences led me to suspect that t h i s was not the f i r s t time he had t o l d the story.

In one sense, of course, Borges i s following a convention at

l e a s t as old as self-consciousness, that of distancing the narrator

from his narrative by means of convenient intermediaries. The

purpose of t h i s distancing i s to make the narrative more r e a l i s t i c .

One thinks of the Gothic novelists who i n s i s t e d that t h e i r man-

uscripts had been found i n trunks with squeaky l i d s , written i n

anonymous blood; of Cervantes, who bought the manuscript of Don

Quixote from a r e l i a b l e Arabic h i s t o r i a n i n the Toledo marketplace;

of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, which, said Pym, was not

f i c t i o n but fact.'*'"'"

Borges s i m i l a r l y distances his narrative from the narrator

by means of the convenient Emilio Trapani, but the self-conscious

note i s s i g n i f i e d by the narrator's consciousness of himself as an

(10) J.L. Borges, "Juan Murana," in Doctor Brodie's Report, trans. Norman Thomas di Giovanni and J.L. Borges (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1972),pp. 81-82.

(11) Pym was afraid to publish his memoirs, for fear they would be mis- interpreted as "merely an impudent and ingenious f i c t i o n . " He applied to "Edgar Allen Poe," then the editor of the Southern L i t e r a r y Messenger, who advised him to publish the narrative, just as i t was, and trust the "shrewdness and common sense of the public." Pym decided, however, to dupe the public by publishing his adventures as f i c t i o n , and "that they might c e r t a i n l y be regarded as f i c t i o n , the name of Mr. Poe was affixed to the a r t i c l e s in the table of contents of the magazine." The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym (1838; rpt. New York: H i l l and Wang, 1960), pp. 1,2.

a r t i s t . We l e a r n , f o r example, t h a t the b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n

i n the f i r s t l i n e i s " l i t e r a r y bravado." Borges appears i n

person i n the r a i l r o a d c a r but i s t h i s the r e a l Borges? Borges

t a l k s elsewhere of "working i n imaginary and r e a l people i n

the same s t o r y . For example, i f I quote an apocryphal book, then

the next book to be quoted i s a r e a l one, or perhaps an imaginary

one, by a r e a l w r i t e r , no? When a man w r i t e s he f e e l s r a t h e r 12

l o n e l y , and then he has to keep h i s s p i r i t s up, no?"

U n l i k e Updike's more or l e s s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n a r r a t o r i n

"Leaves," Borges' n a r r a t o r emphasizes n a r r a t i v e ambiguity and

d e c e p t i v e n e s s ; the "Borges" of the s t o r y i s somewhat removed

from a l i t e r a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t , and T r a p a n i , the o s t e n s i b l e eye-

witness, who pretends to b e l i e v e i n the v i r t u e of f a c t u a l , f i r s t -

hand r e p o r t i n g , i s a l s o a n a r r a t o r who i n t r o d u c e s a r t i f i c e i n t o

the o s t e n s i b l e r e c o r d of t r u e events: " C e r t a i n d e v i c e s of a

l i t e r a r y nature ... l e d me to suspect t h a t t h i s was not the f i r s t

time he had t o l d the s t o r y . "

The Borges example demonstrates n a r r a t i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

a t a f a r remove from r e a l i s m . C e r t a i n l y those c r i t i c s who argue

t h a t n a r r a t i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s leads to s o l i p s i s m and r e g r e s s i v e

l a y e r s of a r t i f i c e would have a good argument i f they r e s t r i c t e d

themselves to Borges. And y e t , i t might be more accurate to say

t h a t Borgesian s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s leads not to s o l i p s i s m , or

indeed any standard p h i l o s o p h i c p o s i t i o n , but to paradox, and

(12) Richard Burgin, Conversations with Jorge Luis Borges (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), p. 50.

to u n i q u e l y Borgesian paradox a t t h a t . Consider the c o n c l u s i o n

to "Borges and I " :

. Years ago I t r i e d to f r e e myself from him and went from the mythologies of the suburbs to the games with time and i n f i n i t y , but those games belong to Borges now and I s h a l l have to- imagine other t h i n g s . Thus my l i f e i s a f l i g h t and I l o s e e v e r y t h i n g and e v e r y t h i n g belongs to o b l i - v i o n , or to him.

I do not know which of us has w r i t t e n t h i s p a g e . 1 3

I t seems t h a t Borges uses the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r as a means

towards s e l f - d i s c o v e r y , and although i t might be d i f f i c u l t f o r

the reader to i n t e r p r e t the f i n d i n g s , s u r e l y the s t o r i e s r e v e a l

something more s u b t l e than s o l i p s i s m . Nabokov and Borges go i n

d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s of course, w i t h Nabokov much more c l o s e l y

a l l i e d w i t h the r e a l world, but both t r a n s f o r m the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r i n t o something l i t e r a l l y u n i q u e ^ The f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p -

t i o n of S e b a s t i a n Knight might remind us of the n a r r a t i v e s of

both Nabokov and Borges:

[He] was aware of h i s i n a b i l i t y to f i t i n t o the p i c t u r e — i n t o any k i n d of p i c t u r e . When a t l a s t he thoroughly understood t h i s and g r i m l y s t a r t e d to c u l t i v a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s as i f i t had been some r a r e t a l e n t or p a s s i o n , o n l y then d i d S e b a s t i a n d e r i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n from i t s r i c h and monstrous growth ••••^5

The f o r e g o i n g examples should be s u f f i c i e n t to make the

(13) J.L. Borges, "Borges and I," trans. James E. Irby, in Labyrinths: Selected Stories and'Other Writings-, ed. Donald A. Yates and James E. Irby, trans. J.E. Irby et al. (New York: New Directions, 1964), pp. 246-47.

(14) See P a t r i c i a Merivale, ''The Flaunting of A r t i f i c e in Vladimir Nabokov and Jorge Luis Borges," Wisconsin"Studies in Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e , 8 (1967), 294-309; rpt. in Nabokov: The Man and His Work, ed. L.S. Dembo (Milwaukee: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1967), pp. 209-24. Subseguent references to the several a r t i c l e s on Nabokov in the Wisconsin Studies issue w i l l be attributed to Dembo.

(15) Vladimir Nabokov, The Real L i f e of Sebastian Knight (1941; rpt. Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions, 1959), p. 44.

d e f i n i t i o n of the self-conscious narrator clear; however, i t

might s t i l l be objected that a l l narrators are to a c e r t a i n

extent self-conscious. The answer to t h i s objection, as Booth

points out, i s that what appears to be self-consciousness i s

the root intrusiveness of the f i r s t - p e r s o n narrator. Furthermore,

one could admit a degree of self-consciousness i n every narrator,

but s t i l l i n s i s t that the l a b e l "self-conscious narrator" i s use-

f u l when applied to works i n which the self-consciousness inher-

ent i n narration i s emphasized, or brought to the reader's

perhaps unwilling attention. Consider, for example, the contrast

i n the opening paragraphs of Larry McMurtry's The Last Picture Show

and Sasha Sokolov's A School for Fools, respectively:

Sometimes Sonny f e l t l i k e he was the only human creature i n town. It was a bad f e e l i n g , and i t usually came on him i n the mornings early, when the streets were completely empty, the way they were one Saturday morning i n late November. The night before Sonny had played his l a s t game of f o o t b a l l

16 A l l r i g h t , but how do you begin, what words do you use? It makes no difference, use the words: there, at the station pond. At the station pond? But that's incorrect, a s t y l i s t i c mistake.^

The Sokolov passage has c e r t a i n a f f i n i t i e s with the previous

examples, whereas the McMurtry passage seems impersonal, p l a i n ,

straightforward — unself-conscious. Sokolov's narrator i s aware

of himself as a writer, and aware that he i s creating a l i t e r a r y

e f f e c t with words. By contrast with McMurtry, who i s obviously

beginning a t r a d i t i o n a l narrative about a young man i n a r u r a l

(16) Larry McMurtry, The Last Picture Show (New York: Dial, 1966), p. 1. (17) Sasha Sokolov, A School for Fools, trans. Carl R. Proffer (Ann

Arbor, Michigan: Ardis, 1977), p. 11.

t o w n , S o k o l o v seems t o be r a t h e r a r t i f i c i a l , a l t h o u g h one h e s -

i t a t e s t o u s e t h a t t e r m when a l l w o r k s o f a r t a r e b y d e f i n i t i o n

a r t i f i c i a l ; y e t t h e c l u m s y t e r m s t i l l e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e r e a d e r m u s t n o t e x p e c t l i t e r a r y t r o m p e l ' o e i l , o r t r a d i t i o n a l

r e a l i s m . I n s t e a d , d e s p i t e t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r , t h e o r d i n a r y r e a d e r w i l l be somewhat t h r o w n o f f by t h e

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s t y l e . As t h e b l u r b on t h e j a c k e t p h r a s e s i t ,

" S o k o l o v p u r p o s e l y s t u n s t h e r e a d e r i n t h e w h i m s i c a l o p e n i n g

p a g e s . The r e - r e a d e r w i l l s e e t h a t t h e n o v e l c o n t a i n s a s much

p l a n a s p a s s i o n . B u t S o k o l o v o u t d o e s S t e r n e w i t h d i g r e s s i o n s

The q u e s t i o n i s ; why s h o u l d S o k o l o v ' s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s m e t h o d s

" s t u n " t h e r e a d e r , when t h e r e a d e r h a s h a d t h e two c e n t u r i e s s i n c e

S t e r n e t o a s s i m i l a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s t e c h n i q u e s ? The a n s w e r l i e s

i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e n o v e l . D e s p i t e t h e c o n c u r r e n c e o f b o t h

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s f i c t i o n a n d w h a t i s now t h o u g h t o f a s t r a d i t i o n a l

r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r e a l i s m p r e v a i l e d .

A l t h o u g h b o t h F i e l d i n g and S t e r n e c o m b i n e d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

w i t h r e a l i s m , t h e t r a d i t i o n p a s s e d o n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

was t h e r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n ; p o o r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s d i d a b o u t

a s w e l l a s t h e G o t h i c .

T h e r e w e r e o f c o u r s e c r i t i c s p r e p a r e d t o a r g u e t h a t w h a t d i d

i n f a c t h a p p e n was w h a t s h o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d ; t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r was e v e n t u a l l y b a n n e d f r o m w h a t was t h o u g h t t o be t h e

r e a l i s t i c m a i n s t r e a m o f t h e n o v e l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y

r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r h a s l e d t o e x a g g e r a t e d

and e n t h u s i a s t i c n o t i o n s t h a t he i s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y f i g u r e t o be

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b r e a k d o w n o f l a n g u a g e , p h i l o s o p h i c c h a o s ,

l i t e r a t u r e as s o l i p s i s t i c escapism -- a l l those notions based on

the idea that self-consciousness and realism are somehow mutually-

exclusive. This notion i s of course f a l s e , and leads to exagger-

ations on the order of Ditsky 1 s that "the novel form has been

sidetracked since Austen."

The Self-Conscious Narrator i n the Eighteenth Century

The conventional novel i s based on what Ian Watt c a l l s 18

formal realism. The use of a self-conscious narrator for years

implied an anti-conventional departure from the norm, the norm

having been established i n the eyes of theoreticians of the novel

by Defoe and Richardson. A sense of norms and t r a d i t i o n s was

quickly established despite the fact that the word "novel,"

as i s endlessly pointed out, implies something innovative and new.

What was new about the novel i n the eighteenth century was that

i t answered the middle class need for f a c t s . The lowest common

denominator of the novel, Watt's formal realism, i n s i s t s o n the

things of t h i s world. We are t o l d that the novel was stimulated

by the new individualism of the competitive marketplace and free-

form Protestantism, or by trends i n philosophy towards nominalist

language and the evidence of the senses, or by a new s c i e n t i f i c

i n t e r e s t i n the quotidian; but i n any case the middle-class

reading public desired information about t h e i r very r e a l world.

These very r e a l wants were answered by Defoe, who i n 1722

published A Journal of the Plague Year, a work of f i c t i o n that

(18) See Ian Watt ), The Rise of the Novel (London, 1957; rpt. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 1965), pp. 32-34.

d i s g u i s e d i t s e l f as an eye-witness, f i r s t - p e r s o n account of the

Great Plague of London i n 1665. About two decades l a t e r R i c h a r d -

son wrote Pamela, f i c t i o n d i s g u i s e d as a conduct book f o r young

g i r l s who might f i n d themselves r e s i s t i n g the somewhat unwelcome

advances of lecherous gentlemen. Both Richardson and Defoe used

n a r r a t o r s who were unconcerned about s t y l i s t i c virtuosity. M o l l ,

Robinson Crusoe and Pamela are not l i t e r a r y craftsmen.

F i e l d i n g c h a l l e n g e d the conventions o f the n o v e l , which had

b a r e l y begun, w i t h h i s p a r o d i e s Shamela and Joseph Andrews. Tom

Jones i s the most r a d i c a l departure, as F i e l d i n g h i m s e l f announced:

I s h a l l not look on myself as accountable to any c o u r t of c r i t i c a l j u r i s d i c t i o n whatever; f o r as I am, i n r e a l i t y , the founder of a new p r o v i n c e of w r i t i n g , so I am a t l i b e r t y to make what laws I p l e a s e t h e r e i n . ^

Even a t t h i s e a r l y stage of the novel's development, the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r has an important p l a c e . We r e c o g n i z e h i s

presence i n a chapter heading of Tom Jones — "A s h o r t h i n t of what

we can do i n the sublime ...." — and i n the d e l i b e r a t e l y exagger-

ated mock-epic s t y l e of the passage t h a t p r o v i d e s a h i n t of the

sublime: "Hushed be every ruder b r e a t h . May the heathen r u l e r

of the winds c o n f i n e i n i r o n c h a i n s the b o i s t e r o u s limbs of n o i s y

Boreas ..." (p. 129).

But the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n a l l h i s i n v o l u t e d g l o r y

a r r i v e s w i t h Sterne's T r i s t r a m Shandy:

(19) Henry F i e l d i n g , Tom Jones (London, 1749; rpt. New York: New American Library, 1963), p. 65.

We are now going to enter upon a new scene of events. —

Leave we then the breeches i n the t a y l o r ' s hands, with my f a t h e r standing over him ....

Leave we poor Le Fever to r e c o v e r , and get home from M a r s e i l l e s as he can. — And l a s t of a l l , -- because the hardest of a l l --

L e t us l e a v e , i f p o s s i b l e , myself: — But ' t i s i m p o s s i b l e , — I must go along w i t h you to the end of the w o r k ^ g

From Defoe's r e a l i s m to one of the most s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , a r t i f i c i a l ,

meddling n a r r a t o r s i n l i t e r a t u r e . A l i t e r a r y c r i t i c who was born

i n 1700, and who attempted throughout h i s l i f e to s t a y up to date

with the avant garde, would have thrown h i s hands up i n d e s p a i r

when T r i s t r a m Shandy began to be p u b l i s h e d i n 1759.

By 1759.the novel had combined s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s with formal

r e a l i s m ; i t should be remembered t h a t n e i t h e r F i e l d i n g nor Sterne

abandoned r e a l i s m . Sterne's n a r r a t o r might be s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

and whimsical, but h i s account of the siege of Namur i s a c c u r a t e .

F i e l d i n g ' s n o v e l , l i k e many a r e a l i s t i c novel a f t e r i t , took a

chance on i n s u l t i n g i t s audience by d e s c r i b i n g l i f e among the

lower c l a s s e s ; and the complex, " a r t i f i c i a l " p l o t i s s a i d to

c o r r e l a t e with the almanac of 174 5. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was the more

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a l i s m o f Defoe and Richardson which came to be

thought of as the c e n t r a l t r a d i t i o n of the n o v e l , and the s e l f -

conscious s t y l e of Sterne, i n p a r t i c u l a r , was c o n s i d e r e d a b l i n d ,

a l l e y o f f the novel's h e a l t h y highroad. Thus the loaded terms of

E r n e s t Baker:

The f r e a k i s h d e v i a t i o n s from the norm t y p i f i e d by T r i s t r a m Shandy and A Sentimental Journey were

(20) Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, ed. Ian Watt (Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1965), p. 336.

not,however, a t h i n g e n t i r e l y new, but on the c o n t r a r y a r e v i v a l of n o n d e s c r i p t kinds of f i c t i o n t h a t had been common enough b e f o r e Richardson and F i e l d i n g took h o l d of the novel and put i t i n o r d e r . ^

Such p o l a r i z a t i o n of " f r e a k i s h d e r i v a t i o n " vs. the novel i n

good order i s an impediment to understanding s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

i n Nabokov and Barthelme. S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s had i t s t u r n as

the f r e a k i s h d e r i v a t i o n , but now i n much contemporary c r i t i c i s m

r e a l i s m has to p l a y the v i l l a i n o u s r o l e of f r e a k i s h d e r i v a t i o n ,

or, as Sontag would have i t , the product of a r e t a r d e d c o n s c i o u s -

ness. Behind the mad pendulum swing of c r i t i c a l o p i n i o n the

work i t s e l f tends to be obscured; the process of r e v i s i n g l i t e r -

ary h i s t o r y has a marked e f f e c t on our understanding of contem-

porary w r i t e r s who the c r i t i c s i n s i s t operate under Sterne's

shadow. Joyce C a r o l Oates, f o r example, says i t i s a "commonplace

of c r i t i c a l thought to p o i n t a l l the way back to T r i s t r a m Shandy 22

as a convention-breaking work"; a commonplace, t h a t i s , of

r e c e n t c r i t i c a l thought, which i s dominated by the n o t i o n t h a t

works which break with t r a d i t i o n are the most v a l u a b l e .

. I t i s a f u r t h e r s i g n of Sterne's new c e n t r a l i t y t h a t Wayne

Booth has p r o v i d e d T r i s t r a m w i t h h i s own t r a d i t i o n , beginning w i t h

Don Quixote, "the f i r s t important novel u s i n g the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r " (p. 165). Sterne's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r suddenly

develops a p e d i g r e e : Booth mentions i n h i s a r t i c l e F u r e t i ^ r e ' s

Le Roman Bourgeois (1666), Scarron's Roman Comique ( i n two p a r t s ,

(21) Ernest Baker, The History of the English Novel, IV (London: H.F. and G. Witherby, 1930), p. 240.

(22) Joe David Bellamy, "Joyce Carol Oates," in Bellamy, p. 27.

1651 and 1657), Congreve's I n c o g n i t a (1700), the important

Pharsamon (1737) by Marivaux, and a mass of " f a c e t i a e " , a term t h a t

i s probably subsumed under E r n e s t Baker's c r u e l phrase, "non- 23

d e s c r i p t k i n d s of f i c t i o n . " We are now assured t h a t Sterne's times were p o s i t i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s :

[R]egardless of the h i s t o r i a n ' s d e c i s i o n as to the date of the o r i g i n of the novel as a l i t e r a r y form, the form i t s e l f ... became important i n the e i g h t e e n t h century concurrent w i t h the new s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of western man about h i s need to hammer out f o r h i m s e l f the answers to h i s i n c r e a s i n g l y p r o b l e m a t i c and f r e n e t i c e x i s t e n c e . ... And the major i s s u e s themselves are t r a n s - formed i n t o fundamental q u e s t i o n s about the form i t s e l f and how to use i t ^ ^

Kaplan's v e r s i o n of l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y makes s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

and Sterne c e n t r a l to the e i g h t e e n t h century. In f a c t , however,

the r e a l i s m of Defoe and Richardson p r e v a i l e d , which e x p l a i n s

why the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r l a n g u i s h e d i n the f o l l o w i n g

century. He s u r v i v e d o n l y i n a weakened c o n d i t i o n as p a r t of

what i s known as e d i t o r i a l omniscience, which r e f e r s to a n a r r a -

t o r who knows as much about h i s c h a r a c t e r s as God, and who

enjoys commenting on the a c t i o n as i t u n f o l d s . The omniscient

n a r r a t o r d i f f e r s from the e i g h t e e n t h century s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r i n t h a t he g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t s h i m s e l f to m o r a l i z i n g

commentary, r a t h e r than a e s t h e t i c debates t h a t would s i g n i f i c a n t l y

d i s t u r b h i s novel's r e a l i s t i c s u r f a c e .

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r e x p i r e d , and the c r i t i c s gathered

a t h i s s i c k b e d to say t h a t h i s death might be necessary to c l e a r

(23) See also Booth's "Tristram Shandy and I t s Precursors: The Self- Conscious Narrator," Diss. Univ. of Chicago 1950; and his The Rhetoric' of F i c t i o n (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1961), p a r t i c u l a r l y pp. 211-40.

(24) Fred Kaplan, " V i c t o r i a n Modernists: Fowles and Nabokov," The Journal of Narrative Technique, 3 (1973), 109.

the way f o r the p u r e l y r e a l i s t i c n o v e l . T h i s u n f o r t u n a t e c r i t i c a l

b i a s has had an e f f e c t on our understanding of contemporary

n o v e l i s t s , whose use of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s taken to

be a r e p u d i a t i o n of r e a l i s m , w i t h a l l the accompanying p h i l o s -

o p h i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s , r a t h e r than the r e j u v e n a t i o n of a l i t e r -

ary d e v i c e which can be used as a f u l l p a r t n e r of r e a l i s m r a t h e r

than i t s p o l a r o p p o s i t e . But l e t us look a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r ' s d e c l i n i n g f o r t u n e s i n more d e t a i l .

The D e c l i n e of the S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r

I t i s t r u e t h a t s e v e r a l n i n e t e e n t h century n a r r a t o r s i n t r u d e

to comment on the a c t i o n , and to a c e r t a i n extent make the reader

aware of a c o n t r o l l i n g a r t i s t i c presence. For example, here

i n the e a r l y p a r t of the century is: Jane Austen, g e n e r a l l y deemed

"impersonal," n e v e r t h e l e s s commenting i n a f a c e t i o u s v e i n towards

the end of M a n s f i e l d Park: "Let other pens d w e l l on g u i l t and

misery. I q u i t such odious s u b j e c t s as soon as I can, impatient

to r e s t o r e every body, not g r e a t l y i n f a u l t themselves, to 25

t o l e r a b l e comfort, and to have done with a l l the rest.," In Adam Bede, while the s t o r y "Pauses a L i t t l e , " George

E l i o t chats w i t h a reader about her treatment of the clergyman, 2 6

Mr. Irwine. In V a n i t y F a i r , Thackeray promises t h a t once the

c u r t a i n i s r a i s e d he w i l l bow to the audience and r e t i r e ; i n

f a c t , however, he can't r e s i s t a f u r t h e r p e r s o n a l appearance, and

(25) Jane Austen, Mansfield Park, ed. Reuben^'A. Brower (Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1965), p. 350.

(26) George E l i o t , Adam Bede (London, 1859; rpt. New York: Crowell- Collier, 1962), p. 173.

t r a v e l s t o t h e D u c a l town o f P u m p e r n i c k e l , a t t e n d s t h e t h e a t r e ,

and p e r s o n a l l y w i t n e s s e s t h e s o c i a l e m b a r r a s s m e n t o f D o b b i n a n d

Emmy: " I t was o n t h i s v e r y t o u r t h a t I , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r o f

a h i s t o r y o f w h i c h e v e r y w o r d i s t r u e , h a d t h e p l e a s u r e t o ... 27

make t h e i r a c q u a i n t a n c e . " The r e t i c e n t ..and w i t h d r a w n N a t h -

a n i e l H a w t h o r n e s u r p r i s e d h i m s e l f i n t h e o p e n i n g t o The S c a r l e t

L e t t e r : I t i s a l i t t l e r e m a r k a b l e , t h a t — t h o u g h

d i s i n c l i n e d t o t a l k o v e r m u c h o f m y s e l f and my a f f a i r s a t t h e f i r e s i d e , and t o my p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s — a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l i m p u l s e s h o u l d t w i c e i n my l i f e h a v e t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n o f me, i n a d d r e s s i n g t h e p u b l i c . The f i r s t t i m e was t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s s i n c e , when I f a v o r e d t h e r e a d e r — i n e x c u s a b l y , and f o r no e a r t h l y r e a s o n , t h a t e i t h e r t h e i n d u l g e n t r e a d e r o r t h e i n t r u s i v e a u t h o r c o u l d i m a g i n e — w i t h a d e s - c r i p t i o n o f my way o f l i f e i n t h e d e e p q u i e t u d e o f a n O l d Manse. And now — b e c a u s e , b e y o n d my d e s e r t s , I was h a p p y e n o u g h t o f i n d a l i s t - e n e r o r two on t h e f o r m e r o c c a s i o n — I a g a i n s e i z e t h e p u b l i c b y t h e b u t t o n , a n d t a l k o f my t h r e e y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e i n a Custom-House.2g

B u t t h e r e i s a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h i s n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r a n d t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s

o f B a r t h e l m e o r N a b o k o v o r S t e r n e . P a r a d o x i c a l l y e n o u g h , A u s t e n

and H a w t h o r n e seem a n y t h i n g b u t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ; t h e i r i n t r u s i o n s

seem n a t u r a l , i n n o c e n t and u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e i r n a r r a t o r s a r e

n o t s t r u g g l i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f n a r r a t i o n , a n d n o t h i n g

i s p r o b l e m a t i c a b o u t t h e i r c h o i c e s ; i n s t e a d , t h e y r e s t w i t h i n t h e

c o n v e n t i o n o f e d i t o r i a l o m n i s c i e n c e . The n a r r a t o r i s o m n i s c i e n t

i n t h a t he h a s f u l l k n o w l e d g e o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t p a s s e s i n t h e

(27) Thackeray, Vanity Fair, ed. Geoffrey and Kathleen T i l l o t s o n (Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1963), p. 602.

(28) Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, ed. Sculley Bradley, Richmond Croom Beatty, and E. Hudson Long (New York: Norton, 1961), p. 6.

minds of h i s c h a r a c t e r s ; but i n r e t u r n f o r t h i s power, he must

t r e a t the reader w i t h r e s p e c t . T h i s i s the era of Dear Reader.

The u n w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t demands g e n t e e l deference to the audience

and to t r a d i t i o n a l methods of t e l l i n g a s t o r y ; although the n a r r a -

t o r has a b s o l u t e power, he must never break the r u l e s of v e r i s i m -

i l i t u d e . The n a r r a t o r r a r e l y e x p l o r e s h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y , or

r e v e a l s h i s s t y l i s t i c and t e c h n i c a l problems; h i s a t t e n t i o n i s

focused i n s t e a d on e n t e r t a i n i n g and e n l i g h t e n i n g h i s guest, the

reader:

I t i s the f i r s t n e c e s s i t y of [the n o v e l i s t ' s ] p o s i t i o n t h a t he make h i m s e l f p l e a s a n t . O Q

Perhaps the reader — whom I cannot help con- s i d e r i n g as my guest i n the Old Manse, and e n t i t l e d to a l l c o u r t e s y i n the way of s i g h t - showing . . . .

Omniscience w i t h i n gentlemanly l i m i t s becomes a k i n d of de-

p e r s o n a l i z e d omniscience, which means the death of a s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r who would i n s i s t on the v a g a r i e s of a e s t h e t i c

methods and on h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y . Norman Friedman uses the

u s e f u l term N e u t r a l Omniscience to d e s c r i b e the d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n

of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s v o i c e . Whereas E d i t o r i a l Omniscience admits

" a u t h o r i a l i n t r u s i o n s and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about l i f e , manners and

morals," N e u t r a l Omniscience " d i f f e r s from E d i t o r i a l Omniscience

o n l y i n the absence of d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l i n t r u s i o n s (the author 31

speaks i m p e r s o n a l l y i n the t h i r d person) . . . . " As the "author-

(29) Anthony Trollope, Autobiography, in Miriam Allott,Novelists on the Novel (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959) p. 315.

(30) Nathaniel Hawthorne, Mosses from an Old Manse (1846; rpt. Chicago: Rand, McNally, n.d.), p.8.

(31) Norman Friedman, "Point of View in Fiction: The Development of a Critical Concept," PMLA, 70 (1955), 1171-72.

i a l i n t r u s i o n s " (more a c c u r a t e l y , the n a r r a t o r ' s i n t r u s i o n s )

dwindle and e v e n t u a l l y disappear, the n a r r a t o r drops from the

reader's s i g h t , to be r e p l a c e d by an impersonal omniscient

v o i c e which r a r e l y r e f e r s to the f a c t t h a t the s t o r y a t hand, " i n

which every word i s t r u e , " i s a c r e a t e d work of a r t .

T h i s d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n r e c e i v e d the i n f l u e n t i a l approval

of Henry James, who c o n s i d e r e d i t s a c r i l e g i o u s f o r a n a r r a t o r

to i n t r u d e on the s t o r y . Consider h i s remarks from an essay on

Anthony T r o l l o p e :

He took a s u i c i d a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n reminding the reader t h a t the s t o r y he was t e l l i n g was o n l y , a f t e r a l l , a make-believe. He h a b i t u a l l y r e f e r r e d to the work i n hand ( i n the course of t h a t work) as a n o v e l , and to h i m s e l f as a n o v e l i s t , and was fond of l e t t i n g the reader know t h a t t h i s n o v e l i s t c o u l d d i r e c t the course o f events a c c o r d i n g t o h i s p l e a s u r e . A l r e a d y , i n B a r c h e s t e r Towers, he f a l l s i n t o t h i s per- n i c i o u s t r i c k . . . . These l i t t l e s l a p s a t c r e d - u l i t y (we might g i v e many more specimens) are v e r y d i s c o u r a g i n g , but they are even more i n e x p l i c a b l e ; f o r they are d e l i b e r a t e l y i n a r t - i s t i c .... I t i s i m p o s s i b l e to imagine what a n o v e l i s t takes h i m s e l f to be u n l e s s he regards h i m s e l f as an h i s t o r i a n and h i s n a r r a t i v e as a h i s t o r y . . . . As a n a r r a t o r of f i c t i t i o u s events he i s nowhere.... T h e r e f o r e , when T r o l l o p e suddenly winks a t us and reminds us t h a t he i s t e l l i n g us an a r b i t r a r y t h i n g , we are s t a r t l e d and s h o c k e d . . . . ^

James p r e f e r r e d a s i n g l e , focused p e r s p e c t i v e r a t h e r than the 33

m u l t i p l e p e r s p e c t i v e of the omniscient n a r r a t o r . He p r e f e r r e d (32) James, pp. 247-48. (33) "To employ more perspectives than are necessary for the 'treat-

ment of the subject' i s seen by them [James and Percy Lubbock] as an a r t i s t i c f a i l u r e . (This judgment i s probably i t s e l f based on an analogy with the l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e known as Occam's razor, which assigns a superior v a l i d i t y to the simpler of two arguments',} " Robert Scholes and Robert Kellogg, The Nature of Narrative (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966), p. 273.

to i n c o r p o r a t e the s i n g l e p e r s p e c t i v e as a c h a r a c t e r w i t h i n the

p l o t ; hence, such c h a r a c t e r s as Lambert . S t r e t h e r , and " p o i n t of

view" r a t h e r than a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r .

"As a n a r r a t o r of f i c t i t i o u s events he i s nowhere," suggests

the scope of James' p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t the o v e r t a r t i f i c e of the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; n e v e r t h e l e s s h i s t h e o r i e s were f u l l

of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and good sense. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h i s t h e o r i e s

were s i m p l i f i e d by Percy Lubbock i n the i n f l u e n t i a l C r a f t of

F i c t i o n :

Lubbock's account i s c l e a r e r and more s y s t e m a t i c than James's ; he g i v e s us a neat and h e l p f u l scheme of r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the terms panorama, p i c t u r e , drama and scene. I t i s a scheme t h a t James can be made to support, but i n James's account i t i s surrounded w i t h important q u a l i - f i c a t i o n s which i n Lubbock are a l r e a d y beginning to be s l i g h t e d . 2 4

James and h i s d i s c i p l e Lubbock c o n t r i b u t e d to the demise of the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , an easy t a r g e t i n t h a t he u s u a l l y appeared

i n the form of a surrogate f o r the m o r a l i z i n g author. Instead

of f o c u s i n g the reader's a t t e n t i o n on the a e s t h e t i c s of the

n a r r a t i v e , he o f f e r e d a running moral commentary; and i n s t e a d

of f l a u n t i n g h i s q u i r k y , s u b j e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y , he e i t h e r mod-

u l a t e d towards a n e u t r a l and even i n v i s i b l e i m p e r s o n a l i t y , or

e l s e presented h i m s e l f as a decorous gentleman, the w i l l i n g

servant of h i s reader's e x p e c t a t i o n s . Such a t l e a s t were the

tendencies of the n i n e t e e n t h century s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ,

and those who wanted a more impersonal and o b j e c t i v e novel were

not about to advocate a r e t u r n to the more e x h i b i t i o n i s t i c

(34) Booth, Rhetoric, pp. 24-25.

tendencies of a Sterne. Consequently, by 1928, and Point Counter

Point, Aldous Huxley uses the notebook of a character named

P h i l i p Quarles to complain about the disappearance of the s e l f -

conscious narrator i n his role as meddling author. Quarles

muses on the former "god-like creative p r i v i l e g e " of the novel-

i s t ,

to consider the events of the story i n t h e i r various aspects — emotional, s c i e n t i f i c , economic, r e l i g i o u s , metaphysical, etc. He w i l l modulate from one to the other .... But perhaps t h i s i s a too tyrannical imposition of the author's w i l l . Some people would think so. But need the author be so r e t i r i n g ? I think we're a b i t too squeamish about these personal appearances nowadays.

Ford Madox Ford wrote unequivocally that the n o v e l i s t

"must not, by taking sides, exhibit his preferences." "No

author would, l i k e Thackeray, today intrude his broken nose

and myopic spectacles into the middle of the most t h r i l l i n g

scene he ever wrote, i n order to t e l l you that though his

heroine was rather a wrong 'un his own heart was i n the r i g h t 3 6

place." Joseph Warren Beach could j u s t i f i a b l y claim that, "In

a bird's-eye view of the English novel from F i e l d i n g to Ford,

the one thing that w i l l impress you more than any other i s the 37

disappearance of the author." Although Beach states a fact

rather than making a judgment, other c r i t i c s stood ready to

eleyate what _is to what should be. In a chapter of The World (35) Aldous Huxley, Point Counter Point (1928; rpt. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1955), p. 298.

(36) Ford Madox Ford, The English Novel ( P h i l a d e l p h i a and London: J.B. Lippincott, 1929), pp. 128, 144.

(37) Joseph Warren Beach, The Twentieth Century Novel: Studies in Technique (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1932), p. 14.

4 5

of F i c t i o n w i t h the apt t i t l e , "The I n v i s i b l e N o v e l i s t , "

Bernard DeVoto d e c l a r e s t h a t the " i n t e r p o s i t i o n of the n o v e l -

i s t i n person i s d i s c o r d a n t " :

C e r t a i n l y the sentiment i s not u n i v e r s a l ; there are many r e a d e r s who do not share i t and some n o v e l i s t s who do not observe i t . [Nevertheless] i t i s one of the determining p r i n c i p l e s of modern f i c t i o n and one of the refinements, or p u r i f i c a t i o n s , t h a t f i c t i o n has achieved on the way to i t s i m p l i c i t methods.

DeVoto 1 s " i m p l i c i t methods" h i n t a t the s t e r i l e dogmatism o f

New C r i t i c a l t h e o r i e s about the n o v e l . A n a r r a t o r commenting

c a s u a l l y on h i s n a r r a t i v e i n a r e l a x e d , m o r a l i s t i c , o l d - f a s h i o n e d

tone i s an embarrassment t o the c r i t i c engaged i n c l o s e r e a d i n g

to e s t a b l i s h s t r u c t u r e , t e n s i o n , "pseudo-statement" and h o l i s t i c

form. The author's biography was d e c l a r e d out of bounds (the

i n t e n t i o n a l f a l l a c y ) , and h i s r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t on the audience

was deemed i r r e l e v a n t (the a f f e c t i v e f a l l a c y ) . Thus A l l e n Tate:

The l i m i t e d and thus c r e d i b l e a u t h o r i t y f o r the a c t i o n , which i s gained by p u t t i n g the knower of the a c t i o n i n s i d e i t s frame, i s perhaps the d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e of the modern n o v e l ; and i t i s , i n a l l the i n f i n i t e s h i f t s of focus of which i t i s capable, the s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e which more than any other has made i t p o s s i b l e f o r the n o v e l i s t to achieve an o b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e .

There i s no p r o v i s i o n i n the " o b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e " f o r s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r s who might leave around the unsharpened pen-

c i l s o f t h e i r c r a f t , and o f f e r u n s o l i c i t e d o p i n i o n s r e g a r d i n g

the m o r a l i t y of the c h a r a c t e r s , and perhaps c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n

(38) Bernard DeVoto, The World of F i c t i o n (Boston: The Writer, Inc., 1956), p. 207.

(39) Allen Tate, "The Post of Observation in F i c t i o n , " Maryland Quarterly, I (1944), p. 63.

the terms of e x i s t e n c e of the o b j e c t , the o b j e t d ' a r t .

The r i g i d c r i t i c a l orthodoxy t h a t proclaimed the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r " d i s c o r d a n t " was p a r t of a l a r g e r c r i t i c a l tendency

towards the impersonal and even the dehumanized. -By compar-

i s o n w i t h the sympathetic c l u c k i n g n o i s e s Thackeray makes over

h i s f a v o u r i t e c h a r a c t e r s , F l a u b e r t ' s a t t i t u d e towards Madame

Bovary seems inhuman and t h e r e f o r e c r u e l ( i n so f a r as the

n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i n Madame Bovary has any human dimension a t a l l ) .

There i s no longer any need f o r the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ' s

tendency to meddle i n the p l o t , f o r h i s o v e r t a e s t h e t i c p r e -

occupations, h i s m o r a l i z i n g , o r , of course, h i s r h e t o r i c .

I f the novel i s a p e r f e c t o b j e c t , there i s no need to c a j o l e

the audience.

T h e r e f o r e the next s e c t i o n examines the d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n

of the n a r r a t i v e , which has r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r i n the contemporary n o v e l . When the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r f i n a l l y r e t u r n e d to the n o v e l , a f t e r being banished

from h i s p a r t n e r s h i p i n the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of r e a l i t y f o r so

long, he n a t u r a l l y enough appeared to be a s o l i p s i s t i c agent of

chaos, designed to e l i m i n a t e any p o s s i b i l i t y of agreement between

the a r t i s t and the audience about t h e i r common r e a l i t y .

L e t us look f i r s t a t what Jose Ortega y Gasset would

c a l l the dehumanization of a r t .

The Inhuman N a r r a t o r

There i s a famous passage r e l a t i n g to the d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n

of the novel i n A P o r t r a i t of the A r t i s t as a Young Man:

The personality of the a r t i s t , at f i r s t a cry or a cadence or a mood and then a fluent and lambent narrative, f i n a l l y refines i t s e l f out of existence, impersonalizes i t s e l f , so to speak.... The a r t i s t , l i k e the God of the creation, remains behind or within or beyond or above his handiwork, i n v i s i b l e , refined out of existence, i n d i f f e r e n t , paring his finger- n a i l s . 4 0

P o r t r a i t was published i n 1916. Four years l a t e r T.S. E l i o t

published The Sacred Wood, which includes the i n f l u e n t i a l essay,

"Tradition and the Individual Talent." E l i o t also wants to

minimize the a r t i s t ' s personality, or at least the c u l t of

personality: " I t i s not i n his personal emotions, the emotions

provoked by p a r t i c u l a r events i n his l i f e , that the poet i s i n

any way remarkable or interesting." "Poetry i s ... not the expres-

sion of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of

course, only those who have personality and emotions know what i t

means to want to escape from these things."^"*"

Given the i n t e l l e c t u a l climate, i t i s not surprising that a

prejudice developed i n favor of impersonal "showing" over

r h e t o r i c a l " t e l l i n g . " Wayne Booth has attempted to dispense

with the d i s t i n c t i o n between showing and t e l l i n g once and for a l l .

"Everything [the author] shows w i l l serve to t e l l ; the l i n e between

showing and t e l l i n g i s always to some degree an a r b i t r a r y one."

In short, "the author's judgment i s always present, always 42

evident to one who knows how to look for i t . " Booth i s reacting

(40) James Joyce, A P o r t r a i t of the A r t i s t as a Young Man, ed. Chester G. Anderson (New York: Viking, 1968), p. 215.

(41) T.S. E l i o t , "Tradition and the Individual Talent," in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and C r i t i c i s m (1920; rpt. London: Methuen, 1960), pp. 57, 58.

(42) Booth, Rhetoric, p. 20.

a g a i n s t a b i a s which i s d i s p l a y e d i n the f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n

of the d i f f e r e n c e between Defoe (who we are to b e l i e v e i s a

clumsy t e l l e r ) and Joyce (a s o p h i s t i c a t e d shower). John Peter

compares a passage from Robinson Crusoe w i t h a passage from the

P o r t r a i t :

In the one case [Defoe] the t e x t u r e i s com- p a r a t i v e l y opaque: we hear the v o i c e of the author speaking, n a r r a t i n g . In the o t h e r case the t e x t u r e i s comparatively t r a n s p a r e n t , so t h a t i t i s r a t h e r a matter of the s t o r y e n a c t i n g i t s e l f through an u n o b s t r u c t i v e medium of words.

... We a s s o c i a t e the undeveloped s t y l e with the use of the f i r s t person, and with v e r b o s i t i e s l i k e "I take up my pen" and "Gentle reader," and i t i s probably t r u e t h a t an e a r l y n o v e l i s t l i k e Richardson was p r e c l u d e d , by h i s use of the e p i s t o l a r y method, from a c h i e v i n g the f o r c e of a developed s t y l e . . . . [In many e a r l y novels] the n a r r a t o r , though not the author h i m s e l f , per- mits him the l a t i t u d e of e x p a t i a t i o n and surmise, a s o r t of d a i r i a n ease, and here too the prose seldom transcends the l e v e l of i t s words....^

Peter confuses the author w i t h the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e . We do not

have the author "speaking, n a r r a t i n g " i n Defoe's n o v e l , because

i t i s a f i r s t person n a r r a t i o n by a c h a r a c t e r named Robinson

Crusoe. A novel i s never n a r r a t e d by the author, but by a

n a r r a t i v e v o i c e which i s as much a c r e a t i o n as the c h a r a c t e r s ,

and which can be f i r s t - p e r s o n or t h i r d - p e r s o n , o b j e c t i v e or

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , or whatever. Obviously Peter sees any i n t e r -

mediary between the events and the reader as a flaw r e v e a l i n g the

amateurish presence of the author, and an impediment to the

progress of the "developed" s t y l e . But whether the p e r p e t r a t o r

i s the n a r r a t o r , or the author, or the "use of the f i r s t person,"

(43) John Peter, "Joyce and the Novel," Kenyon Review, 18 (1956), 622.

the s i n i s " l a t i t u d e of e x p a t i a t i o n and surmise, a s o r t of

d a i r i a n ease"; s i n c e t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n c o u l d e a s i l y f i t T r i s t r a m

Shandy, we can surmise t h a t -there i s no p l a c e f o r the "verbose"

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n P e t e r ' s developed s t y l e .

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r would f a r e no b e t t e r i n what Jose

Ortega y Gasset c a l l e d the " p r e s e n t a t i v e " n o v e l . Ortega says

t h a t while the " p r i m i t i v e reader" may have enjoyed the n a r r a t i v e

n o v e l , the modern s o p h i s t i c a t e d reader demands a novel " d i r e c t 44

and d e s c r i p t i v e . The b e s t word would be ' p r e s e n t a t i v e ' . "

"During the n i n e t e e n t h century," Ortega says, " a r t i s t s proceeded

i n a l l too impure a f a s h i o n . They reduced the s t r i c t l y

a e s t h e t i c elements to a minimum and l e t the work c o n s i s t almost

e n t i r e l y i n a f i c t i o n of human r e a l i t i e s " (p. 11). The p r e s e n t -

a t i v e novel would maximize a e s t h e t i c s and minimize human r e a l i t i e s .

Such a novel would f i t the laws of the new "pure" a r t , which would

meet the e x p e c t a t i o n s of what Ortega c a l l s "the most a l e r t young

people of two s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s " (p. 13). The new "pure"

a r t tends "(1) to dehumanize a r t , (2) to a v o i d l i v i n g forms,

(3) to see to i t t h a t the work of a r t i s nothing but a work of

a r t ..." (p. 14) .

These formidable " a l e r t young people" p l a c e d t h e i r f a i t h

i n the presented o b j e c t . There i s , of course/ an immense

c r i t i c a l problem i n the dichotomy between the o b j e c t as a symbol

f o r v a s t f o r c e s i n the e x t e r n a l world, i n the sense of a g r a i n of

sand c o n t a i n i n g the u n i v e r s e , and the o b j e c t as supremely u n r e a l ,

(44) Jos? Ortega y Gasset, The Dehumanization of Art and Notes on the Novel, trans. Helene Weyl (1948; rpt. New York: Peter Smith, 1951), pp. 62,63.

with other works of a r t as i t s o n l y c o n t e x t . But i n e i t h e r

case the emphasis i s on the o b j e c t , the " t h i n g " i n a l l i t s

r e v e r b e r a t i o n s , and the n a r r a t o r i s s u p e r f l u o u s :

The work of a r t i n i t s complete p u r i t y i m p l i e s the disappearance of the poet's o r a t o r i c a l presence. The poet leaves the i n i t i a t i v e to the words, to the c l a s h of t h e i r m o b i l i z e d d i v e r s i t i e s . The words i g n i t e through mutual r e f l e x e s l i k e a f l a s h of f i r e over jewels. Such r e f l e x e s r e p l a c e t h a t r e s p i r a t i o n ... p e r c e p t i b l e i n the o l d l y r i c a l a s p i r a t i o n or the e n t h u s i a s t i c p e r s o n a l d i r e c t i o n of the s e n t e n c e . ^

The n o v e l i s t was urged to present o b j e c t s : Ortega's

" u l t r a - o b j . e c t s " (p. 22) or E l i o t ' s more famous o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l -

a t i v e . Thus the impersonal s t y l e of Hemingway, who waged war

a g a i n s t r h e t o r i c :

They whack-whacked the white horse on the l e g s and he kneed h i m s e l f up. The p i c a d o r t w i s t e d the s t i r r u p s s t r a i g h t and p u l l e d and hauled up i n t o the saddle. The horse's e n t r a i l s hung down i n a blue bunch and swung backward and forward as he began to c a n t e r , the monos whacking him on the back of h i s l e g s w i t h the rods. He cantered j e r k i l y along the b a r r e r a . He stopped s t i f f and one of the monos h e l d h i s b r i d l e and walked him forward. The p i c a d o r k i c k e d i n h i s spurs, leaned forward and shook h i s l a n c e a t the b u l l . Blood pumped r e g u l a r l y from between the horse's f r o n t l e g s . He was n e r v o u s l y unsteady. The b u l l c o u l d not make up h i s mind to c h a r g e . a ,

(45) Mallarme, as quoted in Kahler, Disintegration of Form, pp. 75-76. Perhaps Borges mocks t h i s tendency in one of the f i e r c e l y avant-garde mono- graphs of Pierre Menard, "on the p o s s i b i l i t y of constructing a poetic vocab- ulary of concepts which would not be synonyms or periphrases of those which make up our everyday language, 'but rather ideal objects created according to convention and e s s e n t i a l l y designed to s a t i s f y poetic needs (Labyrinths, p. 37).

(46) Ernest Heminway, In Our Time (1925; rpt. New York: Scribner's, 1958), p. 115.

5 1

Hemingway banishes the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; i n f a c t , one

b a r e l y senses the presence of a n a r r a t i v e v o i c e a t a l l . But

there i s an i m p l i e d v o i c e , a moral v o i c e t h a t r e f u s e s to accept

the world's h o r r o r s . R o b b e - G r i l l e t would do away with even the

i m p l i e d presence of a human consciousness:

In t h i s f u t u r e u n i v e r s e of the n o v e l , g e s t - ures and o b j e c t s w i l l be there b e f o r e being something; and they w i l l s t i l l be there a f t e r - wards, hard, u n a l t e r a b l e , e t e r n a l l y p r e s e n t ....

... No longer w i l l o b j e c t s be merely the vague r e f l e c t i o n of the hero's vague s o u l , the image of h i s t o r r e n t s , the shadow of h i s d e s i r e s . Or r a t h e r , i f o b j e c t s s t i l l a f f o r d a momentary prop to human p a s s i o n s , they w i l l do so o n l y p r o v i s i o n a l l y , and w i l l accept the tyranny of s i g n i f i c a t i o n s o n l y i n appearance -- d e r i s i v e l y , one might say -- the b e t t e r to show how a l i e n they remain to man.

... Whereas the t r a d i t i o n a l hero i s ... destroyed by these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the a u t h o r ' s , c e a s e l e s s l y p r o j e c t e d i n t o an immat- e r i a l and u n s t a b l e elsewhere ... the f u t u r e hero w i l l remain, on the c o n t r a r y , t h e r e . I t i s the commentaries t h a t w i l l be l e f t elsewhere; i n the face of h i s i r r e f u t a b l e presence, they w i l l seem u s e l e s s , s u p e r f l u o u s , even i m p r o p e r l y

Ortega's program of dehumanization i s f i n a l l y achieved i n Robbe-

G r i l l e t ' s novels; i n s t e a d of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r t h e r e i s

a detached monotone which drones out the l i s t of o b j e c t s :

In the second row [of banana t r e e s ] , s t a r t i n g from the f a r l e f t , there would be twenty-two t r e e s (because of the a l t e r n a t e arrangement) i n the case of a r e c t a n g u l a r patch. There would a l s o be twenty-two f o r a patch t h a t was b a r e l y t r a p e z o i d a l , the r e d u c t i o n being s c a r c e l y n o t i c e a b l e a t such a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from i t s base. And, i n f a c t , there are twenty-two t r e e s t h e r e .

But the t h i r d row too has o n l y twenty-two t3T66S * * * * ii o

(47) Alain Robbe-Grillet, For A New Novel, pp. 21-22. (48) Alain Robbe-Grillet, Jealousy, trans. Richard Howard (New York:

Grove Press, 1959), p. 20.

A b i a s a g a i n s t emotional commentary i n f a v o r of impersonal

a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t s denies the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r freedom

to f u n c t i o n . A r e l a t e d f a c t o r m i l i t a t i n g a g a i n s t the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r i s the novel of s o c i a l r e a l i s m , by which we

mean novels t h a t focus on the s o c i e t y r a t h e r than the i n d i v i d u a l ,

and novels which emphasize s o c i a l f o r c e s , i d e o l o g i c a l and n a t u r a l ,

r a t h e r than s t y l e and a e s t h e t i c s . S o c i a l r e a l i s m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

important i n American f i c t i o n , our main i n t e r e s t i n t h a t B a r t h -

elme i s an American w r i t e r , and Nabokov, a d m i t t e d l y a d e l i c a t e ,

problem i n n a t i o n a l i s t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , l i k e d to d e s c r i b e him-

s e l f as an American w r i t e r and taxpayer.

When one t h i n k s of s o c i a l r e a l i s m i n the novel ;— o f , say, the

s o c i a l e p i c s of Thackeray and T o l s t o y , - - one a l s o t h i n k s of the

e a r l y c h a l l e n g e to s o c i a l r e a l i s m made by what are now c a l l e d

the E n g l i s h modernists — Joyce, Woolf and Lawrence, f o r example.

Yet d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t these w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Joyce,

c h a l l e n g e t r a d i t i o n a l forms of the novel and t r a d i t i o n a l world

views, i t i s g e n e r a l l y t r u e to say t h a t t h e i r works are grounded

i n r e a l i s t i c s t u d i e s of t h e i r s o c i e t i e s — Joyce's D u b l i n ,

Lawrence's study of c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s i n Lady C h a t t e r l e y ' s Lover,

the s o c i a l mores of middle c l a s s London which l i e behind the

epi-stefaologicai.;. f i r e w o r k s of Mrs. Dalloway. Furthermore, t h e i r

departures from t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m do not g e n e r a l l y depend on

a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r .

At any r a t e , d e s p i t e any i n f l u e n c e by the E n g l i s h modernists,

American l i t e r a t u r e has been dominated by s o c i a l r e a l i s m u n t i l

contemporary times. A case c o u l d be made t h a t r e a l i s m i s s t i l l

the dominant mode, not o n l y among the b e s t s e l l i n g c h r o n i c l e s of

an A r t h u r H a i l e y or an Irwin Shaw (who, a f t e r a l l , r e p r e s e n t

the contemporary n o v e l to most r e a d e r s ) , but among the more

s o p h i s t i c a t e d n o v e l i s t s such as Bellow, Roth, and McMurtry.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to say why the l i t e r a t u r e o f s o c i a l f o r c e s has

been so strong i n America, although one c o u l d s p e c u l a t e t h a t i t

has something to do w i t h a young, f r o n t i e r s o c i e t y , i n which the

f o r c e s t h a t a c t on s o c i e t y are more crude and apparent than they

are i n the more t r a d i t i o n a l and perhaps more s u b t l e European

s o c i e t y . S p e c u l a t i o n a s i d e , there i s i n d i s p u t a b l y a r e a l i s t i c

t r a d i t i o n bounded a t one extreme by the refinements of Howells

and James, and a t the o t h e r extreme by the b r u t a l i z e d r e a l i s m ,

or n a t u r a l i s m , of London and N o r r i s . A host of w r i t e r s f i t some-

where i n between: Wharton, F a r r e l l , Lewis, Dos Passos, D r e i s e r ,

Thomas Wolfe. There has been an accompanying t r a d i t i o n of

d i s t r u s t f o r a e s t h e t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y ivory-tower a e s t h e t i c s i n

which the n o v e l i s t would s e t h i m s e l f a p a r t from the commonality.

W r i t e r s who might s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y d i s t i n g u i s h themselves from

the b o u r g e o i s i e n e v e r t h e l e s s tend (with some e x c e p t i o n s , to be

sure) to adopt an a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l , a n t i - a e s t h e t i c dandy, two-

f i s t e d stance. C h a r l e s Bukowski comes to mind, the bard of the

u n l e t t e r e d .

Because of the s t r e n g t h of the r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , the break

w i t h i t has been a l l the more v i o l e n t . The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r , w i t h h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m , h i s egotism and h i s a e s t h e t i c

p r e o c c u p a t i o n s , has been embraced a l l too e a g e r l y as a counter-

t h r u s t to the r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , r a t h e r than as a d e v i c e by

which the excesses o f r e a l i s m c o u l d be c o r r e c t e d . A r l e n Hansen,

5 4

f o r example, advocates the s o l i p s i s m of the " c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n

as a necessary e v i l i n the b a t t l e a g a i n s t r e a l i s m , which he sees

as p a r t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by "overt and d i s g u i s e d polemics on: 4 9

b e h a l f of empiricism and b e h a v i o r a l i s m . " So p r e v a l e n t i s the d e t e r m i n i s t i c c o l o r a t i o n of the r e s p e c t i v e v i s i o n s of Crane, D r e i s e r , Dos Passos, Cummings, Hemingway, F i t z g e r a l d , Faulkner, Wolfe, Warren, Bellow, Updike, H e l l e r , Malamud, Roth and M a i l e r t h a t there seems l i t t l e need to c i t e s p e c i f i c examples (p. 5, n. 2) .

