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Impact of Leader’s Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Behavior on Perceived Leadership Effectiveness: A Multiple Source View

Deepika Dabke1

Abstract Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a pivotal role in leadership effectiveness. The present research studied the relationship between performance-based EI and transformational leadership as exhibited by partici- pants in the work role with leadership effectiveness as perceived by their superiors and subordinates. The sample comprised 200 managers who were administered the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso EI Test and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) 5X scale. Superior’s perception of leadership effectiveness was measured via the MLQ 5X scale as well as effectiveness scale developed by Shanock and Eisenberger (2006). Supervisory leadership survey developed by Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle (2006) was administered to subordinates to assess their perception of leadership effectiveness. A Pearson’s correlation coefficient revealed that there was a significant positive correlation between sub- ordinates’ perception of leadership effectiveness and overall EQ (r = 0.27, p < 0.01, n = 200), strategic EQ (r = 0.24, p < 0.01, n = 200), and experiential EQ (r = 0.20, p < 0.01, n = 200). All transformational behaviors showed a significant positive correlation with perceived leadership effectiveness (r ranging from 0.42 to 0.22, p < 0.01). In case of superiors’ rating, a significant positive correlation was seen between perceived leadership effectiveness and strategic EQ (r = 0.18, p < 0.01) as well as all trans- formational behaviors (r ranging from 0.61 to 0.49, p < 0.01). Multiple regressions analysis results led to the emergence of transformational leadership behaviors (β = 0.15, ΔR2 = 0.19, p < 0.01) as a posi- tive predictors of subordinate’s leadership effectiveness explaining a variance of 23 percent. In case of superior’s perception of leadership effectiveness, transformational behaviors explained a variance of 48 percent (β = 0.27, ΔR2 = 0.19, p < 0.01). In both the cases, EI of the leader failed to emerge as a predic- tor of perceived effectiveness.

Keywords Ability-based emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, perceived leadership effectiveness, superior rating, subordinate rating

1 Faculty, IBS Business School, Mumbai.

Business Perspectives and Research

4(1) 27–40  2016 K.J. Somaiya Institute of

Management Studies and Research SAGE Publications

sagepub.in/home.nav DOI: 10.1177/2278533715605433

http://bpr.sagepub.com

Article

Corresponding author: Deepika Dabke, Faculty, IBS Business School, Mumbai. Email: [email protected]

28 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

Emotions are one of the most fascinating aspects of human existence. They play a central role in inter- personal relationships due to their strong bearing on thoughts and behaviors. One scientific body of research that espouses the positive role of emotions with interpersonal effectiveness is emotional intel- ligence (EI). Past research has provided adequate evidence to highlight the association between EI and a number of behavioral outcomes. The idea that higher EI can help people have an edge over others is very appealing (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002). People with higher EI are likely to have a natural advan- tage while handling interpersonal relationships as they can read body language of others in a more precise manner. They are also good at picking up emotional cues during interactions. A good empathic listening helps them create a better rapport with the other party. High EI also assists people in regulating their own emotions in a better manner. Needless to say such people can be expected to be more success- ful in interpersonal spheres of their life and careers, and manage greater cohesion in various roles. This appeals one to postulate that EI as ability would help people carry out assigned social roles more effec- tively and consequently earn them greater reverence.

Emotional Intelligence

Thorndike (1920) had long ago identified social intelligence as a dimension of intelligence. He described it as “an ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human rela- tions.” Thorndike’s definition referred to the individual’s ability to understand and manage their inter- personal relations, an essence of EI as understood today.

Ever since the concept of EI has gained importance, people have expressed mixed opinions about its viability. EI has been said to matter “twice as much as IQ” (Goleman, 1998, p. 31). Yet, it has been described as an “elusive concept” (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998, p. 989). Some have claimed that EI provides a basis for competencies important in almost all jobs (Cherniss, 2000, p. 10). But “EI appears to be more myth than science” (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 547). Part of these mixed feel- ings is due to a lack of consensus on the definition of the term.

Mayer and Salovey (1990) define EI as, “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s thinking and actions.” Salovey et al. (2001) subsequently widened the scope to include an individual’s ability to per- ceive emotions accurately, appraise, and express them; the ability to generate emotions that facilitate thoughts; the ability to understand emotion and regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. The current study uses this definition as an operational definition of EI.

