LP762-L2 week 2

JADARA JADARA

Volume 55 Number 3 Article 4

9-2023

Leader-member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Leader-member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on

Relationship Quality Relationship Quality

David Hylan Jr. Deaf Action Center of Louisiana

Melissa J. Hawthorne Louisiana State University at Shreveport

Follow this and additional works at: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Hylan, D., & Hawthorne, M. J. (2023). Leader-member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality. JADARA, 55(3), 51-75. Retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/ iss3/4

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in JADARA by an authorized editor of NSUWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected].

Leader-member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality Leader-member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality

Cover Page Footnote Cover Page Footnote Dr. Hawthorne is the recipient of the Riemer and Marcia Calhoun Professorship in Education. This research was supported in whole or in part by the Louisiana Board of Regents Endowed Professor/Chair Program.

This article is available in JADARA: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Leader-Member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality

David Hylan Jr., Deaf Action Center of Louisiana

Melissa J. Hawthorne, Louisiana State University at Shreveport

51

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Leader-Member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality

Abstract

The focus of this study was the relationship between leaders and their team members and

how Deaf identity can predict the quality of that relationship. Employment and personal

identity are often linked, and this is true of Deaf identity. This study explores how Deaf

identity impacts leader-member exchanges and seeks to identify components of Deaf identity

that promote better workplace experiences. The results of a Pearson r correlation analysis

supported a significant positive correlation between the Deaf Acculturation Scale score and

the Leader-Member Exchange 7 questionnaire score. A linear regression analysis indicated

that Deaf identity was a significant predictor of the leader-member relationship and

accounted for the variance in the leader-member relationship. Of the predictors investigated,

cultural involvement, cultural preferences, cultural knowledge, and language competence

were significant.

Keywords

Deaf identity, Deaf culture, Leader-Member Exchange theory, leadership studies

Disclosure Statement

The author has not disclosed a conflict of interest.

Acknowledgement

Dr. Hawthorne is the recipient of the Riemer and Marcia Calhoun Professorship in Education.

This research was supported in whole or in part by the Louisiana Board of Regents Endowed

Professor/Chair Program.

Authors

David Hylan Jr. (Deaf Action Center of Louisiana)

Melissa J. Hawthorne (Louisiana State University at Shreveport)

52

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Leader-Member Exchange and the Effect of Deaf Identity on Relationship Quality

Introduction

Approximately 15% of adults in the United States experience some form of hearing

loss, 2% of which have a disabling hearing loss (National Institute on Deafness and other

Communication Disorders, 2021). Hearing loss impacts communication, social interaction,

and educational advancement, which often limits employment opportunities, resulting in

higher unemployment and underemployment for people with hearing deficits (Bradley, et al.,

2013; Boutin, 2010). In turn, employment struggles lead to decreases in earning power. Luft

(2000) reported that Deaf people face a substantial loss of lifetime earning power, averaging

between $356,000 and $609,000 less than hearing employees of comparable education.

Typically, Deaf employees enter the workforce at a status slightly above that of service

workers and make few gains over the next 20 years. Perkins-Dock (2015) found that

education helped ameliorate the workplace outcomes, but even that improvement was limited

with high school graduates fairing little better than those who lacked a high school diploma.

Within the Deaf community, the use of the capital “D” in Deaf denotes an individual

who chooses to be a member of the Deaf community with a Deaf identity. This person

advocates for the sharing of the unique traditions, language, values, cultural norms, and rules

of social interaction within that group. The use of the lowercase “d” in deaf, on the other

hand, represents anyone who has experienced a significant hearing loss and who considers

deafness a pathology, and not as a community with a distinct culture (Leigh, 2009). We

follow that convention in this paper.