Perhaps the most a r t i c u l a t e c r i t i c of the o v e r - r e a c t i o n to the

t r a d i t i o n of s o c i a l r e a l i s m i s Tom Wolfe, who argues t h a t con-

temporary n o v e l i s t s have embraced s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and o t h e r

a e s t h e t i c s i n s ( i n Wolfe's theology) to the p o i n t of s u r r e n d e r i n g

the l i t e r a t u r e of s o c i e t y to the j o u r n a l i s t s . J o u r n a l i s t s , have

s e i z e d the o p p o r t u n i t y , and have been r e p a i d by being read

( u n l i k e most s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n o v e l i s t s ) . The o v e r - r e a c t i o n to

s o c i a l r e a l i s m causes c r i t i c a l myopia w i t h r e s p e c t to Nabokov,

whose repeated f i c t i o n a l a t t a c k s on t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t i e s are

e i t h e r ignored, or e l s e t r i v i a l i z e d as y e t another l a y e r or

a r t i f i c e i n what are thought to be i n v o l u t e d crossword p u z z l e s .

L e t us examine the development of the d e s t r u c t i v e dichotomy

between s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l i t e r a t u r e and r e a l i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e by

f i r s t r e t u r n i n g to the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h century n o v e l , and i t s

journey from Europe to America.

(49) Hansen, p. 5.

S o c i a l Realism

As the novel gained i n p r e s t i g e as an a r t form, i t gained

i n ambition; i n s t e a d of r e s t r i c t i n g i t s e l f to an i n d i v i d u a l

i t took on s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l : "the way we l i v e now," i n

T r o l l o p e ' s phrase. Instead of Jane Austen's c h a r a c t e r study

of a young woman i n Emma, t h e r e was George E l i o t ' s comprehensive

c h r o n i c l e of an e n t i r e p r o v i n c i a l town i n Middlemarch. The

tendency was more pronounced i n France, where Balzac attempted to

r e c o r d a h a l f century of French l i f e i n h i s s e r i e s , the Human

Comedy, and where Z o l a produced a s o c i o l o g i c a l s e r i e s of twenty

novels w i t h the imposing t i t l e , Les Rougon-Macquart. H i s t o i r e

n a t u r e l l e e t s o c i a l e d'une f a m i l l e sous l e Second Empire. French

n o v e l i s t s o f t e n proceeded from twin impulses, n e i t h e r of them

conducive to n a r r a t o r s who s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y comment dn a e s t h e t i c

techniques. One impulse was h i s t o r i c ; the n o v e l i s t was the

c h r o n i c l e r of contemporary h i s t o r y . Balzac c a l l e d h i m s e l f the

" s e c r e t a r y of French s o c i e t y . " ^ ^ His Human Comedy was s a i d to

be "a p r e c i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n to French h i s t o r y . The g r e a t h i s t o r -

i a n of the French R e v o l u t i o n , A l b e r t S o r e l , thought i t s pages as 51

luminous as those i n any a r c h i v e s . " ( S i m i l a r l y , Gordon S.

Haight remarks of George E l i o t t h a t , "A famous h i s t o r i a n once

t o l d me t h a t Middlemarch contained the f i n e s t p i c t u r e he knew 52

of England a t the time of the Reform B i l l . " ) (50) As quoted in Tom Wolfe, "Why They Aren't Writing the Great

American Novel Anymore," Esquire, Dec. 1972, p. 157. (51) E.K. Brown, Introd., Pere Goriot and Eugenie Grandet, by Honore

de Balzac, trans. E.K. Brown, Dorothea Walter, and John Watkins (New York: Random House, 1946) , p. ix.

(52) Gordon S. Haight, Introd. > Middlemarch, by George E l i o t , ed. Gordon S. Haight (Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1956), p. vi.

The second impulse was s c i e n t i f i c ; the n o v e l i s t attempted

to apply to f i c t i o n the o b j e c t i v i t y and i m p e r s o n a l i t y of s c i e n c e .

S c i e n t i f i c s o c i a l r e a l i s m has common ground w i t h t h e o r i e s of the

i m p e r s o n a l i t y of a r t . E l i o t says t h a t " i t i s i n t h i s deper-

s o n a l i z a t i o n t h a t a r t can be s a i d to approach the c o n d i t i o n s

53 of s c i e n c e . " B a l z a c ' s v i s i o n , i n the words of E.K. Brown,

54 i s . "the v i s i o n of a human b i o l o g i s t . " Balzac t e l l s us t h a t the l e a d i n g i d e a of h i s Human Comedy

came from the study of human l i f e i n comparison w i t h the l i f e of animals .... S o c i e t y makes the man; he develops a c c o r d i n g to the s o c i a l c e n t r e s i n which he i s p l a c e d ; there are as many d i f f e r e n t men as t h e r e are s p e c i e s i n z o o l o g y . ^

Zola s i m i l a r l y p r o c l a i m s t h a t the n o v e l i s t i s l i k e a

s c i e n t i s t o b s e r v i n g human phenomena:

The s c i e n t i s t i n h i s l a b o r a t o r y puts h i s substances i n t o c o n t a c t i n a s u i t a b l e c o n t a i n e r (environment) and then p l a y s no f u r t h e r p e r s o n a l p a r t , but steps back and merely notes down the i n e v i t a b l e r e a c t i o n s . In e x a c t l y the same way the modern s c i e n t i f i c n o v e l i s t should b r i n g together c e r t a i n human types, whose h e r e d i t a r y composition i s known, put them together i n a s u i t a b l e environment and then r e p o r t i m p e r s o n a l l y what must happen because s c i e n t i f i c laws d i c t a t e each reaction.,.-

I t i s t r u e t h a t "Zola's shocking and h i g h l y i m a g i n a t i v e novels

... are o n l y l o o s e l y ' s c i e n t i f i c , ' and as P h i l i p Rahv has s a i d ,

the i n v o c a t i o n of s c i e n c e by the French n a t u r a l i s t s came p r i m a r i l y

(53) E l i o t , "The Perfect C r i t i c , " in The Sacred Wood, p. 7. (54) Brown, p. ix. (55) Balzac, as quoted in Brown, pp. ix-x. (56) A paraphrase of Zola's theories in L.W. Tancock, Introd.,Germinal,

by Smile Zola, trans. L.W. Tancock (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1954), pp. 6-7.

out of a d e s i r e to a t t a c h to the novel the p r e s t i g e r a t h e r than 57

the method of s c i e n c e . " Furthermore, when enthusiasm f o r the

French s c i e n t i f i c novel passed over to America, the French

s c i e n t i f i c b i a s was o f t e n misunderstood or ignored. Frank N o r r i s

transformed Zola's n a t u r a l i s m i n t o romanticism: N a t u r a l i s m , as understood by Z o l a , i s but a form of romanticism a f t e r a l l .... T e r r i b l e t h i n g s must happen to the c h a r a c t e r s of the nat- u r a l i s t i c t a l e . They must be t w i s t e d from the o r d i n a r y , wrenched from the q u i e t , u n e v e n t f u l round of everyday l i f e and f l u n g i n t o the throes of a v a s t and t e r r i b l e drama t h a t works i t s e l f out i n unleashed p a s s i o n s , i n blood and i n sudden d e a t h . r o

American r e a l i s t s r e t a i n e d the French i n t e r e s t i n s o c i e t y ,

i n t e r p r e t e d i n p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c terms. The i n d i v i d u a l was .

thought to be i n the control of g i g a n t i c s o c i a l f o r c e s — s o c i a l

Darwinism, or p e s s i m i s t i c determinism, or v o r a c i o u s c a p i t a l i s m .

Since the i n d i v i d u a l was, to use a word f a s h i o n a b l e a t the time,

determined, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r was s u p e r f l u o u s on

s e v e r a l counts: the r e a l i s t p r e f e r r e d the d e p i c t i o n of h o s t i l e

s o c i a l f o r c e s , red i n t o o t h and claw, to the a e s t h e t i c d e l i b -

e r a t i o n s of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; the r e a l i s t p r e f e r r e d

comprehensive i d e o l o g i e s — g e n e r a l l y gloomy i d e o l o g i e s — to

the i d i o s y n c r a c i e s of a unique s e n s i b i l i t y . The d e v e l o p i n g

dichotomy between an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e consciousness w i t h an

i n t e r e s t i n a e s t h e t i c s , and the crude, d i r e c t , impersonal

t r a n s c r i b e r of the red meat of r e a l i t y , i s , i n the words of

(57) Richard Chase, The American Novel and I t s Tradition (Garden City, New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1957), p. 186.

(58) Frank Norris, as quoted in Alfred Kazin, On Native Grounds (1942; rpt. Garden City, New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1956), p. 76.

L i o n e l T r i l l i n g , " e x e m p l i f i e d by the d o c t r i n a i r e indulgence which

l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s have always d i s p l a y e d towards Theodore 59

D r e i s e r . " I t was P a r r i n g t o n who e s t a b l i s h e d the formula f o r the l i b e r a l c r i t i c i s m of D r e i s e r by c a l l i n g him a "peasant": when D r e i s e r t h i n k s s t u p i d l y , i t i s because he has the slow stubborness of a peasant; when he w r i t e s badly, i t i s because he i s impatient of the s t e r i l e l i t e r a r y g e n t i l i t y of the b o u r g e o i s i e . I t i s as i f w i t , and f l e x - i b i l i t y of mind, and p e r c e p t i o n , and knowledge were to be equated w i t h a r i s t o c r a c y and p o l i t i c a l r e a c t i o n , while d u l l n e s s and s t u p i d i t y suggest •a v i r t u o u s democracy ....

T h i s i m p l i e d amalgamation of mind w i t h g e n t i l i t y i s the r a t i o n a l e of the long indulgence of D r e i s e r , which i s extended even to the s t y l e of h i s prose. Everyone i s aware t h a t D r e i s e r ' s prose s t y l e i s f u l l of roughness and u n g a i n l i - ness, and the c r i t i c s who admire D r e i s e r t e l l us i t does not matter (pp. 9-10, 12-13).

C e r t a i n l y Frank N o r r i s would say t h a t a rough and u n g a i n l y

prose s t y l e doesn't matter: "Who cares f o r f i n e s t y l e ! T e l l

your yarn and l e t your s t y l e go to the d e v i l . We don't want

l i t e r a t u r e , we want l i f e . " ^ The f i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s of a f i n e

s t y l e are unnecessary when n o v e l i s t s emphasize the elemental

p a s s i o n s :

I t was a c r i s i s .... B l i n d l y , and without knowing why, McTeague fought a g a i n s t i t .... Within him, a c e r t a i n second s e l f , another b e t t e r McTeague rose w i t h the b r u t e . ... The two were a t g r a p p l e s . . . . I t was the

(59) Lionel T r i l l i n g , The Liberal Imagination (1950; rpt. Garden City, New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1953), p. 8. T r i l l i n g disapprovingly quotes F.O. Matthiessen: "'The . l i a b i l i t y in what Santayana called the genteel t r a d i t i o n was due to i t s being the product of mind apart from experience. Dreiser gave us the s t u f f of our common experience, not as i t was hoped to be by any i d e a l i z i n g t h e o r i s t , but as i t a c t u a l l y was in i t s crudity'" (p. 12).

(60) Norris, as quoted in Kazin, p. 75. Cf. Oates' narrator in Expensive People.

o l d b a t t l e , o l d as the world, wide as the world -- the sudden panther leap of the animal, l i p s drawn, fangs a f l a s h , hideous, monstrous, not to be r e s i s t e d , and the simultaneous a r o u s i n g of the other man, the b e t t e r s e l f t h a t c r i e s , "Down, down," without knowing why; t h a t g r i p s the monster; t h a t f i g h t s to s t r a n g l e i t , to t h r u s t i t down and back.^,

The comic book s t y l e of Darwinian monsters rampant on a f i e l d

of determinism i s not conducive to s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i o n .

The emphasis i s on e x t e r n a l s . Z o l a researched r a i l r o a d i n g f o r

La Bete humaine and c o a l mining f o r Germinal; N o r r i s " s t u d i e d

the Harvard L i b r a r y ' s copy of A Text-book of O p e r a t i v e D e n t i s t r y

so he could l o a d McTeague w i t h the d e n t a l minutiae o f bud-burrs

and gutta-percha. Throughout, the N a t u r a l i s t s ' most c h a r a c t e r - 6 2

i s t i c t o o l has been the notebook." A n o v e l i s t eager to d i s -

gorge h i s notebook's i n f o r m a t i o n i s not l i k e l y to emphasize

the a e s t h e t i c b a s i s of h i s n a r r a t i v e . As f o r the i n t r o s p e c t i v e

aspect of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , the more d o c t r i n a i r e

n a t u r a l i s t s were not convinced t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s had any inward

l i v e s worth c o n s i d e r i n g :

N a t u r a l i s t d o c t r i n e ... assumes t h a t f a t e i s something imposed on the i n d i v i d u a l from the o u t s i d e . The p r o t a g o n i s t of a n a t u r a l i s t i c novel i s t h e r e f o r e a t the mercy of circumstances r a t h e r than of h i m s e l f , indeed he o f t e n seems to have no s e l f . , 63

"A man becomes most human, says Scheler i n Man's P l a c e i n

Nature, when he separates h i m s e l f from the imperatives of h i s

(61) Frank Norris, McTeague, ed. Carvel C o l l i n s (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1950), p. 22.

(62) Carvel C o l l i n s , Introd. , McTeague, p. ix. (63) Chase, p. 199.

6 0

environment and becomes 1 s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . 1 B u t i s i t not

e q u a l l y t r u e t h a t men d e f i n e themselves, become most human,

when they respond to the imperatives of t h e i r environment?

Furthermore, i s not the " n a t u r a l i s t d o c t r i n e " t h a t f a t e i s

imposed on the i n d i v i d u a l from o u t s i d e o f t e n p r e c i s e l y the

case i n l i f e as w e l l as l i t e r a t u r e ? — In other words, S c h e l e r ' s

premise r e v e a l s the c r i t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n between s e l f -

consciousness and s o c i a l f o r c e s .

One can see the same p o l a r i z a t i o n i n Updike's Bech; A Book,

i n which the hero v i s i t s one of the Eastern European communist

c o u n t r i e s , where of course contemporary s o c i a l r e a l i s m f l o u r i s h e s :

In the course of t h e i r tour through the museum, Bech t r i e d to cheer [his tour guide] w i t h p r a i s e of S o c i a l i s t r e a l i s m . "Look a t t h a t t u r b i n e . Nobody i n America can p a i n t a t u r b i n e l i k e t h a t . Not s i n c e the t h i r t i e s . Every p a r t so d i s t i n c t you c o u l d r e b u i l d one from i t , yet the whole t h i n g romantic as a sunset. M i m e s i s — you c a n ' t beat i t . V r -

6 5

Bech a s s o c i a t e s mimesis w i t h S o c i a l i s t r e a l i s m , which might be

d e s c r i b e d as imposed n a t u r a l i s m ; "decadent" a e s t h e t i c s must

be minimized, and the a r t i s t must f a i t h f u l l y adhere to s u b j e c t

matter s e t by the s t a t e . Instead of the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

r e a l i t y , the a r t i s t adumbrates i d e o l o g y . Consider i n t r e p i d

Tu Lo, i n the contemporary Chinese s t o r y , "The Undaunted": Under the window s a t d a u n t l e s s Tu Lo, h i s head c r a d l e d on h i s hands over h i s desk. He was l i s t e n i n g w i t h g r e a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n to a broad- c a s t of the i n s p i r i n g c a l l i s s u e d by the P a r t y C e n t r a l Committee headed by Chairman Mao: H i t

(64) Jerry Bryant, The Open Decision (New York: The Free Press, 1970), p. 5.

(65) John Updike, Bech: A Book (New York: Knopf, 1970), p. 14.

back a t the Right d e v i a t i o n i s t wind to r e v e r s e c o r r e c t v e r d i c t s !

He stood up, ... then pushed open the window. ... Instead of the e n d l e s s , u n d u l a t i n g p l a t e a u , he seemed to see the indomitable, r o a r i n g b i l l o w s of the mighty Yellow R i v e r surging forward and s u r g i n g i n h i s b r e a s t ....gg

Tu Lo's programmatic adventures o b v i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t a p e r v e r -

s i o n of s o c i a l r e a l i s m ; but the f a c t t h a t Bech c a s u a l l y assoc-

i a t e s mimesis w i t h t h i s p e r v e r t e d form of l i t e r a t u r e e x e m p l i f i e s

the s p l i t i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g between s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a e s t h e t i c s

and the r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o c i e t y .

The Breakdown of S o c i a l Realism

In 1948 L i o n e l T r i l l i n g presented the theory t h a t the novel of s o c i a l r e a l i s m (which had f l o u r i s h e d i n America throughout the 1930's) was f i n i s h e d because the f r e i g h t t r a i n of h i s t o r y had passed i t by. The argument was t h a t such n o v e l s were a product of the r i s e of the b o u r g e o i s i e i n the n i n e t e e n t h century at the h e i g h t of c a p i t a l i s m . But now bour- g e o i s s o c i e t y was breaking up .... The o n l y hope was a new k i n d of n o v e l . . . . [ N o v e l i s t s ] rushed o f f to w r i t e every k i n d of novel you c o u l d imagine, so long as i t wasn't the so- c a l l e d " b i g n o v e l " of manners and s o c i e t y . The next t h i n g one knew, they were i n t o n o v e l s of i d e a s , F r e u d i a n n o v e l s , s u r r e a l i s t i c novels ("black comedy"), Kafkaesque novels and, more r e c e n t l y , the c a t a t o n i c novel or novels of i m m o b i l i t y , the s o r t t h a t begins: "In order to get s t a r t e d , he went to l i v e alone on an i s l a n d and shot h i m s e l f . " (Opening l i n e of a Robert Coover s h o r t s t o r y . ) ^

By the S i x t i e s , . W o l f e c o n t i n u e s , the n o v e l i s t had abandoned

"the r i c h e s t t e r r a i n of the n o v e l : namely, s o c i e t y , the s o c i a l

(66) The Undaunted: A Revolutionary Short Story (Toronto: Norman Bethune I n s t i t u t e , 1976), p. 32.

(67) Wolfe/pp. 156-57.

t a b l e a u , manners and morals, the whole business of 'the way we

l i v e now.'" P u b l i s h e r s wanted novels t h a t would r e c o r d the

S i x t i e s , but " a l l they got was the P r i n c e of A l i e n a t i o n ...

s a i l i n g o f f to Lonesome I s l a n d on h i s T a r o t boat w i t h h i s back

turned and h i s Timeless cape on, reeking.of camphor b a l l s " (p. 157).

N o v e l i s t s may or may not have abandoned the " r i c h e s t t e r r a i n

of the n o v e l , " but many of them d e f i n i t e l y abandoned s o c i a l

r e a l i s m . Wolfe among o t h e r s has t r a c e d the abandonment of

s o c i a l r e a l i s m to a l a c k of f a i t h i n r e a l i s m i t s e l f . Bernard

Bergonzi argues t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m "depended on a degree

of r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y i n t h r e e separate a r e a s : the i d e a of

r e a l i t y ; the nature of the f i c t i o n a l form; and the k i n d of 6 8

r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t might p r e d i c t a b l y e x i s t between them."

When both the " i d e a of r e a l i t y " and f i c t i o n a l form became as

p r o b l e m a t i c as t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , a r t i s t s began to r e - e v a l u a t e ,

and i n f a c t devalue, the t r a d i t i o n a l mimetic f u n c t i o n of the

n o v e l . J u s t as devalued currency has a s i g n i f i c a n t and p o s s i b l y

d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t on the economy, devalued r e a l i s m has a

p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t on f i c t i o n ; as v a r i o u s t h e o r i s t s

have warned, one shouldn't l i g h t l y abandon a mode which has

served f i c t i o n w e l l f o r a t l e a s t three c e n t u r i e s .

Wolfe, f o r example, argues t h a t r e a l i s m i s the very s o u l

of f i c t i o n . He says t h a t "the i n t r o d u c t i o n of r e a l i s m i n t o

l i t e r a t u r e by people l i k e Richardson, F i e l d i n g and S m o l l e t t

was l i k e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of e l e c t r i c i t y i n t o marine technology.

(68) Bernard Bergonzi, The S i t u a t i o n of the Novel (London; Macmillan, 1970), p. 188.

I t was not j u s t another d e v i c e . I t r a i s e d the s t a t e of the a r t 69

to a new magnitude." Bergonzi agrees t h a t the " a s t o n i s h i n g

t e c h n i c a l development" i n the e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h century i n v o l v e d

more than "mere technique, s i n c e new areas of experience and

new ways of understanding were i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d up w i t h formal

change." I t i s a " r e a l problem to a v o i d t a l k i n g as i f the 70

novel went on s t e a d i l y improving between, say, 1730 and 1880."

George S t e i n e r , commenting on what he sees as the d e c l i n e of

the n o v e l , says t h a t by " i t s very nature and v i s i o n , the a r t of

the novel i s r e a l i s t i c . Where i t abandons i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y 71

to the r e a l , the novel b e t r a y s i t s e l f . " And one should

remember E r i c h Auerbach's d i s t a n t e a r l y warning i n Mimesis: The

R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of R e a l i t y i n Western L i t e r a t u r e , which was

w r i t t e n d u r i n g a war t h a t appeared to be d e s t r o y i n g the l a s t

v e s t i g e s of western c i v i l i z a t i o n , and w r i t t e n w i t h the o b j e c t

of " b r i n g i n g together again those whose l o v e f o r our western 72

h i s t o r y has s e r e n e l y persevered." Joyce s a i d t h a t h i s t o r y

was a nightmare from which he was t r y i n g to awake; how i r o n i c

t h a t Auerbach's f i n a l chapter analyzes Joyce and other modernists

whose works seemed to Auerbach to embrace and welcome the d i s -

i n t e g r a t i o n of the o l d c i v i l i z e d s t a b i l i t i e s : (69) Wolfe, p. 272. (70) Bergonzi, p. 188. (71) George Steiner, " L i t e r a t u r e and Post-History," in Language and

Silence (New York: Antheneum Press, 1967), p. 388. (72) Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in

Western L i t e r a t u r e , trans. William R. Trask (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1953), p. 557.

At the time of the f i r s t World War and a f t e r [says Auerbach] — i n a Europe unsure of i t s e l f , o v e r f l o w i n g w i t h u n s e t t l e d i d e o l o g i e s and ways of l i f e , and pregnant with d i s a s t e r — c e r t a i n w r i t e r s ... f i n d a method which d i s s o l v e s r e a l i t y i n t o m u l t i p l e and m u l t i v a l e n t r e f l e c t i o n s of consciousness ....

...There i s i n a l l those works a c e r t a i n atmos- phere of u n i v e r s a l doom: e s p e c i a l l y i n U l y s s e s , w i t h i t s mocking odi-et-amo hodgepodge of the European t r a d i t i o n , w i t h i t s b l a t a n t and p a i n - f u l c y n i c i s m , and i t s u n i n t e r p r e t a b l e symbolism — f o r even the most p a i n s t a k i n g a n a l y s i s can h a r d l y emerge w i t h anything more than an appre- c i a t i o n of the m u l t i p l e enmeshment of the m o t i f s but w i t h nothing of the purpose and the meaning of the work i t s e l f . . . . There i s o f t e n something c o n f u s i n g [about U l y s s e s and other n o v e l s ] , some- t h i n g hazy about them, something h o s t i l e to the r e a l i t y they r e p r e s e n t . . . . There i s h a t r e d of c u l t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n , brought out by means of the s u b t l e s t s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e s which c u l t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n have developed, and o f t e n a r a d i c a l and f a n a t i c a l urge to d e s t r o y (p. 551).

Auerbach says d e s t r u c t i v e impulses on the p a r t of the

modernists c o n t r i b u t e d to the breakdown of mimetic r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n ; S t e i n e r says r e a l i s m was d e f e a t e d by the c r u e l terms

of contemporary h i s t o r y ( " F i c t i o n f a l l s s i l e n t b e f o r e the 7 3

enormity of the f a c t ....") \ Wolfe says n o v e l i s t s i g n o r e

r e a l i s m through s e l f - c e n t r e d e g o t i s m - - b u t , whatever the cause,

r e a l i s m i s no l o n g e r thought to be c e n t r a l to the n o v e l . I t i s

i n s t r u c t i v e to compare E r n e s t Baker's d e s c r i p t i o n of s e l f -

conscious f i c t i o n i n the e i g h t e e n t h century as a " f r e a k i s h

d e r i v a t i o n " from the norm of r e a l i s m , w i t h those contemporary

t h e o r i s t s who now -describe; r e a l i s m as the f r e a k i s h d e r i v a t i o n .

Thus Ortega's p r o c l a m a t i o n t h a t the "imperative of unmitigated

r e a l i s m t h a t dominated the a r t i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t y of the l a s t

(73) Steiner, " L i t e r a t u r e and Post-History," p. 388.

century must be put down as a f r e a k i n a e s t h e t i c e v o l u t i o n . "

Thus John Barth, who says t h a t u n l i k e "those c r i t i c s who

regard r e a l i s m as what l i t e r a t u r e has been aiming a t a l l along,

I tend to regard i t as a k i n d of a b e r r a t i o n i n the h i s t o r y of 75

l i t e r a t u r e . " Speaking i n a calmer, and t h e r e f o r e more damning tone, W i l l i a m P h i l l i p s adds, "In f a c t , r e a l i s m i s j u s t

another formal d e v i c e , not a permanent method f o r d e a l i n g w i t h ..76

experience.

The Return of the S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r

H.G. Wells w r i t e s with the tone of a s o c i a l i s t who i s

c h e e r f u l l y b i d i n g h i s time:

Throughout the broad smooth flow of n i n e t e e n t h - century l i f e i n Great B r i t a i n , the a r t of f i c t i o n f l o a t e d on t h i s same assumption of s o c i a l f i x i t y . The Novel i n E n g l i s h was pro- duced i n an atmosphere of s e c u r i t y f o r the entertainment of secure people who l i k e d to f e e l e s t a b l i s h e d and safe f o r good. I t s s t a n - dards were e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h a t a p p a r e n t l y permanent frame and the c r i t i c i s m of i t began to be i r r i t a t e d and perplexed when, through a new i n s t a b i l i t y , the s p l i n t e r i n g frame began to get i n t o the p i c t u r e . ^

Through t h a t s p l i n t e r i n g frame stepped the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r . In The /Research M a g n i f i c e n t , f o r example, Wells

attempted "the d e v i c e of making the o s t e n s i b l e w r i t e r s p e c u l a t e

about the c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i n the s t o r y he i s t e l l i n g . The

o s t e n s i b l e w r i t e r becomes a s o r t of enveloping c h a r a c t e r , h i m s e l f

Ortega, p. 25. "John Barth," in Bellamy, p. 4. William P h i l l i p s , as quoted in Wolfe, p. 272. H.G. Wells, Experiment in Autobiography, as quoted in Bergonzi,

(74) (75) (76) (77)

p. 196.

i n d i s c u s s i o n w i t h the reader." Many c r i t i c s s i n c e Wells

have noted the a s s o c i a t i o n of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

with the s p l i n t e r i n g frame of r e a l i s m , but u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s

a s s o c i a t i o n has been e l e v a t e d to a c r i t i c a l axiom, i n which i t

i s assumed t h a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s by nature h o s t i l e

towards r e a l i t y .

For example, Nabokov i n s i s t s t h a t the word r e a l i t y should

always be quarantined w i t h q u o t a t i o n marks; h i s i n s i s t e n c e i s

based on the s u b t l e and complicated r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t i f i c e

and r e a l i t y i n h i s own works. One o f t e n sees Nabokov's f a s t i d -

iousness taken w i t h d o c t r i n a i r e l i t e r a l i t y , out of Nabokov's

s p e c i a l context, and a p p l i e d to s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a e s t h e t i c s as

though everyone were agreed t h a t r e a l i t y i s an e n t i r e l y sub-

j e c t i v e matter, and t h a t we a l l have nothing i n common here on

our mutual e a r t h . Consider Jerome K l i n k o w i t z ' s t e n t a t i v e

q u e s t i o n i n g of Donald Barthelme: "Do you have any c o n s c i o u s l y

formed n o t i o n s about time and space t h a t i n f l u e n c e your work? 79

P e r c e p t i o n and imagination? Or, f o r g i v e me, ' r e a l i t y ' ? "

(The word r e a l i t y seems to have become v u l g a r or obscene.)

S i m i l a r l y , L a r r y McCaffery d e s c r i b e s Barthelme's use of myth:

" l i k e a s i g n i f i c a n t number of r e c e n t w r i t e r s , Barthelme has 8 0

turned to a f a m i l i a r myth (rather than to ' r e a l i t y ' ) . ..."

"Snow White," McCaffery e x p l a i n s , "has as i t s 'subject matter'

a r t i t s e l f . I t i s not the ' r e a l world' which i t seeks to (78) Ibid, p. 196. (79) Jerome Klinkowitz, "Donald Barthelme," i n Bellamy, pp. 50-51. (80) Larry .McCaffery/'Barthelme's Snow White: The Aesthetics of

Trash," C r i t i q u e , 16, No. 3 (1975), 20.

r e p r e s e n t , but the s t a t u s of a r t .... Snow White can, t h e r e -

f o r e , b e s t be termed a ' s e l f - r e f l e x i v e ' work i n t h a t even as i t

i s being c r e a t e d , i t seeks to examine i t s own c o n d i t i o n " (p. 1 9 ) .

McCaffery's haze of d e f e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n marks suggests t h a t

the s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n e s s of Barthelme's f i c t i o n i s p a r t l y due to

q u a l i t i e s i n Barthelme's work, and p a r t l y due to the terms of

McCaffery's c r i t i c a l v o c a b u l a r y . I f " s u b j e c t matter" has nothing

to do w i t h the " r e a l world," i t w i l l not be s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d

c r i t i c s who pronounce Barthelme's work " s e l f - r e f l e x i v e " and

s o l i p s i s t i c — f o r g i v e me, " s o l i p s i s t i c . " Many of the themes

of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n contemporary American f i c t i o n

c e n t r e on the e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a e s t h e t i c s are

u t t e r l y d i s t i n c t from r e a l i s t a e s t h e t i c s , as we can see by

d e s c r i b i n g three of the more p r e v a l e n t themes.

The f i r s t theme i s the a r t i s t as h i s own s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t

hero. We quoted e a r l i e r Joyce's memorable d e f i n i t i o n of the

impersonal a r t i s t , behind the work and beyond a n a l y s i s . Yet

even the c r i t i c who wants to take Joyce a t h i s word d i s t r u s t s

"the i n s i s t e n t s e l f - d r a m a t i z a t i o n s i n the P o r t r a i t , " and the

" i n s t a n c e s of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l e s o t e r i c i s m . " The c r i t i c might

f e e l p a t r o n i z e d by "the i n v i t a t i o n a t the end of Finnegan's

Wake — 'The keys t o . G i v e n ! 1 — with i t s touching m a g i s t e r i a l

assumption t h a t these keys w i l l seem worth d i s e n t a n g l i n g from 81

the v e r b i a g e i n which they have been c o y l y b u r i e d . "

W i t h i n the most impersonal a e s t h e t i c t h e r e l u r k s e g o c e n t r i c

i n t r o s p e c t i o n . W i t h i n the contemporary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a e s t h e t i c

(81) Peter, pp. 627-28.

6 8

there l u r k s a k i n d of h e r o i c s o l i p s i s m . Tom Wolfe, who sees

the world i n terms of s t a t u s , t h i n k s the contemporary n o v e l i s t

i s c a r r i e d away w i t h h i s own p r e s t i g e . A c c o r d i n g to Wolfe,

e s s a y i s t s , b i o g r a p h e r s , a u t h o r i t a t i v e c r i t i c s , and so on,

formed l i t e r a t u r e ' s middle c l a s s , while the p r o l e s were the

j o u r n a l i s t s , "who dug up s l a g s of raw i n f o r m a t i o n f o r w r i t e r s

of h i g h e r ' s e n s i b i l i t y ' to make b e t t e r use o f . " At the top

were the n o v e l i s t s . "They were regarded as the o n l y ' c r e a t i v e '

w r i t e r s , the o n l y l i t e r a r y a r t i s t s . They had e x c l u s i v e e n t r y

to the s o u l of man, the profound emotions, the e t e r n a l m y s t e r i e 8 2

and so f o r t h and so on Thus u n i v e r s i t i e s d i s p l a y t h e i r

N o v e l i s t s - i n - R e s i d e n c e l i k e rose buds i n the c o r p o r a t e button-

hole; there i s a market f o r a n o v e l i s t ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n s (Borges)

strong o p i n i o n s (Nabokov), and s e l f - i n t e r v i e w s (James D i c k e y ) .

On the o t h e r hand, the n o v e l i s t might sense t h a t h i s power

and i n f l u e n c e are i l l u s o r y , a matter of l i p s e r v i c e on s o c i e t y '

p a r t . He might take to h e a r t Ortega's o p i n i o n t h a t the import-

ance of the a r t i s t peaked i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y : "Poetry

and music then were a c t i v i t i e s o f an enormous c a l i b e r . In view

of the d o w n f a l l of r e l i g i o n and the i n e v i t a b l e r e l a t i v i s m of

s c i e n c e , a r t was expected to take upon i t s e l f nothing l e s s than 8 3

the s a l v a t i o n of mankind." But the i r o n i c temper of the new

a r t , as demonstrated with e x c e s s i v e v i v a c i t y by the D a d a i s t s ,

meant t h a t a r t would be regarded "as a t h i n g of no t r a n s c e n d i n g

consequence" (p. 14). (82) Wolfe, p. 153. (83) Ortega, pp. 49-50.

The a r t i s t might f i n d h i m s e l f r e j e c t i n g s o c i e t y and

w r i t i n g f o r h i m s e l f , an " i d e a l reader," or an e l i t e . One begins

to hear such strange pronouncements as the f o l l o w i n g from

W i l l i a m H. Gass. An unwary i n t e r v i e w e r asked him about h i s

next n o v e l , and Gass r e p l i e d , "I began The Tunnel i n 1966. I

imagine i t i s s e v e r a l years away y e t . Who knows, perhaps i t

w i l l be such a good book t h a t no one w i l l want to p u b l i s h i t . 8 4

I l i v e on t h a t hope." I f i t i s a v i r t u e to be unread, p r e -

sumably the contemporary n o v e l i s t w i l l have l i t t l e concern

about whether h i s n a r r a t o r makes c o n t a c t w i t h an audience: Occupied as he i s w i t h t h i s b a s i c task of g r a s p i n g a r t i s t i c a l l y an e x c e s s i v e l y compli- cated r e a l i t y , the n a r r a t o r n e c e s s a r i l y l o s e s s i g h t of h i s reader and the reader's r e c e p t - i v i t y . He can no longer a f f o r d to c o n s i d e r a l l t h a t . The s p e c i f i c reader and the reader's i m a g i n a t i o n l a g f a r behind him; g e n e r a t i o n s i n t e r v e n e between the author and the compre- hending r e c i p i e n t of the n a r r a t i v e . The a r t i s t becomes the complete autocrat.gr-

To become an a u t o c r a t of the imagination,, as Wallace Stevens

might phrase i t , might tempt n o v e l i s t s such as Gass, as w e l l as

those c r i t i c s who, n a t u r a l l y enough, take p l e a s u r e i n being

among the few who can decipher an a r t i s t ' s w i l l f u l o b s c u r i t i e s

and " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l e s o t e r i c i s m . " A s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

c o u l d be a surrogate f o r a s e l f - a b s o r b e d n o v e l i s t . But, as

we s h a l l see i n Nabokov and Barthelme, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

(84) Carol Spearin McCauley, "William H. Gass," in Bellamy, p. 44. (85) Erich Kahler, The Inward Turn of Narrative, trans. Richard and

Clara Winston (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1973), p. 177. Kahler reports that when Hermann Broch was working on The Death of V i r g i l , Broch remarked, "You know, i t ' s r e a l l y no longer readable" (p. 177).

http://autocrat.gr-

7 0

n a r r a t o r can a l s o be used as a d e v i c e by which the reader

i s kept i n touch w i t h the author's complex purposes. The

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l tendencies are e s s e n t i a l

i n m a i n t a i n i n g connections between the p u z z l e d reader and the

n a r r a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n s of the contemporary n o v e l . Nabokov

was asked, "Do you make a p o i n t of p u z z l i n g people and p l a y i n g 8

games w i t h readers?"; : he r e p l i e d , "What a bore t h a t would be!"

The p o i n t of h i s t e x t u a l games i s to m a i n t a i n the d i a l o g u e , not

to demonstrate the author's i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y .

A second theme of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s the d i s t r u s t of

language as a means of communication. American l i t e r a t u r e ,

perhaps because of i t s t w o - f i s t e d f r o n t i e r t r a d i t i o n , has long

been s u s p i c i o u s about language, p a r t i c u l a r l y l i t e r a r y language

(as T r i l l i n g complained). One t h i n k s of the e d i t o r i n the l a s t

pages of Poe's n o v e l , engaged i n dubious etymology r e g a r d i n g

the strange words d i s c o v e r e d by Pym i n h i s journey to a l a n d

s u s p i c i o u s l y r e m i n i s c e n t of the American South; of The S c a r l e t

L e t t e r , which t u r n s on the ambiguity of a vowel; of Hemingway's 8 7

a t t a c k on a b s t r a c t i o n s i n A F a r e w e l l to Arms; of Addie i n Faulkner's As I Lay Dying:

And so when Cora T u l l would t e l l me I was not a t r u e mother, I would t h i n k how words go s t r a i g h t up i n a t h i n l i n e , quick and harmless, and how t e r r i b l y doing goes along the e a r t h , c l i n g i n g to i t , so t h a t a f t e r a w h i l e the two

(86) Vladimir Nabokov, Strong Opinions (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), p. 184.

(87) "Abstract words such as glory, honor, courage, or hallow were obscene beside the concrete names of v i l l a g e s , the numbers of roads, the names of r i v e r s , the numbers of regiments and the dates" (Ernest Hemingway, A_ Farewell To Arms [1929; rpt. New York: Scribner's, 1957~] , p. 185).

l i n e s are too f a r apart f o r the same person to s t r a d d l e from one to the other; and t h a t s i n and l o v e and f e a r are j u s t sounds t h a t people who never sinned nor loved nor f e a r e d have f o r what they never had and cannot have u n t i l they f o r g e t the w o r d s . O Q

o o

The contemporary American author, a c c o r d i n g to Tony Tanner,

f e a r s t h a t "language ... may a t every t u r n be l i m i t i n g ,

d i r e c t i n g and perhaps c o n t r o l l i n g h i s responses and f o r m u l a t i o n s . Such an author -- and I t h i n k he i s an u n u s u a l l y common phenomenon i n contemporary America — w i l l go out of h i s way to show t h a t he i s u s i n g language as i t has never been used b e f o r e , l e a v i n g the v i s i b l e marks of h i s i d i o s y n c r a s i e s on every f o r m u l a t i o n . Q O

C l e a r l y t h i s l i n g u i s t i c paranoia would f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , whose tendencies towards the i d i o -

s y n c r a t i c might r e s u l t i n endless neologisms or a p r i v a t e code.

Or perhaps the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r would be too s e n s i t i v e

to the l i m i t a t i o n s o f words to speak a t a l l , thus f u l f i l l i n g

the prophecy of George S t e i n e r , who argues there has been a

r e t r e a t from the word, i n mathematics and s c i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h y

a l i k e , u n t i l the a r t i s t f i n d s h i m s e l f tempted by the " s u i c i d a l

r h e t o r i c of s i l e n c e . " "When the words i n the c i t y are f u l l of

savagery and l i e s , nothing speaks louder than the u n w r i t t e n 90

poem." K a h l e r , whose i m a g i n a t i o n i s e q u a l l y a p o c a l y p t i c ,

l i n k s together the a v a n t - g a r d i s t s , the s o l i p s i s t s and the

t e c h n o c r a t s , and e n v i s i o n s what almost amounts t o a c o n s p i r a c y ,

a c o n s p i r a c y "to produce incoherence," and sever language "from

(88) William Faulkner, As I Lay Dying (1930; rpt. New York: Vintage- Random House, 1964), pp. 165-66^

(89) Tony Tanner, City of Words (London: Jonathan Cape, 1971), p. 16 (90) George Steiner, "Silence and the Poet," in Language and Silence

(New York: Antheneum Press, 1967), pp. 50,54.

human expression."^" 1 " C e r t a i n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s i n con-

temporary f i c t i o n are as i n c o h e r e n t and unconnected to human

e x p r e s s i o n as Kahler says, although one suspects the a r t i s t s

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r these n a r r a t o r s are f a r too s e l f - a b s o r b e d to 92

j o i n together i n an o r g a n i z e d c o n s p i r a c y .

But the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i n Barthelme i s o f t e n the

reader's agent a g a i n s t the dead language and jargon of an ad

man s o c i e t y . While Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s unden-

i a b l y l e a v e the marks of t h e i r i d i o s y n c r a c i e s on every f o r m u l a t i o n ,

they a l s o o f f e r f r e s h language and f r e s h p e r c e p t i o n s which e n t i c e

the reader i n t o sympathy w i t h the r e a l i s t i c events of the s t o r y .

"I am f r e e a s s o c i a t i n g , b r i l l i a n t l y , b r i l l i a n t l y , " says the 93

n a r r a t o r of one Barthelme. s t o r y , "to put you i n t o the problem."

The f i n a l theme i s the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r as an

a e s t h e t i c i n n o v a t o r . We noted t h a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

has always been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i s running commentary on

a e s t h e t i c s . When s o c i a l r e a l i s m was i n power, and the ground

r u l e s of the novel were w e l l understood, t h e r e was l i t t l e need

f o r an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; but w i t h the

breakdown of t r a d i t i o n a l forms, and w i t h the r i s e of a r a t h e r

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d avant garde, the n a r r a t o r found h i m s e l f under

pressure to c r e a t e completely unique works of a r t along with (91) Kahler, Disintegration of Form, pp. 96, 94. (92) E.g., Breakthrough F i c t i o n e e r s , ed. Richard Kostelanetz (Barton,

Vermont- Something Else Press, 1973), p a r t i c u l a r l y "Tablet XI" by Armand Schwerner and "Dashing from Don to T i o l i " by Raymond Federman, pp. 308-10 and 260-63, respectively.

(93) Donald Barthelme, "Florence Green i s 81," in Come Back, Dr. C a l i g a r i (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1964), p. 4.

h i s f e l l o w "breakthrough f i c t i o n e e r s . " He was expected to

blow the r o o f o f f the house of f i c t i o n . As one of Barthelme's

n a r r a t o r ' s complains,

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to keep the p u b l i c i n t e r e s t e d . The P u b l i c demands new wonders p i l e d on

new wonders. Often we don't know where our next marvel

i s coming from. The supply of strange ideas i s not e n d l e s s . ^

The novel has a p a r a d o x i c a l t r a d i t i o n of change. F i e l d i n g

thought he had invented a new genre, Henry James wrote about

the New Novel, and French n o v e l i s t s announced the newest New

Novel, which, as Gore V i d a l waspishly remarks, " i s c l o s e to

f o r t y years o l d , " and thus " o l d indeed f o r a l i t e r a r y movement, 95

p a r t i c u l a r l y a French l i t e r a r y movement." Bradbury argues

t h a t of a l l the l i t e r a r y a r t s , "the novel seems l e a s t g i v e n

to a p r i o r i s m , " as "each novel c r e a t e s i t s own world a f r e s h ,

and ^engages,;us: for the o c c a s i o n with i t s own laws": Ian Watt ... and Bernard Bergonzi ... both argue t h a t the s p e c i e s arose i n the e i g h t e e n t h century as a f u l l y f l e d g e d form w i t h — as i t s E n g l i s h name suggests -- a p r o p e n s i t y a g a i n s t g e n e r i c d e f i n i t i o n . . . . And, says Bergonzi, " s t y l i s t i c dynamism, or steady formal changed has always been the e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e of the novel's development, of i t s i n t e r e s t i n any one case.gg

However, the contemporary novel i s h a r d l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

"steady formal change," but by endless i n n o v a t i o n ; i n f a c t , one

t h e o r i s t , speaking of the a r t s i n g e n e r a l , argues t h a t the times

(94) Donald Barthelme, "The F l i g h t of Pigeons from the Palace," in Sadness (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972), p. 139.

(95) Gore Vidal, "American P l a s t i c : The Matter of F i c t i o n , " New York Review of Books, 15 July 1976, p. 31.

(96) Malcolm Bradbury, P o s s i b i l i t i e s (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 12, 13.

are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t a s i s :

For s t a s i s , as I i n t e n d the term, i s not an absence of n o v e l t y and change — a t o t a l quiescence — but r a t h e r the absence of ordered s e q u e n t i a l change.... Indeed, i n s o f a r as an a c t i v e , conscious search f o r new techniques, new forms and m a t e r i a l s , and new modes of sen- s i b i l i t y (such as have marked our time) p r e c l u d e s the gradual accumulation of changes capable of producing a t r e n d or a s e r i e s of connected mutations, i t tends to c r e a t e a s t e a d y - s t a t e , though perhaps one t h a t i s both v i g o r o u s and v a r i e g a t e d . ^

C l e a r l y one o p t i o n open to the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s

to c o n t r i b u t e to the contemporary s t a t i c chaos by accompanying

h i s f e l l o w Breakthrough F i c t i o n e e r s to ground where the reader

cannot f o l l o w . But Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s o f t e n

a c t to preserve what i s best i n the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n ; i n f a c t ,

good t a s t e and reverence f o r the best l i t e r a t u r e of the p a s t are

considered'..virtues i n Nabokov. S i m i l a r l y , Barthelme' s n a r r a t o r s

o f t e n r i d i c u l e e x c e s s i v e l y programmatic avant garde a e s t h e t i c s .

Thus the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r can indeed c h a l l e n g e the reader's

e x p e c t a t i o n s of t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m , but a t the same time pre-

serve and r e i n f o r c e those aspects of r e a l i s m t h a t keep the

reader i n touch w i t h the work of a r t , t h a t help to "put you i n

the problem."

(97) Leonard B. Meyer, Music, the Art and Ideas: Patterns and Pre- d i c t i o n s in Twentieth-Century Culture (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 102.

I I

THE "GIFT" OF THE SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR:

THE FICTION OF VLADIMIR NABOKOV

I n t r o d u c t i o n

Page Stegner says t h a t V l a d i m i r Nabokov " c o n t i n u a l l y stands

between sun and scene so t h a t h i s shadow w i l l be c a s t over the

a c t i o n . " "He performs t h i s s p e c i a l i n t r u s i o n ... p r i m a r i l y to

remind the reader t h a t he i s there w i t h h i s brush and canvas,

t h a t f i c t i o n a l v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i s an i l l u s i o n , a r e f l e c t i o n i n

the a r t i s t ' s mind An important d e v i c e i n the performance

of t h i s s p e c i a l i l l u s i o n i s of course the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ,

who has t r a d i t i o n a l l y made the reader aware t h a t the n a r r a t i v e

i s p a r t of a c r e a t e d l i t e r a r y product. However, the t r a d i t i o n

has been s p e c i a l l y adapted by Nabokov as a means of p r o t e c t i n g

the autonomy of the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e from a l l those f o r c e s , both

l i t e r a r y and s o c i a l , t h a t would r e s t r i c t an a r t i s t ' s freedom.

Nabokov has never been r e t i c i e n t about the i s s u e of a r t i s t i c

freedom:

No creed or s c h o o l has had any i n f l u e n c e on me whatever. [M]y p o l i t i c a l creed has remained as bleak and changeless as an o l d gray rock .... Freedom

(1) Page Stegner, Escape Into Aesthetics (New York: Dial Press, 1966), p. 49.

of speech, freedom of thought, freedom of a r t . 2

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r c a r r i e s on Nabokov's program of

i n d i v i d u a l i s m . The n a r r a t o r i s not a simple t r a n s c r i b e r of the

events, but a dominating p e r s o n a l i t y — a s t o r y i n h i m s e l f . He

i s eager to j u s t i f y and even c e l e b r a t e h i s a n t i - s o c i a l impulses

(Humbert Humbert, f o r example). Although he i s capable of exact

v e r i s i m i l t u d e , he appears to abandon the encompassing t r a d i t i o n

of r e a l i s m when i t s u i t s h i s i m a g i n a t i v e purposes. In terms of

technique, he i s a l i t e r a r y e x h i b i t i o n i s t who d i r e c t s the reader's

a e s t h e t i c a t t e n t i o n towards h i s c l e v e r h a n d l i n g of the n a r r a t i v e .

He avoids standard turns of phrase, and mocks the t r a d i t i o n a l

elements by which the p l o t i s t h i c k e n e d . By means of h i s a r t -

i s t i c i m a g i n a t i o n , he imposes e l e g a n t order on what a t times

appears to him to be chaos, a v a r i e g a t e d v o i d .

However, d e s p i t e the a e s t h e t i c i d i o s y n c r a c i e s of the

n a r r a t o r , we should not conclude t h a t the works themselves are

(2) Nabokov, Strong Opinions, pp. 3, 34-35. Subsequent references to works by Nabokov in this chapter w i l l consist of page numbers and t i t l e s or abbreviated t i t l e s in parentheses. The publishing data for works not documented previously are as follows: Ada (New York:. McGraw-Hill, 1969); Bend S i n i s t e r (1947; rpt. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973); Despair (New York: Putnam, 1966); The Eye, trans. Dmitri Nabokov in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: Phaedra, 1965); The Gift, trans. Michael Scammell in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: Putnam, 1963); Glory, trans. Dmitri Nabokov in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: McGraw- H i l l , 1971); Invitation to a Beheading, trans. Dmitri Nabokov in c o l l - aboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: Putnam, 1959); King, Queen, Knave, trans. Dmitri Nabokov in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968); L o l i t a (Paris, 1955; rpt. New York: Putnam, Q.958J , and i t s appended essay, "On a Book Entitled L o l i t a ' ' ) ; Look at the Harlequins!. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974); Mary, trans. Michael Glenny in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970); Nabokov's Dozen (1958; rpt. New York: Avon, 1973); Nikolai Gogol (New York: New Directions, 1944); Pale Fire (1962; rpt. New York: Berkeley, 1972); Pnin (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1957); Speak, Memory, rev. ed. (New York: Putnam, 1966).

s o l i p s i s t i c ( i n C h a r l e s R u s s e l l ' s terms, " a l l f i c t i o n s are

u l t i m a t e l y about themselves, about the c r e a t i o n of the world

by the word"). One must d i s p u t e the n o t i o n t h a t Nabokov's

works are a h a l l of mirrors r e f l e c t i n g nothing but the Wizard of

Montreux, a n o t i o n t h a t i s o n l y s l i g h t l y more s o p h i s t i c a t e d than

the popular n o t i o n t h a t Nabokov i s a Russian p r i n c e who was

deposed by the communists and turned to pornography.

Stegner's o p i n i o n i s t y p i c a l : The s p e c t r a l i n t r u s i o n

reminds the reader " t h a t f i c t i o n a l v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i s an i l l u s i o n ,

a r e f l e c t i o n i n the a r t i s t ' s mind." S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s

i m p l i e d to be the enemy of v e r i s m i l i t u d e ; i n s t e a d of a s t o r y

r e f e r r i n g to the r e a l world, i t r e f e r s o n l y to the no doubt i d e a l

world imprisoned i n the a r t i s t ' s mind. In f a c t , however,

Nabokov's work i s o f t e n as v e r i s i m i l a r as any t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s t i c

work . One should remember t h a t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s of nature are

s c i e n t i f i c a l l y accurate ( i n h i s f i c t i o n as i n h i s papers on

l e p i d o p t e r y ) , and c o n s i d e r t h a t r e s e a r c h r i v a l l i n g t h a t of an

i n d u s t r i o u s n i n e t e e n t h century French r e a l i s t i c n o v e l i s t i s

reproduced i n the Chernyshevski biography w i t h i n The G i f t . In

terms of the theory of the n o v e l , Nabokov taught h i s C o r n e l l

students Joyce w i t h the a i d of a s t r e e t map of D u b l i n , and Anna

Karenina w i t h the a i d of a s t r e e t map of Moscow. In h i s review

of S a r t r e ' s La Nausee he i s c r i t i c a l when S a r t r e allows the e a r l y

t r a v e l s of h i s c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r to seem " i m p l a u s i b l e " (Strong

Opinions, p. 229). S a r t r e ' s hero Roquentin a l s o makes the mistake

of imagining t h a t the composer and the s i n g e r of a c e r t a i n popular

song are a Brooklyn Jew and a Negress, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; Nabokov says

7 8

c o l d l y , "I have a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t i n r e a l i t y the song i s a Sophie

Tucker one w r i t t e n by the Canadian Shelton Brooks" (p. 229).

That Humbert Humbert i s a h i g h l y i m a g i n a t i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r does not prevent h i s "fancy prose s t y l e " from

being t r u e to the nuances of American teen-age speech ( L o l i t a ,

p. 11). The argument should be e v i d e n t : The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r c o n t r i b u t e s not o n l y to a sense of the a r t i s t ' s per-

v a s i v e presence, but to t h a t aspect of Nabokov's f i c t i o n which

i s r e a l i s t i c and v e r i s i m i l a r . Every form of n a r r a t i o n r e q u i r e s

a e s t h e t i c d e v i c e s and t r i c k s ; Nabokov chooses to d i s p l a y h i s

d e v i c e s i n order to h e l p the reader d i s t i n g u i s h between stock

c l i c h e s and f r e s h , v i v i d , a c c u r a t e mimesis.

One motive f o r the f i e r c e i n d i v i d u a l i s m of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r i s h i s d i s t r u s t f o r a l l the l i e s and d i s t o r t i o n s of

t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y and r e p r e s s i v e i d e o l o g i e s . Because Nabokov's

people o f t e n move both imaginatively and p h y s i c a l l y from the world

i n which they f i n d themselves, i t might appear t h a t they are

"escaping" i n t o the Palace of Art;, but i n some cases they

escape not from r e a l i t y or the "adjustmental aspect of experience,"

but from n o t i o n s of u n r e a l i t y f o s t e r e d by the t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e .