Various facets and components of EI have been claimed to contribute to success and productivity in the workplace. EI is claimed to predict occupational success because it influences one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (Bar-On, 1997). Workers endowed with high EI are also claimed to be particularly adept at designing projects that involve infusing products with feel- ings and aesthetics (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Bar-On (1997) reports that EI predicts a self-report mea- sure of sense of competence on the job (r = about 0.50). In a direct test of the effects of EI on performance, Carmeli (2003) observed that emotionally intelligent managers in Israel displayed superior performance to their lower EQ peers both in terms of contextual (teamwork and cohesiveness) performance and task performance (quality of job completed). EI has been linked to the use of transformational leadership (TL) (Dabke, 2012). In a study conducted by Lopes, Salovey, and Straus (2003), analysts and clerical staff of the finance department showing higher levels of EI on the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso EI test (MSCEIT) test were found to achieve greater ranks and better performance bonus than those scoring lower on the test. Thus, the evidence supporting the positive role of EI in workplace outcomes is quite compelling.

Dabke 29

EI is explained either by the ability model proposed by Mayer and Salovey (1990) or the mixed model as proposed by researchers such as Bar-On (1997) and Goleman (1995). While the mixed models have largely measured EI through self-report measures, the ability model offers performance-based test such as the MSCEIT, which has time and again proved to be statistically a far superior tool. The ability model focuses not only on the recognition, comprehension, and regulation of emotions, but also on the integra- tion of emotional knowledge into cognitions. The ability-based model is a four-branch model:

• Branch 1 (perception, appraisal, and expression of emotions) involves the reception and recogni- tion of emotional information.

• Branch 2 (emotional facilitation of thinking) focuses on using emotions to enhance reasoning. • Branch 3 (understanding and analyzing emotions) involves cognitive processing of emotions. • Branch 4 (reflective regulation of emotions) refers to the ability to manage emotions in oneself,

and in others, in order to enhance emotional and intellectual growth. Internationally, MSCEIT has time and again emerged as a robust measure of ability-based EI. While

its statistical superiority and predictive ability has been adequately demonstrated, there is a paucity of studies reporting the use of MSCEIT in the Indian context. Thus, the use of MSCEIT to assess the said association was one of the major contributions of the current study to the body of knowledge.

Transformational Leadership

The concept of TL, a component of the full-range leadership theory developed by Bass (1990) and studied further by Avolio (1999) and Antonakis (2004), is one of the most widely researched leadership models. According to Bass (1985), a transformational leader actively seeks to change personal values among the followers, so that they can go beyond their self-interest for the good of larger entities such as a group or an organization. Bass (1985) has proposed a full-range leadership model that focuses on three styles of leadership namely:

Transformational leadership • Idealized influence (II) • Intellectual stimulation (IS) • Inspirational motivation (IM) • Individualized consideration (IC)

Transactional leadership • Contingent reward (CR) • Management by exception-active/passive (MBE-A/P)

Laissez-faire leadership

There have been a number of survey studies that have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) 5X scale to examine the relationship between leadership behavior and various criteria of leadership effectiveness (Avolio & Howell, 1992; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Ozaralli (2003) attempted to investigate the TL in relation to empowerment and team effectiveness. Findings suggested that TL contributed to the prediction of subordinate’s self-reported empowerment and that the more the team members experienced team empowerment, the more effective the team would be. Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam (1996) found that leaders who exhibit TL behavior are associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, involve-

30 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

ment, and performance by their subordinates. Similar results have been found by Carmeli (2003). In addi- tion, Podsakoff et al. (1990) demonstrated that transformational leaders are directly related to employee’s performance of organizational citizenship behaviors.

TL behavior has been extensively measured by the MLQ 5X (2000) scale developed by Bass and Avolio. The tool has been revised several times and has emerged as the most psychometrically sound scale. It is a 360-degree instrument consisting of two parts. One component is a self-assessment for lead- ers in regards to their leadership style and the second assessment is for subordinates/peers/boss to report on their perceptions of the behavior and attributes of their immediate supervisor/peer/subordinate. The current study focuses only on the TL aspect involving four dimensions namely II, IM, IS, and IC.