Although research has identified barriers to employment (e.g., communication

difficulties, lack of interpreters, low morale) (Perkins-Dock, 2015), Deaf identity and the

interaction with employer leadership styles remains underexplored. In general, Deaf identity

refers to how an individual relates to their deafness. Individuals with a strong Deaf identity

53

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

believe that being deaf is a difference rather than a disability (National Association of the

Deaf, 2014). Members of this group are proud and celebrate their deafness as a characteristic

that makes them unique and distinguishable. American Sign Language (ASL) is their mode of

communication, and they defend it as a recognized language (Gallaudet University, 2015a;

Lane, 1992).

In addition, leaders’ skill in gaining the trust of their employees, or followers, is vital

to achieving successful work among persons of different cultures and attitudes (LeBlanc &

Gonzalez-Roma, 2012). High-quality exchanges between leaders and employees result in the

successful completion of projects, improving employee morale and, thus, reducing employee

turnover (Kauppila, 2015). High-quality exchanges inspire employees to set and reach goals,

improve the employees’ relationships with superiors, and increase the organization’s scope.

Therefore, a key piece of the leadership puzzle lies in understanding and developing leader-

follower relationships. Properly understanding the leadership process and the leadership

relationship means recognizing the follower’s self-identity as a critical relationship factor. It

is through the follower’s self-identity and self-concept that they derive motivation, values,

cognitions, emotions, and perceptions of social justice (Lord & Brown, 2003).

By understanding the interaction between employees’ Deaf identity and employers’

leadership styles, rehabilitation specialists, counselors, and social workers can better prepare

deaf employees to function in the workplace. The leader-follower relationship does not exist

without the follower and the follower’s culture. The follower’s identity plays a major role in

the leader-follower connection (Vondey, 2008). Ultimately, understanding and appreciating

the employee’s identity and culture contributes to leader effectiveness and employee

satisfaction (Ehrhart, 2015).

54

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Leadership in the Workplace

At the heart of this study is the leader-follower relationship and elements that indicate

its quality. An organization’s success is built on two important constructs: how well the

leaders truly lead and how well the followers truly follow their leaders. These constructs

accentuate the significance of the leader-follower relationship in the context of improving the

followers’ satisfaction and, thus, their productivity. For example, Oswald et al., (2015),

studied employee’ productivity and found that happy employees showed a 12% increase in

production, which was in sharp contrast to a 10% reduction in the productivity of unhappy

employees. These findings were not related to compensation but to the company’s

willingness to invest in their employees’ support and satisfaction with leadership. Google

reported an increase of 37% in employee satisfaction when the company made investments in

the employees, such as providing skills training, offering flexible schedules, and creating a

culture in which employers know their employees well (Akram, n.d., Parkes-Harrison, 2014).

The leader-follower relationship is symbiotic—requiring both for existence. Trust in

the culture of the organization and its leaders is a crucial part of employee self-esteem and

productivity (Akram, n.d., Clegg et al., 2002; Dibben, 2000; Kramer & Tyller, 1996). In

contrast, the lack of a trusting environment harms the foundations of the leader-follower

relationship (Martin et al., 2015). People’s perceptions of leader-follower relationships,

leader preferences, and leadership qualities are not created in a vacuum, but rather are

influenced by their life experiences and interactions with prior leaders (Offermann et al.,

1994). Given the diversity of people’s life experiences and perspectives, their implicit

theories will also be diverse and unique.

The level of congruence between the perceived leader-follower relationship and the

follower’s Deaf identity will affect the follower’s judgments about the leader’s effectiveness

and will influence the follower’s willingness to cooperate with the leader. Thus, follower

55

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

preferences for leadership should be predicted by Deaf identity. Deaf people who have not

developed their own Deaf identity experience identity distortion to varying degrees.

Consequently, this is reflected in their leader-follower relationships (Leigh, 1999).