In I n v i t a t i o n to a Beheading, f o r example, the hero escapes from

a s t a t e p r i s o n to a world where there are "beings a k i n to him"

(p. 223). The hero i s not simply moving from unpleasant r e a l i t y

to an a e s t h e t i c heaven; he i s i n f a c t escaping the i n f e r i o r ,

m e r e t r i c i o u s a r t of the t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e , where even the t r e e s

are not r e a l :

The f a l l e n t r e e s l a y f l a t and r e l i e f l e s s , w h i l e those that:;were s t i l l s t a n d i n g , a l s o two- di mensional, w i t h a l a t e r a l shading of the trunk to suggest roundness, b a r e l y h e l d on w i t h t h e i r branches t o the r i p p i n g mesh of the sky* (p. 223).

The n a r r a t o r mocks the u n r e a l i t y of the s t a t e ' s v e r s i o n of

r e a l i t y — r e a l i t y by decree, r e a l i t y p a i n t e d by p o l i c e a r t i s t s .

By exposing the shabby heavens and the amateurish t r e e s , he i s

d i r e c t i n g both c i n c i n n a t u s and the reader away from propa-

g a n d i s t s i l l u s i o n . J e r z y K o s i n s k i has d e s c r i b e d h i s p e r s o n a l

exposure to the type of f a l s e world t h a t t o r t u r e s C i n c i h n a t u s :

I once remarked, ... t h a t i n my view S t a l i n was "an i d e a l n o v e l i s t , " a k i n d of w r i t e r every w r i t e r s e c r e t l y would l i k e to be — to have your books p u b l i s h e d i n m i l l i o n s of c o p i e s by the s t a t e ( a l l the volumes b e a u t i f u l l y bound) and to have a l l your p o t e n t i a l c r i t i c s a r r e s t e d and e x i l e d on the day o f p u b l i c a t i o n ....

I saw myself imprisoned i n a l a r g e "house of p o l i t i c a l f i c t i o n , " persecuted by a mad b e s t - s e l l i n g n o v e l i s t , S t a l i n , and a band of h i s v i c i o u s e d i t o r s from the Kremlin, and q u i t e l o g i c a l l y I saw myself as a p r o t a g o n i s t of h i s f i c t i o n . . . . I r e a l l y saw myself l i v i n g i n s i d e of a "novel" c a l l e d "the S o v i e t Union" c r e a t e d by the crude i m a g i n a t i o n of bad a r t i s t s •••• 3

Thus when c r i t i c s d e s c r i b e Nabokov as a wizard of the p i g -

ments, or an a e s t h e t i c magician t o t a l l y removed from the s o c i a l

concerns t h a t dominate r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n , they tend to f o r g e t

t h a t h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s ' p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a e s t h e t i c s

i s i n f a c t a p o l i t i c a l statement. Both Bend S i n i s t e r and I n v i t a t i o n

are as much about the freedom of the i n d i v i d u a l i n a t o t a l i t a r i a n

s t a t e as 1984 or The Gulag A r c h i p e l a g o . In Nabokov's works, f a l s e

(3) Jerome Klinkowitz, "Jerzy Kosinski," in Bellamy, p. 165.

a e s t h e t i c s are as much a form of r e p r e s s i o n as the s e c r e t p o l i c e ,

and much of what appears to be d e c e i t f u l a e s t h e t i c games on the

p a r t of the n a r r a t o r i s a c t u a l l y an attempt to circumvent the

d i s t o r t i o n s of incompetent a r t .

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s not a d e v i c e opposed to

r e a l i s m , because r e a l i t y and a r t i f i c e are somewhat m y s t e r i o u s l y

u n i t e d i n Nabokov's f i c t i o n . When John Shade says t h a t the

u n i v e r s e i s an iambic l i n e , he i s of course a c h a r a c t e r speaking

i n the c o n t e x t of a p a r t i c u l a r work; but a t the same time he

v o i c e s a theme e s s e n t i a l to Nabokov, t h a t r e a l i t y can o n l y be

understood i n terms of the h i g h e s t form of a r t . When he says t h a t

S a r t r e i n La Nausee l a c k e d the t a l e n t to "make the world e x i s t

as a work of a r t , " Nabokov i n one sense r e s t a t e s the a e s t h e t i c

of t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m , and i n another sense h i n t s at\what

Nabokov views as the i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n of a r t i f i c e and r e a l i t y

(Strong Opinions, p. 230). In the s e c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s , t h e r e f o r e ,

our emphasis w i l l be on the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r as the agent

of a c o n s i s t e n t world view which i n c l u d e s both r e a l i s m and a r t -

i f i c e , and not as the agent of a world of m i r r o r s " u n r e l a t e d to

the phenomenal world."

Nabokov's P r i v a t e L i f e

Although the New C r i t i c s are no longer s u f f i c i e n t l y dominant

to p r o c l a i m b i o g r a p h i c a l c r i t i c i s m a heresy, t h e i r d i s t r u s t

l i n g e r s on; and no doubt i t i s t r u e t h a t nothing i n a f i c t i o n a l

work can be e n t i r e l y e x p l a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e to the author's l i f e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , Nabokov's l i f e i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to h i s development

file:///what

of a s p e c i a l type o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . Nabokov's p r i v -

i l e g e d and e x c e p t i o n a l c h i l d h o o d and youth, and l a t e r h i s e n f o r c e d

e x i l e , o b v i o u s l y c o n t r i b u t e d to the development of a proud,

i s o l a t e d , and o f t e n a r i s t o c r a t i c n a r r a t o r who s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y

opposes h i s own r a r e f i e d s e n s i b i l i t y to the crude g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

of the s t a t e and the s o c i e t y .

Nabokov's o r i g i n s are a r i s t o c r a t i c . His grandfather was

M i n i s t e r of J u s t i c e under T s a r s Alexander I I and I I I , and h i s

f a t h e r was an i n f l u e n t i a l l i b e r a l statesman. He was the adored

o l d e s t son i n a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d f a m i l y : "Imagine being

the s o r t of strange c h i l d who sees c e r t a i n l e t t e r s of the a l p h a -

bet as t i n t e d with blue — ' s t e e l y x, thundercloud z, h u c k l e b e r r y

k'. He c o n f i d e s i n h i s adored mother and f i n d s she shares and

enlarges on these p e r c e p t i o n s ! " Imagine being the s o r t of c h i l d

whose e a r l y poems are p u b l i s h e d by a p r i v a t e press out of h i s

allowance money, a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of the two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s

he was to have i n h e r i t e d from h i s u n c l e . ^

The e x i l e d Nabokov was not a prime candidate f o r a s s i m i l -

a t i o n . He was much too proud, too l o y a l to Russia and h i s own

background and t a l e n t s . One t h i n k s of h i s anger as an a d o l e s c e n t

a t the teacher a t St. Petersberg's Tenishev School, a d o c t r i n a i r e

democrat who suggested t h a t Nabokov's f a m i l y l i m o u s i n e should

wait a d i s c r e e t d i s t a n c e from the s c h o o l gates. One t h i n k s a l s o

of h i s r e p l y to L u c i e Leon Noel when she s p e c u l a t e d t h a t Nabokov

(4) Richard Boeth, "The Gamesman," Newsweek, 18 July: 1977, p. 42. (5) Many of the biographical d e t a i l s in t h i s section are taken

from Andrew Field, Nabokov: His L i f e in Part (New York: Viking, 1977).

must have been overawed meeting Joyce: "She p i c t u r e s me as a

t i m i d young a r t i s t ; a c t u a l l y I was f o r t y , with a s u f f i c i e n t l y

l u c i d awareness of what I had a l r e a d y done f o r Russian l e t t e r s

p r e v e n t i n g me from f e e l i n g awed i n the presence of any l i v i n g

w r i t e r " (Strong Opinions, p. 292). Given t h i s supreme s e l f -

c o n f i d e n c e about h i s l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s and h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , i t

i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Nabokov adopted an a t t i t u d e of proud

a l i e n a t i o n towards the c o u n t r i e s i n which e x i l e d e p o s i t e d him.

He s a i d of the years a t Cambridge: "There was a c e r t a i n make-

b e l i e v e about i t a l l . " ^ In B e r l i n he was i s o l a t e d w i t h i n the

emigre colony, whose members "kept to themselves.... L i f e i n

t h o s e settlements was so f u l l and i n t e n s e t h a t t h e s e Russian

i n t e l l i g e n t ! . . . had n e i t h e r time nor reason to seek t i e s beyond

t h e i r own c i r c l e " (Speak Memory, p. 277).

In f a c t , the emigres were more than j u s t n e u t r a l l y o b l i v i o u s

to B e r l i n s o c i e t y . Fyodor Godunov-Cherdynstev, the hero of

The G i f t , hates the B e r l i n bus l i n e s , the u g l y s t r e e t s he sees

through the wet windows, and, most of a l l , "the n a t i v e passengers":

[For] some reason he got the impression t h a t a l l these c o l d , s l i p p e r y eyes, l o o k i n g a t him as i f he were c a r r y i n g an i l l e g a l t r e a s u r e (which h i s g i f t was, e s s e n t i a l l y ) , belonged o n l y to m a l i c i o u s hags and crooked h u c k s t e r s . The Russian c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the German i s i n small numbers v u l g a r and i n l a r g e numbers -- unbearably v u l g a r was, he knew, a c o n v i c t i o n unworthy of an a r t i s t ; but nonetheless ... o n l y the gloomy conductor ... seemed outwardly, i f not a human being, then a t l e a s t a poor r e l a t i o n to a human being (The G i f t , pp. 92-93).

(6) Field, His L i f e in Part, p. 140.

"Fyodor's a t t i t u d e toward Germany r e f l e c t s too t y p i c a l l y perhaps

the crude and i r r a t i o n a l contempt t h a t Russian emigres had f o r

the ' n a t i v e s ' ( i n B e r l i n , P a r i s or Prague)" (Foreword, G i f t , p. 10).

But many of the B e r l i n works are too t y p i c a l . Sometimes the n a t i v e s

are e x p l i c i t l y abused, but g e n e r a l l y the n a r r a t o r s ' contempt takes

the form of t r a n s f o r m i n g the "unbearably v u l g a r " surroundings.

With r e f e r e n c e to the n o v e l , King, Queen, Knave, Andrew F i e l d

notes t h a t

the novel i s c l e a r l y not "about" B e r l i n e r s , nor does i t c o n t a i n , as many reviewers thought, " B e r l i n as seen through Russian eyes The novel j i s , i n a wav, a r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l of the Russian emigre's way of not seeing the n a t i v e s of the c o u n t r i e s i n t o which he had happened to f a l l ... except as c e l l u l o i d or cardboard f i g u r e s . ...^

The p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g can seem as i n s u b s t a n t i a l as the n a t i v e s . For

example, the n a r r a t o r of " T e r r a I n c o g n i t a " c l a i m s to be engaged i n

the e x p l o r a t i o n of a fabulous t r o p i c a l r e g i o n , the d e t a i l s of

which o c c a s i o n a l l y fade to r e v e a l "a few p i e c e s of r e a l i s t i c

f u r n i t u r e and four w a l l s . " The n a r r a t o r t r i e s to convince h i m s e l f

t h a t h i s magical t r o p i c s are r e a l , and denies those "unwelcome

glimpses of my supposedly r e a l e x i s t e n c e i n a d i s t a n t European

c i t y (the wallpaper, the armchair, the g l a s s o f lemonade) ... ("Terra

I n c o g n i t a , " Russian Beauty, pp. 128, 127).

I t i s tempting to apply F i e l d ' s remark to s e v e r a l of the

Emigre n o v e l s , and argue t h a t the n o v e l s are r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l s of a s o c i e t y , s p e c i f i c a l l y the small and i n s u l a r s o c i e t y of

Russian emigres. The n a r r a t o r ' s s o l i p s i s t i c tendencies would then

(7) Andrew Field; Nabokov: His L i f e in Art (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown 1967), p. 158.

be c o n t r o l l e d by the r e a l i s t i c context. In the case of Fyodor,

who i s one of the n a r r a t o r s of The G i f t , the c o n t r o l would come

from the omniscient t h i r d person n a r r a t o r , the superego with, as

i t were, s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the r e a l i t y p r i n c i p l e , who

would emphasize t h a t a l l these f a n t a s i e s about the German race

are merely i n s i d e Fyodor's head: " f o r some reason he got the

impression," "a c o n v i c t i o n unworthy of an a r t i s t . " In The Eye,

to pursue the tempting argument, s e v e r a l j u d i c i o u s c l u e s make

i t c l e a r t h a t the n a r r a t o r Smurov has completely misunderstood

the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Vanya and Mukhin, t h a t he i s not the

romantic hero of h i s daydreams, and t h a t he is_ mad:

I swear, I swear I am happy. I have r e a l i z e d t h a t the o n l y happiness i n t h i s world i s to observe, to spy, to watch, to s c r u t i n i z e one- s e l f and o t h e r s , to be nothing but a b i g , s l i g h t l y v i t r e o u s , somewhat bloodshot., u n b l i n k i n g eye--. I swear t h a t t h i s i s happiness. What does i t matter t h a t I am a b i t cheap, a b i t f o u l , and t h a t no one a p p r e c i a t e s a l l the remarkable t h i n g s about me — my f a n t a s y , my e r u d i t i o n , my l i t e r a r y g i f t ... I am happy t h a t I can gaze a t myself, f o r any man i s absorbing — yes, r e a l l y absorbing! The world, t r y as i t may, cannot i n s u l t me. I am i n v u l n e r a b l e . . . . Oh, to shout i t so t h a t a l l of you b e l i e v e me a t l a s t , you c r u e l , smug people....(The Eye, pp. 113-114).

Smurov's e y e b a l l trope immediately r e c a l l s Ralph Waldo

Emerson i n the throes of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m . But i t must be

remembered t h a t i n the penultimate pages of the n o v e l , Smurov

seems g r e a t l y a t t r a c t e d to the same bourgeois value's as the other

c h a r a c t e r s , and thus the f i n a l speech of the novel i s v o i c e d not

by Smurov, but by one of the many aspects of Smurov, the aspect

t h a t possesses a " l i t e r a r y g i f t . " The g i f t i s the same g i f t as

t h a t possessed by Fyodor, which suggests t h a t i t i s inadequate to

t h i n k of the n a r r a t o r s as s o l i p s i s t s whose excesses are c o n t r o l l e d

by the context; i n f a c t , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s are, as a

f u n c t i o n of t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n from s o c i e t y , the o n l y ones who under-

stand s o c i e t y ' s r e a l nature.

In the passage from The G i f t quoted above, Fyodor's

" g i f t " r e f e r s v a r i o u s l y to h i s s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , e r u d i t i o n , l i t e r a r y

t a l e n t — i n s h o r t , to a l l those q u a l i t i e s i n h i s background

which make i t p o s s i b l e f o r him to comprehend and express the t r u t h

about what i s going on around him. Given the c o n d i t i o n s i n

B e r l i n d u r i n g the two decades before the war, Fyodor's p a r a n o i a

i s j u s t i f i e d , and i t i s o b v i o u s l y based on Nabokov's experience

i n e x i l e . Nabokov, a f t e r a l l , had removed h i s unique t a l e n t s

from the f r y i n g pan of L e n i n to the f i r e of N a z i Germany.

Marrying a: Jew d i d not improve h i s standing with the German s t a t e .

Thus the f a c t of Germany's unimaginable c r u e l t y merges with

Germany's unimaginable b a n a l i t y ; these twin e v i l s can o n l y be

p e r c e i v e d f o r what they are by the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r .

In Bend S i n i s t e r , the i d e o l o g i e s accepted as r e a l i t y would

seem to be a blend of Nazism and Communism. The s t a t e i s run

a c c o r d i n g to a theory c a l l e d Ekwilism, which would e l i m i n a t e

the g i f t e d i n d i v i d u a l i n favour of standard brands. F r a d r i k

Skotoma, the p h i l o s o p h e r of Ekwilism, says t h a t the r o o t of a l l

the world's woes i s the unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of human c o n s c i o u s n e s s :

I t was, however, q u i t e p o s s i b l e , he maintained, to r e g u l a t e the c a p a c i t y of the human v e s s e l s . I f , f o r i n s t a n c e , a g i v e n amount of water were contained i n a g i v e n number of heterogeneous b o t t l e s ... the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the l i q u i d would be uneven and u n j u s t , but c o u l d be made even and j u s t e i t h e r by grading the contents or

8 6

by e l i m i n a t i n g the fancy v e s s e l s and adopting a standard s i z e (Bend S i n i s t e r , p. 75).

The "fancy v e s s e l s " are those w i t h the s e n s i b i l i t y and

i n t e l l i g e n c e to see through the s t a t e ' s new order, i n which "a

g r e a t and b e a u t i f u l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n w i l l r e p l a c e the e v i l r e f i n e -

ments of a degenerate p a s t " (p. 151). Again, "degenerate" and

"refinements" r e f e r to those with the g i f t , i n i m i c a l to the

s t a t e , of seeing t h i n g s f o r themselves. The hero of the n o v e l ,

Krug, r e f u s e s to s i g n a document s u p p o r t i n g the p o l i c i e s of the

s t a t e p r e c i s e l y on the grounds t h a t the s t a t e and a l l i t s

a t t r i b u t e s are u n r e a l . As he says, "I do not b e l i e v e i n p i s t o l s ...

(p. 124).

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r of the novel sees both the

u n r e a l i t y of the s t a t e , and i t s r e a l power. Here are h i s comments

a f t e r the scene i n which Krug r e f u s e s to accept the p o l i c i e s of

the d i c t a t o r Paduk:

Which, of course, terminated the i n t e r v i e w . Thus?. Or perhaps i n some other way? Did Krug r e a l l y glance a t >the prepared speech? And i f he d i d , was i t r e a l l y as s i l l y as a l l t h a t ? He d i d ; i t was. The seedy t y r a n t or the p r e s - i d e n t of the S t a t e , or the d i c t a t o r , or who- ever he was — the man Paduk i n a word, the Toad i n another -- d i d hand my f a v o r i t e c h a r a c t e r a mysterious batch of n e a t l y typed pages (p. 151).

The n a r r a t o r q u e s t i o n s the v a l i d i t y of h i s i m a g i n a t i o n ; c o u l d the

documents of a t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e be t h a t f a r c i c a l ? He concludes

t h a t h i s n a r r a t i v e i s a c c u r a t e : "He d i d ; i t was." But w h i l e

acknowledging the power of the s t a t e , he r e f u s e s to accept i t s

l i e s . He denies Paduk h i s t i t l e s — "The seedy t y r a n t or the

p r e s i d e n t of the S t a t e , or the d i c t a t o r , or whoever he was

j u s t as Nabokov i n h i s Gogol biography shows h i s scorn f o r the

incompetence of Gogol's p r e s i d i n g p h y s i c i a n by r e f u s i n g to s p e l l

h i s name c o n s i s t e n t l y ' - "Dr. Auvers (or Hovert) ," "Auvert's

(or Hauvers's)" (Gogol, p. 2). When the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r emphasizes a r t i f i c e or i l l u s i o n , i t i s o f t e n the case

t h a t the s u b j e c t of h i s n a r r a t i v e i s i n f a c t an i l l u s i o n , a

sham, a f a r c i c a l imposter. Because of h i s s p e c i a l l i t e r a r y

g i f t s , the n a r r a t o r has the power to expose those i l l u s i o n s

accepted as r e a l i t y by the r e s t of s o c i e t y .

A f t e r the b e t t e r p a r t of two decades i n B e r l i n , and a few

years i n P a r i s , Nabokov managed to b r i b e the proper bureaucrat

and moved to America, where he claimed to f e e l a t home. Bend

S i n i s t e r was w r i t t e n i n America, and i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to hear

Krug's reminiscences of h i s l e c t u r e tour i n the land where

fancy v e s s e l s are preserved, a l a n d o f " ' E l a t i o n , d e l i g h t , a

q u i c k e n i n g of the i m a g i n a t i o n .... Landscapes as y e t u n p o l l u t e d

w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l poetry, and l i f e , the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s t r a n g e r ,

being slapped on the back and t o l d to r e l a x 1 " ..(p.'30). Perhaps

i n America t h e r e would be no need f o r a s k e p t i c a l n a r r a t o r , s i n c e

Nabokov seemed to accept the c o l d war d i a l e c t i c of a b s o l u t e l y

e v i l Communism opposed by p e r f e c t l y f r e e America — "I d e p l o r e the

a t t i t u d e of f o o l i s h or d i s h o n e s t people who r i d i c u l o u s l y equate ...

the r u t h l e s s i m p e r i a l i s m of the USSR with the e a r n e s t and u n s e l f i s h

a s s i s t a n c e extended by the USA to n a t i o n s i n d i s t r e s s " (Strong

Opinions , p. 50). Instead of h o l d i n g h i m s e l f a l o o f from democratic

America, we are t o l d t h a t Nabokov "immersed h i m s e l f i n the main-

stream of American bourgeois c u l t u r e , and thus l e a r n e d a whole

38 g

s u b j e c t matter."

But i n M o r r i s Bishop's l i s t of Nabokov's p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g

the C o r n e l l years, there i s a suggestion t h a t Nabokov's a s s i m i l -

a t i o n was incomplete: "In a d d i t i o n to s t o r i e s and poems f o r

the New Yorker he wrote Pnin, L o l i t a , C o n c l u s i v e Evidence,

The Song of Igor's Campaign, Eugene Onegin, and a number o f a r t i c l e s

on l e p i d o p t e r a " (p. 237) — Two books on Russian l i t e r a t u r e ; a

memoir, most of i t s chapters d e a l i n g w i t h the Russian years; and

two novels whose heroes are estranged from the American scene.

And d e s p i t e h i s r e s i d e n c e i n c o n g e n i a l America, Nabokov d i d not

e l i m i n a t e the a l i e n a t e d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . He denied, f o r

example, t h a t L o l i t a was a s o c i a l s a t i r e of American mores ( i n

the manner of, say, S i n c l a i r L e w i s ) : Another charge which some readers have made i s t h a t L o l i t a i s anti-American.... C o n s i d e r a t i o n s of depth and p e r s p e c t i v e (a suburban lawn, a mountain meadow) l e d me to b u i l d a number o f North American s e t s . I needed a c e r t a i n e x h i l a r - a t i n g m i l i e u . Nothing i s more e x h i l a r a t i n g than P h i l i s t i n e v u l g a r i t y . But i n regard to P h i l - i s t i n e v u l g a r i t y there i s no i n t r i n s i c d i f f e r - ence between P a l e a r c t i c manners and N e a r c t i c manners.... I chose American motels i n s t e a d of Swiss h o t e l s or E n g l i s h inns o n l y because I am t r y i n g to be an American w r i t e r . . . . On the other hand, my c r e a t u r e Humbert i s a f o r e i g n e r and an a n a r c h i s t , and t h e r e are many t h i n g s , b e s i d e s nymphets, i n which I d i s a g r e e w i t h him. And a l l my Russian readers know t h a t my o l d worlds — Russian, B r i t i s h , German, French — are j u s t as f a n t a s t i c and p e r s o n a l as my new one i s ("On A Book E n t i t l e d L o l i t a , " p. 317).

.By " p h i l i ' s t i n e v u l g a r i t y , " a q u a l i t y common to both t o t a l i t -

a r i a n Europe and f r e e America, Nabokov means a g r e a t d e a l more than

laughable bad t a s t e . His f i c t i o n equates d u l l and s t u p i d bourgeois

(8) Morris Bishop, "Nabokov at Cornell," in Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , Reminiscences, Translations and Tributes, ed. Alfred Appel, Jr. and Charles Newman (Evanstbn, I l l i n o i s : Northwestern Univ. Press, 1970), p. 239.

c u l t u r e , t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , and, not l e a s t , incompetent a r t and conn/./.

v e n t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c s . Nabokov has been q u i t e e x p l i c i t i n h i s

equation of l i t e r a r y conventions w i t h p o l i t i c a l c o e r c i o n . He

s a i d i n 19 68 t h a t i n Russia, a hundred years ago, "the most

eloquent and i n f l u e n t i a l reviewers ... demanded t h a t Russian

n o v e l i s t s and poets p o r t r a y and s i f t the modern scene...." The

t y p i c a l c r i t i c would i n s i s t

t h a t a l i t e r a r y a r t i s t be a " r e p o r t e r on the t o p i c s of the day," a s o c i a l commentator, a class-war correspondent. That was h a l f a century before the B o l s h e v i s t p o l i c e not o n l y r e v i v e d the dismal s o - c a l l e d p r o g r e s s i v e ( r e a l l y , r e g r e s s i v e ) t r e n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the e i g h t e e n s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s , but, as we a l l know, enforced i t . . . . The d r e a r y p r i n c i p l e s once v o i c e d i n the r e i g n of Alexander the Second and t h e i r subsequent s i n i s t e r transmutation i n t o the decrees of gloomy p o l i c e s t a t e s ... come to my mind whenever I hear today r e t r o - p r o g r e s s i v e book reviewers i n America and England p l e a d f o r a l i t t l e more s o c i a l comment, a l i t t l e l e s s a r t i s t i c whimsy. The accepted n o t i o n of a "modern world" c o n t i n u o u s l y f l o w i n g around us belongs to the same type of a b s t r a c t i o n as say, the "quaternary p e r i o d " of p a l e o n t o l o g y . What I f e e l to be the r e a l modern world i s the world the a r t i s t c r e a t e s , h i s own mirage, which becomes a new mir ("world" i n Russian) by the very a c t of h i s shedding, as i t were, the age he l i v e s i n (Strong Opinions, pp. 111-112).

Nabokov i s being u n f a i r , s i n c e presumably those book reviewers who

argued f o r a l i t t l e l e s s a r t i s t i c whimsy h a r d l y had i n mind the

b r u t a l p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s s i o n of an a r t i s t ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . The p o i n t

remains t h a t Nabokov has not f o r g o t t e n h i s European experiences,

which i n c l u d e d a brother murdered i n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n camps. There

i s "a c e n t r a l core of s p i r i t i n me t h a t f l a s h e s and j e e r s a t

the b r u t a l f o r c e of t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e s " (p. 113). I t i s a p p a r e n t l y

i n s t i n c t i v e f o r him to a s s o c i a t e pressures to i n c l u d e s o c i a l

content m i r r o r i n g the modern world w i t h the e f f o r t s of a p o l i c e

s t a t e to c o n t r o l r e a l i t y by c o n t r o l l i n g a r t . When he t a l k s

about the a r t i s t "shedding/ as i t were, the age he l i v e s i n , " he

i s not announcing h i s i n t e n t i o n to a v o i d any c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the

phenomenal world. What he does want to a v o i d i s " a b s t r a c t i o n , "

t h a t i s , the u n r e a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of the p o l i t i c a l s t a t e , or

of Freudianism (which he sees as a p o l i c e s t a t e of the mind), or

the unholy a l l i a n c e of i d e o l o g y and r e a l i s m which r e s u l t e d i n

d o c t r i n a i r e American n a t u r a l i s m . Nabokov's n a r r a t o r s a v o i d

a b s t r a c t i o n s f o r s p e c i f i c s , and f o r the f i n e p e r c e p t i o n s of a

s u b t l e i n t e l l e c t . When T r i l l i n g c a l l e d f o r an end to the l i b e r a l

worship of D r e i s e r , he was not c a l l i n g f o r f i c t i o n unconnected

w i t h r e a l i t y ; s i m i l a r l y , i t i s not the i n t e n t i o n of Nabokov's

f i c t i o n to c a r r y the reader to a realm o u t s i d e space and time,

where the a r t i s t i s supreme (because u n c h a l l e n g e d ) . He wants

r e a l i s m unencumbered w i t h the i l l u s i o n s of p o l i t i c s and r e a c t i o n a r y

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s . Nabokov's "shedding 1 no doubt h i n t s a t one of

those images never f a r from h i s n a t u r a l i s t ' s mind (not Jack London's

comic book n a t u r a l i s m , but the n a t u r a l i s m of a l e p i d o p t e r i s t ) i n

which from the o l d and unnecessary cocoon t h e r e emerges a new-

born, unique and f r e s h r e a l i s m .

The I n t r u s i v e N a r r a t o r

C o n t r i b u t i n g to the newborn r e a l i s m i s the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r , who appears i n many ingenious v a r i a t i o n s ; the most

s t r i k i n g v a r i a t i o n i s Nabokov's i m i t a t i o n of the n i n e t e e n t h century

omniscient n a r r a t o r . We c i t e d Ford's axiom, composed a t a time

when the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r was out of f a s h i o n : "No author

would, l i k e Thackeray, to-day i n t r u d e h i s broken nose and myopic

s p e c t a c l e s i n t o the middle of the most t h r i l l i n g scene he ever

wrote We a l s o c i t e d D i t s k y " s o p i n i o n , composed a t a time when

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r was i n f a s h i o n : the "conscious

presence of the c r e a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e " means t h a t "the a r t i s t -

audience-work r e l a t i o n s h i p becomes one of a c t i v e and r a d i c a l

c o n s p i r a c y — one not to be confused w i t h the p a t r o n i z i n g homily

s e s s i o n s of an e a r l i e r day ." Nabokov of course goes h i s own way

i n t h i s as i n so many other matters. His s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r

i n t r u d e s on the a c t i o n i n order to d i s p l a y a s p e c i a l s e n s i b i l i t y

( r a t h e r l i k e Nabokov's) which denies the dehumanization of the

n a r r a t i v e v o i c e , and which comments on the a c t i o n to l e a d the

reader i n the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n . The method i s f a r d i f f e r e n t from

t h a t o f , say, F l a u b e r t , whose impersonal and o b j e c t i v e n a r r a t i o n

might l e a d the reader to wonder what poor Emma had done to deserve

such treatment from the author. Nabokov, on the other hand, uses

h i s i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r t o dispense p o e t i c j u s t i c e ( i n Bend S i n i s t e r )

and to guide the reader's understanding of a r a t h e r shallow

c h a r a c t e r ( i n King, Queen, Knave). The i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r , o f t e n

a surrogate f o r the author, i s not designed simply to remind the

reader t h a t " v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i s an i l l u s i o n , a r e f l e c t i o n i n the

a r t i s t ' s mind," but to g i v e the work a human dimension, and,

p a r a d o x i c a l l y , to i n c r e a s e the reader's sympathy f o r , and com-

prehension of , • the c h a r a c t e r s .

Here i s Nabokov on composing chess problems:

D e c e i t , to the p o i n t of d i a b o l i s m , and o r i g i n - a l i t y , v e r g i n g upon the grotesque, were my n o t i o n s of s t r a t e g y ; and although i n matters of c o n s t r u c t i o n I t r i e d to conform, whenever p o s s i b l e ^ to c l a s s i c a l r u l e s ... I was always ready to s a c r i f i c e p u r i t y of form to the e x i g - e n c i e s of f a n t a s t i c content, causing form to bulge and b u r s t l i k e a sponge-bag c o n t a i n g a small f u r i o u s d e v i l (Speak, Memory, pp. 289-90). 9

The small f u r i o u s d e v i l corresponds to the i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r ,

who has something of a d i s r u p t i v e e f f e c t on the t r a d i t i o n a l

novel form. In Look a t the H a r l e q u i n s 1, f o r example, the hero

i s a famous n o v e l i s t ; i n the f o l l o w i n g passage he reviews h i s

c a r e e r :

N e i t h e r Slaughter i n the Sun (as the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of Camera Lucinda got r e t i t l e d w h i l e I l a y h e l p l e s s l y h o s p i t a l i z e d i n New York) nor The Red Topper s o l d w e l l . My ambitious, b e a u t i f u l , strange See under Real shone f o r a b r e a t h l e s s i n s t a n t on the lowest rung of the b e s t s e l l e r l i s t i n a West Coast paper, and vanished f o r good. In those circumstances I c o u l d not r e f u s e the l e c t u r e s h i p o f f e r e d me i n 1940 by Quirn U n i v e r s i t y on the s t r e n g t h of my European r e p u t a t i o n . I was to develop a plump tenure t h e r e and expand i n t o a F u l l P r o f e s s o r by 1950 or 1955: I can't f i n d the exact date i n my o l d notes.

Although I was adequately remunerated f o r my two weekly l e c t u r e s on European Masterpieces and one Thursday seminar on Joyce's U l y s s e s ... and had furthermore s e v e r a l s p l e n d i d l y p a i d s t o r i e s accepted by The Beau and the B u t t e r f l y , the k i n d e s t magazine i n the world, I was not r e a l l y comfortable u n t i l my Kingdom by the Sea (1962) atoned f o r a f r a c t i o n of the l o s s of my Russian f o r t u n e ... (p. 129).

Nabokov has r e p e a t e d l y i s s u e d warnings a g a i n s t a b i o g r a p h i c a l

r e a d i n g of the n o v e l s . In the I n t r o d u c t i o n to Mary, f o r example,

(9) "When in his autobiography he CNabokovJ writes about the delight he took in composing chess problems he is also writing about himself as a writer," says Gleb Struve in "Notes on Nabokov as a Russian Writer," in Dembo, p. 53.

he claims to have l e f t autobiography, behind as the bad habit

of an amateur:

The beginner* s well-known propensity for obtru- ding upon his own privacy, by introducing him- s e l f , or a v i c a r , into his f i r s t novel, owes less to the a t t r a c t i o n of a ready theme than to the r e l i e f of getting r i d of oneself, before going on to better things. It i s one of the very few common rules I have accepted (p. x i ) .

Nevertheless, the primary narrator i n Look at the Harlequins 1 i s

a surrogate for Nabokov, and the ostensible narrative l i n e , an .

e l d e r l y novelist musing over his past, i s a series of in-jokes

about Nabokov's publishing career. Thus the narrator Vadim

Vadimovich's novel Slaughter i n the Sun represents Nabokov's

1938 novel, Laughter i n the Dark; Camera Lucida i s a variant

of the t i t l e of the o r i g i n a l work, Camera Obscura; and so on.

Presumably only a few readers w i l l recognize the in-joke about

expanding into a plump tenure and a F u l l Professorship. Owing

to the candies that replaced a smoking habit when Nabokov

moved to America, he gained about s i x t y pounds, or about half

of his former weight. He l i k e d to say he was "one-third

American" (Strong Opinions, p. 27).

Such in-jokes become a touch cruel when the narrator, poor

Vadim Vadimovich, wakes up from a s p e l l of madness, and can't

remember his own surname:

I ... f e l t my family name began with an N and bore an odious resemblance to the surname or pseudonym of a presumably notorious (Notorov? No) Bulgarian, or Babylonian, or, maybe, Betel- geusian writer with whom scatterbrained emigres from some other galaxy constantly confused me; but whether i t was something on the l i n e s of Nebesnyy or Nabedrin or Nablidze ... I simply could not t e l l . . . .

Without a name I remained u n r e a l i n r e g a i n e d consciousness. Poor V i v i a n , poor Vadim Vad- imovich, was but a figment of somebody's — not even my own — i m a g i n a t i o n (Harlequins, pp. 24 8-4̂ 9) .

Vadim i s of course half-remembering Nabokov's name. The s t a t i c i n

h i s b r a i n i s caused by another figment of the author's imagin-

a t i o n , who, as i t were, winks at the reader from behind Vadim's

back.

The i n t r u s i v e n e s s of the omniscient n a r r a t o r on Vadim's own

n a r r a t i o n i s not p h y s i c a l or i n person; the i n t r u s i o n might be

termed p s y c h o l o g i c a l , or i m p l i c i t . But i n King, Queen, Knave

the i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r i s as much on the scene as George E l i o t

i n t e r v i e w i n g Adam Bede i n h i s o l d age, or Thackeray a t Pumper-

n i c k e l . The hero of King, Queen, Knave i s a good-hearted German

businessman named Dreyer, one of Nabokov's few sympathetic

German c h a r a c t e r s . His s e l f i s h w i f e , Martha, and h i s knavish

nephew, Franz, c u c k o l d Dreyer and p l a n h i s murder. Near the end

of the novel Franz n o t i c e s a g i r l i n a gleaming blue d r e s s :

The f o r e i g n g i r l i n the blue dress danced w i t h a remarkably handsome man i n an o l d - f a s h i o n e d d i n n e r j a c k e t . Franz had long s i n c e n o t i c e d t h i s couple; they had appeared to him i n f l e e t i n g glimpses, l i k e a r e c u r r e n t dream image or a s u b t l e l e i t m o t i v .... Sometimes the man c a r r i e d a b u t t e r f l y net. The g i r l had a d e l i c a t e l y p a i n t e d mouth and tender gray-blue eyes, and her f i a n c e or husband, s l e n d e r , e l e g a n t l y b a l d i n g , contempt- ous of e v e r y t h i n g on e a r t h but her, was l o o k i n g a t her w i t h p r i d e ; Franz f e l t envious of t h a t unusual p a i r ... (King, Queen, Knave, p. 254).

The g i r l resembles Vera Nabokov, and the gentleman Nabokov him-

s e l f , i n the r o l e of the s u p e r i o r a r t i s t . A c c o r d i n g to Nabokov's

Foreword, "the appearances of my w i f e and me i n the l a s t two

chapters are merely v i s i t s of i n s p e c t i o n " ( p . - v i i i ) . The d i s t i n -

guished gentleman's d e s i r a b l e companion, "tanned, p a l e - h a i r e d ,

l o v e l y " i s an ornament f o r the omniscient n a r r a t o r , who i s

b a l d i n g , but e l e g a n t l y b a l d i n g — a very f l a t t e r i n g s e l f - p o r t r a i t ;

no wonder Franz senses h i s own i n f e r i o r i t y :

A f t e r p a s s i n g him they began t a l k i n g again; he had the impression they were d i s c u s s i n g him, and even pronouncing h i s name. I t embarrassed, i t incensed him, t h a t t h i s damned happy f o r - e i g n e r ... knew a b s o l u t e l y e v e r y t h i n g about h i s predicament and perhaps p i t i e d , not without some d e r i s i o n , an honest young man who had been seduced and a p p r o p r i a t e d by an o l d e r woman .... (p. 259).

Franz i s i n the presence of h i s C r e a t o r . An i t i n e r a n t photo-

grapher, who had been walking on the sandy beach of the novel's

f i n a l scenes, had announced g r a t u i t o u s l y that,. "The a r t i s t i s

coming! The d i v i n e l y f a v o r e d , der gottbegnadete a r t i s t i s ;

coming!" (p. 234).

T h i s i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r d i f f e r s from some n i n e t e e n t h century

i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r s i n t h a t he does not attempt to i n g r a t i a t e

h i m s e l f w i t h the reader. Rather than i n t e g r a t i n g h i m s e l f i n t o

the scene,, he i s opposed to e v e r y t h i n g i n i t , save h i s companion.

Again, the s p e c i a l s e n s i b i l i t y of the n a r r a t o r sees through

the d i s t o r t i o n s of s o c i e t y , represented i n t h i s case by a

parody ..of a l o v e a f f a i r between e v i l , mercenary Martha and

Franz, a young p r o v i n c i a l on the make i n the b i g c i t y . The

i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r and h i s companion, by c o n t r a s t , r e p r e s e n t

r e a l l o v e ; thus w h i l e Franz and Martha are concerned w i t h appear-

ances, the e l e g a n t gentleman i s o b l i v i o u s to e v e r y t h i n g but h i s

companion, who i s d i g n i f i e d with the term, " f i a n c e . " Once again,

P h i l i s t i n e v u l g a r i t y i s c o r r e c t e d , or a t l e a s t put i n p e r s p e c t i v e ,

through a special s e n s i b i l i t y dressed i n a no doubt elegant

"old-fashioned dinner jacket."

There i s another important method by which the i n t r u s i v e

narrator increases, rather than decreases, the v e r i s i m i l i t u d e

of the scene. King,Queen, Knave i s often thought of as one

of Nabokov's more a r t i f i c i a l narratives, no doubt p a r t l y through

the influence of Andrew F i e l d ' s description:

Consciousness of the fact that l i t e r a t u r e i s an a r t i f i c i a l convention i s stretched to i t s f u r t h - est l i m i t s and used to create a r a d i c a l l y d i f f - erent style of writing.... The novel's a r t i - f i c i a l i t y i s so deft and i t s mechanisms so cunning that King, Queen, Knave i s , far more than Pale F i r e or any other of Nabokov's novels, a work i n which one sees and f e e l s the a r t i s t i n the very act of manipulating his subject and characters.

But one function of the intrusive narrator i s to increase the

reader's sympathy for what F i e l d c a l l s the novel's "pasteboard

figures" (p. 159). Thus Franz r e a l i z e s that the damned happy

foreigner

knew absolutely everything about his predicament and perhaps p i t i e d , not without some derision, an honest young man who had been seduced and appropriated by an older woman who, despite her f i n e dresses and face l o t i o n s , resembled a large white toad (King, Queen, Knave, p. 259).

Here the narrator, rather i n the so-called "moralizing" manner

of the previous century, establishes the moral dimension of the

novel for the reader who may have been lagging behind. The use

of the word toad, as with Paduk, dismisses Martha to the regions

of the hopelessly corrupt; but although the phrase "honest young

man" i s d e r i s i v e indeed, the reader should recognize that Franz

(10) Field, His L i f e in Art, p. 153.

i s not j u s t a crude and v u l g a r young o p p o r t u n i s t , nor a c a r d -

board c h a r a c t e r , nor a minor chess p i e c e , but a rounded c h a r a c t e r

d e s e r v i n g some of the sympathy readers o f f e r to c h a r a c t e r s i n

t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l s . The i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r i s not a l l a r t i f i c e

and magic t r i c k s , but to some extent a t r a d i t i o n a l humanist;

c e r t a i n l y Nabokov's works do not l a c k an e t h i c a l sense.

In Bend S i n i s t e r , f o r example, the i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r c o u l d

be s a i d to dispense p o e t i c j u s t i c e . The n a r r a t o r works i n

o p p o s i t i o n to Paduk's d i c t a t o r s h i p , sneaking i n t o h i s hero's

consciousness while K r u g 1 s s l e e p i n g b r a i n i s under the c o n t r o l

of the mind's dream producers:

But among the producers or stagehands r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the s e t t i n g t h e r e has been ... a nameless, mysterious genius"-who took advantage of the dream to convey h i s own p e c u l i a r code message which has nothing to do ... with any aspect of Krug ' s p h y s i c a l e x i s t e n c e , but which l i n k s him up somehow w i t h the unfathomable mode of being, ... a k i n d of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l madness which l u r k s behind the corner of consciousness and which cannot be d e f i n e d more a c c u r a t e l y than t h i s , no matter how Krug s t r a i n s h i s b r a i n (p. 64).

Krug of course senses ..the presence of the i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r .

Nabokov says i n " t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t i n "the second paragraph of

Chapter F i v e [the passage quoted above] comes the f i r s t i n t i m a t i o n

t h a t 'someone i s i n the know' — a mysterious i n t r u d e r . . . . The

i n t r u d e r i s ... an anthropomorphic d e i t y impersonated by me"

(p. x i i ) .

The novel c e r t a i n l y d i s t u r b s the v e r i s i m i l a r s u r f a c e , and

one i s indeed aware of the a r t i f i c e r behind the a r t i f i c e . But

the n a r r a t o r a l s o a c t s as the reader's index to r e a l i t y . For

example:

I f e l t a pang of pity..?for Adam [Krug] and s l i d towards him along an i n c l i n e d beam of p a l e l i g h t — causing instantaneous madness, but a t l e a s t saving him from the s e n s e l e s s agony of h i s l o g i c a l f a t e (p. 233).

"Logical fate" r e f e r s to the v e r i s i m i l a r p l o t ; t h a t i s , the i n e v i t -

a b l e death of an independent i n t e l l e c t u a l i n a p o l i c e s t a t e .

But the reason the n a r r a t o r rescues Krug from " s e n s e l e s s agony"

i s t h a t Krug belongs o u t s i d e the p e r n i c i o u s i l l u s i o n s of t o t a l -

i t a r i a n i s m . Krug, p a r t l y the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the n a r r a t o r ' s

s p e c i a l s e n s i b i l i t y , i s on a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l ( l i t e r a l l y )

from the u n r e a l and i n s i g n i f i c a n t v i l l a i n s of the s t o r y .

Nabokov asks h i m s e l f i n the I n t r o d u c t i o n whether there i s

"any judgment on my p a r t c a r r i e d out, any sentence pronounced,

any s a t i s f a c t i o n g i v e n to the moral sense?" He answers t h a t

"crime i s punished a t the end of the book when the uniformed

waxworks are r e a l l y h u r t , and the dummies are a t l a s t i n q u i t e

d r e a d f u l p a i n , and p r e t t y M a r i e t t e g e n t l y b l e e d s , staked and

t o r n by the l u s t of f o r t y s o l d i e r s " , (p. v i i i ) . Nabokov's

remark i s not without i r o n y , s i n c e i t would r e q u i r e a r a t h e r

b l o o d t h i r s t y "moral sense" to take s a t i s f a c t i o n i n M a r i e t t e ' s

gang rape. Revenge i s not an approved motive i n Nabokov's

n o v e l s , nor reform f o r t h a t matter; i n s t e a d , the n a r r a t o r d i r e c t s

the reader's sympathy towards those c h a r a c t e r s who, l i k e the

n a r r a t o r , are capable of p e r c e i v i n g the t r u t h of t h i n g s .

The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r as A r t i s t

Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r o f t e n i n t r u d e s , or makes

p e r s o n a l appearances, i n the r o l e of an a r t i s t . In Bend S i n i s t e r ,

f o r example, Krug's death scene i s i n t e r r u p t e d by a v i s i t

to the a r t i s t ' s workshop. The w a l l vanishes, " l i k e a r a p i d l y

withdrawn s l i d e , and I s t r e t c h e d myself and got up from among

the chaos of w r i t t e n and r e w r i t t e n pages, to i n v e s t i g a t e the

sudden twang t h a t something had made i n s t r i k i n g the wire

n e t t i n g of my window" (p. 240).

When Nabokov does not use an omniscient surrogate as a

prime n a r r a t o r i n h i s s t o r i e s , he o f t e n chooses a c h a r a c t e r

who i s an a r t i s t , or who has the temperament of an a r t i s t .

His p r e f e r e n c e f o r a r t i s t s n i c e l y f i t s the t r a d i t i o n of the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , which c a l l s f o r an emphasis on the

a r t i f i c i a l i t y of the n a r r a t i v e . In f a c t i t i s d i f f i c u l t to

imagine a Nabokov novel i n which the c o n t r o l l i n g s e n s i b i l i t y

would oe." i n a r t i c u l a t e and u n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s T h e -techniques and

themes would be h o p e l e s s l y c o n s t r a i n e d by such c e n t r a l f i g u r e s

as the o l d fisherman i n The Old Man and the Sea, or Benjy i n

The Sound and the Fury, or any of the dumb brute heroes of

d e t e r m i n i s t i c f i c t i o n . Since Nabokov b e l i e v e s t h a t t r u t h and

accuracy depend on s p e c i a l i z e d g i f t s , he i s to a c e r t a i n

extent i n h i s f i c t i o n trapped w i t h i n h i s own s p e c i a l i z e d

i n t e r e s t s . Thus he p r e f e r s to d w e l l on s e n s i b i l i t i e s w i t h

some of h i s own c u l t u r a l c o e f f i c i e n t s , a r t i s t i c h e r o - n a r r a t o r s

w i t h an a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r Pushkin, prosody and b u t t e r f l i e s .

For example, the n a r r a t o r of Look a t the H a r l e q u i n s I, Vadim,

i s a k i n d of analogue of Nabokov, and h i s novels are ex l i b r i s

Nabokov. John Shade i s a poet, and h i s Boswell, Kinbote, i s a

f r u s t r a t e d w r i t e r of a r i s t o c r a t i c romances s t a r r i n g h i m s e l f .

100

Such c h a r a c t e r s are o b v i o u s l y prone to n a r r a t i v e s t h a t are

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , " l i t e r a r y " and a r t i f i c i a l — Shade n a r r a t e s

i n rhymed c o u p l e t s . But even c h a r a c t e r s who are not a r t i s t s

by p r o f e s s i o n have a tendency to shape t h e i r experiences

i n t o a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s . Hermann of Despair, a businessman,

seems s u s p i c i o u s l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n l i t e r a r y matters. "The

g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of h i s s t y l e , " says Stephen Suagee;,

are

t o r t u o u s sentences i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h fragments, a s e n s i t i v i t y to c o l o r s and d e t a i l s , v i g o r o u s metaphors, p a r o d i e s of n o v e l i s t i c d e v i c e s , and so f o r t h . "I have grown much too used to an o u t s i d e view of myself, to being both p a i n t e r and model, so no wonder my s t y l e i s denied the b l e s s e d grace of s p o n t a n e i t y " .... S t y l e i s the man, and Hermann i s d e f i n i t e l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . ^

In short., says Doug Fowler, Nabokov c r e a t e s " e q u i v a l e n t s " —

t h a t i s , a r t i s t i c e q u i v a l e n t s , f o r Nabokov h i m s e l f . The e q u i v a l e n t ,

"perhaps the most important constant w i t h i n Nabokov's longer

f i c t i o n , " i s "a male genius,'

u s u a l l y of European b i r t h , and whose c a p a b i l i t i e s , humor and t a s t e are such t h a t , as A.C. Bradley p o i n t e d out of P r i n c e Hamlet, he c o u l d have conceived and w r i t t e n not o n l y the work i n which he appears but the r e s t of the canon as w e l l . In other words, Nabokov c r e a t e s i n h i s f i c t i o n a c h a r a c t e r who c o u l d have c r e a t e d Nabokov's f i c t i o n '•-•\2

A n a r r a t i v e under the c o n t r o l of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t

w i l l tend to emphasize i t s own a r t i f i c i a l i t y , and the f i c t i o n a l

(11) Stephen Suagee, "An A r t i s t ' s Memory Beats A l l Other Kinds: An Essay on Despair," in A Book of Things About Vladimir Nabokov, ed. Carl R. Proffer (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1974)., p. 54.

(12) Doug Fowler, Reading Nabokov (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1974), p. 14.

101

u n i v e r s e might appear to be s e l f - i n d u l g e n t f a n t a s i z i n g . C e r t a i n l y

Nabokov does nothing to discourage those readers who search f o r

c r a c k s i n the s u r f a c e of v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . In King, Queen, Knave,

f o r example, the mysterious l a n d l o r d says he knows p e r f e c t l y

w e l l " t h a t the whole world was but a t r i c k of h i s , and t h a t

a l l these people -- e i g h t former l o d g e r s , d o c t o r s , p o l i c e -

men ... Franz, Franz's lady f r i e n d , the n o i s y gentleman w i t h

the n o i s y dog ... owed t h e i r e x i s t e n c e to the power of h i s

i m a g i n a t i o n ..." (pp. 227-28). Simon K a r l i n s k y argues t h a t

Nabokov's c e n t r a l theme i s the "nature of the c r e a t i v e imagin-

a t i o n and the s o l i t a r y , f r e a k - l i k e r o l e i n which a man g i f t e d

w i t h such i m a g i n a t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l y c a s t i n any s o c i e t y . "

Such a person may be shown pursuing h i s b a s i c endeavor d i r e c t l y (e.g., S e b a s t i a n Knight or the hero of The G i f t ) , but more o f t e n , as Khodase- v i c h Dointed out, Nabokov's a r t i s t - h e r o i s d i s - g u i s e d . . . . Thus, the. work of a r t t h a t the hero s t r i v e s to c r e a t e ... may be presented i n the g u i s e of chess p l a y i n g (The Defense), b u t t e r f l y c o l l e c t i n g ("The A u r e l i a n " ) , a murder ( D e s p a i r ) , s e d u c t i o n of a young g i r l ( L o l i t a ) ... of simply t r y i n g to r e c o n s t r u c t one's own i d e n t i t y (The Eye). In a l l these cases, however, the hero uses h i s i m a g i n a t i o n to d e v i s e a r e a l i t y of h i s own, which he seeks to impose on the surrounding r e a l i t y .

The hero, o f t e n the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r as w e l l , seeks

to "impose" h i s v i s i o n on the surrounding s o c i e t y . The i m p o s i t i o n

of a p r i v a t e r e a l i t y might seem to c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n the v e r i -

s i m i l i t u d e of the novel as a whole. I t might seem t h a t

t r a d i t i o n a l mimesis has been bypassed. Doug Fowler complains

(13) Simon Karlinsky, " I l l u s i o n , Reality and Parody in Nabokov's Plays," in Dembo, p. 183.

102

t h a t Nabokov a t times c r e a t e s a k i n d of f i c t i o n i n which the

n a r r a t i v e i s " a t r o p h i e d , and the reader's i n t e r e s t i n i t i s

r e p l a c e d by an i n t e r e s t i n watching the e q u i v a l e n t - a s - a r t i s t , 14

an engagement i n watching the e q u i v a l e n t c r e a t e a r t . "

However, i t i s our argument t h a t the a r t i f i c e of the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r ( K a r l i n s k y ' s hero of the c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n ,

F i e l d ' s " e q u i v a l e n t " ) has to some extent the p a r a d o x i c a l e f f e c t

o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g the v e r i s i m i l i t u d e o f the n a r r a t i v e as a whole.

The e f f e c t i s s i m i l a r to t h a t of the d e t e c t i v e s t o r y , a s t y l i z e d ,

even r i t u a l i z e d n a r r a t i v e form, but a form i n which d e t a i l s are

as profound, c o n v i n c i n g and c r u c i a l as i n the most r e a l i s t i c

f i c t i o n (no o b j e c t c o u l d be more s u b s t a n t i a l than the Maltese

F a l c o n ) . Since K a r l i n s k y mentions L o l i t a and Despair, l e t us

examine the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s o f those two n o v e l s .

Hermann h i m s e l f w o r r i e s about i n c i p i e n t s o l i p s i s m : "Maybe

i t i s a l l mock e x i s t e n c e , an e v i l dream ..." (Despair, p. 221).

The s t y l e i n which he chooses to n a r r a t e h i s Despair shows a l l

the s i g n s of Barth's famous l i t e r a t u r e of exhaustion; t h a t i s ,

the exhaustion of r e a l i s m . " ^ But i n the f o l l o w i n g passage, note the a f f i n i t i e s to Oates 1 n a r r a t o r i n Expensive People:

How s h a l l we begin t h i s chapter? I o f f e r s e v e r a l v a r i a t i o n s to choose from. Number one ( r e a d i l y adopted i n novels where the n a r r a t i v e i s conducted i n the f i r s t person by the r e a l or s u b s t i t u t e a u t h o r ) :

I t i s f i n e today, but c o l d , w i t h the wind's v i o l e n c e unabated; under my window the evergreen

{14) Fowler, p. 15.

(15) John Barth, "The Literature of Exhaustion," Atlantic, Aug. 1967,

pp. 29-34.

103

f o l i a g e rocks and r o l l s . . . . My r e s t l e s s n e s s grows....