Leadership Effectiveness

Despite a lot of interest and research in the field of leadership, there is still a lack of consensus over what makes a leader effective (Higgs, 2003; Kets de Vries, 1993). TL behaviors have been consistently related to leadership effectiveness (Lowe et al., 1996; Waldman et al., 1987) and business unit out- comes. Leaders are not just what they think they are. They are also what their followers perceive them as. Previous research has found that TL operates on an individual level, and exists in the eye of the beholder (Yammarino & Dubinsky, 1994, p. 805). While focusing on the characteristics of an effective leader, collecting self-perceptions of one’s own leadership behavior gives us one perspective on the issue. Collective perceptions of followers and superiors also help us to understand the dynamics of leadership in a comprehensive manner. Thus, the use of multiple sources for feedback was the most logical thing to do.

A number of studies have examined the association between leadership and EI using mixed models (Jayan, 2006; Singh, 2006). Lowe et al. (1996) completed a meta-analysis evaluating 39 leadership studies. They found that in most studies, three TL behaviors (charisma, IC, and IS) were related to leadership effectiveness. This relationship was stronger for subordinate self-rated effort than for an independent criterion of leadership effectiveness. The TL behaviors correlated more strongly with leadership effectiveness than did the transactional leadership behaviors.

Leaders of yesteryears were seen to control, plan, and inspect the overall running of the organization. But in today’s changing times and with predominance on service orientation, leaders are expected to motivate and inspire followers, generate a sense of belongingness and positive association among employees and yet meet stiff targets. Thus, the current study aimed at examining the association of EI and TL with perceived leadership effectiveness.

Perceived leadership effectiveness is a phenomenon that lies more in the eyes of the significant stake- holder rather than objective job outcomes. Past studies that were based entirely on self-report data for EI and TL have shown relationships between the two, but few studies that were based on multiple sources (Harms & Credé, 2010) of data has confirmed these relationships. The current study aimed to study the relationship between leadership effectiveness as perceived by the superior and subordinate and the EI and TL behavior of the manager.

To summarize, following were the objectives of the current study:

• To examine the relationship between performance-based EI and TL with leadership effectiveness as perceived by the superior and subordinate.

• To use the MSCEIT in the Indian context. • To assess the predictive power of EI of the leaders and their leadership style with respect to the

perception of leadership effectiveness of subordinates and superiors.

Dabke 31

Association between EI, TL, and Leadership Effectiveness

There are a number of theoretical arguments made relating EI to effective leadership (Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2001). In the study conducted by Lopes et al. (2003), which examined the relation between EI, as measured by the MSCEIT, and workplace outcomes, employees received better peer and/ or supervisor ratings of interpersonal facilitation and stress tolerance. The Hypothesis 1 of the current research stated that:

H1: Overall EI, strategic EI and experiential EI will show a significant positive correlation with superior and subordinate perception of leadership effectiveness.

Research review usually shows a correlation between TL and various criteria of leader effectiveness (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Thus, Hypothesis 2 is as follows:

H2: Idealized influence attributes (IDA), idealized influence behavior (IDB), inspirational motivation (IM), intellectual stimulation (IS) and individual consideration (IC) will show a significant positive correlation with superior and subordinate perception of leadership effectiveness.

Finally, the current research tried to seek a very pertinent question of what predicts leadership effec- tiveness perceptions in the multisource context. Given the positive association between the criterion variables namely EI and TL, and the predictor variable namely leadership effectiveness, the following hypotheses were proposed:

H3: EI will positively predict leadership effectiveness. H4: TL behavior will positively predict leadership effectiveness.

The relationship between EI, TL, and perception of leadership effectiveness as hypothesized in the present study has been pictorially represented in Figure 1.

Experiential E1

Strategic E1

Strategic E1

Idealized In�uence- Attributes

Idealized In�uence- Behavior

Inspirational Motivation

Intellectual Stimulation

Individualized Consideration

Leadership E�ectivenessPositivePredictors

Figure 1. The Model as Proposed by the Author Source: Author (self).

32 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

Methodology

Sample

The sample included 200 middle and senior level managers belonging to various sectors such as IT, banking, FMCG, and manufacturing. The average age of the participants was 46.74 years (SD = 4.14) ranging from 35 to 58 years. The average years of experience possessed by the managers was 23 years (SD = 4.69). The 200 executives included 38 (19 percent) female managers and 162 (81 percent) male managers. The managers were considered to fulfill the inclusion criteria when they were in the said role for more than 6 months, had minimum three direct subordinates and were ready for a multisource data collection process.

Data Analysis Technique

Data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software version 17.0. A Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation coefficient was calculated to examine the relationship between EI, TL, and leadership effectiveness. A step-wise multiple regressions analysis was conducted to assess the predictive ability of the variables.

Measures

Emotional Intelligence

EI of participants was measured by the MSCEIT v2.0 test (Mayer et al., 2002). The test measures EI in terms of an overall EQ score, strategic and experiential EI as the two area scores, each of which com- prises two branch scores. The overall and area scores were considered for further analysis. The full-scale reliability of MSCEIT test is 0.91. The reliability of experiential EI area was 0.90 and that of strategic EI area was 0.85. Brackett and Mayer (2003) have reported test–retest reliability for the full-scale MSCEIT v2.0 to be 0.86. The reliability for the branch scores range from 0.74 to 0.89. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the current sample was found to be 0.72.

Transformational Leadership Style

TL style was measured by the MLQ 5X scale developed by Bass and Avolio (2000). TL behavior was measured in terms of IDA, IDB, IM, IS, and IC. Past researches have reported adequate reliabilities (Cronbach alpha), for the MLQ 5X scale, ranging from α = 0.63 to 0.92.

Leadership Effectiveness

Leadership effectiveness was measured via the MLQ 5X scale as well as effectiveness scale developed by Shanock and Eisenberger (2006). Perceived leadership effectiveness of subordinates was measured through the supervisory leadership survey developed by Kerr et al. (2006).

Dabke 33

Procedure

The participants were administered the MSCEIT v2.0 test (Mayer, 2002) and MLQ 5X scale (Bass & Avolio, 2000). Their immediate superior and subordinate were asked to fill up the multi-source form of the MLQ 5X scale as well as leadership effectiveness scales.

Results

Correlation Analysis

A Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation coefficient was calculated to study the association between EI, TL, and leadership effectiveness.

Table 1 indicates the correlation between EI and its aspects with leadership effectiveness.

Table 1. Correlation between EI and Its Aspects with Perceived Leadership Effectiveness

Leadership effectiveness Variable Perception of subordinates Perception of superiors Overall EI 0.27** 0.03 Strategic EI 0.24** 0.18* Experiential EI 0.20** 0.11

Source: Author’s own. Notes: **Correlation significant at p < 0.01 level (1-tailed). *Correlation significant at p < 0.05 level (1-tailed).

As seen in Table 1, there was a significant positive correlation between subordinates’ perception of leadership effectiveness and overall EQ (r = 0.27, p < 0.01, n = 200), strategic EQ (SEQ) (r = 0.24, p < 0.01, n = 200), and experiential EQ (r = 0.20, p < 0.01, n = 200). On the other hand, leadership effec- tiveness showed significant positive correlation only with strategic EI of the leader. This indicates that EI of the leader has a greater bearing on the perception of subordinates. On the other hand, superiors may be considering myriad factors while considering leadership effectiveness. Thus, while emotional under- standing and management is of significant importance to the subordinate, the superior looks at factors beyond interpersonal relationship management and empathy. Thus, H1 that overall EI, strategic EI, and experiential EI will show a significant positive correlation with superior was partially supported and was fully supported in case of subordinate rating.

Table 2 summarizes the correlation between aspects of TL and leadership effectiveness.

Table 2: Correlation between Transformational Leadership and its Aspects with Perceived Leadership Effectiveness

Leadership effectiveness Variable Perception of subordinates Perception of superiors Idealized influence attributes (IDA) 0.29** 0.61** Idealized influence behavior (IDB) 0.22** 0.49** Intellectual stimulation (IS) 0.35** 0.56** Inspirational motivation (IM) 0.42** 0.53** Individualized consideration (IC) 0.42** 0.50**

Source: Author’s own. Notes: **Correlation significant at p < 0.01 level (1-tailed).