A n i c e r e f r e s h i n g v a r i a t i o n , t h i s number one; i t allows a b r e a t h e r and helps to b r i n g i n the p e r s o n a l note; thus l e n d i n g l i f e to the s t o r y - e s p e c i a l l y when the f i r s t person i s as f i c t i t i o u s as a l l the r e s t . Well, t h a t i s j u s t the p o i n t : a t r i c k of the t r a d e , a poor t h i n g worn t o shreds by l i t e r a r y f i c t i o n - m o n g e r s , does not s u i t me, f o r I have become s t r i c t l y t r u t h f u l (p. 53).

Obviously Hermann i s a more s l i p p e r y customer than Oates' n a r r a t o r ,

and y e t there i s an analogous impulse to a v o i d what the n a r r a t o r

sees an the u n r e a l conventions of mere novels i n f a v o r of the

human t r u t h of h i s experience.

For example, Hermann worries t h a t h i s s t o r y has degenerated

i n t o a diary,' "the lowest form of l i t e r a t u r e . " Under the heading

"March 31st. Night," he comments as f o l l o w s :

Connoisseurs w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h a t l o v e l y , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , f a l s e l y s i g n i f i c a n t "Night" (meaning readers to imag'ine the s l e e p l e s s v a r i e t y o f ' l i t e r a r y persons, so p a l e , so a t t r a c t i v e ) . But as a matter of f a c t i t is. n i g h t a t present (p. 218).

I t is_ n i g h t , and, to use an e x p r e s s i o n t h a t f a s t i d i o u s Hermann

would no doubt r e j e c t , a dark n i g h t of the s o u l f o r the novel's

n a r r a t o r , who i s s u c c e s s f u l l y c r e a t i n g a novel about a s u f f e r i n g

human being and not a " l i t e r a r y person." The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

s t y l e p e r f e c t l y expresses the r e a l anguish of a c e r t a i n n e u r o t i c

type, who s t r u g g l e s with h i s tendency towards s o l i p s i s m . When

Hermann r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s murderous masterpiece i s flawed, "an

accursed v o i c e s h r i e k e d i n t o my ear t h a t the r a b b l e which r e f u s e d

me r e c o g n i t i o n was perchance r i g h t , " and he f i n d s h i m s e l f doubting

e v e r y t h i n g , "doubting e s s e n t i a l s , and I understood t h a t what l i t t l e

l i f e l a y b e f o r e me would be s o l e l y devoted to a f u t i l e s t r u g g l e

104

a g a i n s t t h a t doubt ..." (p. 213).

Hermann g i v e s us both h i s i l l u s i o n s and the t r u t h ,

c r e a t i n g a c h a r a c t e r study s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a l i s t i c to awake the

reader's sympathy, d e s p i t e Hermann's d e n i a l s : "Stop s h o r t , you

people — I r a i s e a huge white palm l i k e a German policeman, stop!

No s i g h s of compassion, people, none whatever. Stop, p i t y ! I

do not accept your sympathy ..." (p. 187). The reader comes to

understand Hermann's torments, even when they are expressed i n

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and s e l f - p i t y i n g terms (Hermann says he has

"passed the supreme l i m i t o f p o s s i b l e p a i n , i n j u r y , a n x i e t y o f

mind" [p. 217]). The reader sympathizes because Hermann i s not

what he would l i k e to be, an impersonal a r t i s t , but a s u f f e r i n g

n e u r o t i c . One i s impressed by the human dimensions of h i s

t w i s t e d c h a r a c t e r , and not, as the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s t y l e might

l e a d one to suspect, the a e s t h e t i c preoccupations of a " l i t e r a r y

person."

Although both Hermann and Humbert Humbert produce s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t i v e s t h a t might seem designed to confuse the

reader, both have the a b i l i t y to b r i n g a e s t h e t i c s to the a i d of

a g r e a t e r sense of r e a l i t y ; i n Humbert's case, the r e a l i t y of

l o v e . Since Humbert i s l e s s d e s p i c a b l e than Hermann, i t i s more

apparent t h a t h i s a r t i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t y r e v e a l s t r u t h s about

human r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t are l o s t i n a s o c i e t y bounded by v u l g a r

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s (such as the myth of the matinee i d o l , i n which

g u i s e Humbert mesmerizes poor C h a r l o t t e Haze).

Humbert i s as s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a n a r r a t o r as Hermann:

My poor photogenic mother d i e d i n a f r e a k a c c i d e n t ( p i c n i c , l i g h t n i n g ) when I was t h r e e , and, save

105

f o r a pocket of warmth i n the d a r k e s t p a r t , nothing of her s u b s i s t s w i t h i n the hollows and d e l l s of memory, over which, i f you can s t i l l stand my s t y l e (I am w r i t i n g under o b s e r v a t i o n ) , the sun of my i n f a n c y had s e t . . . ( L o l i t a , p. 12 ).

Since Humbert i s w r i t i n g under o b s e r v a t i o n , i n p r i s o n , and much of

what he w r i t e s i s d i r e c t e d towards an u n f o r g i v i n g s o c i e t y — hence

the numerous wry a s i d e s to the " l a d i e s and gentlemen of the j u r y "

(p. 11) — the reader might w e l l suspect Humbert's w r i t i n g s t y l e ,

and q u e s t i o n the v e r a c i t y of h i s v e r s i o n of the events. For

example, i t seems a l i t t l e s u s p i c i o u s t h a t the n a r r a t o r ' s physique

seems to vary from page to page. At f i r s t Humbert i s broadchested

and b i g boned, lanky, a hunk of v i r i l e he-man. L a t e r he i s

"elegant, s l e n d e r " (p. 274), and f i n a l l y he becomes " f r a g i l e ,

f r i l e u x , d i m i n u t i v e ... s i c k l y " (p. 275):

The more v i r i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been t r a n s f e r r e d to L o l i t a ' s husband.-... Richard S c h i l l e r i s the f i n a l i n h e r i t o r of s e v e r a l normal men ... who have been c o n t r a s t e d w i t h Humbert to h i s disadvantage through the second h a l f of the book. C l e a r l y , Humbert's o r i g i n a l e n t i t y has again been s p l i t up, and the p a r t s d i s t r i b u t e d among d i f f e r e n t a c t o r s .... The reader has to ask h i m s e l f whether i t i s Hum- b e r t or Nabokov who does t h i s — whether we can d i s t i n g u i s h between what i s invented by t h i s n a r r a t o r and what i s r e p o r t e d — and the answer i s complicated. The reader has to d e a l w i t h a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e a d i n g experience, which c h a l l e n g e s h i s assumption t h a t he "knows what i s going on"....^g

Humbert i s more than " u n r e l i a b l e , " s i n c e h i s very e x i s t e n c e i s

suspect. At times he seems to be an aspect of Q u i l t y ' s p e r s o n a l i t y ;

or perhaps Q u i l t y i s an aspect of Humbert's p e r s o n a l i t y ; or perhaps

(16) Martin Green, "The Morality of L o l i t a , " Kenyon Review, 28 (1966), pp. 3 57-5 8 .

106

t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s s t i l l more complex. Consider Humbert's

account of the w r e s t l i n g match d u r i n g the murder: "I r o l l e d

over him. We r o l l e d over me. They r o l l e d over him. We r o l l e d

over us" ( L o l i t a , p. 301). The exasperated Green concludes t h a t

L o l i t a i s "fundamentally c o u n t e r f e i t " and t h a t the t r i c k y n a r r a t -

i v e v o i c e "rouses a l l of a reader's d i s t r u s t — o f a gamesman-

s h i p k i n d " (pp. 356, 357).

However, i t must be remembered t h a t Humbert i s r e s p o n s i b l e

not o n l y f o r the i n c o n g r u i t i e s of the n a r r a t i v e , but a l s o f o r

i t s r e a l i s t i c checks and balances. Humbert h i m s e l f c o n t i n u a l l y

draws the a t t e n t i o n of the reader t o those elements of the s t o r y

t h a t seem b i z a r r e ; thus L o l i t a s l e e p s with her mouth open, " i n a

k i n d of d u l l amazement a t the c u r i o u s l y inane l i f e we had a l l

r i g g e d up f o r her" ( L o l i t a , p. 217). Humbert.reminds us t h a t he

i s a "murderer with a s e n s a t i o n a l but incomplete and," s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,

"unorthodox memory" (p. 219). J u s t as Hermann i s aware of h i s

" a r t i s t ' s memory" (Despair, p. 213),.Humbert i s h i m s e l f aware,

and d e l i b e r a t e l y makes the reader aware, of h i s s o l i p s i s t i c

t e n d e n c i e s .

Humbert's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s t y l e i s an a i d to the reader i n

i n t e r p r e t i n g the events of a s t o r y t h a t might otherwise be as

bare, gross and u n r e a l as a newspaper h e a d l i n e . Thus when

Humbert a c q u i r e s h i s deadly .32, he remarks, s a r d o n i c a l l y , "We

must remember t h a t a p i s t o l i s the F r e u d i a n symbol of the Ur-

f a t h e r ' s c e n t r a l f o r e l i m b " ( L o l i t a , p. 218). (In Nabokov's

f i c t i o n Freudianism i s a k i n d of mind c o n t r o l r i v a l l e d i n

v u l g a r i t y and harmfulness o n l y by a d i c t a t o r s h i p . ) In Humbert

107

the reader has an a l l y against sham: "Mid-twentieth century

ideas concerning child-parent r e l a t i o n s h i p have been considerably

tainted by the scholastic rigmarole and standardized symbols

of the psychoanalytic racket, but I hope I am addressing myself

to unbiased readers"(p. 287). Humbert's fresh perceptions are

made more apparent by the framing Foreword of John Ray, J r . ,

Ph.D., who, i n his role as the representative of a sane and

r e a l i s t i c society, nevertheless d i s t o r t s the events into a l u r i d

melodrama involving "the wayward c h i l d , the e g o t i s t i c mother,

the panting maniac" (p. 7). Ray can only r a i s e the reader's

estimation of Humbert's veracity by announcing i n a fatuous

tone of f i n a l i t y that Humbert i s "abnormal. He i s not a

gentleman" (p. 7) .

Even Ray can descry i n Humbert's confession "a desperate

honesty" (p. 7). Humbert's special s e n s i b i l i t y , which can be

only expressed through an a r t i s t i c a l l y self-conscious s t y l e ,

produces a narrative luminous, with the truth of his r e l a t i o n s h i p

with L o l i t a . For example, there i s a tendency among c r i t i c s

to emphasize that part of the novel which s a t i r i z e s American

mores; L o l i t a i s seen as a t y p i c a l teen-aged, gum-chewing,

embryonic tramp, a f i t product of America's roadside culture.

Humbert of course knows better, and provides anecdotes that make

L o l i t a a more three-dimensional character than most f i c t i o n a l

juveniles. He reports a conversation between L o l i t a and her

schoolmate, i n which L o l i t a "so very serenely and seriously"

remarks,

108

"You know, what's so d r e a d f u l about dying i s t h a t you are completely on your own"; and i t s t r u c k me ... t h a t I simply d i d not know a t h i n g about my d a r l i n g ' s mind and t h a t q u i t e p o s s i b l y , behind the awful j u v e n i l e c l i c h e s , there was i n her a garden and a t w i l i g h t , and a p a l a c e g a t e — dim and adorable r e g i o n s which happened to be l u c i d l y and a b s o l u t e l y f o r b i d d e n to me.... She would m a i l her v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n t r i t e brashness and boredom, whereas I, u s i n g f o r my d e s p e r a t e l y detached commments an a r t i f i c i a l tone of v o i c e t h a t s e t my own l a s t t e e t h on edge ... (p. 286).

Note t h a t Humbert's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s methods do not p r e c l u d e a

b r i l l i a n t l y a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of h i s own inadequacies; note

a l s o t h a t even i n the overheated romanticism of gardens and

t w i l i g h t s and p a l a c e gates there are dimensions of L o l i t a which

cannot be understood or expressed by a l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d , i n v o l -

uted s e n s i b i l i t y (John Ray's f o r i n s t a n c e : "the wayward c h i l d " ) .

Humbert's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i v e methods combine w i t h

t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s m to form a more s u b s t a n t i a l n a r r a t i v e than one

might expect from the f a n c i f u l romanticism of Humbert's

opening pages. A d i s c u s s i o n of the r h e t o r i c a l emphasis of the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s r e s e r v e d f o r a l a t e r s e c t i o n , but i t

should be noted t h a t Humbert takes g r e a t pains to keep the

reader i n touch w i t h h i s p e r c e p t i o n s . "Reader!" he says, a t

the beginning of the famous passage i n which Humbert d i s c o v e r s

the t r u e nature of h i s crime (p. 310). Humbert boasts q u i t e

r i g h t l y t h a t h i s methods are the r i g h t ones, the o n l y ones t h a t

would c r e a t e "durable pigments" to i n s u r e L o l i t a ' s " i m m o r t a l i t y "

(p. 311) .

109

The M u l t i p l e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r

A s i n g l e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r emphasizes the a r t i f i c i a l i t y

of a n a r r a t i v e . In Pale F i r e and Pnin there are m u l t i p l e s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r s ; the c o n f u s i o n they o c c a s i o n r e g a r d i n g " p o i n t

of view" might seem s u f f i c i e n t to s i g n i f y the f i n a l abandonment

of r e a l i s m and v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . However., we can take h e a r t from

Kinbote's a d m i t t e d l y ambiguous remark i n Pale F i r e t h a t i t i s h i s

notes which g i v e Shade's poem a "human r e a l i t y " otherwise l a c k i n g

(p. 18) .

In Pale F i r e the i n t e r a c t i o n of the m u l t i p l e n a r r a t o r s

i n c r e a s e s the r e a d e r ' s sense of a r t i f i c e , but a t the same time i t

i n c r e a s e s the v e r i s i m i l i t u d e , "human r e a l i t y , " of both the main

c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n s . The q u a i n t c o u p l e t s of Shade's

poem take on anew resonance, and the mad pedant b r i n g s a new

v i t a l i t y to the r a t h e r s t e r i l e business of a s c h o l a r l y commentary.

Because Kinbote i s even more untrustworthy than Humbert, the

c r i t i c s have become snappish a f t e r t h e i r f r u s t r a t e d attempts a t

f i n d i n g a u n i f i e d n a r r a t i v e v o i c e . They have murmured t h a t perhaps

Nabokov p r i z e s f a n t a s t i c form too h i g h l y over r e a l i s t i c content.

But Kinbote's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s l e a d s him to p r o v i d e b i o g r a p h i c a l

d e t a i l s about Shade t h a t make both Shade and h i s poem come a l i v e ,

and Kinbote's i n s p i r e d pedantry makes the a r t of a n n o t a t i o n

seem as e x c i t i n g and c r u c i a l as the chase scene i n a t h r i l l e r .

He r e s t o r e s the p a s s i o n and commitment to the o l d New C r i t i c a l

a c t i v i t y of c l o s e r e a d i n g . By misreading Shade's n a r r a t i v e ,

he makes i t worth r e a d i n g .

C h a r l e s Kinbote, another s t y l i s t with a mind f u l l of

110

l i t e r a t u r e , i s a f o l l o w e r of the Humbert Humbert s c h o o l of f a s t

and l o o s e v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . In the f o l l o w i n g passage, Kinbote

d e s c r i b e s the encounter between Gradus and young Gordon i n a

Swiss v i l l a :

Rather r e l u c t a n t l y there came out a s l e n d e r but s t r o n g - l o o k i n g l a d of f o u r t e e n or f i f t e e n dyed a n e c t a r i n e hue by the sun. He had nothing on save a l e o p a r d - s p o t t e d l o i n c l o t h . . . .

Through l i g h t and shade walked the strange p a i r : the g r a c e f u l boy wreathed about the l o i n s w i t h i v y and the seedy k i l l e r i n h i s cheap brown s u i t . . . .

The boy a p p l i e d a v i d l i p s t o a p i p e of s p r i n g water and wiped h i s wet hands on h i s b l a c k b a t h i n g t r u n k s .

"Who knows," s a i d the boy s t r i k i n g h i s f l a n k s c l o t h e d i n white t e n n i s s h o r t s . . . .

The young woodwose had now c l o s e d h i s eyes and was s t r e t c h e d out supine on the p o o l ' s marble margin; h i s Tarzan b r i e f had been c a s t a s i d e on the t u r f . ( p p . 143, 144).

Gordon's s p e c t a c u l a r costume changes are a f u n c t i o n of Kinbote's

l a s c i v i o u s i m a g i n a t i o n . A second h i n t t h a t the passage i s not

e n t i r e l y r e a l i s t i c i s t h a t Kinbote has been attempting to

synchronize the adventures of Gradus w i t h Shade's progress

i n completing h i s poem. The passage ends as f o l l o w s :

From f a r below mounted the c l i n k and t i n k l e of d i s t a n t masonry work, and a sudden t r a i n passed between gardens, and a h e r a l d i c b u t t e r f l y v o l a n t en arriere, ., s a b l e , a bend g u l e s , t r a - versed the stone p a r a p e t , and John Shade took a f r e s h c a r d (p. 144).

The i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t the scene between Gordon and Gradus

i s not the work o f Kinbote, but of Shade, who composes h i s

n a r r a t i v e s on index c a r d s . T h i s might come as a shock to the

I l l

reader who had accepted Kinbote's d e s c r i p t i o n of the reasons

f o r the book's e x i s t e n c e : to w i t , t h a t the l a s t manuscript

of the deceased New England poet, John Shade, had passed i n t o

Kinbote's hands, and t h a t Kinbote had p u b l i s h e d the poem w i t h

h i s own a n n o t a t i o n s . The reader would have gathered from c l u e s

p r e v i o u s to the v i l l a scene t h a t Kinbote i s an e c c e n t r i c , t h a t

he i s not a deposed Zemblan monarch but an e x i l e d Russian

i n t e l l e c t u a l t e a c h i n g a t Shade's u n i v e r s i t y . The unwary reader

would have r e l a x e d i n the d e l u s i o n t h a t he i s d e a l i n g w i t h a

simple u n r e l i a b l e n a r r a t o r . The l i n e , "Shade took a f r e s h card,"

would s h a t t e r h i s complacency.

S i m i l a r l y , Kinbote says t h a t "the f i n a l t e x t of the poem

i s e n t i r e l y h i s [Shade's]" (p. 59). But i n the note to l i n e 550

Kinbote admits t h a t an e a r l i e r c a n c e l l e d fragment was f i c t i t i o u s :

Conscience and s c h o l a r s h i p have debated the q u e s t i o n , and I now t h i n k t h a t the two l i n e s g i v e n i n t h a t note are d i s t o r t e d and t a i n t e d by w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g . I t i s the o n l y time i n the course of the w r i t i n g of these d i f f i c u l t comments, t h a t I have t a r r i e d , i n my d i s t r e s s and disappointment, on the b r i n k of f a l s i f i c a t i o n (p. 162).

The shocking news t h a t Kinbote may have tampered w i t h the

t e x t reminds the reader t h a t the poem i t s e l f , as w e l l as a l l

the b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s about Shade, might be e n t i r e l y Kinbote's

c r e a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y much of the commentary i s o b v i o u s l y f i c t i t i o u s ,

being Kinbote's romantic dream punctuated with r e a l i s t i c (but

perhaps not r e a l ) h u m i l i a t i o n s . When Kinbote p r a i s e s the poem's

next l i n e about the o r b i c l e of jasp, the reader might l e g i t i m a t e l y

wonder i f Kinbote wrote the l i n e h i m s e l f .

112

The exasperated reader might be tempted to d i s c o u n t Kinbote

e n t i r e l y , and c o n s i d e r him a c h a r a c t e r i n a novel by John Shade.

Such a r e a d i n g would be strengthened by the f o l l o w i n g d i s p l a y

of Shade's p r e s c i e n c e :

Man's l i f e as commentary to a b s t r u s e U n f i n i s h e d poem. Note f o r f u r t h e r use.

(11. 939-940)

Kinbote's e x p l a n a t i o n of the l i n e i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . He says

Shade i m p l i e s " t h a t human l i f e i s but a s e r i e s of f o o t n o t e s to a

v a s t obscure u n f i n i s h e d masterpiece." Kinbote t y p i c a l l y takes

the academic h i g h road, whereas the reader might surmise t h a t

Shade has somehow anticipated that Kinbote would add h i s own l i f e ' s

commentary to Shade's u n f i n i s h e d poem (the word " u n f i n i s h e d "

again undercuts Kinbote's c l a i m t h a t the poem had been completed).

Did Kinbote w r i t e the l i n e s h i m s e l f i n another a t t a c k of honesty,

or can Shade read the f u t u r e , and d i d he c r e a t e the e n t i r e pack-

age -- poem, commentary, and c a s t of mad c h a r a c t e r s ?

These q u e s t i o n s have caused c o n f u s i o n and debate among the

c r i t i c s . For example, Who wrote the poem, Pale F i r e ? A c c o r d i n g

to Andrew F i e l d , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t "John Shade's

long poem Pale F i r e r e a l l y belongs to the pen of the mad s c h o l a r

Kinbote .... On the o t h e r hand, C h a r l e s Kinbote and h i s Zembla

might j u s t as w e l l belong to the pen of John Shade who has 'taken' 17

Kinbote from l i f e and put him to h i s own a r t i s t i c use

A f t e r twenty pages and a diagram w i t h arrows and a sun l a b e l l e d

"Nabokov," F i e l d concludes: "There are many c o m p e l l i r i g l y l o g i c a l

reasons to p l a c e John Shade b e f o r e C h a r l e s Kinbote" (p. 317).

(17) Field, Nabokov: His L i f e in Art, p. 297.

113

J u l i a Bader agrees: "The poet and the mad commentator

are o s t e n s i b l y d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l i t i e s . . . . But the s e p a r a t i o n

i n t o autonomous c h a r a c t e r s — Shade, Kinbote, Gradus i s o n l y

apparent.... Shade, I m a i n t a i n , has p e r p e t r a t e d h i s own'stylistic'

death w i t h i n the n o v e l , and he has then g i v e n us a new aspect

of h i m s e l f i n the g u i s e of another s o u l and another artwork 18

(Kinbote and the commentary)." Both Bader. and F i e l d are

c o n t r a d i c t e d by Page Stegner, who argues t h a t i t i s " p o s s i b l e ,

perhaps probable, t h a t Gradus and Shade are as much figments of 19

Kinbote's i m a g i n a t i o n as C h a r l e s the Beloved." Although Stegner

o f f e r s h i s o p i n i o n s i n a t e n t a t i v e manner, Andrew F i e l d adds

a s p e c i a l commentary to h i s Nabokov: His L i f e i n A r t i n order to

reproach Stegner f o r viewing Pale F i r e ' s p u z z l e s " i n an i n v e r t e d

and meaningless way."2^

Alden Sprowles condemns the f o r c e s of both F i e l d - B a d e r and

Stegner: The d i f f i c u l t y w i t h e i t h e r theory i s t h a t the n e c e s s i t y f o r having a "master thumbprint" beyond Nabokov's own i s unproved. Since there i s never a d i r e c t statement from an i n t e r n a l con- t r o l l i n g author, the proof depends on b u r i e d h i n t s and a r t i f i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n of genuine and a r t i f i c i a l v o i c e s , a l l of which i s r a t h e r spurious and p o i n t l e s s , as Mary McCarthy p o i n t s o u t . 9 1

(18) J u l i a Bader, Crystal Land (Berkeley: Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1972), p. 31.

(19) Stegner, p. 129. (20) Field, His L i f e in Art, p. 317. (21) Alden Sprowles, "Preliminary Annotation to Charles Kinbote's

Commentary on 'Pale F i r e , ' " in Proffer, p. 226. For McCarthy's opinion, see her l e t t e r to the New York Times Book Review, 10 July 1966, p.50.

114

No wonder W i l l i a m C a r r o l l , i n an essay on another t o p i c , almost

i n a d v e r t a n t l y mentions Pale F i r e and q u i c k l y adds a f o o t n o t e :

" D i s c r e t i o n f o r b i d s e n t e r i n g the c o n t r o v e r s y over whether Shade, 2 Kinbote, or P r o f . B o t k i n i s the 'primary' n a r r a t o r of P a l e F i r e . "

When c r i t i c s begin to d e s c r i b e each o t h e r ' s o p i n i o n s as

meaningless, i t seems i n e v i t a b l e t h a t the a c c u s a t i o n w i l l event-

u a l l y be turned on the work i t s e l f , p a r t i c u l a r l y when the c r i t i c a l

d i f f i c u l t i e s t u r n on the work's o v e r t a r t i f i c e . Page Stegner,

f o r example, complains t h a t he wishes those c r i t i c s who c l a i m

to have found moral t r u t h i n P a l e F i r e , "would somehow demon-

s t r a t e where they found i t , and how, and what i t i s . "

I t seems to me t h a t i n t h e i r lengthy e x p l i c a t i o n s of the r i d d l e s i n the novel they f a l l i n t o the same t r a p t h a t Nabokov has perhaps f a l l e n i n t o — t h a t i s , t h i n k i n g t h a t form and s t y l e alone w i l l bear the burden of greatness and t h a t a novel i s o u t s t a n d i n g because i t s s t r u c t u r e i s f a n t a s t - i c a l l y complex. 2 3

D.J. E n r i g h t comments t h a t Pale F i r e , l i k e the other most c e l e - 24

b r a t e d of Nabokov's n o v e l s , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " t r i c k s i n e s s . " " A l l too g e n e r a l l y , " says E n r i g h t ,

t h i s author, r i c h i n what i s given to few w r i t e r s and poor i n what i s g i v e n to most men, reminds me of G u l l e y Jimson's comment i n The Horse's Mouth: "... l i k e f a r t i n g Annie L a u r i e through a keyhole. I t may be c l e v e r but i s i t worth the t r o u b l e ? " (p. 4)

No doubt E n r i g h t has the c o m p l e x i t i e s of Pale F i r e i n mind when

he d e l i v e r s the i n e v i t a b l e and absurd o p i n i o n t h a t Nabokov " f e e l s

(22) William C a r r o l l , "Nabokov's Signs and Symbols," in Proffer, p. 217, n. 14.

(23) Stegner, p. 131. (24) D.J. Enright, "Nabokov's Wag," The New York Review of Books,

3 November/ 1966, p. 4.

115

a l a r g e and f a i r l y comprehensive d i s t a s t e f o r the r e a l " (p. 3).

Pale F i r e does not evidence a comprehensive d i s t a s t e f o r

the r e a l . One o f the d e v i c e s by which the novel avoids " t r i c k s i -

ness" i s the d e v i c e of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ; Kinbote has

a p o i n t when he says,

Shade's t e x t simply has no human r e a l i t y a t a l l s i n c e the human r e a l i t y of a poem such as h i s ... has to depend e n t i r e l y on the r e a l i t y of i t s author and h i s surroundings, attachments and so f o r t h , a r e a l i t y t h a t o n l y my notes can p r o v i d e . To t h i s statement my dear poet would probably not have s u b s c r i b e d , but, f o r b e t t e r or worse, i t i s the commentator who has the l a s t word (pp. i 18-19).

Kinbote i s incorrect i n saying t h a t Shade was too s k i t t i s h f o r

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s , or t h a t the poem s u f f e r s from the

omission of c e r t a i n p i t h y v a r i a n t s , but he i s c o r r e c t i n saying

t h a t he s u p p l i e s a human dimension to the minor poem of a minor

poet.

C r i t i c i s m s o f t e n l e v e l l e d a t Nabokov h i m s e l f are p r e s e n t i n

exaggerated form i n Shade's poem. I t i s i n d u l g e n t l y s e l f - c e n t r e d ,

as i f the poet were imagining h i m s e l f a d d r e s s i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of the press w i t h an i n f i n i t e i n t e r e s t i n the s u b j e c t poet; a

s e l f - i n t e r v i e w , complete w i t h w r i t i n g h a b i t s , the poet's curmud-

geonly o p i n i o n s on the modern world (11. 923-930), and h i s

g r a t u i t o u s j i b e s a t c r i t i c a l bores and Englishmen who speak

French p o o r l y . Here the s p e c i a l s e n s i b i l i t y of Nabokov's

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s a t i t s weakest, s i n c e there i s no

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h other s e n s i b i l i t i e s and s o c i e t y . The poem i s

q u i e s c e n t and s t e r i l e : "And so I pare my n a i l s , and muse,

and hear/ Your steps u p s t a i r s , and a l l i s r i g h t , my dear" (11.

245-46).

116

What Kinbote b r i n g s to t h i s (and whether i t i s l i t e r a l l y

over Shade's dead body, or whether Shade invented Kinbote f o r

the purpose i s not the issue) are b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s which

p l a c e Shade i n the c o n t e x t of the world, and which make the

reader take an i n t e r e s t i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and poem. For example,

Kinbote can b r i n g the dead poet to l i f e :

Through the back of John's t h i n c o t t o n s h i r t one c o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h patches of pink where i t stuck to the s k i n above and around the o u t l i n e s of the funny l i t t l e garment he wore under the s h i r t as a l l good Americans do. I see with such awful c l a r i t y one f a t shoulder r o l l i n g , the other r i s i n g ; : h i s gray mop of h a i r , h i s creased nape; the red bandanna handkerchief l i m p l y hanging out of one h i p pocket, the w a l l e t bulge of the other ... (p. 206).

S i m i l a r l y , the weak ending of the poem takes on a new resonance

when Kinbote s u p p l i e s the death scene i m p l i e d by i t s dying f a l l ;

the poem's opening l i n e s --• "I was the shadow of the waxwing

s l a i n / By the f a l s e azure of the windowpane" (11. 1-2) — are

more coherent and s i g n i f i c a n t when Kinbote d e s c r i b e s the dead

poet, who "had now been turned over and l a y w i t h open dead eyes

d i r e c t e d up a t the sunny evening azure" (p. 208; my emphasis).

Kinbote i s a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r d e s p i t e h i m s e l f —

"I have no d e s i r e to t w i s t and b a t t e r an unambiguous apparatus

c r i t i c u s i n t o the monstrous semblance of a n o v e l " (p. 62).

I n a d v e r t a n t l y , as i t were, he r e v i t a l i z e s the impersonal b u s i n e s s

of e d i t i n g a poem. Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t to look a f r e s h a t

a novel t h a t has e x e r c i s e d so many exegetes, l e t us t r y and

imagine a reader encountering the f i n a l pages, of the novel f o r

the f i r s t time. He f i n d s a t f i r s t a dry, c o r r e c t , d u l l , f a c t u a l

117

account of the t e x t t h a t w i l l f o l l o w , an account f i l l e d with

t e c h n i c a l terms and i m p e r s o n a l i t y . Although the p r e t e r n a t u r a l l y

a l e r t reader might suspect something unusual i s a f o o t w i t h the

terms "amusing" and "shocking," i t i s not u n t i l the bottom of

the t h i r d paragraph, as Kinbote c o r r e c t s something he has s a i d

e a r l i e r , t h a t the reader f i r s t encounters what Kinbote would

c a l l "human r e a l i t y " :

I mean, he preserved the date of a c t u a l c r e a t i o n r a t h e r than t h a t of second or t h i r d thoughts. There i s a very l o u d amusement park r i g h t i n f r o n t of my present l o d g i n g s (p. 7).

T h i s i s the b e g i n n i n g of the reader's a p p r e c i a t i o n of Kinbote's

humanity, the f i r s t s i g n of the migraines and other d i s t r a c t i n g

p e r s o n a l problems t h a t culminate i n one of the l a s t l i n e s of the

Commentary: "Gentlemen, I have s u f f e r e d v e r y much, and more than

any of you can imagine" (p. 212). Then, i n s t e a d of h i n t i n g a t

the almost s u b l i m i n a l p a s s i o n s and rages t h a t seethe under the

decorous prose of most s c h o l a r l y e d i t i o n s , Kinbote o v e r t l y

begins h i s a t t a c k on h i s f e l l o w p r o f e s s o r s , "Prof. Hurley and h i s

c l i q u e " (p. 8).

A c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y form, the s c h o l a r l y commentary, has

been g i v e n a human dimension through the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r h e t o r i c a l ,

p a s s i o n a t e , e g o c e n t r i c v o i c e of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . C a r o l

W i l l i a m s d e s c r i b e s the problems Pale F i r e poses f o r the o r d i n a r y

reader, who must "roam back and f o r t h — w i t h the keenest i n t e l l i -

gence, a l e r t n e s s , and p h y s i c a l d e x t e r i t y — between a Foreword

by e d i t o r C h a r l e s Kinbote, a poem, 'Pale F i r e ' , by John Shade, 25

and a Commentary and Index by Kinbote." But i t i s Kinbote's (25) Carol T. Williams, "'Web of Sense': Pale F i r e in the Nabokov

Canon," C r i t i q u e , 6, No. 3 (1963), 29.

118

mad i n s i s t e n c e t h a t every word of John Shade's poem has profound

p e r s o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t prompts the reader to e x e r c i s e h i s

i n t e l l i g e n c e and a l e r t n e s s i n c l o s e r e a d i n g ; i t r e q u i r e s a mad

would-be King to breathe new l i f e i n t o New C r i t i c i s m . One does

not u s u a l l y t u r n to an index to f i n d human drama, but how much

scorn, envy and disappointment are i n K i n b o t e 1 s p e r f u n c t o r y

l i s t i n g of h i s a r c h - r i v a l ; " S h a d e , S y b i l , S's w i f e , passim" (p. 223).

In Pale F i r e the commentator and the n a r r a t i v e poet i n t e r -

a c t to g i v e each o t h e r l i f e . The interaction p r o v i d e s a secondary

meaning to Kinbote's metaphor about Shade's dying f i n g e r s fumbling

a t Kinbote's hands, "seeking my f i n g e r t i p s , f i n d i n g them, o n l y

to abandon them a t once as i f p a s s i n g to me, i n a sublime r e l a y

race, the baton of l i f e " (p. 208). One wonders how the s t o r y

of an e x i l e d European i n t e l l e c t u a l and a m i l d New England poet

c o u l d have been presented more v i v i d l y and a f f e c t i n g l y i n a more

t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l . Kinbote's "notes and s e l f " (p. 212) do indeed

p e t e r out a t the end of the novel i n t o the f i g u r e of the Russian

a r t i s t who oversees the n o v e l , but b e f o r e t h a t p o i n t there i s

enough of what Nabokov c a l l s the t i n g l e and tang of r e a l i t y to

s a t i s f y even D.J. E n r i g h t .

Turning now to Pnin, we should note a shrewd comment by

E n r i g h t on the q u e s t i o n of Nabokov's compassion. E n r i g h t notes

t h a t Page Stegner, " i n a s l i g h t l y uneasy way ... o f f e r s to

j u s t i f y Nabokov, to show t h a t he possesses not o n l y a b r i l l i a n t

s t y l e but a l s o (though he ' t r i e s to obfuscate t h a t emotion by 2 6

means of a b r i l l i a n t s t y l e 1 ) a deeply compassionate nature."

(26) Enright, p. 3.

119

I t would be i n c o r r e c t to s e t up an o p p o s i t i o n between, on the

one hand, s t e r i l i t y and u n r e a l i t y ( q u a l i t i e s e r r o n e o u s l y assoc-

i a t e d w i t h the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ) , and on the o t h e r hand

the warm and soothing b l a n k e t of humanistic compassion. Although

Nabokov uses the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r to p e r s o n a l i z e c e r t a i n

impersonal elements of the n o v e l , t h i s does not imply t h a t he

tempers c o l d a r t i f i c i a l i t y w i t h warm s e n t i m e n t a l i t y ; i n s t e a d ,

he uses the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s v o i c e to e x p l o r e the spectrum of human

emotion. U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r Pnin, the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e from which

Pnin s u f f e r s i s unkind, even c r u e l .

On a f i r s t r e a d i n g , Pnin appears to be the simple c h a r a c t e r

study of a s t e r e o t y p e d absent-minded p r o f e s s o r i n a r e a l i s t i c

academic s e t t i n g . Many readers f i n d i t Nabokov's most a c c e s s i b l e

n o v e l . The n a r r a t o r appears to be the omniscient, n e u t r a l r e p o r t e r

of the c o n v e n t i o n a l n o v e l . Stegner, f o r example, applauds the

r e d u c t i o n of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i f i c e :

Perhaps because the composition i s more s t r a i g h t - forward and the author's c o n t r o l l i n g hand l e s s apparent, Pnin i s the most moving and r e a l of Nabokov's c h a r a c t e r s . I t seems as i f both com- poser and s o l v e r , being l e s s i n v o l v e d w i t h • i n t e l l e c t u a l gymnastics, are a b l e to c o n c e n t r a t e on the d e p i c t i o n and understanding of a t r u l y human being and h i s redemptive response to the p a i n f u l n e s s of e x i l e . ^ ~

Stegner i s q u i t e c o r r e c t i n saying t h a t Pnin i s warm and human,

but t h i s i s not a f u n c t i o n of reduced s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i f i c e ;

Stegner i s i n c o r r e c t when he says t h a t "the presence of the author

as c o n t r o l l i n g d e i t y i s not f e l t , and the n a r r a t o r of the s t o r y ,

(27) Stegner, pp. 97-98.

120

a Russian e x i l e and compatriot of Pnin's, i s f i n a l l y an unimport-

ant f i g u r e i n the n o v e l " (p. 96). The n a r r a t o r i s i i n f a c t of

primary importance i n the n o v e l , as Pnin h i m s e l f becomes a l l

too aware.

The n a r r a t o r ' s i d e n t i t y seems to be m u l t i p l e . He might be

P r o f . C o c k e r e l l , the top campus mimic. He might a l s o be the

p r o f e s s o r who takes away Pnin's job, and whose i n i t i a l s are.V.V.

More than the i n i t i a l s are r e v e a l e d when Pnin and h i s o l d

f r i e n d P r o f e s s o r Chateau examine a c l o u d of blue b u t t e r f l i e s : 11 P i t y V l a d i m i r V l a d i m i r o v i c h i s not here,"

remarked Chateau. "He would have t o l d us a l l about these enchanting i n s e c t s . "

"I have always had the impression t h a t h i s entomology was merely a pose."

"Oh, no," s a i d Chateau. (Pnin, p. 128)

T h i s i s o f course a r e f e r e n c e to the h i s t o r i c a l personage,

V l a d i m i r V l a d i m i r o v i c h Nabokov, which leads to i n t e l l e c t u a l

gymnastics indeed among the c r i t i c s . Fowler says the n a r r a t o r 2 8

i s "roughly Nabokov." Paul Grams i s f o r c e d i n t o t o r t u r o u s

sentences i n which Nabokov's name i s surrounded by d e f e n s i v e

q u o t a t i o n marks*. "In other words, the l i b e r t i e s 'Nabokov' 29

takes i n order to ' f i c t i o n a l i z e ' Pnin's biography Ambrose Gordon, J r . says the n a r r a t o r g r a d u a l l y "takes on the

f a m i l i a r lineaments of V l a d i m i r Nabokov." Nabokov of course

d e l i g h t s i n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s which make i t i m p o s s i b l e

(28) Fowler, p. 123. (29) Paul Grams, "Pnin: The Biographer as Meddler," Russian

L i t e r a t u r e T r i q u a r t e r l g , No. 3 (1972), pp. 360-69; rpt. in Proffer, p. 198. (30) Ambrose Gordon, Jr., "The Double Pnin," in Dembo, p. 150.

121

f o r c r i t i c s to t i e up the l o o s e ends of h i s f i c t i o n s ; n e v e r t h e l e s s ,

the c h a r a c t e r who took away Pnin's job i s not the man who was

married to Vera Nabokov. The novel p r o v i d e s us w i t h enough

i n t e r n a l i n f o r m a t i o n about the n a r r a t o r f o r the reader to

c o n s t r u c t a c h a r a c t e r study t h a t does not depend on t i d b i t s

from the l i f e of the r e a l Nabokov.

The essence of t h i s n a r r a t o r , d e s p i t e h i s m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s ,

one of which bears a resemblance to Nabokov h i m s e l f , i s h i s

m a l i c i o u s n e s s . Consider h i s account of a g a t h e r i n g of Pnin and

h i s acquaintances, a g a t h e r i n g i n which the n a r r a t o r p a r t i c i p a t e d .

The n a r r a t o r recounts an anecdote about Pnin's female c o u s i n ,

whom, the n a r r a t o r says p o i s o n o u s l y , he had p r e v i o u s l y "known

i n Y a l t a , Athens, and London." Pnin i n t e r r u p t s the s t o r y :

"Now, d o n ' t - b e l i e v e a word he says.... He makes up e v e r y t h i n g . He once i n v e n t e d t h a t we were schoolmates i n Russia and c r i b b e d a t examinations. He i s a d r e a d f u l i n v e n t o r . . . " (p. 185).

Pnin has good reason to dread the n a r r a t o r ' s tone of c o o l

condescension. When the n a r r a t o r v i s i t s Pnin's c h i l d h o o d home,

he i s quick to c o n t r a s t Pnin's modest surroundings with h i s own

i n h e r i t e d wealth. In h i s r o l e as a c h a r a c t e r he takes away

Pnin's job, and i n h i s r o l e as author,, which g i v e s him the

p r i v i l e g e of omniscience, he invades the p r i v a c y of Pnin's mind.

Perhaps worst of a l l , he tampers w i t h Pnin's beloved ex-wife.

The n a r r a t o r has had a c a s u a l and condescending a f f a i r (on h i s

part) with L i z a ; she married Pnin on the rebound. Through L i z a

the n a r r a t o r o b t a i n s some of Pnin's p a t h e t i c and r e v e a l i n g l o v e

l e t t e r s , and doesn't h e s i t a t e to d i s p l a y the l e t t e r s to the

122

reader, who begins to f e e l l i k e a voyeur. Once one becomes

aware of the n a r r a t o r ' s d r e a d f u l powers, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to

concur w i t h Fowler t h a t Pnin i s " e a s i l y the most g e n t l e and 31

humane of a l l Nabokov's n o v e l s . "

In s h o r t , Nabokov has transformed the conventions of the

omniscient and i n t r u s i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . The omniscient

n a r r a t o r becomes a major c h a r a c t e r i n the s t o r y , and because

•his a c t i o n s are both p e r s o n a l and a r b i t r a r y , the reader i s a l l

the more sympathetic to h e l p l e s s Pnin. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t

c r i t i c s o f t e n complain t h a t an a r t i s t ' s treatment of h i s c h a r a c t e r s

i s a r b i t r a r y and c o n t r i v e d ; Nabokov h i m s e l f a t t a c k s La Nausee

on the grounds t h a t S a r t r e u n s u c c e s s f u l l y " i n f l i c t s h i s i d l e and

a r b i t r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c fancy on a h e l p l e s s person whom he has

invented f o r t h a t purpose ..."(Strong Opinions, p. 230). What

a b r i l l i a n t technique, t h e r e f o r e , to p e r s o n a l i z e or anthropo-

morphize the omniscient n a r r a t o r , so t h a t t h i n g s t h a t happen to

Pnin are not the a r t i f i c i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s of an impersonal v o i c e ,

but the v i n d i c t i v e t a c t i c s of a c h a r a c t e r w i t h i n the scene, a

n a r r a t o r who parades h i s n a s t i n e s s b e f o r e the h o r r i f i e d reader.

W i l l i a m C a r r o l l says i t i s no fun being a c h a r a c t e r i n

Nabokov's f i c t i o n : A r b i t r a r i l y c r e a t e d , the c h a r a c t e r l e a d s a l i f e i n h e r e n t l y f r a g i l e ; he i s c o n t i n u a l l y ^ j o s t l e d , t r a n s p o r t e d i n space and time, f o r c e d i n t o / e x i l e a t the s t r o k e of a pen, c a p r i c i o u s l y t o r t u r e d , d r i v e n i n t o madness a t the l a s t moment (Bend S i n i s t e r ) , or a b r u p t l y " c a n c e l l e d . " ... As f l i e s to wanton boys are we to our authors, they k i l l us f o r t h e i r p l o t s . , 0

(31) Fowler, p. 122. (32) C a r r o l l , p. 203.

123

T h i s i s somewhat u n f a i r to Nabokov. In Pnin the hero e v e n t u a l l y

escapes the t o r t u r e s of h i s n a r r a t o r . In Bend S i n i s t e r , the

n a r r a t o r , although much l e s s a d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l i t y , i s essen-

t i a l l y benign. However, the n a r r a t o r i s never an agent f o r the

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y of the reader. For example, Krug i s not per-

m i t t e d to use the beam of l i g h t as a deux ex machina by which

he might climb to the n a r r a t o r ' s workshop, t h e r e to be r e s t o r e d

to h i s son and depart f o r f r e e America on the a r t i s t ' s v i s a .

S e n t i m e n t a l i t y i m p l i e s e v a s i o n of the t r u t h , and nothing c o u l d

be f u r t h e r from Nabokov's \ use of a l l - t o o - r e a l n a r r a t o r s .

The P e r s u a s i v e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r

The r h e t o r i c a l element i n the makeup of Nabokov 's s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r s l e a d s them to attempt to persuade the reader

to accept the d e v i c e s and p r e j u d i c e s of the n a r r a t o r . Nabokov's

n a r r a t o r s are not as contemptuous of the reader's e x p e c t a t i o n s

and c a p a b i l i t i e s as has been g e n e r a l l y assumed; i n f a c t , some

of the n a r r a t o r ' s repeated addresses to the reader are designed

to keep the reader i n touch w i t h the events of the p l o t , to

make the d e v i c e s i n h e r e n t i n any form of n a r r a t i o n apparent to t,

the reader, and to make the reader a b e t t e r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i n

order to a v o i d the gross d i s t o r t i o n s of i n f e r i o r a r t . The

n a r r a t o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l emphasis on a r t i f i c e i s p a r t of a pro-

grammatic a t t a c k on the d i s t o r t i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of l i t e r a r y

and p o l i t i c a l theory. A r t i f i c e i s o f t e n opposed to m i n d - d u l l i n g

i d e o l o g y , and not n e c e s s a r i l y r e a l i t y . However, the s e l f -

conscious emphasis on a r t i f i c e has made c o n v e r t s of some of the

124

c r i t i c s , and t h e r e i s a c r i t i c a l tendency to t r e a t the r e a l i s t i c

aspects o f h i s works w i t h q u o t a t i o n marks, as a s i g n of s o l i d -

a r i t y w i t h the Master of I l l u s i o n s . Perhaps the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r has done h i s p e r s u a s i v e work too w e l l .

In Speak, Memory, Nabokov d e s c r i b e s the s t y l e of S i r i n

(Nabokov's e a r l y pseudonym): "Russian readers who had been

r a i s e d on the sturdy s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s of Russian r e a l i s m and

had c a l l e d the b l u f f of decadent cheats, were impressed by the

m i r r o r - l i k e angles of h i s c l e a r but w e i r d l y m i s l e a d i n g sentences!..."

(Speak, Memory, p. 288). I f the reader f a i l e d to be impressed,

he c o u l d be sure t h a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r would draw

the m i r r o r - l i k e angles to h i s a t t e n t i o n . The n a r r a t o r s become,

as i t were, i n t e r n a l l o b b y i s t s f o r Nabokov's i d i o s y n c r a t i c

techniques. Speaking through h i s puppets, or w i t h a h i g h l y

s t y l i s e d n a r r a t i v e v o i c e with a n a l o g i e s to h i s own, Nabokov

teaches h i s readers the rudiments of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m as

Nabokov would l i k e to see i t taught, emphasizing commentaries

on s p e c i f i c t e x t s . For example, here i s p e d a n t i c Kinbote on

John Shade:

The whole t h i n g [11. 403-74] " s t r i k e s me as too l a b o r e d and long, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the synchron- i z a t i o n d e v i c e has been a l r e a d y worked to death by F l a u b e r t and Joyce. Otherwise the p a t t e r n i s e x q u i s i t e (Pale F i r e , p. 140).

In The G i f t , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and the p l o t are i n s e p a r a b l e .

Fyodor waits f o r Zina i n a romantic B e r l i n n i g h t — "thus i t

t r a n s p i r e d t h a t even B e r l i n c o u l d be mysterious," says Fyodor,

v o i c i n g the o b l i g a t o r y Nabokov p r e j u d i c e :

W i t h i n the l i n d e n ' s bloom the s t r e e t l i g h t winks. A dark and honeyed hush envelopes us. Across

125

the curb one's p a s s i n g shadow s i n k s : a c r o s s a stump a sable r i p p l e s thus (pp. 188-89).

Anna Salehar has p o i n t e d out t h a t t h i s b i t of prose d e s c r i p t i o n

i s i n f a c t the beginning of a poem; q u a t r a i n s of iambic penta-

meters with the rhyme scheme abab. In her a r t i c l e , "Nabokov's

G i f t : An A p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n C r e a t i v i t y , " she argues t h a t the

a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i s not Fyodor's, but the r e a d e r ' s . We must become

a r t i s t s o u r s e l v e s , or a t l e a s t c o - c r e a t o r s w i t h Nabokov, and

thus share i n Fyodor's "remarkable a b i l i t y to see the o b j e c t i v e 3 3

world i n a way d i f f e r e n t from most people...."

I f the reader c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y pays a t t e n t i o n to the i d i o -

s y n c r a t i c d e v i c e s presented by the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s , h i s

e x p e c t a t i o n s of "sturdy r e a l i s m " are bound to be d i s a p p o i n t e d .

He might begin to suspect t h a t he i s the l e a s t important element

i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p of a r t i s t / w o r k / a u d i e n c e ; the work i t s e l f

might seem a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a r t i f i c e w i t h no c o n n e c t i o n to the

reader's world. Why, asks the bemused reader, i s the n a r r a t o r

so i n s u l t i n g ? Turn-tee-turn. And once more -TUM! No, I have not gone mad. I am merely producing g l e e f u l l i t t l e sounds. The k i n d of g l e e one experiences upon making an A p r i l f o o l of someone. And a damned good f o o l I have made of someone. Who i s he? Gentle reader, look a t y o u r s e l f i n the m i r r o r , as you seem to l i k e m i r r o r s so much (Despair, p. 34).

However, the reader i s here encountering Hermann, s u r e l y the

Nabokov n a r r a t o r who d i s p l a y s the g r e a t e s t h o s t i l i t y towards the

reader ( s i n c e he suspects approval f o r h i s masterpiece w i l l not

(33) Anna Salehar, "Nabokov's G i f t : An Apprenticeship in C r e a t i v i t y , " in Proffer, p. 81.

1 2 6

be forthcoming). I t i s true that Nabokov himself sounds rather

l i k e Hermann i n the Foreword to Despair when he says, s a r c a s t i c a l l y ,

"Plain readers ... w i l l welcome i t s p l a i n structure and pleasing

plot ..." (p. 9); but i t i s nevertheless true that Nabokov often

uses the self-conscious narrator to give the reader a clearer

sense of what i s going on. In Ada, for example, Van Veen notes

that the dialogue "was speckled with Russian, an e f f e c t not too

consistently reproduced i n t h i s chapter — the readers are

r e s t l e s s tonight ..." (Ada, p. 403). There i s contempt i n Van's

ungracious concession, as though the readers were r e s t l e s s natives

i n a jungle of ignorance. But Van's concession, gracious or

otherwise, i s repeated i n Nabokov's own career. Simon Karlinsky

says that Nabokov's English t r a n s l a t i o n of The Waltz Invention

has the ease of the reader i n mind. The translator "at times

resorts to explicating the text rather than,merely t r a n s l a t i n g

i t ...."

[Nabokov's] attitude toward the reader of the English versions of his e a r l i e r work i s mellower and more forbearing than the one he had toward the reader of the Russian o r i g i n a l s . The l i t - erary a l l u s i o n s , puns, and f a l s e leads i n the o r i g i n a l version of The G i f t have l a r g e l y been elucidated and deciphered i n the t r a n s l a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , the reader of The Waltz Invention i n English h a s V a somewhat s i m p l i f i e d text.... At the end of his English preface, the author o b l i g i n g l y t e l l s the reader just where the action of the play i s taking place; he further t i p s his hand by r e f e r r i n g to Salvator Waltz as "a fellow author" i n the newly provided l i s t of dramatis personae.•••o a

(34) Simon Karlinsky, " I l l u s i o n , Reality and Parody i n Nabokov's

Plays," i n Dembo, pp. 193-94. •

127

Nabokov i s more r e v e a l i n g and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y generous than those

c r i t i c s who welcome c a b a l i s t i c crossword p u z z l e s might admit.

V l a d i s l a v Khodasevich says t h a t the "key" to Nabokov's work

i s t h a t he does not hide or mask h i s d e v i c e s , but on the c o n t r a r y ,

p l a c e s them i n f u l l view l i k e a magician who, having amazed h i s audience, r e v e a l s on the very spot the l a b o r a t o r y of h i s m i r a c l e s . . . . S i r i n does not hide them because one of h i s major tasks i s j u s t t h a t ~ to show how the devices l i v e and work. 3 5

The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s advocate t h e i r own s i n g u l a r

methods i n order to d e f e a t what Nabokov sees as the g e n e r a l i z e d

l i e s f o s t e r e d by c r u e l p o l i t i c i a n s and d u l l c r i t i c s . He emphasizes

the r a r e , the p a r t i c u l a r and the i d i o s y n c r a t i c , as opposed to

l e v e l l i n g and t h e r e f o r e f a l s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . Thus Nabokov on

S i r i n :

J u s t as M a r x i s t p u b l i c i s t s of the e i g h t i e s i n o l d Russia would have denounced h i s l a c k of concern w i t h the economic s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y , so the mystagogues of emigre" l e t t e r s deplored h i s l a c k of r e l i g i o u s i n s i g h t and of moral p r e o c c u p a t i o n (Speak, Memory, p. 287).

In the Foreword to Despair he d i s p o s e s of the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of

the sociologists," the. Freudians, and the c r i t i c s :

Despair, i n k i n s h i p with the r e s t of my books, has no s o c i a l comment to make, no message to b r i n g i n i t s t e e t h .... The a t t r a c t i v e l y shaped o b j e c t or W i e n e r - s c h n i t z e l dream t h a t the eager F r e u d i a n may t h i n k he d i s t i n g u i s h e s i n the remoteness of my wastes w i l l t u r n out to be ... a d e r i s i v e mirage o r g a n i z e d by my agents. L e t me add, j u s t i n case, t h a t experts on l i t - e r a r y " s c h o o l s " should w i s e l y r e f r a i n t h i s time from c a s u a l l y dragging i n "the i n f l u e n c e of German i m p r e s s i o n i s t s " : I do not know German and have never read the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s — who- ever they are (Despair, pp. 8-9).

(35) Khodasevich, ,:0n S i r i n , " in Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , p. .97.