34 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

As seen in Table 2, all aspects of transformational behaviors showed a significant positive correlation with subordinate’s perceived leadership effectiveness (r ranging from 0.42 to 0.22, p < 0.01) as well as superior’s perceived leadership effectiveness (r ranging from 0.61 to 0.49, p < 0.01). On the whole, correlation between transformational behavior and effectiveness perception showed stronger association in case of superior rating than subordinate rating. This indicates that superiors have a greater emphasis on leadership behavior. Especially II (r = 0.61, p < 0.01) and IS (r = 0.56, p < 0.01) have a very high linkage with leadership effectiveness perception. On the other hand, subordinates seem to consider transformational behaviors as moderately important while considering leader as effective. To conclude, H2 stating that IDA, IDB, IM, IS, and IC will show a significant positive correlation with superior and subordinate perception of leadership effectiveness was fully supported. The results of the correlation analysis have been summarized in Figure 2.

Overall E1 SE1 EE1

E1 and Transformational Bahviours

IDA IDB IM IS IC

Subordinate Superior

E1 and Transformational Leadership Correlation

E ffe

ct iv

en es

s Pe

rc ep

ti on 0.7

0.6

0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 0.1

0

0.27** 0.24** 0.20**

0.29** 0.22** 0.35**

0.49** 0.61**

0.42** 0.42**

0.18*

0.03 0.11

0.56** 0.53** 0.50**

Figure 2. Correlation between Emotional Intelligence of Managers and Transformational Leadership Behavior as Perceived by Superior and Subordinate

Source: Author’s own.

Multiple Regressions Analysis

A step-wise multiple regressions analysis was conducted to determine if EI and transformational behav- ior would emerge as positive predictors of leadership effectiveness perceptions. In case of subordinates’ perceived leadership effectiveness, multiple regressions analysis results led to emergence of II (β = 0.15, ΔR2 = 0.19, p < 0.01) and IS (β = 0.12, ΔR2 = 0.23, p < 0.01) as positive predictors of subordinate leader- ship effectiveness. The two variables explained a variance of 23 percent (ΔR2 = 0.23, F(2,197) = 30.99, p < 0.01). However, none of the aspects of EI emerged as positive predictors of effectiveness.

In case of superior perception of leadership effectiveness, transformational behaviors explained a variance of 48 percent (ΔR2 = 0.48, F(4,195) = 45.96, p < 0.01). In both the cases, EI of the leader failed to emerge as a predictor of perceived effectiveness. Thus, while H3 stating that EI will positively predict leadership effectiveness was not supported, H4 stating that TL behavior will positively predict leader- ship effectiveness was fully supported in the current sample.

The results obtained in the present study have been summarized in Figure 3.

Dabke 35

Idealized In�uence

Inspirational Motivation

Individualized Consideration

Intellectual Stimulation

Perceived Leadership E�ectiveness

Positive Predicators

Figure 3. Predictors of Perceived Leadership Effectiveness

Source: Author’s own.

Discussion

The current study aimed at assessing the role of EI and TL behavior in leadership effectiveness percep- tions of superiors and subordinates. Results indicated that while EI is positively associated with leader- ship effectiveness perceptions, it failed to emerge as positive predictor. On the other hand, transformational behaviors emerged as positive predictors of effectiveness perceptions.

Some researchers in the past have argued that the construct of EI can richly contribute in the effective functioning of a leader and therefore has been subject to extensive research. George (2000), based on the synthesis of Yukl (1998); Locke, Kirkpatrick, Wheeler, Schneider, Niles, Goldstein, et al. (1991); and Conger and Kanungo (1998) and other related leadership literature, has theorized that EI facilitates dimensions of leadership by impacting the following elements of leadership effectiveness:

• Developing a collective sense of goals and deciding a way to achieve them. • Inculcating the importance of knowledge and emphasizing on the need to exhibit appropriate

work-related behavior in the followers. • Spawning a sense of excitement, enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism in an organization and

facilitating an environment for cooperation and collaboration. • Inspiring flexibility in the decision-making process.