128

The n a r r a t o r s ' a e s t h e t i c preoccupations are p a r t of a

s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i n t e l l e c t u a l tyranny (hence the a s s o c i a t i o n

of simple or i n f e r i o r a r t w i t h t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m i n Bend S i n i s t e r

and I n v i t a t i o n to a Beheading), and a l s o p a r t of the s t r u g g l e

to preserve the i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s and freedom of Russia's

e x i l e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s . I t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t Nabokov's o p i n i o n s

i n the Foreword to The G i f t are echoed by. Pnin' s n a r r a t o r :

The tremendous o u t f l o w of i n t e l l e c t u a l s t h a t formed such a prominent p a r t of the g e n e r a l exodus from S o v i e t Russia i n the f i r s t years o f the B o l s h e v i s t R e v o l u t i o n ... remained un- known to American i n t e l l e c t u a l s (who, bewitched by Communist propaganda, saw us merely as v i l l a i n o u s g e n e r a l s , o i l magnates, and gaunt l a d i e s w i t h l o r g n e t t e s ) . . . . The o l d i n t e l l e c t - u a l s are now d y i n g out and have not found successors i n the. s o - c a l l e d D i s p l a c e d Persons ... who have c a r r i e d abroad the p r o v i n c i a l i s m and P h i l i s t i n i s m of their Soviet .homeland ('The G i f t , p. 10).

I saw Pnin ... a t an evening tea i n the apartment of a famous emigre ... one of those i n f o r m a l g a t h e r i n g s where o l d - f a s h i o n e d t e r r o r i s t s , h e r o i c nuns, g i f t e d h e d o n i s t s , l i b e r a l s , adventurous young poets ... would r e p r e s e n t a k i n d of s p e c i a l knighthood, the a c t i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t nucleus of an e x i l e d s o c i e t y which d u r i n g the t h i r d of a century i t f l o u r - i s h e d remained p r a c t i c a l l y unknown to American i n t e l l e c t u a l s f o r whom the n o t i o n of Russian e m i g r a t i o n was made to mean by a s t u t e Communist propaganda a vague and p e r f e c t l y f i c t i t i o u s mass of s o - c a l l e d T r o t s k i i t e s ... r u i n e d r e a c t i o n a r i e s ... r e s t a u r a n t keepers, and White Russian m i l i t a r y groups, a l l of them of no c u l t u r a l importance whatever (Pnin, p. 184).

Jack Ludwig has argued t h a t Nabokov ignores the American 3 6

r e a l i t y . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Nabokov's response to Ludwig's

p i e c e almost by r e f l e x c e n t r e s on what Nabokov sees as p o l i t i c a l

(36) See Jack Ludwig, "The Ordinary Is, Too," in Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , pp. 346-49.

129

p r e s s u r e :

I remember, not without s a t i s f a c t i o n , how f i e r c e l y and f r e q u e n t l y , d u r i n g my l a s t year of high s c h o o l i n Russia (which was a l s o the f i r s t year of the r e v o l u t i o n ) , most of my t e a c h e r s and some of my. schoolmates accused me of being a " f o r e i g n e r " because I r e f u s e d to j o i n i n p o l i t i c a l d e c l a r - a t i o n s and demonstrations. Mr. Ludwig ... i n d i c a t e s with g r e a t sympathy and acumen the p o s s i b i l i t y of s i m i l a r a c c u s a t i o n s being made by my new f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s (Strong Opinions, p. 299).

Nabokov never f o r g e t s t h a t the a c t i v i t i e s of h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r s have a p o l i t i c a l context. There i s a tendency on the

p a r t of the c r i t i c s , however, to i s o l a t e the a r t i f i c i a l i t y of

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s , to the p o i n t where the n a r r a t o r s 1

a c t i v i t i e s seem to take p l a c e i n an a e s t h e t i c vacuum. I t seems

c r i t i c s tend to be overwhelmed by the a e s t h e t i c s t h a t Nabokov

propounds both i n s i d e and o u t s i d e h i s works:

[Nabokov] took the unexpected o c c a s i o n of h i s c e l e b r i t y [ a f t e r L o l i t a ] to p r o c l a i m what he had a l r e a d y been h i s s i n g through three decades of brimming o b s c u r i t y : t h a t he ... was not o n l y the g r e a t e s t but perhaps the o n l y w r i t e r of s e r i o u s f i c t i o n on the face of the e a r t h .

[Before] h i s death i n S w i t z e r l a n d at 78 ... no s m a l l amount of readers, c r i t i c s and academics had surrendered the l a s t laugh and accepted the a u t o c r a t i c o l d wizard a t a p p r o x i - mately h i s own e v a l u a t i o n . 2 ^

Nabokov never s a i d t h a t he was the "only w r i t e r of s e r i o u s

f i c t i o n on the face of the e a r t h " ; but i t i s t r u e t h a t h i s inno-

v a t i v e methods, h i s genius, and h i s repeated a t t a c k s on other

t h e o r i e s of the n o v e l , not to mention other n o v e l i s t s , have

caused some c r i t i c s to decide t h a t the standard c r i t i c a l terms

are inadequate. W i l l i a m C a r r o l l notes t h a t "Nabokov's f i c t i o n

(37) Boeth, p. 42.

130

spawns s p e c i a l c r i t i c a l v o c a b u l a r i e s and d i s e a s e s i n those who 3 8

attempt to-.account, f o r i t s p e r s i s t e n t l y odd e f f e c t . "

One symptom of the d i s e a s e , which can be s l i g h t or n e a r l y

f a t a l , depending on the p a t i e n t , i s a tendency to s l a n t one's

c r i t i c i s m i n the d i r e c t i o n of the a r t i f i c e of Nabokov's f i c t i o n ,

a t the expense of i t s realism. Alden Sprowles, f o r example,

complains t h a t one c r i t i c a l d i f f i c u l t y r e s u l t i n g from Nabokov's

" d i s t i n c t i v e s t y l e i s the i n e v i t a b l e urge to emulate or parody 39

i t w h i l e c r i t i z i n g him." The d i f f i c u l t y i s n i c e l y i l l u s t r a t e d

by Sprowles' own a r t i c l e , which he d e s c r i b e s as "a l o g i c a l

e x t e n s i o n of Kinbote's insane annotating ( i t s e l f a byproduct of

Nabokov's f o o t n o t i n g p r o c l i v i t i e s ) " (p. 288). A c t u a l l y , the

l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of Kinbote's insane annotating i s found l a t e r

i n the volume from which Sprowles' a r t i c l e i s taken. Kerry

Ahearn p r o v i d e s "A L o l i t a Crossword P u z z l e " (pp. 302-305), w i t h

up and down c l u e s from the n o v e l . One of my students

once informed me, a f t e r her prolonged- exposure to a course

f e a t u r i n g Nabokov, t h a t a l l of l i t e r a t u r e i s crossword p u z z l e s ;

nothing more, nothing l e s s .

C r i t i c s under Nabokov's s p e l l are t r o u b l e d by the i s s u e

of r e a l i s m . For example, here i s Gleb Struve n e r v o u s l y approaching

Nabokov's f i r s t n o v e l : With a l l i t s immaturity, Mashenka r e v e a l s some of the e s s e n t i a l s of Nabokov's l i t e r a r y t e c h - nique. He i s a " r e a l i s t " (I know he h i m s e l f d e t e s t s the use of such l a b e l s i n l i t e r a t u r e ) i n the sense t h a t ... . a n

(38) C a r r o l l , p. 203. (39) Sprowles, p. 228. (40) Struve, p. 47.

131

And here i s J u l i a Bader, on her way towards the inevitable

conclusion that "Nabokov's work eludes t r a d i t i o n a l rubrics

of interpretation":

Shuddering at Nabokov's wise caution ("Remember that mediocrity thrives on 'ideas.1 Beware of the modish message. Ask yourself i f the symbol you have detected i s not your own footprint. Ignore a l l e g o r i e s . . . " ) , I have several admissions to make. The "idea" of t h i s book i s that the various l e v e l s of " r e a l i t y " i n Nabokov's novels are best seen i n the perspective of the game of a r t i f i c e . . . . ~My "modish message" i s that i n various forms and strange ways a l l of Nabokov's novels are about a r t . . . . This sounds allegor- i c a l , but i n the footsteps of Van Veen I would l i k e to propose a theory....^

An example of a good c r i t i c who has nevertheless been

overly indoctrinated by the self-conscious narrators and by

Nabokov's public and private pronouncements i s A l f r e d Appel, J r .

Here he deals with those c r i t i c s who considered L o l i t a a s a t i r e :

[ L o l i t a 1 s ] greatness does not depend on the pro- fundity or extent of i t s " s a t i r e , " which i s over- emphasized by readers who f a i l to recognize the extent of the parody, i t s f u l l implications, or the operative d i s t i n c t i o n made by Nabokov: "Satire i s a lesson, parody i s a game. 2

Note that what Appel intends to be the crunching argument i s one

of Nabokov's personal rubrics; before we can c r i t i c i z e Nabokov,

we must commit to memory his operative d i s t i n c t i o n s . But perhaps

Appel's c a r e f u l l y q u a l i f i e d argument seems inoffensive; perhaps

Nabokov i s r i g h t and Appel i s h e l p f u l l y passing on a truth.

In the following example, however, which i s an extension of the

technique used above (that i s , borrowing Nabokov's weapons), Appel

(41) Bader, pp. 1-2. (42) Alfred Appel, Jr., "Background of Lolita," in Nabokov:

Criticism, p. 36.

1 3 2

attempts to bypass independent c r i t i c i s m a l t o g e t h e r i n j u s t i f i -

c a t i o n of h i s e a r l y (and v a l u a b l e ) review of Ada:

Because of the novel's amplitude and complexity, i t s a l l u s i v e n e s s , e l u s i v e n e s s , and g r a d u a l a c c r e t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l , my purpose here i s to l a b e l , r a t h e r than " i n t e r p r e t , " i t s contents and contours, an i n t e n t i o n f u l l y i n the s p i r i t of Van Veen and h i s maker. When Van i s pressed f o r a p s y c h i a t r i c e x p l a n a t i o n of two d e l u s i o n s , he d o u b t l e s s speaks too f o r Nabokov the l e p i d - o p t e r i s t , teacher, and t r a n s l a t o r and annotator of Eugene Onegin: " i n my works, I t r y not to ' e x p l a i n ' anything, I merely d e s c r i b e . . . . " ^

While the c r i t i c might sympathize w i t h the n o t i o n s of Nabokov's

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s , and l e a r n from them, i t i s dangerous to

i d e n t i f y them w i t h Nabokov, or to go f o r t h and c r i t i c i z e i n

t h e i r s p i r i t . When c r i t i c s begin to form c i r c u l a r t h e o r i e s i n

which a l l of Nabokov's a r t i s about a r t , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t

A l f r e d Appel, J r . should f i n d i t necessary to assure h i s readers

t h a t he i s a r e a l person, "and has not been invented by V l a d i m i r 44

Nabokov."

The Metaphysics of S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s

I t i s a mistake f o r the c r i t i c to a b s t r a c t the n o t i o n s of

Nabokov and h i s n a r r a t o r s i n t o an a e s t h e t i c i n which a r t i f i c e

predominates; i t i s a mistake because Nabokov's own a e s t h e t i c s

are p a r t of the f i c t i o n ' s v e r y s i n g u l a r , and very c o n s i s t e n t ,

world view, a world view t h a t does not r e l y on pure a r t i f i c e ,

or common-sense r e a l i s m , but on t h e i r complex i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n .

(43) Alfred Appel, Jr.,"Ada Described," in Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , p. 162. (44) Alfred Appel, Jr., The Annotated L o l i t a (New York: McGraw-Hill,

1970), p. x i i .

133

Nabokov's world view undeniably has a g r e a t d e a l to do

with p e r c e i v i n g the world i n a r t i s t i c terms. Clarence Brown, 4 5

who b e l i e v e s t h a t Nabokov's works r e v e a l an "absolute u n i t y , "

c i t e s one of the imaginary novels i n The Real L i f e of S e b a s t i a n

Knight: " A l l t h i n g s belong to the same order of t h i n g s , f o r

such i s the oneness of human p e r c e p t i o n , the oneness of i n d i v i d -

u a l i t y , , the oneness of matter, whatever matter may be. The o n l y

r e a l number i s one, the r e s t are mere r e p e t i t i o n " (p. 105).

A sense of the oneness of p e r c e p t i o n r e q u i r e s a s p e c i a l s e n s i b i l -

i t y , which i s why Nabokov chooses n a r r a t o r s as s e n s i t i v e as

Sebastian Knight, whose " s l i g h t e s t thought or s e n s a t i o n had

always a t l e a s t one more dimension than those of h i s neigh-

bors ..." (p. 66). Although the unique p e r c e p t i o n s of the s p e c i a l

s e n s i b i l i t y , which o f t e n i n c l u d e a p a r t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the

world, do not r e c e i v e b l a n k e t a p p r o v a l , they are unquestionably

encouraged. When a c h a r a c t e r says j u s t i f i a b l y enough t h a t K i n -

bote i s insane, John Shade r e p l i e s t h a t i n s a n i t y i s the wrong

word: "One should not apply i t to a person who d e l i b e r a t e l y

p e e l s o f f a drab and unhappy past and r e p l a c e s i t w i t h a b r i l l i a n t

i n v e n t i o n " (Pale F i r e , p. 169) . Hermann r e p o r t s t h a t "a Russian

author who l i v e s i n the neighborhood h i g h l y p r a i s e s my s t y l e and

v i v i d i m a g i n a t i o n " (Despair, p. 189).

Nabokov's n a r r a t o r s c o n t i n u a l l y p o s i t a world of harmony,

order, v a l u e and a l l the other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a e s t h e t i c and

s o c i a l Utopias. In "Cloud, C a s t l e , Lake," f o r example, one of

(45) Clarence Brown, "Nabokov's Pushkin and Nabokov's Nabokov," in Dembo, p. 200.

134

the n a r r a t o r ' s " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s " escapes the group p u r s u i t s of

a guided t o u r , and f i n d s h i s own p r i v a t e scenery:

I t was a pure, blue l a k e , w i t h an unusual e x p r e s s i o n of i t s water.... Of course, t h e r e are p l e n t y o f such views i n C e n t r a l Europe, but j u s t t h i s one — i n the i n e x p r e s s i b l e and unique harmoniousness of i t s three p r i n c i p a l , " p a r t s , i n i t s s m i l e , i n some mysterious inno- cence i t had ... — was something so unique, and so f a m i l i a r , and so long-promised, and i t so understood the beholder, t h a t V a s i l i Ivan- o v i c h even pressed h i s hand to h i s h e a r t , as i f to see whether h i s h e a r t was there In order to g i v e i t away (Nabokov's Dozen, p. 90) .

A r e g i o n so sympathetic t h a t i t understands the observer

might seem a simple i l l u s t r a t i o n of the p a t h e t i c f a l l a c y '.by"

which the observer animates an i n d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s e by i n v e s t i n g

i t w i t h h i s own s e n s i b i l i t y ; Nabokov's works are more compli-

cated than t h a t , p a r t l y because they c o n t a i n the p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t the n a r r a t o r 1 s imaginings i n some way correspond w i t h the

e x i g e n c i e s of r e a l i t y . John Shade, f o r example, says e x p l i c i t l y

t h a t the u n i v e r s e can o n l y be understood through a r t :

I f e e l I understand E x i s t e n c e , or a t l e a s t a minute p a r t Of my e x i s t e n c e , o n l y through my a r t , In terms of combinational d e l i g h t ; And i f my p r i v a t e u n i v e r s e scans r i g h t , So does the v e r s e of g a l a x i e s d i v i n e Which I suspect i s an iambic l i n e .

(Pale F i r e , 11. 570-76)

Pnin appears to escape r e a l i t y i n t o a b e t t e r world, which

Kinbote might c a l l the refuge of a r t :

• Then the l i t t l e sedan [ c o n t a i n i n g Pnin] b o l d l y swung p a s t the f r o n t t r u c k and, f r e e a t l a s t , spurted up the s h i n i n g road, which one c o u l d make out narrowing to a thread of g o l d i n the s o f t m i s t where h i l l a f t e r h i l l made beauty of distance,: and where there was simply no saying what m i r a c l e might happen (Pnin, p. 191).

135

But i n a sense Pnin i s escaping from the a r t i f i c e of the c r u e l

n a r r a t o r who i s t e l l i n g h i s s t o r y . The phrases sound romantic

( s o f t m i s t , thread of g o l d ) , but one should keep i n mind another

romantic, M a r t i n of G l o r y . Nabokov has e x p l a i n e d t h a t h i s

working t i t l e f o r the book, Romanticheskiy vek, which Nabokov

says t r a n s l a t e d as "romantic times," was chosen not to i n d i c a t e

escape from the r e a l world, but escape from the i l l u s i o n s of

j o u r n a l i s t s . He says, "I had had enough of h e a r i n g Western

j o u r n a l i s t s c a l l our age ' m a t e r i a l i s t i c , 1 ' p r a c t i c a l , ' ' u t i l i t -

a r i a n , ' " and he wanted to s t r e s s i n G l o r y the t h r i l l of "the

most o r d i n a r y p l e a s u r e s " (Glory, p. x ) . So perhaps Pnin's s t a t e

where anything can happen i s the r e a l world, as opposed to the

n a r r a t o r ' s world, j u s t as the escape of C i n c i n n a t u s t o a world

where t h e r e are beings a k i n to him i s an escape from the f a l s e

and t r a s h y world of a d i c t a t o r s h i p , and " a l l of t h i s t h e a t r i c a l ,

p a t h e t i c s t u f f --

the promises of a v o l a t i l e maiden, a mother's moist gaze, the knocking on the w a l l , a neigh- bor's f r i e n d l i n e s s , and, f i n a l l y , those h i l l s which broke out i n a deadly r a s h ( I n v i t a t i o n , p. 53) .

Behind d e t a i l s which seem to be mere metaphors, whimsical

e x e r c i s e s of fancy, there i s a metaphysic which i n c o r p o r a t e s

metaphor i n t o r e a l i t y . In The G i f t we l e a r n t h a t "a very success-

f u l ant f l i g h t was staged: ... i n p l a c e s where nobody bothered

them they kept c r a w l i n g along the g r a v e l and shedding t h e i r

f e e b l e prop-room wings" (p. 72). These metaphors a l l u d i n g to

the i l l u s i o n s of s t a g e c r a f t d i s g u i s e the f a c t t h a t the n a r r a t o r

has i n mind the process of metamorphosis i n the n a t u r a l world,

136

a process he invokes l a t e r i n the paragraph: i ;The l i n d e n s

went through a l l t h e i r i n v o l v e d , aromatic, messy metamorphoses."

When Nabokov was asked whether h i s a e s t h e t i c t r i c k s and s l e i g h t -

of-hand served any purpose o t h e r than amusement, he r e p l i e d by

r e l a t i n g d e c e p t i o n to " t h a t other V.N., V i s i b l e Nature." An

i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e , he says, i s " o r g a n i c . " "The s l e i g h t - o f - h a n d

you mention i s h a r d l y more than an i n s e c t ' s s l e i g h t - o f - w i n g "

(Strong Opinions, p. 153).

Rather than arguing t h a t Nabokov and h i s n a r r a t o r s are

h o s t i l e to r e a l i t y , one should note t h a t r e a l i t y i s h o s t i l e

to them. Pnin i s t o r t u r e d not only by the n a r r a t o r , but by

grim h i s t o r y :

In order to e x i s t r a t i o n a l l y , Pnin had taught h i m s e l f , d u r i n g the l a s t ten years, never to remember M i r a B e l o c h k i n ... because, i f one were q u i t e s i n c e r e w i t h o n e s e l f , no conscience, and hence no consciousness, c o u l d be expected to s u b s i s t i n a world where such t h i n g s as M i r a ' s death were p o s s i b l e (Pnin, pp. 134-35).

The n a r r a t o r of "The Leonardo" attempts to r o m a n t i c i z e an unworthy

hero, one Romantovski, who the n a r r a t o r b e l i e v e s i s " triumphing

over the world through p o e t r y . The t r u t h of t h i n g s convinces

him otherwise, and h i s f a i t h i n the hero d i s s i p a t e s , as does

h i s a b i l i t y to assemble a s u i t a b l e stage s e t :

My poor Romantovski! ... I b e l i e v e d , l e t me c o n f e s s , t h a t you were a remarkable poet whom poverty o b l i g e d to dwell i n t h a t s i n i s t e r d i s t r i c t . I b e l i e v e d , on the strength of c e r t a i n i n d i c e s , t h a t every n i g h t , by working on a l i n e of v e r s e or n u r s i n g a growing i d e a , you c e l e b r a t e d an i n v u l n e r a b l e v i c t o r y over the b r o t h e r s . My poor Romantovski! I t i s a l l over now. A l a s , the o b j e c t s I had assembled wander away. The young p o p l a r dims and takes o f f •— to r e t u r n where i t had been f e t c h e d from. The b r i c k w a l l d i s s o l v e s .

137

The house draws i n i t s l i t t l e balconies one by one, then turns, and f l o a t s away. Everything f l o a t s away. Harmony and meaning vanish. The world i r k s me again with i t s variegated void (Russian Beauty, pp. 23-24).

P a t r i c i a Merivale argues that the t i d a l p u l l of the

r e a l world distinguishes Nabokov from Borges:

These Prosperos, the p o e t - c o n j u r o r s of our own day, flaunt the complex a r t i f i c e s of t h e i r revels with equal s k i l l ; but while Nabokov usually dismisses his actors "into t h i n a i r " and returns us to the r e a l world, Borges takes the argument to i t s conclusion, and perpet- u a l l y reminds us that both author and reader "are such s t u f f / As dreams are made on.",,,

An example of the ways i n which Nabokov returns us to the r e a l

world occurs i n "An A f f a i r of Honor." The hero of the story,

Anton Petrovich, i s a f e a r f u l man unfortunately involved i n a

duel. Although the story i s t o l d to a large extent i n the

thoughts of the hero, the narrator interrupts at one stage of

Anton Petrovich's sleepless night to comment on his hero's

mental state: "And then Anton Petrovich did the very worst

thing a man i n his s i t u a t i o n could have done: he decided to

reason out what death r e a l l y meant" (Russian Beauty, pp. 100-101).

That l i n e , so matter of fact and experienced, demonstrates that

the intrusion of a self-conscious narrator does not necessarily

imply f a n c i f u l a r t i f i c e .

Later the hero runs frightened from the duel, and to com-

pensate for his f a i l u r e i n courage begins to imagine a happy

ending for himself. He imagines his friends t e l l i n g him every-

thing i s f i n e :

(46; Patricia Merivale, "The Flaunting of Artifice in Vladimir Nabokov and Jorge Luis Borges," in Dembo, p. 224.

138

"And you came out of i t honorably, while he [Berg, the d u e l l i s t ] i s d i s g r a c e d f o r e v e r . And, most important, your w i f e , when she heard about i t , immediately l e f t Berg and r e t u r n e d to you. And you must f o r g i v e her."

Anton P e t r o v i c h smiled b r o a d l y , got up, and s t a r t e d f i d d l i n g w i t h the r i b b o n of h i s monocle. His smile s l o w l y faded away. Such t h i n g s don't happen i n r e a l l i f e (p. 115).

In s h o r t , Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s are not

merely imps l e a d i n g the reader through l a y e r s of a r t i f i c e towards

an i n f i n i t e l y r e g r e s s i v e s o l i p s i s m . Nabokovian s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

i n v o l v e s a marriage of a r t i f i c e and r e a l i s m , and a t times i m p l i e s

t h e i r i d e n t i t y . Nabokov's metaphysic i s d i f f i c u l t to d e f i n e ,

but i t seems c l e a r t h a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , a major

c o n t r i b u t o r to Nabokov's f i c t i o n , i s n e i t h e r a s o l i p s i s t nor

a r e a l i s t , but the spokesman o r agent of a much more comprehen-

s i v e and s u b t l e world view. I t i s the s p e c i a l g i f t of Nabokov's

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s to i n v o l v e the reader i n the complicated

i n t e r p l a y of r e a l i s m and a r t i f i c e ; the reader's a e s t h e t i c

p l e a s u r e s are i n c r e a s e d , and, p a r a d o x i c a l l y enough, he i s made

aware of what Kinbote c a l l s the "human r e a l i t y " of p l o t s and

metaphors, poems and commentators. He l e a r n s to sympathize

w i t h f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s l i v i n g i n imaginary d i c t a t o r s h i p s .

i n

THE MURDEROUS SELF-CONSCIOUS NARRATOR:

THE FICTION OF DONALD BARTHELME

Introduction

Modernist writing i s e b u l l i e n t l y p a r r i c i d a l and c a n n i b a l i s t i c . ^

[T]he o r i g i n a l , authentic s e l f ... i s a d i r t y great v i l l a i n ....^

C r i t i c s r a r e l y attempt to place Nabokov i n the t r a d i t i o n of

American l i t e r a t u r e , despite his insistence that he i s as Ameri-

can as apple pie and Arizona. There have been more numerous

attempts to place him i n the Russian t r a d i t i o n ; for example,

Simon Karlinsky tentatively - f i t s Nabokov, Chekhov and perhaps

Pushkin into what Karlinsky c a l l s " b i o l o g i c a l humanitarianism,"

as opposed to the i d e o l o g i c a l humanitarianism of Dostoevsky, 3

Tolstoy and others. Although the emigre" c r i t i c s were for the

most part disappointed by Nabokov's divergence from Russian

l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , some consoled themselves by discerning

(1) Morris D i c k s t e i n , " F i c t i o n Hot and Kool: Dilemmas of the Experimental:. Wrifeer.," TriQuarterly, No. 33 (1975) , 261. - • "

'(2) Donald Barthelme'; "Daumier," in Sadness (New York: Farrar, Straus', and Giroux, 1972), p. 163. Subsequent references to works by Barthelme in t h i s chapter w i l l consist of page numbers and t i t l e s in parentheses- The publishing data for works not documented previously are as follows: C i t y L i f e (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1970); The Dead Father (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975); G u i l t y Pleasures (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1974); Unspeakable P r a c t i c e s , Unnatural Acts (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973).

(3) Simon Karlinsky, "Nabokov and Chekhov: The Lesser Russian T r a d i t i o n , " in Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , p. 16.

140

a f f i n i t i e s w i t h Gogol and c o n c l u d i n g t h a t Nabokov had i n h e r i t e d

the " i r r a t i o n a l , comic and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y i n v e n t i v e t r a d i t i o n 4

which passed through Dostoevsky to Andrey Bely

N e v e r t h e l e s s , Nabokov's f i c t i o n o f t e n appears to be o u t s i d e

l i t e r a t u r e ' s n a t i o n a l boundaries, programmatically s u i g e n e r i s .

Ivan Bunin remarked to a f r i e n d i n 19 30 t h a t Nabokov had i n t r o -

duced "a new k i n d of l i t e r a r y a r t , " "a whole new u n i v e r s e , " ^

and Nabokov h i m s e l f , never l o a t h e to p r e s e n t h i m s e l f as someone

o u t s i d e the r u l e s that govern the rest of us, once, said, "I'm the shuttle-

cock over the A t l a n t i c , and how b r i g h t and blue i t i s t h e r e ,

i n my p r i v a t e sky, f a r from the pigeonholes and the c l a y pigeons"

(Strong Opinions, p. 117). The impression of s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i s

p a r t l y due to Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i v e methods, i n

which the p l o t i s always under the o v e r t c o n t r o l of an a e s t h e t i c

s e n s i b i l i t y , and p a r t l y due to the i m p l i e d correspondence between

the r u l e s of the u n i v e r s e and the v i s i o n s of the i m a g i n a t i o n .

A sense of s e r e n i t y and a t l e a s t p o t e n t i a l order i s strengthened

by Nabokov's f a i t h i n the good o f f i c e s of the i m a g i n a t i o n ; as

he says i n the Foreword to The Eye, the ''forces of the imagin-

a t i o n " are, i n the long run, "the f o r c e s of good" (p.LO).

Nabokov's a e s t h e t i c s e r e n i t y i s unknown i n the f i c t i o n of

Donald Barthelme. Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are e q u a l l y s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s , but i n t h e i r e g o c e n t r i c worlds the c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n

has gone sour. When Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s attempt to emulate

(4) Jane Grayson, Nabokov Translated (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977), p. 218.

(5) Galina Kuznetsova, Grasskii dnevnik, as quoted in Karlinsky, "Nabokov and Chekhov," p. 16.

141

Nabokov's z e s t f o r a n t i - b o u r g e o i s thought and a c t i o n , they j o i n

an i n t i m i d a t i n g crowd of e q u a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d e l i t i s t s .

I d i o s y n c r a t i c behavior has become the s o c i a l norm, and the con-

v e n i e n t t a r g e t s once presented by lumbering p h i l i s t i n e s have

disappeared. Worse s t i l l , the Utopian o p t i o n s w i t h i n Nabokov's

f i c t i o n have been d i s c r e d i t e d , s i n c e the i m a g i n a t i o n no longer

works i t s way towards u n i v e r s a l o r d e r , but towards chaos and

c o n f u s i o n . Consider, f o r example, the n a r r a t o r ' s a t t i t u d e towards

l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f . Nabokov mocks and p a r o d i e s l i t e r a t u r e ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y bad l i t e r a t u r e , but t h e r e i s an u n d e r l y i n g reverence

f o r a r t — choosing Pushkin over Thomas Mann i s a moral a c t .

In Barthelme a r t i t s e l f i s suspect, and h i s many n a r r a t o r - a r t i s t s

complain b i t t e r l y about t h e i r r o l e .

Some of the themes o u t l i n e d i n the p r e v i o u s paragraph are

p l a t i t u d e s of the avant garde — the breakdown of a r t , p h i l o s o p h i c

chaos, the D e c l i n e and F a l l of C i v i l i z a t i o n As We Know I t .

There i s a s p i r i t of s a t i r e i n Barthelme t h a t mocks f a s h i o n a b l e

angst and p a c e - s e t t i n g e x i s t e n t i a l gloom. However, Barthelme's

s a t i r e d i f f e r s from the g r e a t models of the e i g h t e e n t h century,

i n which s a t i r e s o f t e n presented p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s : Pope's

reason, S w i f t ' s Houyhnhnms, the exemplary l a t e r l i f e of Mr.

Wilson i n Joseph Andrews — each suggesting the l o s t Golden

World of reasonable and v i r t u o u s conduct. In Barthelme's

f i c t i o n , the n a r r a t o r ' s impulse towards s a t i r e on the c u r r e n t

s t a t e of a f f a i r s i s matched by h i s c o m p l i c i t y i n those a f f a i r s .

Barthelme h i m s e l f may be above the s t r u g g l e , but h i s n a r r a t o r s

o f t e n m i r r o r the g e n e r a l l o s s of nerve, the d e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f -

142

consciousness of the s e l f i s h modern world, and there i s no way

out f o r them, e i t h e r i n p e r s o n a l conduct or i n a r t . The n a r r a t o r s ,

l i k e t h e i r s o c i e t y , are b r a i n damaged:

Oh t h e r e ' s b r a i n damage i n the e a s t , and b r a i n damage i n the west.... B r a i n damage caused by a r t . I c o u l d d e s c r i b e i t b e t t e r i f I weren't a f f l i c t e d with i t . . . ( " B r a i n Damage," C i t y L i f e , p. 146).

However, Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s techniques do not

"celebrate"..layers of a r t i f i c e i n which e v e r y t h i n g i s f u t i l e and

nothing i s r e a l . S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a l s o a means of s e l f -

d i s c o v e r y ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , what i s d i s c o v e r e d i s unpleasant.

In terms of the p e r v e r s e C a t h o l i c i s m t h a t permeates Barthelme's

f i c t i o n l i k e a b l a c k mass, man i s d i s c o v e r e d to be i n h e r e n t l y

s i n f u l and wicked. His attempts to confess h i s s i n s are f a i l u r e s

s i n c e there i s no a u t h o r i t a t i v e f i g u r e to determine value --

no p r i e s t s , no Pope, no o r d e r . A sense of i n h e r e n t s i n f u l n e s s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n f u l n e s s without recourse to c o n f e s s i o n , connects

Barthelme with both America's r e a l i s t t r a d i t i o n and the e a r l y

P u r i t a n t r a d i t i o n . C e r t a i n l y N o r r i s would have no d i f f i c u l t y

r e c o g n i z i n g Barthelme's d i r t y g r e a t v i l l a i n o u s s e l f . Hawthorne's

nightmares i n c l u d e d Young Goodman Brown's d i s c o v e r y of f a i t h l e s s

F a i t h , and the d i s e a s e d i m a g i n a t i o n of the Reverend Dimmesdale.

One t h i n k s a l s o of M e l v i l l e ' s C l a g g a r t , and Poe's imp

of the perverse, and of course the doomed s i n n e r s of Wiggles-

worth and the other New England keepers of the f l o c k . Under-

l y i n g Barthelme 's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i f i c e i s a sense of the

American r e a l i t y which i s as strong as t h a t of h i s more convention-

a l l y r e a l i s t i c contemporaries. In Jack Ludwig's terms,

Barthelme i s another devotee of America's " l o n g e s t s t a n d i n g ,

1 4 3

most profound f i x " ; t h a t i s , d e l i b e r a t i o n s about "the nature

and meaning of r e a l i t y , " based on what Ludwig c a l l s "the t e r r i f y - 1 6

i n g p e r v a s i v e n e s s of the a c t u a l l y o r d i n a r y . "

P a r t l y by means of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , who, as

we s h a l l see, has a r e a l i s t i c v o i c e as w e l l as an a r t i f i c i a l

v o i c e , Barthelme both m i r r o r s a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s o c i e t y and

p e n e t r a t e s through to the motive f o r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . At the

heart o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s he d i s c o v e r s the r e a l American

p e r s o n a l i t y ; d e s p i t e c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and f i t f u l attempts

a t optimism, the e s s e n t i a l p e r s o n a l i t y i s murderous, the o l d

b a r b a r i a n , C a i n the k i l l e r .

The Urban N e u r o t i c

L e t us d e l i n e a t e Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s o c i e t y ,

as r e p r e s e n t e d by the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . U n l i k e Nabokov's

n a r r a t o r s , Barthelme's do not c u l t i v a t e t h e i r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

as p a r t of the h e a l t h y e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i r l i f e - g i v i n g d i f f e r -

ences. They are h e l p l e s s l y , a u t o m a t i c a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ,

s i n c e t h e i r s o c i e t y now i n d u l g e s i n an a c t i v i t y t h a t has

r e p l a c e d , say, farming i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y , or r e l i g i o n

i n a theocracy. S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s i n e v i t a b l e when the

s a l i e n t f e a t u r e of the s o c i a l context i s i t s l a c k of context.

The n a r r a t o r s are c i t y d w e l l e r s w i t h l i t t l e sense of t h e i r

c i t y ' s h i s t o r y , or i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to the surrounding n a t i o n ;

they have no f a m i l y t i e s , and t h e i r sense of the n a t u r a l world

i s l i m i t e d to a dim impression of t a l l b u i l d i n g s . T h e i r very

names are bland and u n r e v e a l i n g ; i n the case of Snow White's

(6) Ludwig, pp. 347, 348.

144

seven communal dwarfs — Clem, Hubert, Dan, Kevin, B i l l , e t c . —

the names, l i k e the c h a r a c t e r s , are d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e r c h a n g e -

a b l e . The n a r r a t o r s ' jobs are g e n e r a l l y absurd or i r r e l e v a n t .

They are simply of the c i t y , anonymous c i t i z e n s . The novel's

t r a d i t i o n a l g r i d c o - o r d i n a t e s of community and the n a t u r a l

world have disappeared.

Rather than b u i l d up a composite p i c t u r e of Barthelme's

r o o t l e s s n a r r a t o r from the many examples i n h i s f i c t i o n , l e t us

use as a r o l e model Barthelme h i m s e l f . Although he i s l e s s

r e l e n t l e s s l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l than Nabokov, the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

glimpses i n h i s f i c t i o n , n o n - f i c t i o n and r a r e i n t e r v i e w s seem

very c l o s e to the enervated, i n t r o s p e c t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l f e a t u r e d

i n the s t o r i e s . Barthelme's range of p e r s o n a l i t y types i s

i n f a c t very l i m i t e d ; the n a r r a t o r s , c h a r a c t e r s and the author-

i a l v o i c e i t s e l f a l l speak i n s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s , and perhaps

they a l l c o u l d have had the background of "the most i m i t a t e d 7

f i c t i o n i s t i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s today."

Barthelme was brought up and educated i n Houston, Texas,

where h i s f a t h e r was an a r c h i t e c t . "He was something of an

anomaly i n Texas i n the t h i r t i e s , " says Barthelme about h i s

f a t h e r . "The atmosphere of the house was p e c u l i a r i n t h a t

there were very l a r g e a r c h i t e c t u r a l books around and the c o n s i d -

e r a t i o n s were: What was Mies doing, what was A a l t o doing,

what was Neutra up t o , what about Wright?"

(7) According to P h i l i p Stevick, as quoted in Jerome Klinkowitz, "Donald Barthelme," in Bellamy, p. 45.

145

In the l a t e t h i r t i e s my f a t h e r b u i l t a house f o r us, something not too d i s s i m i l a r to Mies's Tugendhat house. I t was wonderful to l i v e i n but strange to see on the Texas p r a i r i e . On Sundays people used to park t h e i r c a r s out on the s t r e e t and s t a r e . We had a r o u t i n e , the f a m i l y , on Sundays. We used to get up from Sunday d i n n e r , i f enough c a r s had parked, and run out i n f r o n t of the house i n a s o r t of chorus l i n e , doing high k i c k s . g

One can immediately d i s c e r n the s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l

i n f l u e n c e s t h a t l e d Barthelme to develop a s t y l e t h a t minimizes

the context of l o c a l e . Doing high k i c k s i n the f a c e s of the

l o c a l y o k e l s might l e a d to f i c t i o n f a r removed from t h a t of

h i s f e l l o w Texan author, L a r r y McMurtry. In h i s e x c e l l e n t

novels, McMurtry a l l o w s h i s c o l o r f u l Texas c h a r a c t e r s and the

s p i r i t of the p l a c e to u n f o l d i n a l e i s u r e l y , o l d - f a s h i o n e d

manner. His n a r r a t o r s , g e n e r a l l y omniscient and o b j e c t i v e ,

or e l s e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f i r s t - p e r s o n , never s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y

d i s r u p t the smooth flow of the n a r r a t i v e ; the f i c t i o n a l process

i s subordinated to Texas and Texans. 'By c o n t r a s t , Barthelme mocks

l o c a l c o l o r with arch r e f e r e n c e s to tumbleweeds and dogies.

The f o l l o w i n g v i g n e t t e from Snow White, i n which Paul the P r i n c e

poses by a Western fence, suggests Barthelme's i r o n i c d i s t a n c e

from myths of the Marlboro man:

I f I had been born w e l l p r i o r to.1900, I c o u l d have r i d d e n w i t h Pershing a g a i n s t Pancho V i l l a . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , I c o u l d have r i d d e n w i t h V i l l a against 'the landowners and c o r r u p t government o f f i c i a l s of the time. In e i t h e r case, I would have had a horse. How l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y t h e r e i s f o r young men to have p e r s o n a l l y owned horses i n the bottom h a l f of the t w e n t i e t h century! A wonder t h a t we U.S. youth can s t i l l

(8) "Donald Barthelme," in Bellamy, pp. 46-47.

146

f o r k a saddle a t a l l . . . . Of course there are those 'horses' under the hoods of Buicks and P o n t i a c s . . . . But those 'horses' are not f o r me. They take the tan out of my cheeks and the lank out of my arms and l e g s . Tom Lea or Pete Hurd w i l l never p a i n t me standing by the fence i f I am s i t t i n g i n s i d e an Eldorado, S t a r f i r e , R i v i e r a or Mustang...„(pp. 78-79).

Note Paul's symptomatic ambivalence towards q u e s t i o n s of

p r i n c i p l e - whether he f i g h t s f o r Pershing or V i l l a , he gets

what he wants, a horse to pose on. Note the mockery of the

western ethos i n such phrases as f o r k i n g a saddle and the

d e s i r a b l e lankness of l e g . Note most of a l l t h a t the n a r r a t o r

i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y aware of h i m s e l f as an i n a p p r o p r i a t e

urban cowboy i n a p a i n t e d Western scene.

Meanwhile the r e a l Donald Barthelme was not a cowboy i n

Texas, but i n 1957 the founding e d i t o r of the U n i v e r s i t y of

Houston Forum, " w h i c h - - w i t h i t s e a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n of Walker

Percy, W i l l i a m H. Gass, Joseph Lyons ... — w a s f o r a time 9

as much a l o c a l anomaly as the Barthelme Tugendhat home."

Barthelme moved to New York, where he was f i r s t the managing

e d i t o r of an a r t s and o p i n i o n p e r i o d i c a l c a l l e d L o c a t i o n , and

then a New Yorker w r i t e r . "The Teaching of Don B. : A Yankee Way

Knowledge" p r o v i d e s a s e l f - p o r t r a i t i n a New York c o n t e x t : While doing a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f i e l d work i n Manhattan some years ago I met, on West E l e v e n t h S t r e e t , a male Yankee of i n d e t e r - minate age whose name, I was t o l d , was Don B. I found him l e a n i n g a g a i n s t a b u i l d i n g i n a profound t o r p o r - perhaps the profoundest

(9) Jerome Klinkowitz, L i t e r a r y Disruptions: The Making of a Post-Contemporary American F i c t i o n (Urbana, I l l i n o i s : Univ. of I l l i n o i s Press, 1975), p. 63.

147

t o r p o r I have ever seen. He was a t a l l i s h man w i t h an unconvincing beard and was dressed, i n the f a s h i o n of the V i l l a g e , i n jeans and a blue work s h i r t (Guilty P l e a s u r e s , p. 53).

Even a l l o w i n g f o r the C a r l o s Castaneda parody, here are the

a t t r i b u t e s of a Barthelme n a r r a t o r : indeterminate age, u n c e r t a i n

beard, c l o t h e s t h a t meekly conform to the blue urban uniform. He

i s not a unique and a s p e c i a l i n d i v i d u a l , but a s t a t i s t i c

i n someone's a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . The source of h i s

p r o f o u n d l y p a s s i v e t o r p o r i s the non-context of the c i t y . The

anonymity and l o n e l i n e s s of the c i t y encourage the n a r r a t o r

to look i n t o h i m s e l f f o r v a l u e , but a t the same time the c i t y

denies him any c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l sources of v a l u e .

In "The Indian U p r i s i n g , " f o r example, a c i t y vaguely r e m i n i s c e n t

of New York i s conquered by Commanches. The i n h a b i t a n t s are

unable to defend themselves, d e s p i t e d e f e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n s from

such c u l t u r a l touchstones as T.S. E l i o t and Hamlet: "On the map

we c o n s i d e r e d the s i t u a t i o n w i t h i t s strung-out i n h a b i t a n t s and

merely p e r s o n a l emotions" (Unspeakable, pp. 6-7). Cohesive

s t r a t e g y i s i m p o s s i b l e :

"What i s -the s i t u a t i o n ? " I asked. "The s i t u a t i o n i s l i q u i d , " he s a i d . "We

h o l d the south q u a r t e r and they h o l d the n o r t h q u a r t e r . The r e s t i s s i l e n c e . " (p. 7)

Instead of s t r e e t s i g n s t h a t r e f e r to the n a t u r a l world (Elm,

Maple) or i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r u c t u r e (Main) or t r a d i t i o n (Washington

Ave.), Barthelme's s t r e e t s are named a f t e r ephemeral c u l t u r e

heroes: "She ran o f f down George C. M a r s h a l l All'ee ..." (p. 7).

The b a r r i c a d e s themselves are composed of ceramic a s h t r a y s ,

b o t t l e s of Black and White, corkscrews and Y u g o s l a v i a n carved

148

f l u t e s . The c i t y i s composed of pop t r a s h , and i t i s not worth

defending:

I spoke to S y l v i a . "Do you t h i n k t h i s i s a good l i f e ? " The t a b l e h e l d apples, books, l o n g - p l a y i n g r e c o r d s . She looked up. "No." (p. 3).

The n a r r a t o r h a l f welcomes the Commanches. He looks i n t o t h e i r

savage b l a c k eyes and imagines the end of what semblance of

order the c i t y possesses, the " c l e a r , neat rows of houses i n

the s u b d i v i s i o n s " (p. 1 2 ) .

The P h i l o s o p h y of Chaos

The urban environment f o r c e s Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s to

l e a d a r i d , s t e r i l e l i v e s , which n a t u r a l l y enough o c c a s i o n s

a r i d and s t e r i l e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i n k i n g never leads

to i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c o v e r y ; a n a l y s i s never leads to a c t i o n ;

c l e v e r and f a c i l e a r t i c u l a t i o n and pseudo-eloquence never q u i t e

l e a d to the s a t i s f a c t i o n s of a r t . Whenever the n a r r a t o r s

attempt t o surmount the d r e a r y urban p a r t i c u l a r s of t h e i r

l i v e s , and t r y to see over the t a l l . / f o r b i d d i n g b u i l d i n g s ,

they must contend w i t h the \ d i s o r d e r l y f i c t i o n a l -

cosmos. They dwell i n p h i l o s o p h i c chaos, f r u s t r a t e d by i n t e l -

l e c t u a l dead ends and random phenomena. When Barthelme was

asked i f any g e n e r a l conceptions of space and time were r e f l e c t e d

i n h i s f i c t i o n , he answered "No";^ the s t o r i e s present p l e n t y

of reasons f o r t a k i n g him a t h i s word:

(10) "Donald Barthelme," in Bellamy, p. 51.

149

t h a t ' s chaos can you produce chaos? A l i c e asked c e r t a i n l y I can produce chaos I s a i d I produced chaos she regarded the chaos chaos i s handsome and a t t r a c t i v e she s a i d and more durable than r e g r e t I s a i d and more n o u r i s h i n g than r e g r e t she s a i d

t w i r l i n g around on my piano s t o o l my head begins to swim my head begins to swim t w i r l i n g around on my piano s t o o l t w i r l i n g around on my piano s t o o l a d i z z y s p e l l eventuates t w i r l i n g around on my piano s t o o l I begin to f e e l d i z z y t w i r l i n g around on my piano s t o o l

chaos i s t a s t y AND USEFUL TOO

( " A l i c e , " Unspeakable, pp. 120,119,122)

S i m i l a r l y , i n "Up, A l o f t i n the A i r , " the n a r r a t o r e x p l o r e s

America from an untrustworthy a i r p l a n e : "In case of orange and blue flames," he wrote on the wing, "disengage y o u r s e l f ""from the a i r c r a f t by chopping a h o l e i n i t s bottom i f necessary.... I suggest t h a t you be alarmed.

You are up i n the a i r perhaps 35.000 f e e t , with orange and blue flames on the o u t s i d e and a ragged hole i n the f l o o r b o a r d s . What w i l l you do?" ( C a l i g a r i , p. 127).

The confused, d i z z y , t e r r i f i e d n a r r a t o r o f t e n proposes

an e x i t to some b e t t e r u n i v e r s e next door. A f t e r the d u l l

round of events i n "The P a r t y , " the n a r r a t o r t u r n s to h i s f r i e n d

and says:

Dear Francesca, t e l l me, i s t h i s a s u c c e s s f u l p a r t y , i n your view? ... I know t h a t you have always wanted to meet [King] Kong; now t h a t you have met him and he has s a i d whatever he has s a i d to you ... can we go home? I mean you to your home, me to my home, a l l those o t h e r s to t h e i r own homes, c e l l s , cages? I am f e e l i n g a l i t t l e ragged. What made us t h i n k we c o u l d escape t h i n g s l i k e bankruptcy, a l c o h o l i s m , being d i s a p p o i n t e d , having c h i l d r e n ? Say "No," r e f u s e me once and f o r a l l , l e t me t r y something e l s e (Sadness, p. 62).

150

The concept of something e l s e , some o t h e r country, r e c u r s i n

Barthelme's f i c t i o n , as i t does i n Nabokov's f i c t i o n ; however,

Barthelme i s even more vague than Nabokov about the terms of

any p r o s p e c t i v e Utopia, probably because the context of h i s

f i c t i o n makes i t c l e a r t h a t there i s no p h i l o s o p h i c a l escape

hatch. S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s l e a d s the s e l f nowhere. The demoral-

i z i n g search f o r v a l u e sometimes l e a d s the n a r r a t o r s to wonder

whether t h e i r c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e serves any purpose. In a

review of a Graham Greene n o v e l , Barthelme q u e s t i o n s the n o t i o n

t h a t any a c t i o n , a good or an e v i l a c t i o n , i s p r e f e r a b l e to

p a s s i v e i n d i f f e r e n c e :

The c h i e f modern l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s p o s i t i o n i s T.S. E l i o t ' s , i n h i s 1930 essay on B a u d e l a i r e : "So f a r as we are human, what we do must be e i t h e r e v i l or good; so f a r as we do e v i l or good, we are human; and i t i s b e t t e r , i n a p a r a d o x i c a l way, to do e v i l than to do n o t h i n g : a t l e a s t , we e x i s t . " Mr. E l i o t ' s remarks, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , are themselves a t the mercy of an unexamined assumption, t h a t i t i s b e t t e r to e x i s t than not to e x i s t . T h i s , t o say the l e a s t , has not been proved, and i t i s the genius of a n o v e l i s t l i k e Beckett t h a t h i s c h a r a c t e r s a c t p r e c i s e l y i n the area of the unexamined assumption: they yearn toward;:) n o n e x i s t e n c e . ^

The n a r r a t o r s ' c o n f u s i o n and d e s p a i r i s d i s g u i s e d by the

comic tone. The n a r r a t o r s tend to t r e a t e x i s t e n c e l i g h t l y , and

r a r e l y seem tempted to demonstrate u n i v e r s a l n i h i l i s m by such

apt a c t i o n s as s u i c i d e . They a v o i d any such a c t i o n because even

n i h i l i s m i m p l i e s a system of thought, an orthodoxy, and the

(11) Donald Barthelme, "The Tired Terror of Graham Greene," Holiday, A p r i l 1966, pp. 148-49.

151

n a r r a t o r s r a r e l y h o l d to any i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s i t i o n f o r l o n g .

I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r the c r i t i c to demonstrate t h a t the n a r r a t o r s

are confused and thrown back on themselves because they l a c k

the mental landmarks of l o g i c and order; i t i s d i f f i c u l t because

such lumbering terms as " n i h i l i s m " and " s o l i p s i s m " are c o n t i n -

u a l l y undercut by Barthelme's use of t e r s e , i r o n i c , d i s r u p t i v e

statements t h a t never c o a l e s c e i n t o a philosophy of meaning or

non-meaning. The n a r r a t o r s speak and t h i n k i n fragments.

According to one n a r r a t o r , "Fragments are the o n l y form I t r u s t "

("See the Moon?" Unspeakable, p. 157).

That l i n e has become a catch-phrase among Barthelme's

admirers and enemies. I t i s taken almost metonymically as the

substance of Barthelme 1 s a e s t h e t i c . For example, Joyce C a r o l

Oates too f r e e l y a s s o c i a t e s the n a r r a t o r w i t h the author:

"Fragments are the o n l y form I t r u s t . " T h i s from a w r i t e r of arguable genius, whose work r e f l e c t s the a n x i e t y he h i m s e l f must f e e l , i n book a f t e r book, t h a t h i s b r a i n i s a l l fragments ... j u s t l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . . . . [E]ven the c o n s t r u c t i o n of h i s sentence i s symptomatic of h i s r o l e : I t begins w i t h "fragments," the s t e r n h e a l t h y noun, and con- c l u d e s with the weak " I " . But. There i s a p o i n t i n h i s t o r y a t which Wilde's remark comes h o r r i b l y t r u e , t h a t l i f e w i l l i m i t a t e a r t . And then who i s i n charge., who b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f so c l e v e r l y impotent, who supposed he had a b d i c a t e d a l l conscious d e s i g n •••?^2

Speaking f o r the a f f i r m a t i v e , as i t were, R i c h a r d S c h i c k e l

says,

(12) O a t e s , " G u e s t . W o r d , " p . ' 6 3 .

152

You w i l l perhaps r e c a l l Barthelme's most quoted dictum: "The o n l y forms I t r u s t are fragments." [ s i c ] We p e r c e i v e i n fragments, l i v e i n fragments, are no doubt dying by fragments; should we not, then, w r i t e i n fragments, emphas- i z i n g thereby the strange d i s j u n c t i o n s , the even s t r a n g e r j u x t a p o s i t i o n s , t h a t are p a r t of the everyday experience of modern l i f e ? - ^

Although one applauds S c h i c k e l ' s attempt to oppose a r e a l i s t i c

a e s t h e t i c ("everyday experience of modern l i f e " ) to Oates'

p r e d i c t a b l e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t Barthelme has s u b s t i t u t e d the impotent

v a l u e s of a r t f o r h e a l t h y l i f e , i t remains dangerous to a s c r i b e

to Barthelme any f i x e d a e s t h e t i c philosophy, p a r t i c u l a r l y one

taken verbatim from a n a r r a t o r . Barthelme has p u b l i s h e d a

humorous r e t r a c t i o n of the fragments l i n e , which he says i s a

"statement by the c h a r a c t e r about what he i s f e e l i n g a t t h a t

p a r t i c u l a r moment."

I hope t h a t whatever I t h i n k about a e s t h e t i c s would be a shade more complicated than t h a t . Because t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l i n e - i has been r i c h l y misunderstood so o f t e n ... I have thought of making a p u b l i c r e c a n t a t i o n . I can see the s t o r y i n , say, Women's Wear D a i l y : WRITER CONFESSES THAT HE NO LONGER TRUSTS FRAGMENTS T r u s t 'Misplaced,' Author D e c l a r e s DISCUSSED DECISION WITH DAUGHTER, SIX W i l l Seek 'Wholes* In Future, He >Says New York, June 24 (ASP) - Donald Barthelme, 41-year-old w r i t e r and well-known f r a g m a t i s t , s a i d today t h a t he no l o n g e r t r u s t e d fragments.... The author, l o o k i n g tense and drawn a f t e r what was des- c r i b e d as " c o n s i d e r a b l e t h o u g h t " . . . . ^

Although she may have e r r e d i n g e n e r a l i z i n g too f r e e l y

about Barthelme's a e s t h e t i c , Oates was p e r c e p t i v e i n n o t i n g a

c e r t a i n l a c k of e d i t o r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . "We a l l doubt our

(13) Richard Schickel , "Freaked out on Barthelme," New York Times Magazine, 16 August 1970, p. 14.

(14) "Donald Barthelme," in Bellamy, pp. 53-54/ the typography of the o r i g i n a l has been s i m p l i f i e d .

153

a u t h o r i t y , " Barthelme once said.. "We're not sure we understand 15

i t . We doubt our competence to understand i t . " His n a r r a t o r s

have d i f f i c u l t y s u s t a i n i n g an argument, or, as we s h a l l see

i n "Daumier," a persona. Although the n a r r a t o r s might appear

a t times to be c o n f i d e n t s a t i r i s t s , the s a t i r e has no f i x e d

and immutable niora 1 base. I f t h i s i s s a t i r e , i t i s s a t i r e i n

a l l d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h no sense of progress towards a moral norm.

Furthermore, the p l e t h o r a of p h i l o s o p h i c n o t i o n s makes i t

d i f f i c u l t to a l i g n Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s with the a r t i c u l a t e

spokesmen of those w r i t e r s u s u a l l y c l a s s i f i e d as a b s u r d i s t s , or

b l a c k humorists, or e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , or any other L a b e l i s t .

Barthelme i s always ready w i t h h i s r e t r a c t i o n s , and the n a r r a t o r s

are anything but c o n s i s t e n t (there are even sunny patches of

optimism).

Readers who search f o r a message, a "world view," are

t h e r e f o r e p l a c e d under s t r e s s . Tom Wolfe i s of the o p i n i o n

t h a t Barthelme has no c h o i c e but to w r i t e s h o r t s t o r i e s :

"As long as he's w r i t i n g i n a s h o r t space, I t h i n k people can

enjoy the i n t r a c r a n i a l e x e r c i s e he's p u t t i n g you through.""*"^

Whether or not a novel r e q u i r e s some a i r - t i g h t cosmology as

l i t e r a r y b a l l a s t , the p o i n t i s t h a t Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s must

contend w i t h a f i c t i o n a l world i n which ideas are banished t h a t

can't be expressed i n a s h o r t , snappy phrase; a world i n which

ideas c a n c e l out, l i k e f a s h i o n s i n c l o t h e s ; mental pop, i n t r a -

c r a n i a l angst, a chaos of v a l u e s i n which o n l y a d v e r t i s i n g men

(15) Schickel , p. 42. (16) "Tom Wolfe," in Bellamy, p. 88.

154

c o u l d s u r v i v e . Although Guerard, l i k e Oates, confuses the author

with h i s spokesmen, Guerard has a p o i n t i n c a l l i n g Barthelme 17

"a c h e e r f u l h i s t o r i a n of c o l l a p s e . "

Language Problems; The L i s t

P h i l o s o p h i c i n s t a b i l i t y i s r e v e a l e d i n the n a r r a t o r s '

use of language. That the n a r r a t o r s would be arch and a r t i -

f i c i a l i n t h e i r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i v e s one would expect;

t h a t they d i s r u p t t r a d i t i o n a l models of r e a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e s

one accepts as a matter of course; but what i s l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e

i s t h a t the n a r r a t o r s are d i s t u r b e d by t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to use

language as a medium of communication. Whereas Nabokov's

n a r r a t o r s are e x h i l a r a t e d by the c r e a t i v e use of d o c i l e nouns

and v i t a l verbs, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are demoralized by

the endless d i n of meaningless language t h a t d r i v e s them

"around the bend" (Snow White, p. 30)'.

Barthelme h i m s e l f does not g e n e r a l l y s u f f e r from an

i n a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e a coherent n a r r a t i v e t h a t w i l l g i v e h i s

readers a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e . But h i s n a r r a t o r s do s u f f e r ;

they seem to be d i s a p p o i n t e d i n h e r i t o r s of the f a i l e d dreams

of such modernist w r i t e r s as E z r a Pound, who s a i d , c o n f i d e n t l y

enough, t h a t we are a l l "governed by words, the laws are graven

i n words, and l i t e r a t u r e i s the s o l e means of keeping these 18

words l i v i n g and a c c u r a t e . " I t was hoped t h a t language might

a c t as p a r t of a momentary stay a g a i n s t c o n f u s i o n , a d i k e a g a i n s t

(17) Guerard, p. 28. (18) As quoted in McCaffery, p. 19.

155

the r i s i n g t i d e of h i s t o r y . But Pound a l s o expressed the counter-

impulse, to Make I t New, an i d e a extended by Wallace Stevens

i n t o the formula of "The Man w i t h the Blue G u i t a r " : "Throw

away the l i g h t s , the d e f i n i t i o n s , / And say of what you see i n

the dark/ That i t i s t h i s or i t i s t h a t . / But do not use the 19

r o t t e d names." Such l e x i c a l freedom i s taken to excess i n

a manifesto from t r a n s i t i o n i n 1929, a manifesto signed by Hart

Crane among o t h e r s : 6. The l i t e r a r y c r e a t o r has the r i g h t to

d i s i n t e g r a t e the p r i m a l matter of words imposed on him by text-books and d i c t i o n a r i e s . . . .

7. He has the r i g h t to use words of h i s own f a s h i o n i n g and to d i s r e g a r d e x i s t i n g grammatical and s y n t a c t i c a l laws.... 20

A s i d e from a q u a i n t a n t i q u a r i a n impulse, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s

r a r e l y a c t to p r e s e r v e the language; they f o l l o w the r e v o l u t i o n -

ary s i d e o f Pound's d i a l e c t i c , i n the f o o t s t e p s of Stevens

and the t r a n s i t i o n r a d i c a l s . But i n s t e a d of freedom they f i n d

anarchy, and i n s t e a d of u n c o n s t r a i n e d s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n they are

unable to a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r thoughts and emotions.

I t might seem, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t Barthelme's f i c t i o n i s

a l l i e d w i t h c r i t i c s such as R u s s e l l , who argues t h a t language

can no longer be t r u s t e d to communicate meaning. I t might seem

t h a t Barthelme's f i c t i o n conforms to Hansen's premise t h a t s e l f -

consciousness i s r e s o l v e d i n s o l i p s i s m , or to the argument of

. Sontag and o t h e r s t h a t r e a l i s m , which i m p l i e s language t h a t

r e f e r s to the common r e a l i t y of a r t i s t and reader, has been

(19) Wallace Stevens, "The Man with the Blue Guitar," in The Palm at the End of the Mind (New York: Vintage-Random House, 1972), p. 149.

(20) "Proclamation," t r a n s i t i o n , No. 16-17 (1929), p. [13J .

156

f i n a l l y d i s c r e d i t e d . Such assumptions, however,, would not be

c o r r e c t . The s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r remains enough of a

r h e t o r i c i a n to i n v o l v e the reader i n the s t o r y , and a t times

t h i s involvement i n c l u d e s r e f e r e n c e s to the reader's r e a l world

(as we s h a l l see i n "The Glass Mountain"). At times, i n f a c t ,

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r adopts the o l d - f a s h i o n e d r o l e of the

omniscient i n t r u s i v e n a r r a t o r to o f f e r comments on the moral

s i g n i f i c a n c e of the s t o r y (as i n "Rebecca"). Although the l a n g -

uage of contemporary America i s d e s e r v e d l y s a t i r i z e d ( p a r t i c u l a r l y

t e c h n i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l j a r g o n ) , o f t e n the n a r r a t o r ' s s e l f -

consciousness about language i n d i c a t e s a f a i l u r e on the p a r t of

the n a r r a t o r r a t h e r than a f a i l u r e on the p a r t of language.

S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a symptom, not a cause, of the n a r r a t o r ' s

d e b i l i t a t e d s t a t e , and a d e v i c e to a v o i d f a c i n g unpleasant

t r u t h s . But l e t us look i n d e t a i l a t some of the n a r r a t o r ' s

problems w i t h language, beginning w i t h the l i s t .

In "Hiding Man," the n a r r a t o r v i s i t s a movie t h e a t r e and

encounters the s i n i s t e r Bane-Hipkiss, who c h a l l e n g e s the n a r r a -

t o r ' s u n f a s h i o n a b l e f a i t h i n C a t h o l i c i s m . "You s t i l l b e l i e v e i n

s a i n t s ? " says Bane-Hipkiss:

"I b e l i e v e i n s a i n t s , [says the n a r r a t o r ] "Holy water, "Poor boxes, "Ashes on Ash Sunday, " L i l i e s on E a s t e r Sunday, "Creches, censers, c h o i r s , "Albs, B i b l e s , m i t r e s , martyrs, " L i t t l e red l i g h t s , "Ladies of the A l t a r S o c i e t y , "Knights of Columbus, "Cassocks and c r u e t s , "Dispensations and indulgences, "The e f f i c a c y of prayer,

157

"Right Reverends and Very Reverends, "Tabernacles, monstrances, " B e l l s r i n g i n g , people s i n g i n g . . . . "

( C a l i g a r i , p. 34)

The l i s t makes a shambles of any coherent attempt to come to

g r i p s with r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . Free a s s o c i a t i o n l e a d s to the

j a r r i n g j u x t a p o s i t i o n of m i t r e s and martyrs; the rhythm of

b e l l s r i n g i n g , people s i n g i n g i s d e l i b e r a t e l y banal; Right

Reverends f o l l o w e d by Very Reverends mocks the r i g i d pecking

order of the church; the l i s t i n both i t s i l l o g i c a l o r g a n i z -

a t i o n and i t s c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements i s a good argument

a g a i n s t f a i t h . In another s t o r y the n a r r a t o r says, "I have

a deep b i a s a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n which p r e c l u d e s my d i s c u s s i n g

the q u e s t i o n i n t e l l i g e n t l y " ("Kierkegaard U n f a i r to S c h l e g e l , "

C i t y L i f e , p. 89). The n a r r a t o r of "Hiding Man" s i m i l a r l y

attempts to a v o i d an i n t e l l i g e n t , or, a t l e a s t , r a t i o n a l ,

d i s c u s s i o n of the i s s u e ; i n s t e a d he o f f e r s a l i s t which i s

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and p r i v a t e to the p o i n t of being hermetic.

The reader l e a r n s l i t t l e about r e l i g i o n , but much about the

emotional t e n s i o n of the n a r r a t o r .

In "Perpetua," on the other hand, the reader i s l e f t

u n e d i f i e d when an a r c h i t e c t named Henry brags of h i s many

b e a u t i f u l churches: A r c h i t e c t u r e i s memory, Henry s a i d , and the n a t i o n t h a t had no c a t h e d r a l s to speak of had no memory to speak of e i t h e r . He d i d i t a l l , Henry s a i d , w i t h a 30-man crew composed of I superintendent I masonry foreman I ironworker foreman I c a r p e n t e r foreman I p i p e f i t t e r foreman I e l e c t r i c i a n foreman 2 journeyman masons 2 journeyman ironworkers.... (Sadness, p. 43).

Henry's unpunctuated s t r i n g of t i t l e s p r o v i d e s both an over-

158

abundance of i n f o r m a t i o n and no i n f o r m a t i o n -- j u s t as a telephone

book, t h a t model of a l p h a b e t i c a l coherence, i s i n one sense an

incomprehensible assemblage of s t r a n g e r s .

Since the l i s t s can o b v i o u s l y be expanded to i n f i n i t y ,

they tend t o mock the a b i l i t y of words t o t e l l a s t o r y and

impart a message:

Q: I have a number of e r r o r messages I'd l i k e to i n t r o d u c e here and I'd l i k e you to study them carefully„... they are numbered. I ' l l go over them w i t h you: u n d e f i n a b l e v a r i a b l e ... improper sequence of o p e r a t o r s ... improper use of hierarchy. • . m i s s i n g o p e r a t o r ... mixed mode, t h a t one's p a r t i c u l a r l y grave ... argument of a f u n c t i o n i s f i x e d - p o i n t ... A: I l i k e them very much.

("The E x p l a n a t i o n , " C i t y L i f e , p. 73)

When the l i s t s are of o b j e c t s , the e f f e c t i s something l i k e the

apocalypse of r e a l i s m , as though r e a l i s m had gone mad, and swamped

both the n a r r a t o r and the reader w i t h more i n f o r m a t i o n than the

mind can comprehend or language can c o n t r o l . L e t us r e t u r n to

those b a r r i c a d e s a g a i n s t the Commanches i n "The Indian U p r i s i n g " :

I analysed the composition of the b a r r i c a d e n e a r e s t me and found two a s h t r a y s , ceramic, one dark brown and one dark brown w i t h an orange b l u r a t the t i p ; a t i n f r y i n g pan; two- l i t r e b o t t l e s of red wine ... a q u a v i t , cognac, vodka, g i n , Fad # 6 sherry; a hollow-core door i n b i r c h veneer on b l a c k wrought-iron l e g s ; a b l a n k e t , red-orange w i t h f a i n t blue s t r i p e s ... a yellow-and-purple p o s t e r ; a Y u g o s l a v i a n carved f l u t e , wood, dark brown; and other items. I decided I knew nothing (p. 5).

The l a s t l i n e i s a 'reference to a John Updike s t o r y , which,

l i k e "The Indian U p r i s i n g , " f i r s t appeared i n The New Yorker.

Updike's s t o r y a l s o d e s c r i b e s the breakdown of s o p h i s t i c a t e d

urban l i f e , and ends, d r a m a t i c a l l y , "Sunday's events repeated

159

themselves i n h i s mind, bending l i k e nacreous f l a k e s around

a c e n t r a l i n f r a n g i b l e i r r i t a n t , becoming the p e r f e c t and 21

luminous thought: You don't know anything." Thus the

n a r r a t o r of Barthelme 1 s s t o r y adds an u n a t t r i b u t e d q u o t a t i o n

to h i s p i l e of random urban o b j e c t s . In Updike's s t o r y the

l i n e i s meant to bear the i t a l i c i z e d weight of a moral, or message;

i n Barthelme's s t o r y i t i s j u s t a meaningless c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n t ,

a l i n e from a magazine s t o r y l y i n g beside the carved Y u g o s l a v i a n

f l u t e . Barthelme's n a r r a t o r i s perhaps the more c o n v i n c i n g

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a communication breakdown, s i n c e h i s l i s t s

do not c o n t r i b u t e to a comprehensive sense of n i h i l i s m or

s o l i p s i s m or any other " p e r f e c t , and luminous thought"; the l i s t s

are i n the s p i r i t of what M i c h e l F o u c a u l t c a l l s H e t e r o t o p i a s : H e t e r o t o p i a s are d i s t u r b i n g , probably because they s e c r e t l y undermine language, because they make i t i m p o s s i b l e to name t h i s and t h a t , ... because they d e s t r o y 'syntax' i n advance, and not o n l y the syntax w i t h which we c o n s t r u c t sentences but a l s o t h a t l e s s apparent syntax which causes words and t h i n g s ... to 'hold together.' [Heterotopias] d e s s i c a t e speech, stop words i n t h e i r t r a c k s , c o n t e s t the very p o s s i b i l i t y of grammar a t i t s source; they d i s s o l v e our myths and s t e r i l - i z e the l y r i c i s m of our sentences. 2 2

Myths are d e l i b e r a t e l y d i s s o l v e d i n Barthelme's f i c t i o n — the

myth of Snow White, f o r example, — and Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s

o f t e n undercut the l y r i c i s m of t h e i r own sentences.

(21) John Updike, "Sunday Teasing," in The Same Door (1959; rpt. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Crest, 1963), p. 86.

(22) Michel- Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), p. x v i i i .

160

But perhaps i t c o u l d be argued t h a t the n a r r a t o r s '

l i s t s are an attempt to p i n down and s p e c i f y the r e a l world;

perhaps the n a r r a t o r s do not engage i n the decadent c r e a t i o n

of h e t e r o t o p i a s , but r a t h e r analyze and n e a t l y p r e s e n t the

raw data of urban experience. Such an argument would be d e f e a t e d

by an example from one of Barthelme's n o n - f i c t i o n works, an

assignment from E s q u i r e magazine to review the Ed S u l l i v a n show.

Barthelme's a t t i t u d e i n the review i s a k i n d of mocking embrace

of the show's u n r e l e n t i n g b a n a l i t y ; but he ends the p i e c e w i t h

a long l i s t of the c r e d i t s :

A s s o c i a t e Producer Jack McGeehan. S e t t i n g s Designed by B i l l Bohnert. P r o d u c t i o n Manager Tony Jordan. A s s o c i a t e D i r e c t o r Bob Schwarz... Program C o o r d i n a t o r . . . ("And Now L e t ' s Hear i t f o r the Ed S u l l i v a n Show," G u i l t y P l e a s u r e s , p. 108).

The reader i s not being o f f e r e d u s e f u l data; i n s t e a d , by slowing

down the c r e d i t s to the s t a t e l y pace of p r i n t (rather than

the embarrassed speed of t e l e v i s i o n ) , Barthelme emphasizes

the i r r e l e v a n c e of the i n f o r m a t i o n . J u s t as Ed's guests

perform songs t h a t are "submemorable" (p. 107), the reviewer

i n d i c a t e s h i s i n a b i l i t y to respond by o f f e r i n g non-information.

"The Ed S u l l i v a n Show i s over. I t has stopped" (p. 108).

However, Barthelme the reviewer i s not (.totally i n c a p a b l e

of response. Faced w i t h what i s undeniably the b o r i n g and

s t e r i l e experience of a t t e n d i n g the t a p i n g of a mediocre

t e l e v i s i o n show (apparently mediocre even by S u l l i v a n ' s s t a n d a r d s ) ,

the reviewer p r o f e s s i o n a l l y maintains enough of an open mind

to be moved by a song c a l l e d "Those Were the Days": "Song i s

161

e r s a t z Kurt W e i l l but n e v e r t h e l e s s a very n i c e song, very

n o s t a l g i c , days gone by, t e a r s rush i n t o eyes (mine)" (p. 105).

Many of Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are too d e b i l i t a t e d f o r any such

d i s p l a y of emotion, suggesting t h a t Barthelme the reviewer

uses language to m i r r o r the s t e r i l i t y of the scene b e f o r e him,

while the n a r r a t o r s ' use of language m i r r o r s t h e i r own s t e r i l i t y .

The l i s t o f o b j e c t s i n "The Indian U p r i s i n g " captures the

t r i v i a l i t y of the c i t y , but i t a l s o expresses the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n

of the n a r r a t o r , who suspects there should be something more

to h i s l i f e than sanding y e t another hollow-core door f o r a

c o f f e e t a b l e : "I had made a f t e r a l l other t a b l e s , one while

l i v i n g with Nancy, one w h i l e l i v i n g with A l i c e , one w h i l e

l i v i n g w i t h Eunice, one while l i v i n g w i t h Marianne" (p. 4) .

Language Problems: M a l f u n c t i o n

L i s t s a t l e a s t p r o v i d e the empty form of order, and o f f e r

an empty promise t h a t the n a r r a t o r ' s thoughts can be o r g a n i z e d .

But-" i n s e v e r a l s t o r i e s the n a r r a t o r seems to l o s e c o n t r o l of

language a l t o g e t h e r . The language tends to " l o s e d i r e c t i o n and

s l i d e i n t o pure i r r e l e v a n c i e s . The d i g r e s s i v e method i s not

the one found, say, i n T r i s t r a m Shandy, f o r i t i s not based on 23

an a s s o c i a t i o n a l l o g i c and does not 'lead anywhere.'"

McCaffery quotes a passage from Snow White i n which one of the

dwarfs d e s c r i b e s another dwarf's new pyjamas, and then wanders

i n t o a c u r i o u s d i g r e s s i o n about the grade of pork ears used

(23) McCaffery, p. 30.

162

i n the baby food v a t s , and the f a c t t h a t s a l e s nationwide

"are b r i s k , b r i s k , b r i s k . . . . The pound i s weakening. The

cow i s c a l v i n g . The c a c t u s wants watering. The new b u i l d i n g

i s a b u i l d i n g w i t h l e a s e s c o v e r i n g 45 per cent o f the r e n t a b l e

space a l r e a d y i n hand. The weather tomorrow, f a i r and warmer"

(pp. 119-r20) . The r h e t o r i c of business had invaded the dwarf's

p e r c e p t i o n of the n a t u r a l world ("The pound i s weakening. The

cow i s c a l v i n g . " ) ; even h i s weather r e p o r t seems to i s s u e from

the o f f i c e s of M e r r i l l Lynch.

"Bone Bubbles" goes even f u r t h e r ; too f a r , i n f a c t :

o f f e r l a s t gesture smooth man of p o s i t i o n p u r e l y c i n e m a t i c v i c e s l a p and t i c k l e z i p p e r e d wallpaper two b e a u t i f u l ' heavy books, boxed hears n o i s e goes to window 220 t r e a s u r e s from 11 c e n t u r i e s f i x e r g r e a t and s t u p e f y i n g Ring minimum of three i f i t hadn't been f o r Y. I never would have g o t t e n my lump l o c a l white Democrats... ( C i t y L i f e , p. 122).

Numerous p a i n f u l r e r e a d i n g s suggest t h a t a n a r r a t i v e of s o r t s

l u r k s i n the v e r b i a g e of "Bone Bubbles," but i t seems s a f e

to say t h a t the n a r r a t o r has r e t i r e d i n t o a w i l l f u l o b s c u r i t y .

One source of h i s d i s d a i n f o r communication i s suggested i n

a passage from The Dead Father, i n which the l e a d i n g c h a r a c t e r s

encounter two unpleasant c h i l d r e n and ask them what they have

l e a r n e d a t s c h o o l :

We are i n v i g o r a t e d w i t h the sweet s e n s u a l i t y of language. We l e a r n to make sentences. Come to me. May I come to your house? Christmas comes but once a year. I ' l l come to your q u e s t i o n . The l i g h t comes and goes. Success comes to those who s t r i v e . Tuesday comes a f t e r Monday. Her a r i a comes i n the t h i r d a c t . Toothpaste comes i n a tube.... She comes from Warsaw. He comes from a good f a m i l y . I t w i l l come easy w i t h a l i t t l e p r a c t i c e . I ' l l come to thee by moonlight ... (pp. 15-16).

163 There i s no l i t t l e charm i n the c h i l d ' s demonstration that):

the verb "to come" i s a b s u r d l y overloaded w i t h s y n t a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n s ,

and t h a t the o s t e n s i b l e r a t i o n a l i t y of language i s c o v e r t l y

sensual; n e v e r t h e l e s s , her speech i s t y p i c a l of the attempts

of Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s and c h a r a c t e r s to subvert language as

a n a t u r a l means of communication. P h i l i p S t e v i c k has attempted

to d e f i n e the axioms of what he c a l l s new f i c t i o n :

New f i c t i o n c o n s o l i d a t e s an attempt r a r e i n f i c t i o n b e f o r e the modern p e r i o d to present elements of i t s t e x t u r e as devoid of v a l u e ; y e t new f i c t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t to ' c e r t a i n areas of modern f i c t i o n , seeks t h i s v a l u e - l e s s q u a l i t y not as an a c t of sub- t r a c t i o n , or dehumanization, or metaphysical m y s t i f i c a t i o n , not as a gesture of d e s p a i r or n i h i l i s m , but as a p o s i t i v e a c t i n which the joy of the observer i s allowed to p r e - v a i l as the primary q u a l i t y of the experience.^^

Barthelme the author may or may not be f i l l e d w i t h j o y a t the

thought of composing h i s b r i l l i a n t s t o r i e s , and perhaps the

reader f e e l s a e s t h e t i c b l i s s , tempered by h i s awareness of

the p a i n and d e s p a i r a t the h e a r t of the s t o r i e s ; but the

primary o b s e r v e r — t h e n a r r a t o r — i s s u r e l y not f i l l e d w i t h

joy. Joy does not " p r e v a i l . " Despite an o p t i m i s t i c impulse

i n Barthelme's f i c t i o n , the o v e r r i d i n g f a c t of l i f e f o r Barthelme's

p r o t a g o n i s t s i s moral p a r a l y s i s , and much of t h i s p a r a l y s i s i s

expressed i n t h e i r use of language. The language i s s e l f -

conscious i n the sense of being processed through a willfully,

d e c e p t i v e i n t e l l e c t which e l i m i n a t e s emotion and v a l u e , and l e a v e s

(24) P h i l i p Stevick, "Scheherazade runs out of plots, goes on t a l k i n g ; - the king, puzzled, l i s t e n s : an Essay on New F i c t i o n , " TriQuarterly, No. 26 (1973), pp. 332-62; rpt. in The Novel Today, ed. Malcolm Bradbury (n.p.: Fontana, 1977), p. 210.

164

just the dry bones of language; one has an image of desperate

clever dogs picking at a dessicated skeleton. It i s true that

part of the problem l i e s with language i t s e l f , p a r t i c u l a r l y the

s t e r i l e lingua franca of contemporary America, but i t should not

be forgotten that the narrators sometimes deliberately d i s t o r t

the language as a sign of t h e i r confusion, despair and g u i l t .

Let us consider Snow White, which several c r i t i c s i n s i s t i s a

book that centres on language. McCaffery's opinion i s represent-

ative :

If we now turn to the central question of the role of language i n fSnow White1, we f i n d that, more than anything_else^, the book seems to be "about" the condition of lang- uage. 2 5

Any c r i t i c a l consensus engenders suspicion. Perhaps Snow White

i s not mainly about language, but about one of Barthelme's

favorite themes, the f a i l u r e of romance i n mundane modern times.

Nevertheless, most readers notice the overwhelming buzz of

language. A l l the narrators are self-conscious c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i s t s ; , ,

they struggle to soothe Snow White's complaint which she voices

i n her f i r s t speech of the novel: "Oh I wish there were some

words i n the world that were not the words I always hear!" (p. 6).

Although there i s an impersonal omniscient narrator, the

narrative i s mainly carried on b y ". \ the dwarfs, who sometimes

speak i n a kind of c o l l e c t i v e (or, considering the sleeping

arrangements, communal) "we." One c r i t i c amusingly describes

(25) McCaffery, p. 27. See also Dickstein, p. 268, and Guerard, p. 28.

165

the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e as " t h i r d person dwarf." In the s t r u g g l e

of the n a r r a t o r s to f i n d words to s a t i s f y Snow White, they n e g l e c t

i n f o r m a t i o n customary i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e ;

the p r o f e s s i o n s , a c t i v i t i e s and even the i d e n t i t i e s of the seven

dwarfs are o f t e n f a r from c l e a r . The n a r r a t o r s tend to n e g l e c t

the p l o t i n f a v o r of p h i l o l o g i c a l .debates. For example, Henry

the dwarf, w i t h a nod to our theme of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , notes

h i s weaknesses on a pad:

Process comparable to s e a r c h i n g a dog's u n d e r b e l l y f o r f l e a s . The weaknesses pinched out of the s o u l ' s e c s t a s y one by one. Of course " e c s t a s y " i s being used here i n a very s p e c i a l sense, as misery, something t h a t would be i n German one of three aspects of something c a l l e d Lumpwelt i n some such sentence as, "The Inmitten-ness of the Lump- welt i s a t u r n i n g toward misery." So t h a t what i s meant here by e c s t a s y i s something on the order of " f i t , " but a k i n d of slow one, perhaps a s e m i - a r r e s t e d one, and one t h a t i s d i v i s i b l e by three (p. 29).

S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s leads to misery, and one cause of the

misery i s Henry's f a i l u r e to use words as a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s . His

thoughts can't be c o n f i n e d to the neat p r e c i s i o n of German

p h i l o s o p h i c semantics (which i s why the sudden i n t r o d u c t i o n of

" f i t " l e a d s to a n o n s e n s i c a l refinement — "divisible by t h r e e " ) .

Immediately f o l l o w i n g Henry's l i n g u i s t i c f i t , another dwarf

d e f i n e s the i n t e r r u p t e d screw as "'a screw w i t h a d i s c o n t i n u o u s

h e l i x , as i n a cannon breech, ' " formed by "'cutting away part or parts of

the thread, and sometimes p a r t of the s h a f t . Used w i t h a l o c k

nut having corresponding male s e c t i o n s . 1 "

(26) Betty Flowers, "Barthelme's Snow White: The Reader-Patient Relationship," C r i t i q u e , 6, No. 3 (1975), 37.

166

" T h i s f i l t h y , " Henry s a i d , " t h i s language t h i n k i n g and s t i n k i n g e v e r l a s t i n g of sex, screw, breech, 'part', s h a f t , nut, male, i t i s no wonder we are a l l going round the bend w i t h t h i s language d i n n i n g f o r e v e r i n t o our eyes and e a r s . . . . " "I am not going round the bed," Dan s a i d , "not me." "Round the bend," Henry s a i d , "the bend not the bed, how i s i t t h a t I s a i d 'bend' and you heard 'bed, 1 you see what I mean, i t ' s i n e s c a p a b l e . " "You l i v e i n a world of your own Henry." "I can c e r t a i n l y improve on what was g i v e n , " Henry s a i d (pp. 29-30).

Nabokov's n a r r a t o r s a l s o f e l t an impulse towards a p r i v a t e

world, but they thought of language as a s e r v i c e a b l e medium

i n which to a r t i c u l a t e t h a t p r i v a t e world; Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s

are not supported by language, but " d r i v e n round the bend."

Humbert Humbert c e l e b r a t e d the magical power of language, i t s

"durable pigments"; Barthelme's Dan the dwarf t h i n k s of language

as j u s t another junk product. "'You know,'" he says, i n a parody

of c o l l o q u i a l , u n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ease,

" K l i p s c h o r n was r i g h t I t h i n k when he spoke of the ' b l a n k e t i n g ' e f f e c t of o r d i n a r y language, r e f e r r i n g , as I r e c a l l , to the p a r t t h a t s o r t o f , you know, ' f i l l s i n " between the other p a r t s . That p a r t , the ' f i l l i n g ' you might say, of which the e x p r e s s i o n 'you might say' i s a good example.... might a l s o be c a l l e d the ' s t u f f i n g ' . . . .

Dan argues (or s p e e c h i f i e s i n t o a void) t h a t s t u f f i n g has two

q u a l i t i e s , an 'endless' q u a l i t y and a 'sludge' q u a l i t y :

"The 'endless' aspect of ' s t u f f i n g ' i s t h a t i t goes on and on, i n many d i f f e r e n t forms, and i n f a c t our exchanges are i n l a r g e measure composed of i t , i n l a r g e r measure even, perhaps, than they are composed of t h a t which i s not ' s t u f f i n g . ' "

Dan combines t h i s d e s p a i r i n g theory of language w i t h a r a t i o n a l e

f o r the dwarfs' p r o f e s s i o n , which might be running a p l a n t t h a t

167

produces t o t a l l y u s e l e s s b u f f a l o humps. Since the per c a p i t a

p r o d u c t i o n of t r a s h i s going up s t e a d i l y , the percentage of t r a s h

to e v e r y t h i n g e l s e w i l l soon be 100 per cent, a t which p o i n t the

q u e s t i o n of d i s p o s i n g of the t r a s h becomes a q u e s t i o n " 'of apprec-

i a t i n g i t s q u a l i t i e s , because, a f t e r a l l , i t ' s 100 per cent, right?*:'."\

"'It's t h a t we want to be on the l e a d i n g edge of the t r a s h phenom- .

enon,'" says Dan, "'and t h a t ' s why we pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n , too,

to those aspects of language t h a t may be seen as a model of the

t r a s h phenomenon""(pp. 96-98).

Language Problems: The Loss of Emotion

Dan's speech might be understood i n terms of d e l i b e r a t e l y

s u p e r f i c i a l pop a r t ; or perhaps he d e s c r i b e s the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

a e s t h e t i c o f "camp," i n which the observer's i r o n i c d i s t a n c e from

the o s t e n s i b l e value of the a r t i f a c t i s the s o l e source of pleasure..

In any event, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s s u f f e r the emotional e f f e c t s

of being on the l e a d i n g edge of the t r a s h phenomenon. T h e i r p o s i t i o n

i s a long way from Nabokov's c h e e r f u l a s s e r t i o n t h a t nothing i s

more e x h i l a r a t i n g than p h i l i s t i n e v u l g a r i t y . The i n t e l l e c t u a l

high s p i r i t s of some of Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s should not f o o l us

i n t o i g n o r i n g t h a t they are trapped i n a mean s i t u a t i o n . Because

they d i s t r u s t language, and attempt to t r e a t e v e r y t h i n g w i t h s e l f -

conscious i r o n y , they transform t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s i n t o f u t i l e word

games. They t r y to remain untouched by circumstances, a t tremen-

dous emotional c o s t . The r e s u l t of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s towards

language i s an i n a b i l i t y to express emotion, f o l l o w e d by the l o s s

of emotion.

1 6 8

The e m o t i o n a l l o s s i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e d e t a i l s o f p u n c -

t u a t i o n :

C h a r l e s ! I r e n e e x c l a i m e d . Y o u ' r e h u n g r y ! And y o u ' v e b e e n c r y i n g ! Y o u r g r a y v e s t i s s t a i n e d w i t h t e a r s ! L e t me make y o u a ham and c h e e s e s a n d w i c h .

" A l l r i g h t J a n e g e t i n t o t h e c a r . "

I n t h e f a l l t h e w a r was a l w a y s t h e r e , b u t we d i d n o t go t o i t a n y m o r e . ^

The f i r s t e x a m p l e u s e s e x c l a m a t i o n m a r k s a s f a l s e s i g n a l s ; t h e

ham a n d c h e e s e s a n d w i c h d e f l a t e s any p o s s i b l e t e n s i o n o r e x c i t e -

ment. I n t h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e , s p o k e n b y t h e v i l l a i n o f Snow W h i t e ,

t h e a b s e n c e o f commas h e l p s r e d u c e t h e p h r a s e t o a m a c h i n e - l i k e

m o n o t o n e , t h e t o n e o f some f a v o r i t e Snow W h i t e t e r m s , b l a g u e and 2 8

d r e c k - t h e t o n e o f p l a s t i c f i c t i o n . The t h i r d e x a m p l e , f r o m

Hemingway's " I n A n o t h e r C o u n t r y , " d e m o n s t r a t e s how h i s c e l e b r a t e d

u n d e r s t a t e m e n t r e t a i n s a k i n d o f r o m a n t i c r e s o n a n c e ; B a r t h e l m e ' s

t o n e l e s s n e s s i s somewhat more s i n i s t e r .

What i s s i n i s t e r i s t h e s e n s e o f i r o n i c d i s t a n c e . The

n a r r a t o r w o n ' t t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r w h a t he s a y s , a n e v a s i o n t h a t i r k s G o r e V i d a l :

Mr. B a r t h e l m e t e l l s u s t h a t h i s f a t h e r was "a 'modern' a r c h i t e c t . " I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t i s now t h e f a s h i o n t o p u t q u o t e s a r o u n d a n y s t a t e m e n t o r w o r d t h a t m i g h t be c h a l l e n g e d . T h i s means t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e w o r d o r s t a t e m e n t was n o t meant l i t e r a l l y b u t i r o n - i c a l l y o r " i r o n i c a l l y . " A n o t h e r way o f s a y - i n g , "Don't h i t me. I d i d n ' t r e a l l y 'mean' i t " ( p p . 3 1 - 3 2 ) .

(27) Donald Barthelme, "Will You Tell Me?" in Caligari, p. 48; Snow White, p. 113; Ernest Hemingway, "In Another Country," in The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway (New York: Scribner's, 1938), p. 267.

(28) See Gore Vidal, "American Plastic: The Matter of Fiction," The New York Times Review of Books, 15 July 1976, pp. 31-39.

169

The l i n k between s e l f - c o n s c i o u s language and the l o s s of emotion

i s made apparent i n two s t o r i e s i n v o l v i n g a c h a r a c t e r named

Bloomsbury. In the f i r s t , "The Big Broadcast of 1938," Blooms-

bury a c q u i r e s a r a d i o s t a t i o n i n which he broadcasts f a v o r i t e

words: "The word m a t r i c u l a t e had engaged h i s a t t e n t i o n , he pro-

nounced i t i n t o the microphone f o r what seemed to him a p e r i o d

l o n g e r than normal, t h a t i s to say, i n excess of a quarter-hour.

He wondered whether or not to regard t h i s as s i g n i f i c a n t " ( C a l i g a r i ,

pp. 76-77). Bloomsbury a l s o broadcasts a "commercial announce-

ment" to h i s estranged w i f e (p. 69). He remembers t h e i r v i s i t to

the movies:

The f i r s t t h i n g I knew I was i n s i d e your s h i r t w i t h my hand and I found there some- t h i n g v e r y l o v e l y and, as they say, d e s i r a b l e . ... I simply ... h e l d i t i n my hand, i t was, as the saying goes, s o f t and warm (p. 71).

The s t o r y i s f i l l e d w i t h such e x p r e s s i o n s as "as they say," "as

the e x p r e s s i o n runs," "as the saying has i t " - and a l l these

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s are a p p l i e d to concepts and t h i n g s g e n e r a l l y taken

f o r granted. Thus, when h i s w i f e a r r i v e s a t the r a d i o s t a t i o n ,

"With a s i n g l e s t r i d e , such as he had o f t e n seen p r a c t i s e d i n the

f i l m s , Bloomsbury was 'at her s i d e ' " (p. 79). The s t o r y ends i n

d e s p a i r :

[The] e l e c t r i c company, which had not been p a i d from the f i r s t to the l a s t , r e f u s e d a t l e n g t h to supply f u r t h e r c u r r e n t f o r the r a d i o , i n consequence o f which the b r o a d c a s t s , both words and music, ceased. That was the end of t h i s p e r i o d of Bloomsbury's, as they say, l i f e (p. 81).

Bloomsbury's detached s t y l e merges w i t h the n a r r a t o r ' s , and

both t r e a t l i f e , " l i f e , " as though i t were observed from a

170

g r e a t d i s t a n c e . Both Bloomsbury and the n a r r a t o r are a f r a i d

to r e v e a l too much: " A f t e r t h i s announcement was broadcast

Bloomsbury h i m s e l f f e l t c a l l e d upon to weep a l i t t l e , and d i d ,

but not 'on the a i r ' " (p. 7 1 ) . That i s , not p u b l i c l y , not i n

f u l l view of the reader.

In "For I'm the Boy Whose Only Joy i s Loving You,"

Bloomsbury's w i f e has l e f t him again. While h i s unpleasant

f r i e n d s attempt h a l f - h e a r t e d c o n s o l a t i o n s , Bloomsbury imagines

a l o v e d i a l o g u e w i t h a g i r l who adopts a s e r v a n t - t o - l i e g e - l o r d

tone: "Have ye heard the news P e l l y , t h a t Martha me w i f e has

l e f t me i n a yareplane? ... 0 yer wonderfulness, wot a cheeky

l o t to be p u l l i n ' the p l o g on a l o v e l y man l i k e y e r s e l f " ( C a l i g a r i ,

p. 6 0 ) . D i a l e c t i s g e n e r a l l y used mockingly i n Barthelme, to

i n d i c a t e the d i s t a n c e between the olden days of d i r e c t and p a s s i o n -

ate e x p r e s s i o n and modern s t e r i l i t y , . When one of Bloomsbury's

f a l s e f r i e n d s says, "So now ... g i v e us the f e e l i n g , " Blooms-

bury answers, "We can d i s c u s s ... the meaning but not the

f e e l i n g " (p. 6 2 ) . Bloomsbury's f r i e n d a t t a c k s him a t the s t o r y ' s

c o n c l u s i o n :

and b e a t i n g Bloomsbury i n the face f i r s t w i t h the brandy b o t t l e , then w i t h the t i r e i r o n , u n t i l a t l e n g t h the hidden f e e l i n g emerged, i n the form of s a l t from h i s eyes and b l a c k blood from h i s e a r s , and from h i s mouth, a l l s o r t s of words (p. 6 3 ) .

The Bloomsbury s t o r i e s suggest t h a t one a l t e r n a t i v e to

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s language i s an o r g i a s t i c r e l e a s e of unconsidered

words, which breaks down the emotional b a r r i e r of language. A

more s i n i s t e r a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h a t the n a r r a t o r has no emotions

l e f t to express, s i n c e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s has l e f t him s t e r i l e

171

and empty. I t has been argued t h a t Barthelme, B r a u t i g a n and Coover

have i n common a post-Joycean i m a g i n a t i o n which i s marked by

"an e x t r a o r d i n a r y innocence, e i t h e r genuine or f e i g n e d , even a

k i n d of common prose rhythm d e r i v i n g from the u n w i l l i n g n e s s to

subordinate and complicate t h a t i s an a t t r i b u t e of the innocence,"

and "a r e a d i n e s s to c o n f r o n t c e r t a i n e x t r e m i t i e s of l i f e ... but

an i n v e s t i n g of these e x t r e m i t i e s w i t h an odd and t e r r i b l y d i s t a n t 29

a r t i f x c e . . .." W r i t i n g about Snow White, B e t t y Flowers notes t h a t

the " b a s i c s t y l e takes a d e c e p t i v e l y simple and s t u d i e d l y innocent

s u b j e c t - v e r b - o b j e c t form. Yet a s t y l e which i s s t u d i e d l y innocent . 30

i s u l t i m a t e l y mock-innocent and, t h e r e f o r e , b a s i c a l l y devious."

The language i s devious and mock-innocent and c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s c o o l i r o n y . The i r o n y i s d i f f e r e n t i n k i n d

from the p e r v a s i v e i r o n y of modern l i t e r a t u r e . The n a r r a t o r i s

perhaps not i r o n i c but c a t a t o n i c . He i s a development of the hero

i n Robert M u s i l ' s The Man Without Q u a l i t i e s , who t h i n k s o f h i m s e l f

as a v i c t i m of ambivalent r e a l i t y : " A l l moral events," says the

hero, U l r i c h , "took p l a c e i n a f i e l d of energy, the c o n s t e l l a t i o n

of which charged them with meaning.... [An] endless system of

r e l a t i o n s h i p s arose i n which there was no longer any such t h i n g

as independent meanings, such as i n o r d i n a r y l i f e , a t a f i r s t crude 31

approach, are a s c r i b e d to a c t i o n s and q u a l i t i e s . "

U l r i c h i s i n d e s p a i r , perhaps a r a t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d

d e s p a i r , but Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are beyond d e s p a i r : (29) Stevick, p. 188.

(30) Flowers, p . 39.

(31) Robert Musil, The Man Without Q u a l i t i e s , as quoted i n Wylie

Supher,Loss of the Self i n Modern Literature and Art (New York: Vintage-

Random House, 1962), p. 11.

172

I t was p r e t t y b o r i n g shooting up mesquite bushes, so we hunkered down behind some rocks, Father and I, he hunkered down behind h i s • rocks and I hunkered down behiwd my r o c k s , and we commenced to shooting a t each o t h e r . That was i n t e r e s t i n g ("Views of My Father Weeping," C i t y L i f e , p. 13).

" I n t e r e s t i n g " i s n ' t an adequate term. " I n t e r e s t i n g " seems a•,

touch weak to cover d u e l s w i t h one's f a t h e r . S i m i l a r l y , the hero

of "Up, A l o f t i n the A i r "

walked the r e s i l i e n t s t r e e t s of Akron. His head was aflame w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g i d e a s . Suddenly he was a r r e s t e d by a s h r i l l c r y . From the top of the Zimmer B u i l d i n g ... a group o f Akron l o v e r s consummated a f o u r - handed s u i c i d e l e a p . The a i r ! Buck thought as he watched the t i n y f i g u r e s f a l l i n g , t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y an air-minded country, America! But I must make myself u s e f u l . He entered a bunshop and purchased a sweet green bun, and d a l l i e d w i t h the sweet green g i r l t h e r e , c a l l i n g her "poppet" and " f u n i c u l a r . " Then out i n t o the s t r e e t again to l e a n a g a i n s t the warm green facade of the Zimmer B u i l d i n g and watch the work- men scrubbing the crimson sidewaUk (p. 130).

T h i s i s indeed an "odd and t e r r i b l y d i s t a n t a r t i f i c e . " The u s e l e s s

n a r r a t o r d a l l i e s with words, green on green and t a s t y r e d .

S e l f - C o n s c i o u s L i t e r a t u r e

Given the n a r r a t o r ' s d e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s towards

language, i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t he i s e q u a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

about h i s r o l e as a n a r r a t o r . Of course, the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r t r a d i t i o n a l l y opposes h i s i d i o s y n c r a t i c , i n n o v a t i v e

v o i c e to the l i t e r a r y o r t h o d o x i e s ; however, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r

a t times appears to be t r u e to the s p i r i t of an age c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by d i s t r u s t f o r l i t e r a r y conventions, d i s t r u s t which sometimes

173

r i p e n s i n t o s u b v e r s i o n . The contemporary avant garde goes f u r t h e r

than merely g r a f t i n g i n n o v a t i o n to the h e a l t h y organism of l i t -

e r a r y t r a d i t i o n ; t h e r e i s a new s p i r i t of d e s t r u c t i o n and a t t a c k . o

John Hawkes, f o r example, announces, "I began to w r i t e f i c t i o n on

the assumption t h a t the t r u e enemies of the novel were p l o t , 32

c h a r a c t e r , s e t t i n g and theme...." Contemporary w r i t e r s add i n s u l t to i n j u r y by i g n o r i n g l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n :

New f i c t i o n , though a g g r e s i v e l y non- t r a d i t i o n a l , shows l e s s involvement with the t r a d i t i o n of prose f i c t i o n than any f i c t i o n s i n c e the beginning of the n o v e l . ... New F i c t i o n , more than any f i c t i o n s i n c e Cervantes, chooses s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y to depart from t r a d i t i o n without i n v e s t i n g t h a t departure w i t h any p a r t i c u l a r urgency or without making t h a t a c t of departure the s t a r t i n g . p o i n t of the f i c t i o n a t a l l . . . . ^

Wylie Sypher e x p l a i n s w i t h wonderful c o n f i d e n c e t h a t as "everyone

r e c o g n i z e s , the s c u t t l i n g of l i t e r a t u r e s t a r t e d a century ago."

He l i s t s V e r l a i n e , Lewis C a r r o l l ' s " a n t i - p o e t r y , " E l i o t , S t r i n d b e r

J a r r y ' s Ubu Roi, T r i s t r a m Shandy of course, Cervantes, F l a u b e r t ,

Edouard D u j a r d i n - "One can t r a c e a whole t r a d i t i o n of a n t i - 34

l i t e r a t u r e . " The s c u t t l i n g of l i t e r a t u r e i s not d i r e c t e d j u s t

a t p a r t i c u l a r techniques, but a t l i t e r a t u r e ' s l i b e r a l promise of

value and o r d e r . G e r a l d G r a f f says the "conventions of p o s t -

modernist a r t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n v e r t the r e s p e c t f o r a r t i s t i c t r u t h

and s i g n i f i c a n c e which had c h a r a c t e r i z e d modernism." Snow White

i s "one of the post-modernist works t h a t i s most s k i l f u l - ' i n i t s 35

deployment of the l i t e r a r y p a s t i n a s u b v e r s i v e way."

(32) John Hawkes, as quoted in Bradbury, p. 7. (33) Stevick, p.. 208. (34) Sypher-.i, pp. 68-69. (35) Gerald Graff, "The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough,"

TriQuarterly, No. 26 (1973), pp. 383-417; rpt. in Bradbury, pp. 220,233.

1 7 4

Barthelme's a n t i l i t e r a r y tendencies might seem s u f f i c i e n t l y

l a b e l l e d ("postmodernist") and not worth examining; however, there

are s e v e r a l q u a l i f y i n g .and even c o n t r a d i c t o r y f a c t o r s . F i r s t , to

say t h a t Snow White i s r o o t e d deeply " i n a fundamental d i s t r u s t

of most of the c o n v e n t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s of f i c t i o n " i s a tiresome

c r i t i c a l p l a t i t u d e , but l i k e most p l a t i t u d e s i t c o n t a i n s some t r u t h ;

however, while Barthelme may indeed be f u l f i l l i n g a modern expect-

a t i o n (meeting the outrage q u o t i e n t ) , he does so i n a manner con- 3 6

s i s t e n t w i t h the l a r g e r themes of h i s f i c t i o n . I t i s one t h i n g

to compose s e l f - a s s e r t i v e manifestos w i t h which to d a z z l e poetry

conferences, and i t i s another to show c h a r a c t e r s trapped i n t h e i r

own s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Rather than merely conforming to the r u l e

of m i s r u l e , Barthelme examines n a r r a t o r s and c h a r a c t e r s whose

d e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s l e a d s them to subvert the very

a c t i v i t y which might o f f e r them a sense of v a l u e .

Furthermore, the d o c t r i n a i r e program of the avant garde

(Down w i t h p l o t ! ) i s a f i t t a r g e t f o r Barthelme's s a t i r i c impulse.:

A n t i - r e a l i s m i s as much a l i t e r a r y convention as r e a l i s m , and i n a

sense Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are a n t i - a n t i - r e a l i s t s , s i n c e a t times

they appeal to the common r e a l i t y of the n a r r a t o r and the reader.

Barthelme's works are not f i v e - f i n g e r e x e r c i s e s f o r the a e s t h e t i c i a n ,

but moral e x p l o r a t i o n s ; a t the heart of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of

Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s and c h a r a c t e r s i s a moral f a i l u r e ; s e l f -

consciousness r e f l e c t s , m i r r o r s , r e p o r t s (to use a good r e a l i s t i c

term) r e a l problems i n American s o c i e t y , and more i s a t stake

(36) McCaffery, p. 19.

175

than j u s t another v i c t o r y over o u t - o f - f a s h i o n l i t e r a r y conventions.

(In the s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s , the most minor a r t -

i s t might emerge triumphant; i n f a c t , a l a c k of t a l e n t might be an

important weapon i n the s t r u g g l e to a v o i d f o l l o w i n g i n the t r a d -

i t i o n of the g r e a t l i t e r a r y works of the past.) L a t e r we s h a l l

d e t a i l Barthelme's c o u n t e r - a t t a c k on the avant garde, but a t p r e s e n t

we must c o n s i d e r the n a r r a t o r ' s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s as i t a p p l i e s

to h i s s t r u g g l e to f i l l the n a r r a t o r ' s r o l e .

L i t e r a t u r e as a l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n i s the n a r r a t o r ' s

f i r s t problem. There i s a t r a d i t i o n d e r i v i n g from the study of

the B i b l e and from the study of the c l a s s i c s ( s o r f e s V e r g i l i a e )

t h a t l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r s a guide to noble and u p r i g h t conduct. T h i s

n o t i o n i s not a t the moment i n f a s h i o n . Hence, i n " A l i c e , " the

n a r r a t o r pauses to c o n s i d e r what he should do next:

p o s s i b l e a t t i t u d e s found i n books 1) I don't know what's happening to me 2) what does i t mean? 3) s e i z e d w i t h the deepest sadness, I know not why 4) I am l o s t , my head w h i r l s , I know not where I am 5) I l o s e myself 6) I ask you, what have I come to? 7) I no longer know where I am, what i s t h i s country? ...

but I know where I am, I am on West Eleventh. S t r e e t shot w i t h l u s t I speak to A l i c e on the s t r e e t . . . (Unspeakable, p. 127).

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s from books are romantic, suggesting both the

n a r r a t o r ' s n o s t a l g i a f o r times when someone c o u l d a t l e a s t f e e l

d e s p a i r (Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s have d i f f i c u l t y f e e l i n g a n y t h i n g ) ,

as w e l l as the n a r r a t o r ' s post-romantic s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Words

from books don't r e l a t e to the n a r r a t o r ' s r e a l s i t u a t i o n — "but

I know where I am," shot with l u s t , not tender l o v e , on the s t r e e t s

of the c y n i c a l c i t y .

176

When the n a r r a t o r attempts to borrow the f i n e phrases of

o l d e r l i t e r a t u r e , he f i n d s t h a t something has been l o s t i n the

temporal t r a n s p l a n t i n g . He s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y attempts to p l a y a

r o l e from the p a s t , but the r h e t o r i c of the r o l e now sounds

hollow. In "The Glass Mountain," f o r example, the n a r r a t o r

attempts to rescue a symbolic p r i n c e s s who r e s i d e s " i n a c a s t l e

of pure g o l d " ( C i t y L i f e , p. 61). Despite h i s adherence to a l l

the " c o n v e n t i o n a l means" ( f o r example, being taken to the tower

of the g l i t t e r i n g p a l a c e by an e a g l e ) , the n a r r a t o r f i n d s t h a t he

must adopt modern expedients. Instead of storming the c a s t l e l i k e

a k n i g h t i n armour, he must ascend the w a l l of a skyscraper w i t h

the a i d of plumber's h e l p e r s ; and he has f o r g o t t e n h i s Bandaids.

In s h o r t , the e x p e d i t i o n f a i l s and the enchanted symbol proves

f a l s e : "Nor are eagles p l a u s i b l e , not a t a l l , not f o r a moment"

(pp. 63, 65).

The b e s t way to a t t a c k the f i n e o l d v a l u e s of l i t e r a t u r e

i s through l i t e r a t u r e ' s heroes. F i r s t A c h i l l e s ' h e e l , then

A c h i l l e s , then the Aeneid, then the c l a s s i c a l h e r i t a g e . B a r t h -

elme's n a r r a t o r s l i k e to reduce what might be c a l l e d "heroes of

p o t e n t i a l " to the hopeless q u o t i d i a n . They are removed from

the context of the h e r o i c book (or comic book, or movie) and

r e l o c a t e d i n the mundane p r e s e n t . For example, Snow White's

w i t c h f i g u r e , Jane, attempts an uneasy mixture of modern psycho-

a n a l y s i s and a n c i e n t f o l k l o r e ; she c u l t i v a t e s her m a l i c e : "Now

I must w i t c h someone, f o r t h a t i s my r o l e , and to f l e e one's r o l e ,

as Gimbal t e l l s us, i s i n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s b o o t l e s s " (p. 158).

Snow White's l e a d i n g v i l l a i n , Hogo de Bergerac, i s such a s e r i o u s

177

student of h i s adopted r o l e t h a t he s t u d i e s a t r o c i t y books f o r

t i p s . He complains t h a t no one maintains the f i n e standards of

e v i l of the p a s t , and expresses h i s i n d i g n a t i o n i n pseudo-

Shakespearean jargon, which he a p p a r e n t l y a s s o c i a t e s w i t h the

f i n e s t f l o w e r i n g of v i l l a i n y (presumably Edmund and Iago are h i s

r o l e models). Of course the o l d r h e t o r i c f a i l s , and the f i n e

phrases d i s s i p a t e :

Kiocfo was r e a d i n g a book of a t r o c i t y s t o r i e s - . "God, what f i l t h y beasts we were," he thought, "then. What a t h i n g i t must have been to be a Hun! A f i l t h y Boche! ... And today? We c o - e x i s t , we c o - e x i s t . F i l t h y deutschmarks! That so e c l i p s e the v e r y mark and t e x t u r e ... That so e c l i p s e the v e r y mark and bosom of a man, that v i l e n e s s h e r s e l f i s v i l e l y overthrown. That so e n f o l d . . . That so enscarp . .. Bloody deu.ts'chmarks! t h a t so enwrap^ the very warp and t e x t u r e of a man, t h a t what we c h e r i s h e d i n him, v i l e - ness, i s ... D i e s , h i s ginger o'erthrown. Bald p e l f ! t h a t so i n g u r g i t a t e s the very wrack and mixture of a man, t h a t i n him the sweet s t i n g s of v i l e n e s s are, a l l ginger f l e d , he..." (p. 64).