Past research has also found a strong positive association between the leader’s EI and subordinate’s leadership effectiveness perception. Kerr et al. (2006) used the MSCEIT to test the EQ of 38 supervisors. Ratings of supervisory leadership effectiveness were assessed via subordinate ratings. Data analysis showed that the total EI score displayed a strong positive correlation with supervisory rating (r = 0.39, p < 0.01). Total 15 percent of variance in supervisory ratings was predicted by supervisor’s total EI score. Jordan and Troth (2002) found that EI enhances the possibility of usage of constructive conflict with significant correlations between collaboration and awareness of own emotions, discussion of own emotions, control of own emotions, recognition of own emotions, and management of others’ emotions.

36 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

While the findings of the current study are in line with previous research, it failed to establish a strong case in favor of EI as an important ingredient in leadership effectiveness perceptions. On the whole EQ in general and SEQ in specific seem to be contributing to leadership effectiveness perception. SEQ refers to the ability to understand emotions and manage them in self and others. Understanding emotions branch provides data to the leaders about how the subordinate behaves, and how he/she is affected by environment and relationships. They can be more open to followers’ view points and anticipate their reactions in various situations. Furthermore, managing emotions may help the leader to focus on problem-solving, empower the followers, and create an atmosphere of enthusiasm and positive energy. Various studies on leadership and management skills (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kanter, 1983) suggest that the practice of empowering the subordinates is a principal component of managerial and organizational effectiveness. This can be accomplished by a high SEQ manager with greater ease than by a low SEQ manager. Such a manager would be revered and perceived by subordinates as more effective.

In the current study, however, TL behavior seems to play a more significant role on leadership effec- tiveness perception with II-Attributes, a component of charismatic behavior and IS emerging as a positive predictor of leadership effectiveness. Transformational leaders tend to display a high level of confidence and self-esteem to inspire their subordinates to share a common vision (Bass, 1985). As a result, subordi- nates may get drawn to the leader and develop a relationship with him, characterized by respect and admiration. The results can also be partly explained through the collectivistic society lens. Collectivistic orientation refers to the degree to which individuals emphasize responsibility to group and organization (Triandis, 1995). Cultural groups may vary in their concepts of the most important characteristics of effec- tive leaders. As such, different leadership prototypes would be expected to occur naturally in societies that have different cultural profiles (Bass, 1990; Hofstede, 1993). Earlier, Jung, Bass, and Sosik (1995) pro- vided a conceptual argument that TL would emerge more easily and would be more effective in collectiv- istic as compared to individualistic societal culture because of strong emphasis on group orientation, work centrality, and respect toward authority. These trends also emerged in the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project (House et al., 1999) in which the perception of leadership effectiveness was shown to be influenced by cultural context. The GLOBE cluster-wise study indicate that the results from the Southern Asian cluster, of which India was a part, endorsed the charis- matic/value-based leadership and team orientation as the leadership dimensions contributing most to out- standing leadership. In a collectivistic culture like India, subordinates heavily depend on the leader to take care of their personal needs and develop a secure future for them. Furthermore, dependability and stability is valued the most in a high uncertainty avoidance culture like ours. All these needs get better fulfilled when they have a transformational leader supporting and leading them. Furthermore, in today’s knowl- edge intensive industry, providing IS is seen as highly rewarding and satisfactory by subordinates.

In the case of superiors, the study failed to gather much support in favor of EI as an important deter- minant of perceived leadership effectiveness. Janovics and Christiansen (2002) in their study found that individuals who scored higher on the MSCEIT received higher superior ratings for job performance (r = 0.22, p < 0.01). High scores have also been associated with greater merit increase, peer and supervi- sor rating, r = 0.36 – 0.51 (Lopes et al., 2006). However, in case of the present study superiors seems to be emphasizing on leadership behavior rather than the emotional management aspect while attributing effectiveness to leaders. In the past Antonakis (2004) has questioned if EQ is a significant contributor in effectiveness and has opined that EQ does not predict effectiveness over and above general intelligence and Big Five personality model. In his critique of Melita et al. (2003), he argued that normal individuals are perfectly capable to demonstrate the emotional appraisal/social skills that are necessary for effective leadership. He is against the notion that one needs inordinate levels of emotional appraisal ability, which is contrary to the position of Melita Prati et al. (2003), that higher EI is associated with higher leadership