The heroes are r e v e a l e d to be o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n s , plagued/

with second thoughts, s e l f - c o n s c i o u s about t h e i r h e r o i c personae,

and f a t i g u e d with the e f f o r t of s u s t a i n i n g them. In "The P a r t y , "

f o r example, King Kong i s an adjunct p r o f e s s o r of a r t h i s t o r y a t

Rutgers; s t i l l t e r r i f y i n g , of course, but now he i s "simply

t r y i n g to make h i m s e l f i n t e r e s t i n g " (p. 58). The n a r r a t o r of

"The Phantom of the Opera's F r i e n d " g r a d u a l l y t i r e s of the Phantom's

self-doubts:"

O c c a s i o n a l l y he [the Phantom] i s overtaken by what can o n l y be c a l l e d f i t s of g r a n d i o s i t y :

"One hundred m i l l i o n c e l l s i n the b r a i n ! A l l i n t e n t on being the Phantom of the Opera!"

"Between t h r e e and four thousand human languages! And I am the Phantom of the Opera i n every one of them!"

T h i s i s q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d by the deepest

178

d e s p a i r . He s i n k s i n t o a c h a i r , passes a hand over h i s mask.

" F o r t y years of i t ! " ( C i t y L i f e , p. 100)

The Phantom r e c e i v e s r a t h e r a low blow to the persona when the

n a r r a t o r d e s c r i b e s the r e l u c t a n c e of Gaston Leroux to continue

w i t h the s t o r y : Gaston Leroux was t i r e d of w r i t i n g The

Phantom of the Opera. He r e p l a c e d h i s pen i n i t s penholder.

"I can always work on The Phantom of the Opera l a t e r — — i n the f a l l , perhaps. Jdght now I f e e l l i k e w r i t i n g The S e c r e t o f the Yellow Room" (p. 100).

In a s p e c t a c u l a r scene, Batman and Robin speed o f f i n the Batmobile

to i n t e r c e p t The Joker! But f i r s t they have to ask d i r e c t i o n s :

"Well i f I were you [says the Commissioner], I'd go out 34th S t r e e t u n t i l you h i t the War Memorial,. then take a r i g h t on Memorial D r i v e u n t i l i t connects w i t h Gotham Parkway! A f t e r you're on the Parkway i t ' s c l e a r s a i l i n g ! " he i n d i c a t e d .

"Wait a minute!" Batman s a i d . "Wouldn't i t be q u i c k e r to get on the Dugan Expressway where i t comes i n there a t 11th S t r e e t and then take the North Loop out to the R i c h a r d - son Freeway? Don't you t h i n k t h a t would save time?"

"Well I come to work t h a t way!" the Commis- s i o n e r s a i d . "But they're p u t t i n g i n another two l a n e s on the North Loop..." ("The Joker's G r e a t e s t Triumph," C a l i g a r i , p. 152).

In other words, comic book heroes are imprisoned i n the same

d r e a r y d a i l y round of s e l f - s e r v e gas s t a t i o n s as the r e s t of us,

and "the hot meat o f romance i s c o o l e d by the d u l l gravy of

common sense once more" ("Phantom," p. 103). The tiresome con-

s c i o u s n e s s of p l a y i n g a r o l e d e f e a t s the hero: Robin t e l l s Bat-

man t h a t the Joker may have l e a r n e d t h e i r s e c r e t i d e n t i t y . "Great

S c o t t ! " Batman says. " I f he r e v e a l s i t to the whole world i t

w i l l mean the end of my c a r e e r as a c r i m e - f i g h t e r ! W e l l , i t ' s a

179

problem" ("Joker," p. 156).

Since l i t e r a t u r e does not p r o v i d e a l i b e r a l guide to

moral conduct, and s i n c e i t s heroes are s p i r i t u a l l y bankrupt,

Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s view the a n c i l l a r y a c t i v i t y of l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m with s k e p t i c i s m . Contemporary f i c t i o n attempts "to

mock, subvert and pre-empt any t r a d i t i o n a l attempts a t c r i t i c a l 37

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i t s e l f " ; but t h i s should not imply t h a t

i n n o v a t i v e attempts a t c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would be any more

s u c c e s s f u l . Nabokov's n a r r a t o r s want to p r o s e l y t i z e the reader

and the c r i t i c a l i k e i n t o a c c e p t i n g the l i f e - g i v i n g v a l u e s of

n a r r a t i v e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; Barthelme 1 s n a r r a t o r s , conscious

not of t h e i r l i t e r a r y s t r e n g t h s but t h e i r weaknesses, attempt

to convince the reader t h a t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s a waste of time.

In "The G l a s s Mountain," f o r example, the n a r r a t o r s c a l e s

the mountain by adhering as b e s t he can to both the mountain and

the b e s t procedures of romance l i t e r a t u r e . He achieves the summit

and the symbol: 97. I approached the symbol, with i t s l a y e r s of meaning, but when I touched i t , i t changed i n t o o n l y a b e a u t i f u l p r i n c e s s . 98. I threw the b e a u t i f u l p r i n c e s s h e a d f i r s t down the mountain to my acquaintances. 99. Who c o u l d be r e l i e d upon to d e a l with her (pp.64-65).

The n a r r a t o r presents an anti-romance, a c o u n t e r - f a i r y t a l e ,

which subverts the honoured p r a c t i c e of d e l v i n g beneath the

s u r f a c e of the s t o r y f o r the b u r i e d t r e a s u r e s of u n i v e r s a l l y

s i g n i f i c a n t symbols. A f t e r a l l , the G l a s s Mountain n a r r a t o r

i s o s t e n s i b l y on a c r i t i c a l quest, an e x p l i c a t o r s e a r c h i n g f o r

(37) Stevick, p. 192.

180

meaning i n the t e x t , hoping f o r luminous symbols to i l l u m i n a t e

murky prose. Thus he muses a t the 206-foot mark:

71. "The c o n v e n t i o n a l symbol (such as the n i g h t i n g a l e , o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h melancholy), even though i t i s r e c o g n i z e d o n l y through agreement, i s not a s i g n ( l i k e the . t r a f f i c l i g h t ) because, again, i t presumably arouses deep f e e l i n g s and i s regarded as p o s s e s s i n g p r o p e r t i e s beyond what the eye alone sees." .('A D i c t i o n a r y - of L i t e r a r y Terms) 72. A number of n i g h t i n g a l e s w i t h t r a f f i c l i g h t s t i e d to t h e i r l e g s flew past me (p. 63) .

The o b j e c t of statement 72 i s to make Sylvan Barnet's handbook

d e f i n i t i o n seem l u d i c r o u s l y d o c t r i n a i r e , and, by e x t e n s i o n ,

make any and a l l reader's guides, t w e n t i e t h century views, and

C o l e s ' notes and q u e r i e s seem f u t i l e .

I remember reading those l i n e s i n "The G l a s s Mountain"

some years ago, j u s t a f t e r they were p u b l i s h e d i n C i t y L i f e

(1970), and i n c o r p o r a t i n g them i n an essay which was f i l l e d

w i t h e x h i l a r a t i o n a t the thought of a l l the s t u f f y c a t h e d r a l s

of outmoded l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m being razed to the ground (without

g i v i n g any thought to what might r e p l a c e them). On one of the

more e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a n a r c h i s t i c pages, my p r o f e s s o r wrote i n

the margin, "That way madness l i e s ! " Q u i t e t r u e , and l a t e r i n

the chapter i t w i l l be demonstrated t h a t many of the n a r r a t o r s

are l i t e r a l l y mad. A t t h i s p o i n t however, i t should be emphasized

t h a t the n a r r a t o r ' s a t t i t u d e towards l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s not o n l y

d e s t r u c t i v e of phoney r h e t o r i c and cheap p l a t i t u d e s , but a l s o any

form of i n t e l l e c t u a l c r i t i c i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y criticism which has as i t s

o b j e c t the d i s c o v e r y of v a l u e . S a t i r i c elements i n the s t o r i e s

are r a r e l y balanced with any sense of p o s i t i v e moral a b s o l u t e s ,

181

and attacks on patently absurd methods of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s m are

not balanced by proposals of sane alternatives.

Snow White, for example, attempts to undermine c r i t i c i s m

by means of the sudden introduction of a reader's quiz:

1. Do you l i k e the story so far? Yes ( ) No (.) 2. Does Snow White resemble the Snow White you

remember? Yes ( ) No ( ) 3. Have you understood, i n reading to t h i s point,

. that Paul i s the prince-figure? Yes ( ) No ( ) 5. In the further development of the story, would

you l i k e more emotion ( ) or less emotion ( ) ?

7. Do you f e e l that the creation of new modes of hysteria i s a viable undertaking for the a r t i s t of today? Yes ( ) No ( )

9. Has the work, f o r you, a metaphysical dimension? Yes ( ) No ( )

10. What i s i t (twenty-five words or less)?

11. Are the seven men, i n your view, adequately characterized as individuals? Yes ( ) No ( )

12. Do you f e e l that the Authors Guild has been s u f f i c i e n t l y vigorous i n representing writers before the Congress i n matters pertaining to copyright l e g i s l a t i o n ? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Holding i n mind a l l works of f i c t i o n since the war, i n a l l languages, how would you rate . the present.-work, on a scale of one to ten, so far? (Please c i r c l e your answer) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14. Do you stand up when you read? ( ) L i e down? ( ) S i t ? ( )

(pp. 82-83)

In t h i s parody of the gentlemanly r h e t o r i c a l exchange between

reader and narrator, the reader i s reduced to the r o l e of an

undergraduate answering a mid-term quiz. Besides, the questions

182

are loaded; to understand t h a t Paul i s the p r i n c e - f i g u r e i s to

demonstrate a r e l i a n c e on the outmoded e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a

c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s some l a r g e r a b s t r a c t i o n (we know how

Barthelme f e e l s about symbols). Of course Paul i s not a

p r i n c e - f i g u r e a t a l l : Snow White complains, "Paul i s :. f r o g . . . .

I thought he would, a t some p o i n t , c a s t o f f h i s mottled w e t t i s h

green-and-brown integument to reappear washed i n the hundred

g l i s t e r i n g hues of p r i n c e l i n e s s . But he i s pure f r o g " (p. 169).

The q u i z demonstrates a d i s t r u s t f o r the e n t e r p r i s e of

a r t . When a r t i s b i g b u s i n e s s ("matters p e r t a i n i n g to copy-

r i g h t l e g i s l a t i o n " ) , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t a r t w i l l have a

metaphysical dimension. I t i s hard to say which the c y n i c a l

q u e s t i o n s 9 and 10 damn more: the t r a d i t i o n t h a t a r t has

more than a s u r f a c e , or the t r a d i t i o n t h a t a r t can be e x p l a i n e d ,

e x p l i c a t e d and i n t e r p r e t e d .

Snow White and "The Glass Mountain" are symptomatic of

a malaise t h a t permeates a l l of Barthelme's s t o r i e s . The poor

d i s e a s e d n a r r a t o r , i n s t e a d of running t h i n g s w i t h calm and

c o n t r o l , f i n d s h i m s e l f f i l l e d w i t h s e l f - d o u b t . How should he

know what should be i n c l u d e d i n h i s s t o r y ? As one of the

Snow White dwarfs says, "We l i k e books t h a t have a l o t of dreck

i n them, matter which p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as not wholly r e l e v a n t

(or indeed, a t a l l r e l e v a n t ) but which, c a r e f u l l y attended t o ,

can supply a k i n d of "sense 1 of what i s going on" (p. 106).

Surrounded by dreck, the n a r r a t o r i s h a r d l y i n the p o s i t i o n

o f , say, Henry James, t r a c i n g the f i g u r e i n the c a r p e t . "Where

i s the f i g u r e i n the c a r p e t ? " asks. Kevin the dwarf. "Or i s

1 8 3

i t j u s t ... c a r p e t ? " (p. 1 2 9 ) .

S k e p t i c a l or confused about the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of language

and l i t e r a t u r e , d e f e n s i v e about c r i t i c i s m , the n a r r a t o r

doubts h i s own a r t i s t i c powers. In "The P a r t y , " f o r example,

h i s s p e c u l a t i o n s about h i s s o c i a l r o l e can a l s o be taken as

a comment on a e s t h e t i c s . He muses t h a t s o c i e t y ' s c r u c i a l

t a s k s "are o f t e n e n t r u s t e d to people who have f a t a l flaws"

(p. 5 8 ) . His c o n f i d e n c e has been s h a t t e r e d by h i s w i f e (Barth-

elme wives are g e n e r a l l y P h i l i s t i n e m a t e r i a l i s t s ) , who a t t a c k s

h i s c u l t u r a l heroes, Kafka and K l e i s t . He w o r r i e s t h a t he has

run out of i d e a s : "When one has spoken a l o t one has a l r e a d y

used up a l l of the i d e a s one has. You must change the people

you are speaking to so t h a t you appear, to y o u r s e l f , to be s t i l l

a l i v e " (p. 6 1 ) . And i n a r a t h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l phrase t h a t

c h a r a c t e r i z e s Barthelme's w r i t i n g s t y l e , the n a r r a t o r condemns

h i m s e l f : "Wonderful elegance! No good a t a l l ! " (p. 6 2 ) .

The n a r r a t o r of "At the T o l s t o y Museum" notes evidence

of f a t a l s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s even i n the monumental f i g u r e

of T o l s t o y : ".To make h i m s e l f i n t e r e s t i n g , he o c c a s i o n a l l y bowed

backward" ( C i t y L i f e , p. 4 3 ) . The l i t e r a r y past i s not an

i n s p i r a t i o n but a weight: "The e n t i r e b u i l d i n g , viewed from

the s t r e e t , suggests t h a t i t i s about to f a l l on you" (p. 4 5 ) .

"This the a r c h i t e c t s r e l a t e to T o l s t o y ' s moral a u t h o r i t y , " adds

Barthelme's n a r r a t o r , a l l u d i n g to the i d e a t h a t a r t i s t s i n the

past were i n t e g r a t e d and secure--^omniscient, with a h i n t of

o m n i p o t e n c e — i n t h e i r r o l e s as moral a r b i t e r s f o r s o c i e t y .

The modern a r t i s t , says Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s , i s anything but

184

a figure of certitude and authority. Edgar of "The Dolt,"

for example, repeatedly f a i l s the five-hour, fifty-minute

National Writer's Examination. He also f a i l s to deal with the

"son manque":

Edgar t r i e d to think of a way to badmouth t h i s immense son leaning over him l i k e a large b l a r i n g building. But he couldn't think of anything. Thinking of anything was beyond him. I sympathize. I myself have these problems. Endings are elusive, middles are nowhere to be found, but worst of a l l i s to begin, to begin,-to begin (Unspeakable, p. 69).

The idea of an integrated a r t i s t , i n command of his c r a f t , i s

now seen as a delusion. The a r t i s t i n "A Shower of Gold" .

objects to the art dealer's scheme of cutting his sculpture

i n two (small pieces move faster; shorter s h e l f - l i f e ) ; "You

have a very romantic impulse," says the art dealer, "I admire,

dimly, the posture. You read too much i n the history of a r t .

I t estranges you from those p o s s i b i l i t i e s for authentic

selfhood that inhere i n the present century" ( C a l i g a r i , p. 175).

Presumably authentic selfhood involves a surrender to

the ethics of the marketplace. There i s a fine l i n e between

the writer's unions and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d imagination of the

Soviet Union, and the Book of the Month competition of the West.

A merger of the two systems i s proposed i n Barthelme's a n t i -

utopian story, "Paraguay":

The problem of a r t . New a r t i s t s have been obtained.... Production i s up. Quality- control devices have been i n s t a l l e d at those points where the interests of a r t i s t s and audience i n t e r s e c t . . . . The r a t i o n a l i z e d art i s dispatched from central art dumps to regional a r t dumps, and from there into the lifestreams of c i t i e s , . . . Marketing

185

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s have not been allowed to d i c t a t e product mix; r a t h e r , each a r t i s t i s encouraged to m a i n t a i n , i n h i s software, h i g h l y p e r s o n a l , even i d i o s y n c r a t i c , standards (the s o - c a l l e d "hand of the a r t i s t " c o n c e p t ) . . . ( C i t y L i f e , pp. 22-23).

"Highly p e r s o n a l , even i d i o s y n c r a t i c , standards" suggests

the theme o u t l i n e d i n the f i r s t chapter, t h a t the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t i v e to impersonal and o b j e c t i v e

t h e o r i e s of n a r r a t i o n . But although Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are

s u b j e c t i v e , and i n t r u s i v e enough to be n o t i c e a b l e , they o f t e n

appear confused and estranged w i t h i n t h e i r own n a r r a t i v e s . We

seem to be t r a c i n g a downward s p i r a l .

The Other Side o f the Avant Garde

The n a r r a t o r s t r e a t language and l i t e r a t u r e as dangerous

a c t i v i t i e s . The n a r r a t o r s ' doubts and second thoughts are

r e f l e c t e d i n both the form and content of the s t o r i e s , r e s u l t i n g

i n a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s stance which i s a n t i - c o n v e n t i o n a l , sub-

v e r s i v e , d i s r u p t i v e .

But nothing i n the paragraph above i s s u r p r i s i n g . Barthelme

as an avant garde a e s t h e t i c i a n - - w h a t c o u l d be more de r i g u e u r

i n the s e v e n t i e s ? One must t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r the n o t i o n

t h a t Barthelme i s aware of avant garde e x p e c t a t i o n s , and t h a t

to some extent h i s work i s a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t them. Perhaps

a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , mocking stance towards l i t e r a r y conventions

has i t s e l f become a t e d i o u s convention ("Oh God comma I 38

abhor s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ) . L e t us examine Barthelme's

(38) John Barth, " T i t l e , " in Lost in the Funhouse (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1968), p. 113.

186

work f o r what some avant garde c r i t i c s would term r e t r o g r a d e

tendencies towards emotion and communication, and o u t l i n e some

of the more s t r i n g e n t avant garde t h e o r i e s under which

Barthelme might s u p e r f i c i a l l y seem to be subsumed.

To a n t i c i p a t e the chapter's subsequent argument f o r a

moment, Barthelme's r e a c t i o n to avant garde e x p e c t a t i o n s

r e s u l t s i n an i n t e r e s t i n g t w i s t to s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t

seems t h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s e l f an

escape route from s t e r i l i t y , archness, s o l i p s i s m and the other

attendant demons. The escape route might be termed p l a i n

statement, messages s t r a i g h t to the reader. T h i s i s accompl-

i s h e d through a r e v i v a l of the r h e t o r i c a l n a r r a t o r - r e a d e r

r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t went out of f a s h i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h century.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , escape from a s t r u c t u r e of s e l f - d o u b t and

double-edged i r o n y leads to a new k i n d of misery. Although

the n a r r a t o r ' s v o i c e i s now heard with a new d i r e c t n e s s , h i s

v o i c e i s not n e c e s s a r i l y more agreeable. Those s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t i v e masks are designed, i t seems, to c o n c e a l the t r u e

i d e n t i t y of the n a r r a t o r , r e v e a l e d to be an unpleasant person.

But t h i s new t w i s t i s examined l a t e r i n the chapter; we are

p r e s e n t l y concerned with Barthelme's conformity, or l a c k of

conformity, to the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d avant garde.

The essence of the avant garde p o s i t i o n i s t h a t the

novel i s i n a s t a t e of c r i s i s . Richard Gilman, f o r example,

says the novel must once and f o r a l l abandon "dead forms" 39

and r e c o g n i z e the " c r i s i s i n l i t e r a t u r e . " He f i n d s t h a t

(39) Richard Gilman/ The Confusion of Realms (New York: Random House, 1969), p. 52.

187

a s i d e from a few l a p s e s Barthelme s u c c e s s f u l l y redeems f i c t i o n

from i t s " a n a c h r o n i s t i c s t o r y t e l l i n g r o l e . " By c o n t r a s t ,

W i l l i a m Gass, whom one might have thought s u f f i c i e n t l y inno-

v a t i v e , stops s h o r t of h e a l t h y modernism; Gass1 work i s guilty of

"burrowing f o r comfort and s a f e t y i n t o the f a m i l i a r , not d a r i n g

f u l l y to c a s t o f f i t s cargo of l i t e r a r y i n h e r i t a n c e , employing

c e r t a i n r i t u a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e procedures which i t s e n t i r e

p i o n e e r i n g t h r u s t denies and seeks to a b o l i s h " (p. 70).

One might q u i b b l e t h a t there would be nothing l e f t of

Nabokov i f he were f o r c e d to abandon h i s massive cargo of

l i t e r a r y i n h e r i t a n c e ; one might c i t e Hawthorne's wise g l o s s on

the n o t i o n of abandoning the Good Ship L i t e r a t u r e i n "Earth's

Holocaust"; but i t seems the f i r s t r u l e i n an avant garde

c r i s i s i s to abandon the p a s t . Raymond Federman i n v e n t s a new

term, " s u r f i c t i o n , " i n order to express h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n

with "the f a i l i n g s of t r a d i t i o n a l f i c t i o n . " " I t i s t h i s ...

i n s u f f i c i e n c y , t h i s c r i s i s of f i c t i o n which brings"many "contemporary

w r i t e r s to ... r e w r i t e f i c t i o n i n terms and i n forms t h a t have 40

not y e t been d e f i n e d . " Richard K o s t e l a n e t z o f f e r s dark

warnings about a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t new l i t e r a t u r e on the p a r t

of the " e s t h e t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e r e v i e w i n g media-—The New York

Times Book Review, Saturday Review/World, or The New York Review

of Books," a l l of which a c t as o b s t a c l e s to t h a t l i t e r a r y i n n o v a t i o n which would " r e s u s c i t a t e modern a r t s t h a t are i n c i p -

41 i e n t l y s e n i l e . " P h i l i p p e S o l l e r s , p r o t e s t i n g outdated n o t i o n s

(40) Raymond Federman, "A Prefatory Note," S u r f i c t i o n , ed. Federman (Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc., 1975), p. 1.

(41) Richard <Kostelanetz,"New F i c t i o n in America," in S u r f i c t i o n , pp. 87,86.

188

of genre, g i v e s the c o n s p i r a c y a m i l i t a r y c h a r a c t e r : "A book

which seems to r e c o g n i z e none of the genre's r u l e s y e t dares

to c a l l i t s e l f a novel provokes the anger and i r r i t a t i o n of the 42

guardians of t h i s law, the l i t e r a r y t r a f f i c cops."

The c o r o l l a r y of the t h e s i s t h a t the novel i s i n a c r i s i s

i s t h a t the benighted Anglo-Saxon mind i s i n c a p a b l e of recog-

n i z i n g a c r i s i s . Many c r i t i c s use French t h e o r i s t s to b e r a t e ,

condemn and otherwise snub the o l d - f a s h i o n e d American and

B r i t i s h n o v e l i s t s . The most noteworthy of these c r i t i c s i s

Susan Sontag, who g r i m l y announces t h a t i n France, "the l i n e

o f p o s t - n o v e l prose n a r r a t i v e from the S u r r e a l i s t f i c t i o n s to

those of Borges, Beckett and R o b b e - G r i l l e t , are taken to

occupy the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n contemporary l e t t e r s , " w h i l e

most novels " i n t r a d i t i o n a l ' r e a l i s t i c ' forms (such as continue

to t h i s day to be c r i t i c a l successes i n England and America)

are regarded as e s s e n t i a l l y u n i n t e r e s t i n g , b a r e l y noteworthy 43

products of a r e t a r d e d or r e a c t i o n a r y consciousness." Note

the i m p l i e d r a d i c a l c h i c equation of r e a c t i o n a r y (conservative)

views and r e t a r d a t i o n ; o n l y brain-damaged f a s c i s t s would read

Saul Bellow.

Sontag argues i n A g a i n s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t the novel

r e q u i r e s " r e n o v a t i o n , " (pop a r t p o s t e r s on the w a l l s , perhaps),

trapped as i t i s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s "wholly mundane 44

concept of r e a l i t y . " Thus, "the novel as a form of a r t has (42) P h i l i p p e S o l l e r s , "The Novel and the Experience of Limits,"

in S u r f i c t i o n , p. 61. (43) Sontag, Pref., Writing Degree Zero, p. ix. (44) Susan Sontag, Against Interpretation (New York: Farrar, Straus

and Giroux, 1969), p. 101.

189

nothing to l o s e , and e v e r y t h i n g to g a i n , by joining the r e v o l u t i o n

t h a t has a l r e a d y swept over most of the other a r t s " (p. I l l ) .

A f t e r the r e v o l u t i o n , when the b a r r i c a d e s have been j o y f u l l y

removed from the f r e e s t r e e t s , Sontag promises t h a t the novel

w i l l then and o n l y then recover from i t s present degraded depths;

the novel a t the moment "has sunk to the l e v e l of an a r t form

deeply, i f not i r r e v o c a b l y , compromised by philxstinismf", but i n

t h a t new dawn, the renovated novel w i l l become something "which

people w i t h s e r i o u s and s o p h i s t i c a t e d t a s t e i n the other a r t s

can take s e r i o u s l y " (pp.102, 111).

One i s tempted to embrace what Sontag would c a l l P h i l -

i s t i n i s m , i f p h i l i s t i n i s m i s the a l t e r n a t i v e to her c h i l l i n g

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . Perhaps her p o s i t i o n i n the van, f a c i n g f r o n t

of course, makes i t d i f f i c u l t f o r her to p e r c e i v e the l i t e r a r y

landmarks behind. Her d i s d a i n f o r the mundane r e a l i t y we

a l l have i n common and take f o r granted (and, one l i k e s to

t h i n k , share) c e r t a i n l y p l a c e s her i n the avant garde t r a d i t i o n

as d e f i n e d by G e r a l d G r a f f : 'The avant-garde e s t h e t i c , whether

i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f as a mandarin formalism consecrated to

a r e l i g i o n .of h i g h a r t and t r a d i t i o n or as a s u r r e a l i s t i c

a s s a u l t on e s t h e t i c form, a r t , and c u l t u r e , a s s e r t s the c r e a t i v e

autonomy of consciousness a g a i n s t the bourgeois r e a l i t y p r i n -

c i p l e . " " The avant garde a e s t h e t i c leads to "a permanent a l i e n -

a t i o n of consciousness from any .fixe.d p o s i t i o n and from a l l previous 4 5

modes of consciousness...."

(45) Gerald Graff, "Babbitt at the abyss: the s o c i a l context of postmodern American f i c t i o n , " TriQuarterly, No. 33 (1975), p. 321.

190

To a c e r t a i n extent Barthelme f i t s the t e n e t s of the

avant garde, p a r t i c u l a r l y the avant garde as t r a n s l a t e d from

the French. Guerard notes shrewdly t h a t "Snow White h e r s e l f

has a d i s t i n c t l y French m e n t a l i t y . " "Behind the fun are s e r i o u s

matters: e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l nightmare and the c o l l a p s e of

language, the widening s e p a r a t i o n of words and experience,

the phenomenological d i s t r u s t of v a l u e : a l l very French."

But what i s even more shrewd i s Guerard's c o n c l u s i o n : "Barth-

elme may have taken the b e s t from the French i n t e l l e c t u a l 46

while s a t i r i z i n g h i s g l i b n e s s . " One c o u l d argue t h a t B a r t h -

elme 1 s c h a r a c t e r s are not so much a l i e n i s t e s (to c o i n a French

term) as p a r o d i c or mock or p s e u d o - a l i e n i s t e s : For viewed from a c e r t a i n angle, the s p e c t a c l e of a b o u r g e o i s i e equipped with i d e o l o g i e s de- v i s e d by the s p i r i t u a l r e b e l s and a r i s t o c r a t s of modernist a r t and l i t e r a t u r e , a b o u r g e o i s i e s e l f - a b s o r b e d and n u r t u r i n g an acute consciousness of p s y c h o l o g i c a l g r i e v a n c e and v i c t i m i z a t i o n , i s a r i c h t o p i c f o r s a t i r e . ^

Instead of being one of the a l l i e s i n the avant garde

f o r c e s , Barthelme i s to some extent a s a t i r i s t of the avant

garde. I t s t h e o r i e s have f i l t e r e d down through a l l s t r a t a of

s o c i e t y , from the l o f t y i n t e l l e c t u a l p l a t e a u of Susan Sontag

to the l o w l i e s t slum of an American n o v e l i s t ; Z e n i t h boosters

such as George F. B a b b i t t have been r e p l a c e d as s a t i r i c

t a r g e t s by s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , n e u r o t i c , Jean Luc Godard f a n s .

Barthelme and o t h e r s "are a b l e to achieve a type of f i c t i o n

which i n c o r p o r a t e s postmodern s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i l e t r a n s -

(46) Guerard, p. 31. (47) Graff, "Babbitt at the abyss," p. 323.

191

cending postmodern s u b j e c t i v i s m 1 , (p. 323) .

However, Barthelme does not i n f a c t "transcend" postmodern

s u b j e c t i v i t y i f the word i m p l i e s t h a t the i s s u e s t h a t occasioned

s u b j e c t i v i s m have been somehow surmounted. While the s t o r i e s

mock the f a l s e r h e t o r i c of the avant garde, they do not r e f u t e

the i s s u e s c o n f r o n t e d by the avant garde — "<e/pistemologic;al

nightmare and the c o l l a p s e of language ... the phenomenological

d i s t r u s t of v a l u e . . . . " The s t o r i e s d e p i c t a s o c i e t y f i l l e d with

d e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , angst and d e s p a i r , but they

r a r e l y o f f e r h e a l t h y a l t e r n a t i v e s . The g l i b n e s s of the avant

garde i s mocked, however, p a r t i c u l a r l y the g l i b n e s s as a p p l i e d

to a e s t h e t i c s , and mocked i n a manner t h a t a f f e c t s the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r , a t times t r a n s f o r m i n g him i n t o an o l d -

fashioned communicator, the reader's f r i e n d .

The N a r r a t o r as Plain-Speaker

Peterson, the hero of "A Shower of Gold," encounters a

number o f c h a r a c t e r s who spout avant garde p l a t i t u d e s , and y e t

belong to the b o u r g e o i s i e ; h i s barber, f o r example, i s the

author of "four books t i t l e d The D e c i s i o n to Be" ( C a l i g a r i ,

p. 177). Peterson i s i n v i t e d to a t e l e v i s i o n program which

s p e c i a l i z e s i n prime time e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . A program d i r e c t o r

d e t a i l s the r a t i o n a l e of Who Am I? :

People today, we f e e l , are hidden away i n s i d e themselves, a l i e n a t e d , desperate, l i v i n g i n anguish, d e s p a i r and bad f a i t h . Why have we been thrown here, and abandoned? That's the q u e s t i o n we t r y to answer, Mr. Peterson. Man stands alone i n a f e a t u r e l e s s , anonymous landscape, i n f e a r and t r e m b l i n g and s i c k n e s s unto death. God i s dead. Nothingness every-

192

where. Dread. Estrangement. F i n i t u d e . Who Am I? approaches these problems i n a r o o t

r a d i c a l way (p. 174).

Do these i d e a s i n the program d i r e c t o r ' s mind come from a l i f e -

time o f Kierkegaard s c h o l a r s h i p ? From an i n t u i t i v e understanding

of the degraded depths of the human heart? Or from d r u g s t o r e

p h i l o s o p h e r s and n i g h t s c h o o l courses, H i s t o r y of Thought 101.

(In Snow White the heroine muses t h a t , "the main theme t h a t runs

through my b r a i n i s t h a t what i s , i s i n s u f f i c i e n t . Where d i d

t h a t s u l k y n o t i o n come from? From the r e n t a l l i b r a r y , d o u b t l e s s "

[p. 135].) Peterson r e f u s e s to accept the premise of the TV

program, and d e l i v e r s an impassioned ( i . e . , o l d - f a s h i o n e d )

speech: The emcee waved a t the f l o o r manager to t u r n Peterson o f f , but Peterson kept t a l k i n g . "In t h i s k i n d of a world ... absurd i f you w i l l , p o s s i b i l i t i e s n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o l i f e r a t e . ... Don't be r e c o n c i l e d . . . . [I]ndulge i n a mindless optimism. V i s i t g i r l s at dusk.... My mother was a r o y a l v i r g i n ... and my f a t h e r a shower o f g o l d . My c h i l d h o o d was p a s t o r a l and e n e r g e t i c and r i c h i n experiences which developed my c h a r a c t e r . As a young man I was noble i n reason, i n f i n i t e i n f a c u l t y , i n form express and admirable, and i n apprehen- s i o n ..." Peterson went on and on and although he was, i n a sense, l y i n g , i n a sense he was not (p. 183).

The d i r e c t o r ' s phrase about approaching contemporary prob-

lems i n a " r o o t , a r a d i c a l way" c o u l d be found i n v a r i o u s permu-

t a t i o n s i n any number of the c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s surrounding the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s New F i c t i o n , and i n any number of a r t i s t i c

manifestos- and Canada C o u n c i l a p p l i c a t i o n s . I t i s dangerous

indeed to a s c r i b e to Barthelme the i n t e l l e c t u a l n o t i o n s t h a t

are thought to be the i n e v i t a b l e concomitants of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

193

f i c t i o n ( s o l i p s i s m , p h i l o s o p h i c chaos, a n t i - r e a l i s m , "Dread.

Estrangement:.- F i n i t u d e . " ) . However, note how the n a r r a t o r hedges

h i s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l bets i n t h a t f i n a l l i n e ("in a sense").

Even i n t h i s very e a r l y (1963) and a t y p i c a l l y o p t i m i s t i c

s t o r y , the t a r g e t i s not n e c e s s a r i l y the h o r r o r s of modern

l i f e , but the too-easy a r t i c u l a t i o n of these h o r r o r s .

Thus Jerome Charyn sounds r a t h e r l i k e the program d i r e c t o r

when he argues t h a t the b e s t postwar American w r i t e r s address

themselves to a "sense of dread." He concludes t h a t language

has l e f t c u l t u r e behind and turned i n on i t s e l f . L i t e r a t u r e . 48

i s "the language of h y s t e r i a . " Snow White p i c k s up on the i d e a :

"Do you f e e l t h a t the c r e a t i o n of new modes of h y s t e r i a i s a

v i a b l e undertaking f o r the a r t i s t of today?" The q u e s t i o n

exposes the element of jargon i n Charyn 1 s t h e s i s , and one i s

reminded of the venomous a t t a c k on i n t e l l e c t u a l canned goods i n

Saul Bellow's Herzog: "The canned sauerkraut of Spengler's

'Prussian S o c i a l i s m , ' the commonplaces of the Wasteland outlook,

the cheap mental s t i m u l a n t s of A l i e n a t i o n , the cant and r a n t 49

of pipsqueaks about I n a u t h e n t i c i t y and F o r l o r n n e s s . "

Consider a l s o Ronald Sukenick.. In his: The Death of the Novel and

Other S t o r i e s , Sukenick says, "The contemporary w r i t e r - — the

w r i t e r who i s a c u t e l y i n touch with the l i f e of which he i s

p a r t - - i s f o r c e d to s t a r t from s c r a t c h : R e a l i t y doesn't e x i s t , 50

time doesn't e x i s t , p e r s o n a l i t y doesn't e x i s t . " (48) Jerome Charyn, Introd., The Single Voice, ed. Jerome Charyn

(New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. ix. (49) Saul Bellow, Herzog (New York: Viking Press, 1964), as quoted

in Graff, "Babbi'.tt at the- Abyss,"„ p. 305. (50) Ronald Sukenick, "The Death of the Novel," in The Death of the Novel

and Other Stories (New York: Dial Press, 1969), p. 41: my emphasis.

194

But i n "Departures," the n a r r a t o r i s i n l o v e w i t h the w i f e of a

famous poet. He imagines her walking w i t h her husband " i n SoHo,

seeing what the new a r t i s t s are r e f u s i n g to do t h e r e , i n t h e i r

quest f o r a s c r a t c h to s t a r t from" (Sadness, p. 108) . In t h a t

t e l l i n g l i n e , Barthelme's n a r r a t o r d i s a s s o c i a t e s h i m s e l f from

d o c t r i n a i r e n o t i o n s about the n e c e s s i t y of abandoning r e a l i s m ,

meaningful language and other l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s . By mocking

the avant garde a r t i s f ' s quest f o r the a b s o l u t e freedom of an

e g o i s t i n a vacuum, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r e s t a b l i s h e s a r h e t o r i c a l

l i n k w i t h the reader. The reader i s suddenly o f f e r e d a guide

to the b e w i l d e r i n g maze of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t . For example,

Roland B a r t h e s c l a i m s t h a t w r i t i n g i s " i n no way an instrument

f o r communication," r a t h e r , i t i s "an anti-communication, i t i s

i n t i m i d a t i n g . " What would Barthes make of the f o l l o w i n g

passage from "The Glass Mountain"? 25. I was new i n the neighbourhood. 26. In the s t r e e t s were many people w i t h

d i s t u r b e d eyes. 27. Look f o r y o u r s e l f .

(p. 60).

I s n ' t t h a t an a c t o f communication? "Look f o r y o u r s e l f . " Doesn'

t h a t l i n e f l a t l y c o n t r a d i c t R o b b e - G r i l l e t when he says, " A r t

i s based on no t r u t h t h a t e x i s t s before i t ; and one may say t h a t 52

i t expresses nothing but i t s e l f . " ? Obviously we are i n v i t e d

by the n a r r a t o r to look i n our s t r e e t s , and c o n f i r m by sense (51) Barthes, pp. 19, 20. (52) Robbe-Grillet, as quoted in Gore Vidal, Homage to Daniel Shays

(New York: Random House, 1972), p. 284.

195

impression, r a t i o n a l i t y , a common r e a l i t y and common sense,

what the n a r r a t o r has p e r c e i v e d and expressed f o r our e d i f i c a t i o n .

The consequent flow of sympathy between the reader and the

n a r r a t o r i s based on the two s h a r i n g a common r e a l i t y . I t i s

an a c t of o l d - f a s h i o n e d communication which supports t h a t naive

n o t i o n of Holden C a u l f i e l d t h a t a good book prompts the reader

to phone up the author f o r a t e t e - a - t e t e and a h e a r t to h e a r t .

In s h o r t , Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s do not ignore the m i s s i n g l i n k

i n much of modern a e s t h e t i c s , the audience. The s t o r i e s tend

to bear out Borges' o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t a'/book " i s more than

a v e r b a l s t r u c t u r e or s e r i e s of v e r b a l s t r u c t u r e s ; i t i s the

d i a l o g u e i t e s t a b l i s h e s w i t h i t s reader and the i n t o n a t i o n i t

imposes upon h i s v o i c e and the changing and durable images i t 53

leaves i n h i s memory."

Consider "Sentence," which c o n s i s t s of one long uncompleted

sentence t h a t proceeds by means of f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n . There are

sketches of a d e t e r i o r a t i n g marriage and a l u s t f u l doctor, but,

as the w r i t e r w o r r i e s , the " t h i n wires of dramatic t e n s i o n

... have been omitted" ( C i t y L i f e , p. 113). The n a r r a t o r f i r s t

i n t r o d u c e s and then banishes f a c t o r s t h a t would endanger the

•sentence's a e s t h e t i c autonomy, such as a messenger who avoids

the sentence's t r a p door long enough to demand some s o r t of

d o c t r i n a i r e p r o t e s t l i t e r a t u r e : "' Stop making t h i s sentence,

and begin i n s t e a d to make Mohoiy-Nagy c o c k t a i l s , f o r those are

what we r e a l l y need, on the f r o n t i e r s of bad behavior....'"

And with a bow to P i r a n d e l l o , the n a r r a t o r imagines "a p o s s i b l e (53) Borges, "A Note on (toward) Bernard Shaw," in Labyrinths, p. 213.

196

coup d ' e t a t w i t h i n the sentence, whereby i t s c h i e f verb would

be ..." (p. 113).

In one sense t h i s i s a demonstration of the a e s t h e t i c s

of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s v e r b a l s t r u c t u r e ; the e x p l i c i t moral

of the s t o r y i s t h a t we should honor such a "man-made o b j e c t " :

"a s t r u c t u r e to be t r e a s u r e d f o r i t s weakness, as opposed to

the s t r e n g t h of stones" (p. 114). So f a r , a r t - f o r - a r t ' s - s a k e .

However, the sentence a l s o f e a t u r e s windows and a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g

f o r the common reader. We note t h a t pure s t r u c t u r a l i s t s are

unwelcome: "[H]ere comes Ludwig, the expert on sentence con-

s t r u c t i o n ... [who w i l l ] probably f i n d a way to cure the sentence's

sprawl, by u s i n g the improved ways of t h i n k i n g developed i n

Weimar" — but Ludwig d i s a p p e a r s through another t r a p door (p. 114).

Furthermore, the sentence i s shaped by the pressures of o u t s i d e

events, as the n a r r a t o r meditates on the contemporary world and

such phenomena as "the run-mad skimble-skamble of i n f o r m a t i o n

s i c k n e s s " (p. 113-114). Most i m p o r t a n t l y , the n a r r a t o r i s

aware of h i s reader, and even permits h i m s e l f some o l d - f a s h i o n e d

n i n e t e e n t h century c h a r a c t e r - b u i l d i n g advice; he a d v i s e s us

t h a t setbacks are good f o r the s o u l ; some d e f e a t s are

good f o r your c h a r a c t e r , t e a c h i n g you t h a t i t i s not by success alone t h a t one surmounts l i f e , but t h a t setbacks, too, c o n t r i b u t e to t h a t roughening of the p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t , by p r o v i d i n g a t e x t u r e d s u r f a c e to p l a c e a g a i n s t t h a t of l i f e , enables you to leave s l i g h t t r a c e s , or smudges, on the face of human h i s t o r y --your mark (p. 108).

T h i s s u r p r i s i n g bildungsroman i n the midst of a modern sentence i s

not meant i r o n i c a l l y ; the s t o r y i s f u l l of "you," meaning the

197

reader, and the n a r r a t o r even worries how much the reader w i l l

r e t a i n when "the sentence f a l l s out of the mind t h a t holds i t

(temporarily) i n some k i n d of embrace, not n e c e s s a r i l y an ardent

one" (p. 107). The use of the a u t h o r i a l "we" c o n t a i n s a d e f i n i t e

sense o f I and Thou. "Sentence" i s a s t r u c t u r e aimed a t an aud-

i e n c e , not merely Immortality.

In one of h i s r a r e t h e o r e t i c a l statements, Barthelme

argues t h a t :

The reader r e c o n s t i t u t e s the work by h i s a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n , by approaching the o b j e c t , tapping i t , shaking i t , h o l d i n g i t to h i s ear to hear the r o a r i n g w i t h i n . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the o b j e c t t h a t i t does not d e c l a r e i t s e l f a l l a t once, i n a rush of p l e a s a n t n a i v e t e . Joyce enforces the way i n which Finnegans Wake i s to be read. He conceived the r e a d i n g to be a l i f e t i m e p r o j e c t , the book remaining always t h e r e , l i k e the landscape surrounding the r e a d e r ' s home or the b u i l d i n g s bounding the reader's apartment. The book remains p r o b l e m a t i c , u n e x h a u s t e d . ^

Sterne s i m i l a r l y evokes the reader's " a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n "

by promising he w i l l do " a l l t h a t l i e s i n my power to keep

h i s [the reader's] i m a g i n a t i o n as busy as my own," and Denis

D i d e r o t says i n C e c i n'est pas un conte, "When one t e l l s a s t o r y ,

i t i s to someone who l i s t e n s ; and however b r i e f l y the s t o r y

l a s t s , i t i s r a r e t h a t the t e l l e r i s not sometimes i n t e r r u p t e d

by h i s l i s t e n e r . That i s why I have i n t r o d u c e d ... a f i g u r e 55

who w i l l p l a y approximately the r o l e of the reader." I t i s

(54) Donald Barthelme, as quoted in Klinkowitz, L i t e r a r y Disrup- tions, p. 77.

(55) Tristram Shandy, p. 83; Denis Diderot, as quoted in Alter, p. 72.

198

p a r t of the t r a d i t i o n of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r to pay

a t t e n t i o n to the reader, and we should c o n s i d e r the l i b e r a t i n g

e f f e c t on the reader of being c a t e r e d t o , i n an era where

the audience i s l a r g e l y ignored. That the n o t i o n of c a t e r i n g

to the reader seems s u b l i t e r a r y and b e s t s e l l e r i s h i s a measure

of our r e c e n t h u m i l i t y i n the face of A r t ; there i s a t h r i v i n g

t r a d i t i o n t h a t the reader i s the l e a s t important f a c t o r :

11. The w r i t e r expresses, he does not communicate....

12. The p l a i n reader be damned! ̂ .̂

I f Finnegans Wake or The Cantos seem impenetrable, then the

f a u l t l i e s i n our inadequate educations or p i t i f u l mental

c a p a c i t i e s , not i n Joyce and Pound. But Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s

o f t e n take the o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n , and a s s i d u o u s l y c u l t i v a t e

the reader's a t t e n t i o n .

In " F l o r e n c e Green i s 81," the n a r r a t o r says, I ; I am a

young man, but v e r y b r i l l i a n t , very i n g r a t i a t i n g , I adopt

t h i s i n g r a t i a t i n g tone because I can't help myself (for .fear

of b o r i n g you)." "Reader," he c o n t i n u e s ,

we have r o l e s to p l a y , thou and I : you are the d o c t o r (washing your hands between hours), and I, I am, I t h i n k , the nervous d r e a r y p a t i e n t . I am f r e e a s s o c i a t i n g , b r i l l i a n t l y , b r i l l i a n t l y , to put you i n t o the problem. Or f o r f e a r of b o r i n g you: which? ( C a l i g a r i , p. 4) .

The n a r r a t o r of "See the Moon?" s i m i l a r l y senses h i s audience

s l i p p i n g away: "I know you t h i n k I'm wasting my time. You've

made t h a t p e r f e c t l y c l e a r " (p. 155). He w o r r i e s t h a t the

(56) "Proclamation," .'transition, p. fi-3} .

199

c h a r a c t e r of h i s w i f e , Ann, w i l l i n t e r f e r e w i t h the flow of the

s t o r y , and t h a t the reader might not be i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s

p e r s o n a l problems:

Ann. I'm going to keep her g h o s t l y . J u s t the odd b i t o f d i a l o g u e .

"What i s l i t t l e Gog doing." " K i c k i n g . " I don'11 want her b u r s t i n g i n on us w i t h

the f r e s h n e s s and o r i g i n a l i t y of her obser- v a t i o n s . What we need here i s p e r s p e c t i v e . She's good with Gregory though. I t h i n k he h a l f l i k e s her.

Don't go. The greased-pig chase and b a l - l o o n launchings come next (pp. 160-161).

The n a r r a t o r tops greased-pigs i n "Can We T a l k , " i n which

the metaphor f o r a n a r r a t i v e i s a new b u i l d i n g . He composes

a brochure "to l u r e f o l k i n t o my new b u i l d i n g . T i t l e d 'The

Human Heart i n C o n f l i c t with I t s e l f . ' Promising 24-hour

i n c i n e r a t i o n . And other f e a t u r e s " (Unspeakable, p. 106).

In an e f f o r t to h o l d the reader's a t t e n t i o n , the n a r r a t o r

becomes the reader's s p i r i t u a l guide, or h i s peer, or some other

r e l a t i o n s h i p opposed to the c h i l l i n g h i e r a r c h y of e l i t i s t a r t i s t

and humble reader. In "Rebecca," the n a r r a t o r uses the g e n t l e -

manly l o c u t i o n , "reader":

I t i s c o r r e c t to f e e l f o r Rebecca i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , but, reader, n e i t h e r can H i l d a ' s p o s i t i o n be c o n s i d e r e d an e n v i a b l e one, f o r t r u t h , as Bergson knew, i s a hard apple, whether one i s throwing i t or c a t c h i n g i t .

"What remains?" Rebecca s a i d s t o n i l y . "I can l o v e you i n s p i t e of — " Do I_ want to be l o v e d i n s p i t e o f ? Do

you? Does anyone? But a r e n ' t we a l l , to some degree? Aren't there important p a r t s of a l l us which must be, so to say, gazed past? I t u r n a b l i n d eye to t h a t aspect of you, and you t u r n a b l i n d eye to t h a t aspect of me, and w i t h these b l i n d eyes e y e b a l l - t o - e y e b a l l , to use an e x p r e s s i o n from the e a r l y 1960's. ... (Amateurs, pp. 143-44).

200

The n a r r a t o r i s here a m o r a l i s t i n the mode of George E l i o t ,

d i r e c t i n g the reader's sympathies.

The messages from the n a r r a t o r to the reader are not

without g u i l e ; f o r example, the n a r r a t o r of "Rebecca" e x p l a i n s

t h a t h i s s t o r y has been w r i t t e n f o r " s e v e r a l reasons," and t h a t

nine of those reasons are " s e c r e t s " ; but there i s a t l e a s t

the p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i r e c t communication and t r u s t (p. 144).

D i r e c t communication r e j e c t s the extreme a e s t h e t i c p o s i t i o n

t h a t the a r t i s t "expresses, he does not communicate," and i t

r e j e c t s another fundamental t e n e t of the avant garde, which i s

t h a t we a l l d w e l l i n p r i v a t e e p i s t e m o l o g i e s : i n f a c t , there

i s a counter-impulse towards a common r e a l i t y . "I wanted to

be a p a i n t e r , " says the n a r r a t o r of "See the Moon?":

They get away w i t h murder i n my view.... You don't know how I envy them. They can p i c k up a Baby Ruth wrapper on the s t r e e t , glue i t on the canvas ( i n the r i g h t p l a c e , of course, t h e r e ' s t h a t ) , and l o ! people crowd around and c r y , "A r e a l Baby Ruth wrapper, by God, what c o u l d be r e a l e r than t h a t ! " F a n t a s t i c metaphysical advantage. You hate them, i f you're ambitious (p. 157).

T h i s i s meant p l a y f u l l y , but i t i_s a f a n t a s t i c metaphysical

advantage; there i s no escaping the g r a v i t a t i o n a l p u l l of

r e a l i s m . Modern r e a d e r s have an a p p e t i t e f o r escapism, from

s c i e n c e f i c t i o n to Hobbits, but they have an equal a p p e t i t e

f o r a sense of the r e a l world, or a t l e a s t the t r a d i t i o n a l

l i t e r a r y conventions t h a t seem to express the r e a l world (events

t a k i n g p l a c e i n coherent temporal sequence, c h a r a c t e r s a c t i n g

through comprehensible m o t i v a t i o n , and so on). D e s p i t e P l a t o ' s

c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the t h i n g s we see around us are j u s t shadows

201

on the cave w a l l of the undeveloped i n t e l l e c t , d e s p i t e Sontag's

a t t a c k on the "mundane" r e a l i s m of n i n e t e e n t h century l i t e r a r y

conventions, d e s p i t e the development of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l i t -

e r a t u r e t h a t emphasizes the a r t i f i c i a l i t y of the s t o r y and the

i n h e r e n t s o l i p s i s m of the n a r r a t o r , the reader continues to

t e s t the s t o r y f o r correspondence to the world he l i v e s i n .

Despite the s o p h i s t i c a t e d n o t i o n s of l i t e r a t u r e t h a t we have

been a s s o c i a t i n g with the avant garde, the average reader continues

to expect from l i t e r a t u r e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n and p e n e t r a t i n g

i n s i g h t s t h a t he can a p p l y to h i s own c o n d u c t - - a n d i f he

doesn't f i n d them, he stops r e a d i n g . Hence, the tremendous

p o p u l a r i t y of j o u r n a l i s m , i n which the reader's agent i s expected

to d e l i v e r f a i t h f u l r e p o r t s from the i n f o r m a t i o n f r o n t ; hence

the 24 hour, 15 channel i n f o r m a t i o n bombardment of t e l e v i s i o n ;

and hence the a r t i s t i c dominance of movies. Compare the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r who h a l t i n g l y d e s c r i b e s , i n coy, p a r o d i s t i c

language, a r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n , a b a t t l e and a b e a u t i f u l enchanted

p r i n c e s s w i t h the movie d i r e c t o r who r e n t s an a u t h e n t i c l o c o -

motive and d a z z l e s h i s audience w i t h smoke and gleaming s t e e l ,

60,000 costumed e x t r a s on the h i s t o r i c a l s i t e of the B a t t l e

of Waterloo, and J u l i e C h r i s t i e as the p r i n c e s s . The s a t i s f i e d

audience l u x u r i a t e s i n mimesis of the r e a l t h i n g ; s t e e l ,

blood and l o v e l y wide eyes.

Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are aware of the g r a v i t a t i o n a l

p u l l of r e a l i s m , or t h i n g s as they independently are, even

though the b r u t e f a c t s might a c t as a check on t h e i r imagine

a t i o n s . The n a r r a t o r of "Departures," f o r example, remembers

202

h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s c o n t r a c t to b u i l d some wooden barracks f o r

army r e c r u i t s as green as the lumber. At h i s timber r i g h t s i n

East Texas, the grandfather- f a l l s i n l o v e w i t h a dryad —

"a wood nymph ... who dances around t r e e s i n f i n e l e a f - g r e e n

t u t u and who c a r r i e s a g r e a t s i l v e r - s h i n i n g axe to whack

anyone who does any k i n d of t h i n g i n i m i c a l to the w e l l - b e i n g

and mental h e a l t h o f t r e e s " (p. 102). The s t o r y i s f i l l e d w i t h

s i m i l a r whimsical touches, u n t i l the n a r r a t o r d e l i b e r a t e l y

s p o i l s the mood: "This i s not r e a l l y how i t went. I am f a n t a s -

i z i n g . A c t u a l l y , he j u s t p l a i n c u t down the t r e e s " (p. 105).

T h i s p l a i n - s p e a k i n g w i t h a vengeance , i n which the n a r r a t o r

o f f e r s a c o n c e s s i o n t o t h i n g s as they are i n the r e a l world,

i s p a r t of a convention i n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i v e s , a k i n d

of i n t e r n a l check and balance on the runaway i m a g i n a t i o n .

For example, now t h a t Don Quixote i s taken by so many c r i t i c s

to be the source and f o n t of s e l f - r e f l e x i v e f i c t i o n and f l a g r a n t

a r t i f i c e , i t might be f o r g o t t e n t h a t Cervantes makes a p e r s o n a l

appearance without h i s magician's wand and robes to denounce

a r e c e n t p l a g i a r i z e r :

What I cannot help r e s e n t i n g i s t h a t he upbraids me f o r being o l d and c r i p p l e d , as i f i t were i n my power to stop the passage of time, or as i f the l o s s of my hand had taken p l a c e i n some t a v e r n , and not on the g r e a t e s t o c c a s i o n which any age, p a s t , p r e s e n t or f u t u r e , ever saw or can ever hope to s e e . ^

These l i n e s , touching on Cervantes' wounds a t the B a t t l e

of Lepanto, a c t as a s t a b l e background to the novel's foreground

of a r t i f i c e ; or as an index to Don Quixote's courage (which might

(57) Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote, trans. J.M. Cohen (Harmondworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1950), p. 467.

203

otherwise be obscured by the Don's c o m i c a l l y exaggerated

sense of m i l i t a r y honor).