Dabke 37

performance. Antonakis (2004) believes that transformational leader generates affective associations with his/her followers because of vision, moral conviction, and high need for power (with a high respon- sibility disposition), courage and confidence (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993) and not because of his superior EI abilities. Schutte et al. (2002), who used the MSCEIT found that EI did not predict incremen- tal variation in TL when controlling for the measure of g (Wonderlie personnel test) and the Big Five (NEO-PI).

Thus, it could be concluded that while EI is positively associated to leadership effectiveness, transfor- mational behaviors seem to be the critical factors in such perceptual attributions.

Implications

The research findings clearly brought out the differences in the expectations held by superiors and subordinates from the leader. The subordinates appreciate and associate EI with effectiveness. In contrast, superiors do not emphasize much on EI skills while making effective judgments. These findings have serious implications for the leader while imbibing working patterns. Once again the results highlight important messages to be included in leadership development programs, wherein awareness of this discrepancy may sensitize the leaders to a need for strategic planning while dealing with different significant sources at work place. It also calls for inculcation of skills to balance between the expectations by various sources, which can become an active source of stress.

In the current sample, subordinates value the presence of emotional perception and understanding and management in the leaders’ behavior. The affective component, thus, becomes an integral part in handling of subordinates. On the other hand, superiors emphasize on cognitive and behavioral aspects giving lesser importance to emotive and people skills.

These findings are significant from a practical point of view where an effective leader would have to maintain a fine balance between hard and soft skills. He would have to be tuned to subordinate’s emo- tions and provide appropriate support and understanding while making an attempt to motivate them or provide IC. At the same time, he would have to exhibit a clear sense of purpose, goal orientation and professional outlook in formal forums so that higher ups are convinced of his ability to get work done.

These findings also call for a serious consideration for the inclusions of these insights in training and leadership development activities. The superiors would benefit from being sensitized to these requirements of subordinates. In fact, the study by Khandwalla (2004) indicated that senior-level Indian corporate managers may be less adept at playing leadership roles than at playing strategic and operational roles. In addition, they may not be as proficient in interpersonal and leadership-related competency as compared to say, tactical or task achievement-related competency. Further, fewer competencies were seen to be associated with leadership roles than with strategic or operations-related roles, because managers may not know well enough how to convert their competencies into effective leadership.

At the same time, managers have to wake up to this role requirement and learn to balance the cogni- tive and affective component. In other words, managers would have to imbibe the nurturant task-oriented leadership, a model developed by Sinha (1980, 1984) that incorporated a combination of leadership styles. The nurturant task-oriented model suggests that an ideal leader in India is both nurturant and task- oriented. This trend is endorsed in the current study, where subordinates would prefer the nurturant face of the leader and superiors would prefer a task-oriented front on the part of the leader. According to this theory, a nurturant task leader needs to show affection, care for subordinates, and genuine commitment toward their growth. The leader’s nurturance is contingent on the subordinate’s task accomplishment—

38 Business Perspectives and Research 4(1)

the leader becomes a source of support provided that the followers respect, obey him/her, work hard, and commit themselves to productivity.

Limitations

The major limitation of the current study is the use of single subordinate respondent rather than seeking the data from all respondents. Furthermore, while the use of MSCEIT was a major strength of the study, an inadequate insight regarding its culture fairness can also pose some limitations on the generalizability of the results.

Conclusions

This study brought out the factors that contribute to the perception of leadership effectiveness. It was found that both EI and TL are positively associated with leadership effectiveness perceptions. However, effectiveness judgments are more of a function of what the leader does in his role, than his innate abilities. While EI of the leader is a significant factor, leadership behavior in the given role seems to have a greater bearing on these perceptions, Thus, training and development should focus on improving emotional information and honing TL skills. To conclude, EI is an important factor in leadership but definitely not the supreme, one-stop solution for effectiveness.

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