S i m i l a r l y , Thackeray i n V a n i t y F a i r suddenly t a l k s about

h i m s e l f :

T h i s , dear f r i e n d s and companions, i s my amiable o b j e c t - - t o walk w i t h you through the F a i r , to examine the shops and the shows t h e r e ; and t h a t we should a l l come home a f t e r the f l a r e , and the n o i s e , and the g a i e t y , and be p e r f e c t l y m i s e r a b l e i n p r i v a t e (pp. 180- 81) .

Some c r i t i c s c o n s i d e r such l i n e s to be a r t i s t i c flaws.

Dorothy Van Ghent says of Thackeray's methods,

What we f e e l i s t h a t two o r d e r s of r e a l i t y are clumsily g e t t i n g i n each o t h e r ' s way: the order of i m a g i n a t i v e r e a l i t y , where Becky l i v e s , and the order of h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , where W i l l i a m Makepeace Thackeray l i v e s .

... Thackeray seems ... to be v i c t i m i z e d or t r i c k e d [by the convention of a u t h o r i a l a s i d e s ] i n t o a clumsy mishandling of perspec-

Robert A l t e r , commenting on the Thackeray passage quoted above,

admits t h a t the l i n e s have resonance, "but i t i s the wrong k i n d 59

of resonance." The immediate f i c t i o n a l context of the passage

i s Thackeray "at h i s e n e r g e t i c b e s t , and i t does not j u s t i f y t h i s

sense of brooding misery, which would seem to be the author's

own. In the very a c t , then, of p o i n t i n g to h i s motley garb,

he removes h i s a r t i s t ' s mask and takes h i s p l a c e as a man among

m i s e r a b l e men..." (p. 120).

(58) Dorothy Van Ghent, The English Novel: Form and Function (1953; rpt. New York: Harper and Row, 1961), pp. 139-40. Note that she could apply the same argument to the Cervantes passage.

(59) Alter, p. 119.

204

But f o r the n a r r a t o r to take h i s p l a c e among m i s e r a b l e

men i s p r e c i s e l y the e f f e c t r e q u i r e d to put the reader i n

the problem, to make him c a r e , and make him t r u s t the man-

i p u l a t i v e n a r r a t o r . We a l l know E l i o t ' s l i n e t h a t mankind

can o n l y stand so much r e a l i t y ; the same goes f o r a r t i f i c e .

Both Van Ghent and A l t e r argue f o r a k i n d of c r i t i c a l t i d i n e s s ;

the author can do what he wants as long as he doesn't s l i p

o u t s i d e the frame and i n t o h i s t o r i c a l circumstance (Van Ghent),

or shamefully remove the sacred a r t i s t ' s mask ( A l t e r ) . But

perhaps s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i o n leads almost i n e v i t a b l y

to a c o u n t e r - v o i c e t h a t turns away from d e l i b e r a t e l y a r t i f i c i a l

techniques a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i o n

i n the d i r e c t i o n of r e a l i s m . In Barthelme's f i c t i o n , t h i s

c o u n t e r - v o i c e works a g a i n s t the conventions of the avant garde

by p r e s e n t i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y of d i r e c t communication and

d i r e c t understanding, from the page to the reader's h e a r t .

The O r i g i n a l , A u t h e n t i c S e l f as a D i r t y Great V i l l a i n

Now f o r the f i n a l t h r i l l i n g d i p on the r o l l e r c o a s t e r

of argument. I t was argued t h a t Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s i n response to t h e i r urban s o c i e t y - a s o c i e t y

t h a t d i s c o u n t s the p o s s i b i l i t y of v a l u e i n language or l i t e r -

a t u r e . The c o u n t e r - n o t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d t h a t Barthelme's

n a r r a t o r s n e v e r t h e l e s s r e s i s t the avant garde conventions

t h a t arose from the breakdown of t r a d i t i o n a l a r t , and t h a t

the n a r r a t o r sometimes a c t s as a l i a i s o n to the common r e a l i t y

of the common reader. But now i t i s necessary to conclude

205

t h a t Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r does not have the

o p t i o n of c o n s i s t e n t r e a l i s m a t h i s command, f o r the simple

reason t h a t he f i n d s the r e a l world unbearable. U n l i k e

Nabokov's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s , who found t h a t t h e i r

imaginations c o u l d a t times a c t i n c o n c e r t w i t h the laws of

the r e a l world, Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s f i n d t h a t t h e i r imagin-

a t i v e f o r a y s are c u r t a i l e d by the r e a l world. There i s no

p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e g r a t i n g the s e l f with the world by means

of the a r t i s t i c i m a g i n a t i o n because the world i s i n t r a c t a b l e

and because the s e l f , the o r i g i n a l , a u t h e n t i c s e l f , i s a d i r t y

g r e a t v i l l a i n , a c r e a t u r e t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n w i l l never improve,

a k i l l e r .

I n "Departures," the n a r r a t o r r e p u d i a t e d h i s f a n c i f u l

i m a g i n a t i o n and r e t u r n e d to the f a c t s of h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s

l i f e -- "he j u s t p l a i n cut down the t r e e s . " The f l a t tone

r e p r e s e n t s the world's a t t a c k on the i m a g i n a t i o n , the t o n a l

e q u i v a l e n t of the treacherous r e a l i s m of A p o l l o n i u s i n IKeats.1

Lamia. The world of b r u t e f a c t i s i n i m i c a l to the n a r r a t o r ' s

i m a g i n a t i o n , l e a d i n g him i n Snow White to p o s i t an

a l t e r n a t i v e u n i v e r s e :

T r y i n g to break out of t h i s bag t h a t we are i n . What gave us the i d e a t h a t t h e r e was something b e t t e r ? How does the concept, "something b e t t e r , " a r i s e . What does i t look l i k e , t h i s something b e t t e r ? (p. 179).

The heroes of Snow White n e v e r t h e l e s s "depart i n search of

a new p r i n c i p l e " (p. 181). "Party" ends w i t h the n a r r a t o r

saying to h i s w i f e , "Say, 'No,' r e f u s e me once and f o r a l l ,

l e t me t r y something e l s e " (p. 62), The h e r o i n e - n a r r a t o r

206

of " C i t y L i f e " imagines t h a t she has become the chosen d a r l i n g

of the c i t y . When the " m i l l i o n s of u n i t s c r a w l i n g about on

the s u r f a c e of the c i t y ... began dancing l i t t l e dances of

suggestion and f e a r , " she imagines t h a t the "dances c o n s t i t u t e

an i n v i t a t i o n of unmistakable import --an i n v i t a t i o n which, i f J

accepted, l e a d s one down many muddy roads. I accepted. What

was the a l t e r n a t i v e ? " ( C i t y L i f e , pp. 167-68). „

Snow White c o n t a i n s t y p o g r a p h i c a l b i l l b o a r d s which seem

to be notes to or by the n a r r a t o r ; f o r example, "ANATHEMATIZATION

OF THE WORLD IS NOT AN ADEQUATE RESPONSE TO THE WORLD" (p. 178).

Despite t h i s h e l p f u l memo, the n a r r a t o r i s g e n e r a l l y unable to

r e c o n c i l e h i m s e l f to the world.

There are two sources of h i s f a i l u r e . One i s t h a t the

world i s too much f o r him i n h i s d e b i l i t a t e d s t a t e ; the o t h e r

i s t h a t he i s u n w i l l i n g to f a c e the more c h a o t i c and barbarous

elements of the world t h a t are rooted i n h i s own psyche. The

n a r r a t i v e masks, the non-emotions or concealed emotions, the.

v a c i l l a t i o n of the " B r a i n Damage" n a r r a t o r , who l i v e s i n t h a t

"gray area where nothing i s done, r e a l l y , but you v a c i l l a t e

f o r a w h i l e , t h i n k i n g about i t " (p. 13.4), a l l are p a r t of the

n a r r a t o r ' s n e u r o t i c shame about h i s t r u e p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s

r e a l emotions.

The avant garde a e s t h e t i c a s s e r t s "the c r e a t i v e autonomy

of consciousness a g a i n s t the bourgeois r e a l i t y p r i n c i p l e "

and demands "a permanent a l i e n a t i o n of consciousness from

any f i x e d p o s i t i o n and from a l l p r e v i o u s modes of consciousness,"

l e a d i n g "to the i r r a t i o n a l i s m [and] s u b j e c t i v i s m ... t h a t mark

207

numerous m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of modernist a r t . " ^ ^ The q u e s t i o n

i s whether t h i s a r t i s t i c s t r a t e g y has any j u s t i f i c a t i o n , "now

t h a t i t seems to r e p r e s e n t l e s s a c r i t i c a l departure from the

s t a t e of e x i s t i n g s o c i e t y than a mere r e f l e c t i n g m i r r o r of " i t "

(p.321). Here are three attempts a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e l f - a n a l y s i s

by t h r e e t y p i c a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s ; the l a s t makes an

e x p l i c i t c o n n e c t i o n between the s o c i e t y and the observer:

I am not w e l l ("Game," Unspeakable, p. ' 1 1 5 ) .

I s u f f e r from a f r i g h t f u l i l l n e s s of the mind, light-mindedness. I t ' s not c a t c h i n g . You needn't s h r i n k ("See the Moon?" p. 156).

T h i s i s the country of b r a i n damage, t h i s i s the map o f b r a i n damage, these are the r i v e r s of b r a i n damage, and see, those l i g h t e d - u p p l a c e s are the a i r p o r t s of b r a i n damage, where the damaged p i l o t s l a n d the b i g , damaged s h i p s . . . .

And you can hide under the bed but b r a i n damage i s under the bed, you can h i d e i n the u n i v e r s i t i e s but they are the v e r y seat and s o u l of b r a i n damage - - B r a i n damage caused by bears who put your head i n t h e i r foaming jaws w h i l e you are s i n g i n g 'Masters of War,' ... B r a i n damage caused by a r t . I c o u l d d e s c r i b e i t b e t t e r i f I weren't a f f l i c t e d with i t ... ("Brain Damage," p. 146).

The narratbi i s a s m a < ^ a s ^ i s s o c i e t y , and the a r t i s t i c process of d e s c r i b i n g the s o c i e t y generates more madness.

"Kierkegaard U n f a i r to S c h l e g e l " e x p l a i n s j u s t how a r t damages

the n a r r a t o r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y . I t seems he i s d i s t u r b e d about h i s

mental h a b i t of i r o n y . A c c o r d i n g to Kierkegaard, the i r o n i s t

d i r e c t s h i s i r o n y a t the world and "the whole of e x i s t e n c e has

become a l i e n to the i r o n i c s u b j e c t ..." (p. 88). Kierkegaard

says t h a t a c t u a l i t y o f i r o n y i s p o e t r y , and thus he i s hard

(60) Graff, "Babbitt at the Abyss," p. 321.

208

on a novel by S c h l e g e l c a l l e d Lucinde. He says t h a t S c h l e g e l

has c r e a t e d a new r e a l i t y t h a t r e p l a c e s a c t u a l i t y , c o n s t i t u t i n g

a " v i c t o r y over the world" (p. 89). But what i s wanted i s

not triumph over the world, which means animosity towards the

world, but r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h the world. The t r u e recon-

c i l i a t i o n w i t h the world i s r e l i g i o n :

Without d i s c u s s i n g whether or not the t r u e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i s r e l i g i o n (I have a deep b i a s a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n which p r e c l u d e s my d i s c u s s i n g the q u e s t i o n i n t e l l i g e n t l y ) l e t me say t h a t I b e l i e v e t h a t Kierkegaard i s here u n f a i r to S c h l e g e l . . . . I have reasons f o r t h i s ... but my reasons are not so i n t e r e s t i n g . What i s i n t e r e s t i n g i s my making the statement t h a t I t h i n k Kierkegaard i s u n f a i r to S c h l e g e l . And t h a t the whole t h i n g i s nothing e l s e but a damned shame and a crime!

Because t h a t i s not what I t h i n k a t a l l . We have to do here w i t h my own i r o n y . Because of course Kierkegaard was " f a i r " to S c h l e g e l . In making a statement to the c o n t r a r y ... I am t r y i n g to a n n i h i l a t e Kierkegaard i n order to d e a l w i t h h i s d i s a p p r o v a l .

Q: Of S c h l e g e l ? A: Of me.

(pp. 89-91)

The n a r r a t o r , shown here a t h i s most s p e c t a c u l a r l y

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , i s c l e a r l y g u i l t y and d e f e n s i v e about both

h i s i d e n t i t y and h i s a r t i s t i c methods. His defensiveness

r e c u r s throughout the s t o r i e s . For example, i n a manner . r

s i m i l a r to t h a t of J.D. S a l i n g e r i n "For E s m e — w i t h Love and

Squalor," i n which the n a r r a t o r says he has " d i s g u i s e d myself

so c u n n i n g l y t h a t even the c l e v e r e s t reader w i l l f a i l to 61

r e c o g n i z e me," the n a r r a t o r of "The F a l l i n g Dog" r e c e i v e s a

(61) J.D. Salinger, "For Esm§ --with Love and Squalor," in Nine Stories (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1953), pp. 156-57.

209

l e t t e r addressed to "Mr. XXXXXXXX" ( C i t y L i f e , p. 34). In

"See the Moon?" the n a r r a t o r says:

I was promising once.... 'You w i l l be a c r e d i t to us, George,' the admiral s a i d . That's not my name. I'm p r o t e c t i n g my ' i d e n t i t y , what t h e r e i s of i t (p. 161).

In "Daumier," which i s almost a parody of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t i v e , every stage of the s t o r y i s h e l p f u l l y c a p t i o n e d :

FURTHER BOILING OF THE PLOT IN SUMMARY FORM, and so on.

The CONCLUSION c o n t a i n s the e x p l i c i t moral of the s t o r y :

"The s e l f cannot be escaped, but i t can be, with i n g e n u i t y

and hard work, d i s t r a c t e d " , (p. 183). By way of escaping the

s e l f , the n a r r a t o r of the s t o r y , Daumier, performs a k i n d of

self-slaughter;'"'Not s e l f - s l a u g h t e r i n the crude sense,'" .he

e x p l a i n s . "'Rather the c o n s t r u c t i o n of s u r r o g a t e s . Think of

i t as a t r a n s p l a n t ' " (p. 163). He t h e r e f o r e c o n s t r u c t s two

s u r r o g a t e s , a second-person Daumier and a t h i r d - p e r s o n

Daumier, who a c t as s t a n d - i n s f o r the n a r r a t o r w i t h i n the

p l o t . In the c o n c l u d i n g passages the n a r r a t o r f o l d s up the

s t o r y ' s c h a r a c t e r s , wraps them i n t i s s u e paper, and puts them

" c a r e f u l l y away i n a drawer" (p. 182). He a l s o saves the

two surrogate Daumiers. He says, "the second-person Daumier

e s p e c i a l l y w i l l bear watching and someday when my s o u l i s again

s i c k l y and f u l l o f sores I w i l l take him out o f the drawer

and watch him" (p. 183). C l e a r l y the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s manipu-

l a t i o n of the n a r r a t i v e i s a method of purging the n a r r a t o r

o f sores and d i s e a s e s . T h i s i s made e x p l i c i t a t the b e g i n n i n g

of the s t o r y :

210

I was speaking to Amelia. "Not s e l f - s l a u g h t e r i n the crude sense.

Rather the c o n s t r u c t i o n of s u r r o g a t e s . Think of i t as a t r a n s p l a n t . " J

"Daumier," she s a i d , "you are not making me happy."

"The f a l s e s e l v e s i n t h e i r c l a t t e r and b o i s t e r and y o u t h f u l b r i o w i l l s l a y and bother and push out and put to a l l types of t r o u b l e the o r i g i n a l , a u t h e n t i c s e l f , which i s a d i r t y g r e a t v i l l a i n , as can be t e s t i f i e d and sworn to by anyone who has ever been awake" (p. 163).

I t i s t r u e t h a t o t h e r Barthelme s t o r i e s are more o p t i m i s t i c

about the nature of the s e l f . "The Sandman," f o r example,

c o n s i s t s of a l e t t e r from the n a r r a t o r to h i s g i r l f r i e n d ;

Susan's p s y c h i a t r i s t ; the l e t t e r proposes an end to the

t h e r a p e u t i c s e s s i o n s because, i n the n a r r a t o r ' s o p i n i o n ,

"Susan i s wonderful. As i s " (Sadness, p. 95). Furthermore,

"Daumier" i t s e l f o f f e r s s e v e r a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . When Daumier

says the s e l f i s a d i r t y g r e a t v i l l a i n , Amelia r e p l i e s , "The

s e l f a l s o dances ... sometimes" (Daumier answers, "I have not-

i c e d t h a t , but one pays dear f o r the o c c a s i o n a l s c h o t t i s c h e "

[p. 163]). Daumier's f r i e n d d e l i v e r s an amusingly d o c t r i n a i r e

speech on the n e c e s s i t y o f s e l f - l e a r n i n g , and Daumier makes

a g r e a t pretense of having g i v e n profound thought to h i s

c o n c l u s i o n s on innate d e p r a v i t y ^ c i t i n g a LIST OF RESEARCH

MATERIALS CONSULTED:

... Self-Abuse by Samuels, The Armed S e l f by C r a w l i e , Burt's The Concept of S e l f , Se1f-Congratu1a11on by McFee, F i n g a r e t t e ' s Se 1f-Deception ... The Many-Colored S e l f by Winsor and Newton... (p. 169).

Despite these u n d e r c u t t i n g i r o n i e s , the f a c t remains t h a t

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t i v e techniques are the n a r r a t o r ' s

211

attempt to " d i s t r a c t " a t t e n t i o n from the a v i l a t h i s h e a r t .

Furthermore, the n a r r a t o r ' s p e r s o n a l e v i l i s matched by an

e v i l and d e s t r u c t i v e a e s t h e t i c :

A l l modernist w r i t i n g i s i n some ways exper- imental and r e v i s i o n a r y , t h r i v i n g on the decadence of p r e v i o u s forms and norms l i k e S w i f t ' s t u l i p s r i s i n g out of dung. Modernist w r i t i n g i s e b u l l i e n t l y p a r r i c i d a l and c a n n i b a l i s t i c . I t r e v e l s a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y i n the end of c u l t u r e --- the death of the n o v e l , the death of rhyme, the exhaustion o f n a r r a t i v e , the end o f the n i n e t e e n t h century — y e t feeds l u s t i l y on i t s murdered f o r e b e a r s . . . . ' ~ 62

One suspects t h a t D i c k s t e i n t r e a t s terms l i k e " p a r r i c i d e " and

" c a n n i b a l i s t i c " as c o l o r f u l but harmless metaphors. Otherwise

he might have avoided " e b u l l i e n t . " The d e s t r u c t i o n of the

l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n and the f i n e o l d v a l u e s of the n i n e t e e n t h

century, a sense of p r e s i d i n g over the c a t a c l y s m i c c o n c l u s i o n

to c u l t u r e - - t h i s e n t a i l s a c e r t a i n amount of p a i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y

to the a r t i s t who might be expected to have a g r e a t e r apprec-

i a t i o n o f c u l t u r e and t r a d i t i o n than the average hoodlum.

The guilty n a r r a t o r o f "Kierkegaard and S c h l e g e l " makes

i t c l e a r t h a t Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s are aware of the a r t i s t i c

s i n s they commit; they are not always as " e b u l l i e n t " as the

humor of t h e i r c u l t u r a l pranks might suggest. One c o u l d

t r a c e a c e r t a i n lowering of h i g h s p i r i t s from the c h e e r f u l

e a r l y s t o r i e s to the l a t e s t , as i t g r a d u a l l y becomes more

and more d i f f i c u l t to s u s t a i n what Daumier c a l l s n a r r a t i v e

" b r i o . " A c r i t i c has complained t h a t Barthelme "stopped being

(62) Dickstein, p. 261.

212

h i l a r i o u s and became so deadpan you c o u l d n ' t t e l l what he 6 3

was up t o " ; but i f one c o n c e n t r a t e s on the longer n a r r a t i v e s ,

Snow White and p a r t i c u l a r l y The Dead Father, there i s s u f f i c i e n t

evidence t h a t Barthelme's s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s are

modernist p a r r i c i d e s , depraved a t h e a r t , and s i c k about i t .

Snow White ends w i t h the murder of B i l l , the l e a d e r

of the dwarfs. His major s i n , a s i d e from the comic " v a t r i c i d e , "

i s " f a i l u r e " (p. 180). One presumes t h a t the f o l l o w i n g --"THE

FAILURE OF SNOW WHITE'S ARSE/REVIRGINIZATION OF SNOW WHITE/

APOTHEOSIS OF SNOW WHITE" (p. 181) - - i s a euphemism f o r the

murder of Snow White as w e l l . P a u l , the o n l y redemptive

f i g u r e i n the n o v e l , i s poisoned. The last.words

of the n o v e l , Heigh-Ho, e t c . , are c h e e r f u l enough, but r a t h e r

i n c o n c l u s i v e , j u s t as Snow White i t s e l f i s a somewhat

rambling n a r r a t i v e , r e a d i n g l i k e a s e r i e s of tour de f o r c e

s e t p i e c e s on a comic theme, which i s an o l d f a i r y t a l e

(more Disney than Grimm) brought up to date. The Dead Father

on the o t h e r hand, i s c o n c l u s i v e indeed.

The hero, Thomas, and h i s two g i r l f r i e n d s are conducting

the Dead Father on an e p i c e x p e d i t i o n to f i n d the golden

f l e e c e , which the Dead Father hopes w i l l r e v i v i f y h i s f a d i n g

powers. Such i s the o s t e n s i b l e purpose, o f the journey,

the purpose the Dead F a t h e r b e l i e v e s i n . The a c t u a l pur-

pose of the t r i p i s to bury him a l i v e i n a g i a n t grave t h a t

w i l l be f i l l e d i n by the f i n a l word of the s t o r y , "Bulldozers. 1 1

(63) Joe Goldberg, "Hyperactive Ho-hum?" Creem, May 1978, p. 62.

213

The Dead Father i s of course God the.Father. Barthelme's

s t o r i e s are a l l t i n g e d w i t h r a t h e r s a c r i l e g i o u s eschatology,

Roman C a t h o l i c g e n e r a l l y , although the i s s u e of Jesus C h r i s t

r a r e l y , as i t were, a r i s e s . His i n t e r e s t i s i n the one t r u e

God, the source of v a l u e - — " O n Angels" begins, "The death of

God l e f t the angels i n a strange p o s i t i o n " ( C i t y L i f e , p. 127).

The Dead Father i s a l s o the dead t r a d i t i o n of a r t and c u l t u r e ,

although he i s presented as something of an e t h i c a l b a r b a r i a n ;

he r e p r e s e n t s t r a d i t i o n i n i t s l e a s t a t t r a c t i v e a s p e c t : o p p r e s s i v e

power. The Dead Father i s a f a t h e r , a parent, and thus h i s b u r i a l

i s the end of f a m i l y l o v e , r e s p e c t and benign a u t h o r i t y . An

i n t e r p o l a t e d s e c t i o n c a l l e d A Manual For Sons i s l e s s than r e s p e c t -

f u l ; many of Barthelme's s t o r i e s t u r n on d i v o r c e and a s t r a i n e d

r e l a t i o n s h i p with c h i l d r e n . In "The Genius," f o r example, "The

genius has n o t i c e d t h a t he does not i n t e r a c t w i t h c h i l d r e n

s u c c e s s f u l l y " (Sadness, p. 28).

In other words, The Dead Father i s a p a r a b l e about

the death, the murder a c t u a l l y , of v a l u e . Thomas and h i s c o h o r t s

are moral monsters, c r u e l i n the s u p e r c i l i o u s and i r o n i c modern

manner, so greedy and u n f e e l i n g t h a t one would sympathize completely

with the Dead Father, i f h i s O l d Testament q u a l i t i e s weren't

c o n s t a n t l y emphasized:

Then h i s anger grew and he c a l l e d f o r a brand o f even g r e a t e r weight and l e n g t h which was brought him by a m e t a p h o r i c a l l y present g i l l i e and s e i z i n g i t with h i s two fine-formed and noble hands he r a i s e d i t above h i s head, and every l i v i n g t h i n g w i t h i n h i s reach trembled and every dead t h i n g w i t h i n h i s reach remembered how i t got t h a t way... (pp. 52-53).

214

The Dead Father i s k i l l e d by Thomas, who f i r s t undergoes a mock

i n i t i a t i o n r i t e i n which two t o r t u r e r s conduct Thomas to the Great

Father Serpent, who r i d d l e s Thomas a r i d d l e . Thomas reads the

c o r r e c t answer i n a s e c r e t p l a c e , and i n h i s h a b i t u a l s t u t t e r

c o r r e c t l y answers the q u e s t i o n , "What do you r e a l l y f e e l ? "

L i k e murderinging, I answered.... Why b l e s s my s o u l , s a i d the Great Father Serpent, he's got i t , and the two r u f f i a n s b l i n k e d a t me i n stunned wonder and I myself wondered, and marveled, but what I was wondering and marveling a t was the c l o s e n e s s w i t h which what I had answered accorded w i t h my f e e l i n g s , my l o s t f e e l i n g s t h a t I had never found b e f o r e . I suppose, the Father Serpent s a i d , t h a t the boon you wish granted i s the a b i l i t y to c a r r y out t h i s f o u l n e s s ? Of course, I s a i d , what e l s e ? Granted then he s a i d . . . . I was abroad i n the c i t y w i t h murderinging i n mind... (p. 46).

D e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and a t t e n u a t e d emotions can o n l y

be d i s p e l l e d by d e s t r u c t i o n . Thomas, who d i s c o v e r s h i s l o s t

f e e l i n g s , i s the p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r of the s t o r y , and the n a r r a t o r

of h i s i n t e r p o l a t e d mock r i t e . The "second-person surrogate"

appears b r i e f l y a t the beginning o f the n a r r a t i v e (which i s gener-

a l l y t o l d i n deadpan t h i r d person omniscience). He seems to be

a spokesman f o r s o c i e t y , the c i t i z e n s of the c i t y c o n t r o l l e d by i

the g i a n t f i g u r e of the Dead Father. The Dead Father works

f o r the good o f a l l , but h i s 'leg i s o f t e n punctured by t i n y arrows:

"We want the Dead Father to be dead," says the v o i c e of the

murderous people. "We s i t w i t h t e a r s i n our eyes wanting the i

Dead Father to be dead — meanwhile doing amazing t h i n g s w i t h our hands" (p. 5).

215

C o n c l u s i o n

T h i s chapter has recorded the f a i l u r e of Barthelme's

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r . Not an a r t i s t i c f a i l u r e , s i n c e there i s

"enough a e s t h e t i c excitement here to s a t i s y anyone but a damned

f o o l " ("The Indian U p r i s i n g , " p. 9); but a f a i l u r e i n terms of

the moral development and p s y c h i c i n t e g r a t i o n of the n a r r a t o r ,

who i s "not w e l l . " S e q u e n t i a l p l o t , r e a l i s t i c s e t t i n g , l o g i c a l

m o t i v a t i o n , c o n s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r s and other standard elements

of the l i t e r a r y n a r r a t i v e have broken down over the century, so

why not the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r ?

"To bore the d o c t o r i s to become ... a case s i m i l a r to

other cases; the p a t i e n t s t r i v e s m i g h t i l y to e s t a b l i s h h i s

uniqueness" ("Florence Green i s 81," pp. 8-9). U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r

the n a r r a t o r h i s case i s not unique; h i s whole s o c i e t y i s s i c k .

I t has no h i s t o r y , no sense of community, no f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n s ,

no c o n n e c t i o n with nature. There i s no governing code of ethics*,

hence a l l behavior i s e q u a l l y p e r m i s s i b l e and f u t i l e . Language

has been r e p l a c e d with v e r b a l t r a s h , and everyone has a problem

e x p r e s s i n g value and emotion; i n f a c t , the n a r r a t o r ' s prose seems

c a l c u l a t e d to g i v e nothing away.

The n a r r a t o r i s aware, however, t h a t h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s

i s t y p i c a l of the s o c i e t y , and t h a t h i s p a r t i c u l a r problems are

a l s o the c l i c h e s and g l i b g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f pop s o c i o l o g y and

undergraduate l i t e r a t u r e courses; thus he i s r a r e l y the spokesman

f o r r e c e i v e d i d e a s . Although he s t r u g g l e s w i t h the r e v o l u t i o n a r y

advances of "experimental" l i t e r a t u r e , he i s not enough of a

d o c t r i n a i r e avant garde a r t i s t to search f o r a s c r a t c h to s t a r t from.

216

Instead, the n a r r a t o r i s o l d - f a s h i o n e d enough to attempt to keep

i n touch w i t h h i s r e a d e r s , even to the e x t e n t of a p p e a l i n g to

the reader's common-sense n o t i o n s o f r e a l i t y . Although the avant

garde c o n t a i n s an impulse to abandon the o r d i n a r y reader i n f a v o r

of t o t a l l y p r i v a t e f i c t i o n a l worlds, v e r b a l gardens f i l l e d with

a r t i f i c i a l f l o w e r s and s t a t u e s o f N a r c i s s u s , Barthelme's n a r r a t o r s

c a t e r to the reader (with mixed motives, to be s u r e ) :

Reader ... we have r o l e s to p l a y , thou and I: you are the d o c t o r (washing your hands between h o u r s ) , and I, I am, I t h i n k , the nervous d r e a r y p a t i e n t . I am f r e e a s s o c i a t i n g , b r i l l i a n t l y , b r i l l i a n t l y , to put you i n t o the problem. Or f o r f e a r of b o r i n g you: which? ("Florence Green i s 81," p. 4).

The n a r r a t o r ' s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s d i a l o g u e w i t h the reader

and with h i m s e l f r e v e a l s t h a t h i s problems are not e n t i r e l y due

to the complex of Breakdowns (language, p h i l o s o p h y , r e l i g i o n ) ;

i n p a r t , the n a r r a t o r ' s problems l i e w i t h i n h i m s e l f . He knows

h i m s e l f g u i l t y , irredeemable and depraved. Barthelme uses h i s

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r s to show t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n i n America i s i

a facade, and t h a t h y p e r c i v i l i z e d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a means of

evading the l i t e r a l l y b r u t a l t r u t h — "We want the Dead Father to

be dead."

One wonders what w i l l happen i n Barthelme's f i c t i o n i n the

f u t u r e . His n a r r a t o r s c e r t a i n l y f o r e s e e a s t r u g g l e , a t y p i c a l l y

v i o l e n t , " p a r r i c i d a l and c a n n i b a l i s t i c " s t r u g g l e : Our r e p u t a t i o n f o r e x c e l l e n c e i s u n e x c e l l e d ... And w i l l be maintained u n t i l the de- s t r u c t i o n of our a r t by some other a r t . . . ("Our Work and Why We Do I t , " Amateurs, p. 9).

Perhaps i n Barthelme's f u t u r e work the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r w i l l

become the s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e n a r r a t o r .

217

CONCLUSION

One i s tempted to make pronouncements and p r e d i c t i o n s about

the f u t u r e of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n o v e l . Has M t h e c y c l e of r e l e x -

i v i t y ... gone about as f a r as i t can," as Maurice Beebe believes,"'"

or does the good f i g h t remain to be fought a g a i n s t what some c r i t i c s

t e l l us i s a lumbering superannuated monster, the r e a l i s t i c

n o v e l :

[John Gardner's Grendel] i s another f i e r c e blow s t r u c k a g a i n s t the r e a l i s t i c n o v e l , the dead n o v e l . Good, I say: l e t ' s h o l d no more m i r r o r s up to nature. Make nature approach the a r t i s t ; make nature g r o v e l ^

The temptation to make p r e d i c t i o n s should be r e s i s t e d , because

i t should be obvious by now t h a t c r i t i c a l o r t h o d o x i e s r e g a r d i n g

the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r q u i c k l y go out of f a s h i o n . We c i t e d

Ford Madox Ford as a c r u s t y and p e t u l a n t foe of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

n a r r a t o r , but i t i s o n l y f a i r to remember t h a t Ford was aware

t h a t t a s t e s change:

That t h i s i s not the f i n a l stage of the Novel i s obvious; there w i l l be developments t h a t we cannot foresee,, strain our visions;n how we may. There are probably -- humanity being s t a b l e , change the world how i t may — t h e r e are probably e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r a l l the a r t s , but the a p p l i c a t i o n s of those . p r i n c i p l e s are e t e r n a l l y changing, or e t e r n a l l y r e v o l - v i n g . I t i s f o r i n s t a n c e an obvious and unchanging f a c t t h a t i f an author i n t r u d e s h i s comments i n t o the middle of h i s s t o r y he w i l l endanger the i l l u s i o n conveyed by t h a t s t o r y — but a g e n e r a t i o n of readers may come

(1) Beebe, p. 25. (2) D. Keith Mano, as quoted in Ditsky, p. 297.

218

along who would p r e f e r w i t n e s s i n g the capers of the author to being c a r r i e d away by s t o r i e s and t h a t g e n e r a t i o n o f r e a d e r s may c o i n c i d e w i t h a g e n e r a t i o n of w r i t e r s t i r e d of s e l f - o b l i t e r a t i o n . .. . Or you might, again, have a world t i r e d of the r e a l l y w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d

novel every word of which c a r r i e s i t s s t o r y forward: then you w i l l have a movement towards d i f f u s e n e s s , backboneless sentences, d i g r e s s i o n s , and inchoateness.^

Ford i s t h i n k i n g of the " i n t r u s i v e author" of the n i n e -

t e e n t h century, and a l s o , i t would seem, of Sterne. Although

c r i t i c s would now t e l l us t h a t every l i n e of T r i s t r a m Shandy

c o n t r i b u t e s to a r i g i d , l o g i c a l scheme -- Ford's " w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d "

n o v e l , p e r h a p s — i t remains t r u e t h a t Sterne g i v e s the impres-

s i o n of being d i f f u s e , d i g r e s s i v e and i n c h o a t e . The s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r i s a d e v i c e a t the d i s p o s a l of the i n n o v a t i v e

a r t i s t . The f o l l o w i n g i s not an i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e example of

the t y p i c a l s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r , i t i s an example of Sterne's

unique n a r r a t o r i n i n i m i t a b l e a c t i o n :

I have dropp'd the c u r t a i n over t h i s scene f o r a minute, — to remind you of one t h i n g , -- and to inform you of another,^

The very p u n c t u a t i o n — those u b i q u i t o u s dashes — captures the

e f f e c t of a n a r r a t o r who p r i z e s the s i n g u l a r and the t e l l i n g

d e t a i l above e v e r y t h i n g , and whose k i n d l y , s e n t i m e n t a l view of

the world i s expressed, p a r a d o x i c a l l y enough, through an a g i l e ,

indeed r e s t l e s s , i n t e l l e c t . Those dashes seem to be the typo-

g r a p h i c a l e q u i v a l e n t to a s t r a y thought snatched from the t h i n

a i r i n s i d e the n a r r a t o r ' s head — or a quick t r i p to France.

Think of the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r as a l i t e r a r y t o o l

which i s kept i n a k i n d of co-op warehouse open to any w r i t e r i n

(3) Ford, pp. 148-49. (4) Sterne, p. 109'.

219

any century. I t should be obvious t h a t the use of the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r does not imply any promise on the p a r t of

the a r t i s t to c r e a t e an a n t i - r e a l i s t i c work. Ford says the s e l f -

conscious n a r r a t o r (which he t h i n k s of as an i n t r u s i v e author)

n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s the breakdown of f i c t i o n a l v e r i s i m i l i t u d e ,

but t h e r e i s no reason why the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r can't be

as v i v i d and r e a l i s t i c a presence as a c h a r a c t e r . Such t h i n g s

don't happen i n r e a l l i f e , says Nabokov's sad n a r r a t o r , s i g n i f y -

i n g h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to p l a y by the r u l e s of the u n i v e r s e . Look

f o r y o u r s e l f , says Barthelme's b i t t e r n a r r a t o r , s i g n i f y i n g the

c o r r e l a t i o n between the f i c t i o n a l world and the reader's world.

But i f each a r t i s t transforms h i s a r t i s t i c d e v i c e s , and

presents a unique v i s i o n , then i s n ' t the f i c t i o n a l world p r i v a t e ,

s o l i p s i s t i c , e s c a p i s t ...? No, because the a r t i s t g i v e s f r e s h

and unique e x p r e s s i o n to the o l d and unchanging i s s u e s — which

i s why l i t e r a t u r e from ages long gone and f o r g o t t e n s t i l l i n t e r e s t s

us. There i s nothing new under the sun, and i t i s the task of

the a r t i s t to r e v i t a l i z e such t i r e d c l i c h e s as "There i s nothing

new under the sun." What o f t was thought, but ne'er so w e l l

expressed i s s t i l l a d e f i n i t i o n of g r e a t a r t , d e s p i t e the romantic

r e v o l u t i o n t h a t separates our times from those of Pope. The

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n a r r a t o r i s the means by which the reader i s

seduced to become i n t e r e s t e d once again i n the t i r e d o l d s u b j e c t s

of l o v e , j u s t i c e , s i n and death. He i s not t h e r e to caper l i k e

Ford's f o o l f o r the e q u a l l y f o o l i s h reader, or to a c t as the

spokesman f o r s t e r i l e p h i l o s o p h e r s of meaninglessness. He i s

there to a c t as a b r i d g e between the a r t i s t ' s v i s i o n and the

220

reader's world:

He wanted to be an Untouchable, Paul d i d . That was h i s i d e a of a contemporary c a r e e r . But then a g i r l walked up and touched him (slapped him, a c t u a l l y ; i t ' s a complicated s t o r y ) . And he j o i n e d us, here i n the i m b r o g l i o ("See the Moon?."; p. 158).

J o i n e d us, here i n the common i m b r o g l i o .

221

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Works Cited)

A l l o t t , Miriam. Novelists on the Novel. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959.

A l t e r , Robert. P a r t i a l Magic: The Novel as a Self-Conscious Genre• Berkeley: Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1975.

Appel, A l f r e d , J r . The Annotated L o l i t a . New York: McGraw H i l l , 1970.

and Charles Newman, eds. Nabokov: C r i t i c i s m , Reminiscences, Translations and Tributes. Evanston, I l l i n o i s : Northwestern Univ. Press, 1970. The contents appeared i n TriQuarter 1-y, No. 17 (1970) .

Auerbach, E r i c h . Mimesis: The Representation of Reality i n Western L i t e r a t u r e . Trans. Willard R. Trask. Bern , Swit- zerland, 1946; rpt. Princeton:1 Princeton Univ. Press, 1953.

Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. Ed. Reuben A. Brower. Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1965.

Bader, J u l i a . C r y s t a l Land. Berkeley: Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1972.

Baker, Ernest. The History of the English Novel. Vol. IV. London: H.F. and G. Witherby, 1930.

Barth, John. "The Literature of Exhaustion." The A t l a n t i c Monthly, Aug. 1967, pp. 29-34.

. " T i t l e . " I n Lost i n the Funhouse. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1968, pp. 105-13.

Barthelme, Donald. Amateurs. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976.

C i t y L i f e . New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970.

. Come Back, Dr. C a l i g a r i . Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1964. ;

The Dead Father. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975

Guilty Pleasures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 197 4

222

Barthelme, Donald. Sadness. New York: F a r r a r , Straus and Giroux, 1972.

Snow White. New York: Atheneum,, 1967.

. "The T i r e d T e r r o r of Graham Greene," Rev. of The Comedians by Graham Greene. H o l i d a y , A p r i l 1966, pp. 146, 148-49.

Unspeakable P r a c t i c e s , Unnatural A c t s . New York: F a r r a r , Straus and Giroux, 197 3.

Barthes, Roland. W r i t i n g Degree Zero. Trans. Annette Lavers and C o l i n Smith. New York: H i l l and Wang, 1968.

Beach, Joseph Warren. The Twentieth Century Novel: S t u d i e s i n Technique. New York: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1932.

Bellamy, Joe David, ed. The New F i c t i o n . Urbana: Univ. of I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1974.

Bergonzi, Bernard. The S i t u a t i o n of the Novel. London: Macmillan, 1970.

Boeth, R i c h a r d . "The Gamesman." Newsweek, 18 J u l y 1977, pp. 42, 44.

i Booth, Wayne. The R h e t o r i c of F i c t i o n . Chicago: Univ. of

Chicago P r e s s , 19 61.

"The S e l f - C o n s c i o u s N a r r a t o r , i n Comic F i c t i o n Before T r i s t r a m Shandy." PMLA, 67 (1952), 163-85.

" T r i s t r a m Shandy and I t s P r e c u r s o r s : The S e l f - Conscious N a r r a t o r . " D i s s . Univ. of Chicago 1950.

Borges, Jorge L u i s . "Juan Murana." In Doctor Brodie's Report. Trans. Norman d i Giovanni and J.L. Borges. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1972, pp. 81-88.

- _. L a b y r i n t h s : S e l e c t e d S t o r i e s and Other W r i t i n g s . Trans. James E. Irby e t a l . Ed. Donald A. Yates and James E. I r b y . New York: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1964.

Bradbury, Malcolm, ed. The Novel Today, n.p.: Fontana, 1977.

. P o s s i b i l i t i e s . London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973.

Brown, E.K., i n t r o d . P§re G o r i o t and Eugenie Grandet. By Honore de B a l z a c . Trans. E.K. Brown, Dorothea Walter, and John Watkins. New York: Random House, 1946.

Bryant, J e r r y . The Open D e c i s i o n . New York: The Free P r e s s , 1970.

223

Bukowski, Charles. Erections, Ejaculations, Exhibitions and Gen- e r a l Tales of Ordinary Madness. San Francisco: C i t y Lights, 1974.

Burgin, Richard. Conversations with Jorge Luis Borges. New York: Holt, Ririohart : and Winston, 1969.

Cervantes Saavedra-*, Miguel de. Don Quixote. Trans. J.M. Cohen. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1950.

Charyn, Jerome, introd. The Single Voice. Ed. Jerome Charyn. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

Chase, Richard. The American Novel and Its T r a d i t i o n . Garden City, New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1957.

Cook, Albert. The Meaning of F i c t i o n . Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1960.

Dembo, L.S., ed. Nabokov: The Man and His Work. Milwaukee: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1967. The contents appeared i n Wisconsin Studies i n Contemporary Literature, 8 (1967).

DeVoto, Bernard. The World of F i c t i o n . Boston: The Writer, Inc., 1956.

Dickstein, Morris. " F i c t i o n Hot and Kool: Dilemmas of the Experimental Writer." ;TriQuarterly, No. 33 (1975), pp. 257-72.

Ditsky, John. "The Man on the Quaker Oats Box: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Recent Experimental F i c t i o n . " Georgia Review, 26 (1972), 297-313.

Edel, Leon, ed. The Future of the Novel. New York: Random House, 1956.

E l i o t , George. Adam Bede. London, 1859; rpt. New York: Crowell- C o l l i e r , 1962.

E l i o t , T.S. The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and C r i t i c i s m . 1920; rpt. London: Methuen, 1960.

Enright, D.J. "Nabokov's Way." The New York Review of Books, 3 Nov. 1966, pp. 3-4.';

Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying. 1930; rpt. New York: Vintage-Random House, 1964.

Federman, Raymond, ed. S u r f i c t i o n . Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc., 1975.

F i e l d , Andrew. Nabokov: His L i f e i n Art. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1967.

224

F i e l d , Andrew. Nabokov: His L i f e i n P a r t . New York: V i k i n g , 1977 .

F i e l d i n g , Henry. Tom Jones. London 1749; r p t . New York: New American L i b r a r y , 1963.

Flowers, B e t t y . "Barthelme 1 s Snow White: The Reader-Patient R e l a t i o n s h i p . " C r i t i q u e , 6, No. 3 (1975), 33-43.

Ford, Ford Madox. The E n g l i s h Novel From the E a r l i e s t Days to the Death of Joseph Conrad. P h i l a d e l p h i a and London: J.B. L i p p i n c o t t , 1929.

F o u c a u l t , M i c h e l . The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human S c i e n c e s . New York: Pantheon Books, 1970.

Fowler," Doug. Reading Nabokov. I t h a c a : C o r n e l l Univ. Press, 1974.

Fowles, John. The French L i e u t e n a n t ' s Woman. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1969.

Friedman, Norman. "Point of View i n F i c t i o n : The Development of a C r i t i c a l Concept." PMLA, 70 (1955), 1160-84.

G a r v i n , Harry R., ed. Twentieth Century Poetry, F i c t i o n , Theory. Lewisburg, Penn.: B u c k n e l l Univ. Press, 1976.

Gilman, R i c h a r d . The Confusion of Realms. New York: Random House, 1969.

Goldberg, Joe. "Hyperactive Ho-hum?" Creem, May 1978, p. 62.

G r a f f , G e r a l d . " B a b b i t t a t the abyss: the s o c i a l c o n t e x t of postmodern American f i c t i o n . " T r i Q u a r t e r l y , No. 33 (1975), pp. 305-37.

Grayson, Jane. Nabokov T r a n s l a t e d . London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977.

Green, M a r t i n . "The M o r a l i t y of L o l i t a . " Kenyon Review, 28 (1966), 352-77.

Guerard, A l b e r t J . "Notes on the R h e t o r i c of A n t i - R e a l i s t F i c t i o n . " T r i Q u a r t e r l y , No. 30 (1974), pp. 3-50.

Haight, Gordon S., i n t r o d . Middlemarch. By George E l i o t . Ed. Gordon S. Haight. Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1956.

Hansen, A r l e n . "The C e l e b r a t i o n of S o l i p s i s m . " Modern F i c t i o n S t u d i e s , 19 (1973), 5 -16.

Hawthorne, N a t h a n i e l . Mosses from an Old Manse. .1846; rpt. Chicago: Rand, McNally, n.d.

225

Hawthorne, N a t h a n i e l . The S c a r l e t L e t t e r . Ed. S c u l l e y Bradley, Richmond Croom Beatty, and E. Hudson Long. New York: Norton, 1962.

Hemingway, E r n e s t . A F a r e w e l l to Arms. 1929; r p t . New York: S c r i b n e r ' s , 1957.

• . In Our Time, . 1925; r p t . New York: S c r i b n e r ' s , 1958.

. "In Another Country." In The Short S t o r i e s o f E r n e s t Hemingway. New York: S c r i b n e r ' s , 1938, pp. 267-72.

Huxley, JVldous. P o i n t Counter P o i n t . 1928; r p t . Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1955.

Joyce, James. A P o r t r a i t of the A r t i s t as a Young Man. Ed. Chester G. Anderson. New York: V i k i n g , 1968.

Kahler, E r i c h . The D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of Form i n the A r t s . New York: George B r a z i l l e r , 1968.

. The Inward Turn o f N a r r a t i v e . Trans. R i c h a r d and C l a r a Winston. P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t e o n Univ. P r e s s , 1973.

Kaplan, Fred. " V i c t o r i a n Modernists: Fowles and Nabokov." The J o u r n a l of N a r r a t i v e Technique, 3 (1973), 108-20.

K a z i n , . A l f r e d . On N a t i v e Grounds. 1942; r p t . Garden C i t y , New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1956.

K l i n k o w i t z , Jerome. L i t e r a r y D i s r u p t i o n s : The Making of a Post- Contemporary American F i c t i o n . Urbana, I l l i n o i s : Univ. of I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1975.

K o s t e l a n e t z , R i c h a r d , ed. Breakthrough F i c t i o n e e r s . Barton, Vermont: Something E l s e P r e s s , 1973.

Meyer, Leonard,B. Music, the A r t s and Ideas: P a t t e r n s and P r e d i c t i o n s i n Twentieth Century C u l t u r e . Chicago: Univ. Of Chicago P r e s s , 1967.

McCaffery, L a r r y . "Barthelme's Snow White: The A e s t h e t i c s of Trash." C r i t i q u e , 16, No. 3 (1975), 19-32.

McCarthy, Mary. L e t t e r . New York Times Book Review, 10 J u l y 1966, p. 50.

McMurtry, L a r r y . The L a s t P i c t u r e Show. New York: D i a l , 1966.

226

Nabokov, V l a d i m i r . Ada. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

. Bend S i n i s t e r . 1947; r p t . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.

. D e s p a i r . New York: Putnam, 1966.

. D e t a i l s of a Sunset. Trans. D m i t r i Nabokov i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

- The Eye. Trans. D m i t r i Nabokov i n c o l l a b o r - a t i o n w i t h V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: Phaedra, 1965.

. The G i f t . Trans. M i c h a e l Scammell i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: Putnam, 1963.

__. G l o r y . Trans. D m i t r i Nabokov i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

• . I n v i t a t i o n to a Beheading. Trans. D m i t r i Nabokov i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n with V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: Putnam, 1959.

. King, Queen, Knave. Trans. D m i t r i Nabokov i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

. L o l i t a . P a r i s , 1955; r p t . New York: Putnam, [1958].

. Look a t the H a r l e q u i n s ! New York: McGraw- H i l l , 1974.

. Mary. Trans. Michael Glenny i n c o l l a b o r - a t i o n with V l a d i m i r Nabokov. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

. Nabokov's Dozen. 1959; r p t . New York: Avon, 1973.

. N i k o l a i Gogol. New York: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1944.

. P a l e F i r e . 1962; r p t . New York: Berkeley, 1972.

Pnin. Garden C i t y , New York: Doubleday, 1957.

. . The Real L i f e of S e b a s t i a n Knight. 1941; r p t . N o r f o l k , Conn.: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1959.

. A Russian Beauty and Other S t o r i e s . Trans. V l a d i m i r Nabokov, D m i t r i Nabokov and Simon K a r l i n s k y . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.

227

Nabokov, V l a d i m i r . Strong Opinions. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.

N o r r i s , Frank. McTeague. Ed. C a r v e l C o l l i n s . New York: H o l t , Rinehart and Winston, 1950.

Oates, Joyce C a r o l . Expensive People. 1968; r p t . New York: Fawcett, 1970.

. "Whose Side Are You On? /The Guest Word." New York Times Book Review, 4 June 1972, p. 63.

Ortega y Gasset, JosS. The Dehumanization of A r t and Notes on the Novel. Trans. Helene Weyl. 1948; r p t . New York: Peter Smith, 1951.

Peter, John. "Joyce and the Novel." Kenyon Review, 18 (1956), 619-32.

Poe, Edgar A l l e n . The N a r r a t i v e of A r t h u r Gordon Pym of Nantucket. 1838; r p t . New York: H i l l and Wang, 1960.

Pound, E z r a . "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley." S e l e c t e d Poems of E z r a Pound. New York: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1957, pp. 61-77.

"Proclamation." t r a n s i t i o n , No. 16-17 (1929), p. [13].

P r o f f e r , C a r l R., ed. A Book of Things About V l a d i m i r Nabokov. Ann Arbor, Mich.: A r d i s , 1974.

R o b b e - G r i l l e t , A l a i n . For A New Novel: Essays on F i c t i o n . Trans. R i c h a r d Howard. New York: Grove P r e s s , 1965.

. J e a l o u s y . Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Grove P r e s s , 1959.

Rose, Barbara. "Wolfeburg." The New York Review of Books, 26 June 1975, 26-28.

R u s s e l l , C h a r l e s . "The V a u l t of Language: S e l f - R e f l e x i v e A r t i f i c e i n Contemporary American F i c t i o n . " Modern F i c t i o n S t u d i e s , 20 (1974), 349-59.

S a l i n g e r , J.D. "For Esme--with Love and Squalor." In Nine S t o r i e s . Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1953, pp. 131-73.

S c h i c k e l , R i c h a r d . "Freaked out on Barthelme." New York Times Magazine, 16 August 1970, pp. 14-14, 42, 44, 47-48.

Scholes, Robert. The F a b u l a t o r s . New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967.

228

Scholes, Robert and Robert K e l l o g g . The Nature of N a r r a t i v e . New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 1966.

Sokolov, Sasha. A School f o r F o o l s . Trans. C a r l R. P r o f f e r . Ann Arbor, Michigan: A r d i s , 1977.

Sontag, Susan. A g a i n s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and Other Essays. New York: F a r r a r , Straus and Giroux, 1966.

Stegner, Page. Escape Into A e s t h e t i c s . New York: D i a l Press, 1966.

S t e i n e r , George. Language and S i l e n c e . New York: Atheneum:*. Press, 1967.

Sterne, Laurence. T r i s t r a m Shandy. Ed. Ian Watt. Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1965.

Stevens, Wallace. "The Man w i t h the Blue G u i t a r . " In The Palm a t the End of the Mind. New York: Vintage-Random House, 1972, pp. 133-50.

Sukenick, Ronald. "The Death of the Novel." In The Death o f the Novel and Other S t o r i e s . New York: D i a l P r e s s , 1969, pp. 41-102.

"The New T r a d i t i o n . " P a r t i s a n Review, 39 (1972), 580-88.

Sypher, Wylie. Loss of the S e l f i n Modern L i t e r a t u r e and A r t . New York: Vintage-Random House, 1962.

Tancock, L.W., i n t r o d . Germinal. By Emile Z o l a . Trans. L.W. Tancock. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1954.

Tanner, Tony. C i t y of Words. London: Jonathan Cape, 1971.

Tate, A l l e n . "The Post of Observation i n F i c t i o n . " Maryland Q u a r t e r l y , I (1944), 61-64.

Thackeray, W i l l i a m . V a n i t y F a i r . Ed. G e o f f r e y and Kathleen T i l l o t s o n . Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1963.

T r i l l i n g , L i o n e l . The L i b e r a l Imagination. 1950; r p t . Garden C i t y , New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1953.

The Undaunted: A R e v o l u t i o n a r y Short S t o r y . Toronto: Norman Bethune I n s t i t u t e , 1976.

Updike, John. Bech: A Book, New York: Knopf, 1970.

A Month of Sundays. New York: Knopf, 1975.

229

Updike, John. "Leaves." In The Music School. 1966; r p t . New York: Fawcett, 1967, pp. 44-47.

. "Sunday T e a s i n g . " In The Same Door. 1959; r p t . Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett C r e s t , 1963, pp. 80-86.

Van Ghent, Dorothy. The E n g l i s h Novel: Form and F u n c t i o n . 1953; r p t . New York: Harper and Row, 1961.

V i d a l , Gore. "American P l a s t i c : The Matter of F i c t i o n . " The New York Review of Books, 15 J u l y 1976, pp. 31-39.

. Homage to D a n i e l Shays: C o l l e c t e d Essays. New York: Random House, 1972.

Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: S t u d i e s i n Defoe, Richardson and F i e l d i n g . London, 1957; r p t . Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1965.

W i l l i a m s , C a r o l T. "'Web of Sense': Pale F i r e i n the Nabokov Canon." C r i t i q u e , 6, No. 3 (1963), 29-45.

Wolfe, Tom. "Why They Aren't W r i t i n g the Great American Novel Anymore." E s q u i r e , Dec. 1972, pp. 152-59, 274, 276, 278, 280.

Young, E r i c and L o u i s e Dennys. "A Novel S o r t of L i f e . " Weekend Magazine, 25 March 1978, pp. 9-11.