Leader-Member Exchange Model

Leader–member exchange theory stems from the vertical dyad linkage theory (VDL)

proposed by Dansereau, Graen and Haga (1975). Graen and Uhl-Bien’s (1998) revised and

expanded the model into the current Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory. LMX theory

highlights the potential differences between the leader and follower using the vertical dyad

relationship theory. The model perceives leadership as a variable with relationships that link

the followers to the leader. The quality of the association is determined by respect, the extent

of trust, obligation, and loyalty. LMX theory emphasizes the quality of exchanges that occur

between a leader and an employee. It differs from other leadership theories because it centers

on the relationship between this pair (Walumbwa et al., 2011). According to LMX theory,

followers fall into two groups: the in-group and the out-group. The group with a high-quality

exchange with the leader is the in-group, whereas the group with a low-quality exchange is

the out-group. The ideal leader should attempt to bring every follower into the in-group (Luo

et al., 2016).

Leaders’ skill in gaining the trust of their groups is vital to achieving successful work

among persons of diverse cultures and attitudes (LeBlanc & Gonzalez-Roma, 2012). High-

quality exchanges between leaders and followers result in the successful completion of

projects, improving employee morale and, thus, reducing employee turnover (Kauppila,

2015). High-quality exchanges inspire employees to set and reach goals, improve the

employees’ relationships with superiors, and increase the organization’s scope. Therefore, a

key piece of the leadership puzzle lies in understanding and developing leader-follower

relationships. Properly understanding the leadership process and the leadership relationship

56

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

means recognizing the follower’s self-identity as a critical relationship factor. It is through

the follower’s self-identity and self-concept that they derive motivation, values, cognitions,

emotions, and perceptions of social justice (Lord & Brown, 2003).

“Employees’ self-identities, or the way in which they define themselves relative to

others, have implications for the quality of the leader and follower relationships at work”

(Jackson & Johnson, 2012, p. 488). Researchers have theorized that followers’ self-identities

directly correspond to their relationship with leaders and to their work performance (Chang &

Johnson, 2010; Lord et al., 1999; Schyns & Day, 2010; Sluss & Ashforth, 2007; Uhl-Bien,

2006). Indeed, Cha & Roberts (2019) found increased employee and employer satisfaction

when employees shine a spotlight on their whole identities. By incorporating aspects of Deaf

identity into their workplace, Deaf employees can bridge differences with other employees,

find new avenues of support, and avoid burnout.

The current study expands previous literature by focusing on followers’ identities and

their predictability of the leader-member relationship. In the context of this study, Deaf

employees are the followers of interest, and their supervisors/employers are the leaders. The

current study addressed three research questions: (a) To what extent did participants endorse

hearing acculturation items as compared to deaf acculturation items? (b) To what extent

does overall Deaf identity predict the workplace leader-follower relationship? (c) To what

extent does each of the subscale scores on the Deaf Acculturation Scale (DAS) predict the

workplace leader-follower relationship? Unlike previous research that seeks to understand

the experience of people who are Deaf or hard of hearing through comparisons to hearing

persons, the current study focuses solely on the experiences of Deaf employees. Therefore,

information regarding the hearing status and communication preferences, along with other

demographics relating to the employers, was not collected.

57

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Method

Participants

Participants for the current study were recruited from established organizations that

provide services to or represent deaf people. A list with the description of the organizations

who participated in the study is available upon request. The sample group comprised 302

adults who self-identified as deaf within the context of having hearing loss and as being

currently employed. Most participants strongly agreed or agreed that they called themselves

Deaf (84%), preferred using ASL for communication (73%) and reported graduating with a

college degree (72%; compared to 24% nationally).Of the 302 participants, 153 (51%)

participants were female and 149 (49%) were male (compared to national averages of 43%

and 57%, respectively). Regarding racial or ethnic identity, 251 (83%) participants identified

as white and the remaining participants (51; 17%) identified as other races or ethnicities

(compared to 84% of the Deaf population in the United States identifying as white and 18%

identifying as other races or ethnicities). Participants ranged in age from 20 to 78; the mean

age was 44 (SD = 11.4). Participants were from 11 states: including California, Connecticut,

Florida, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Texas, and

Utah. Thirty-four participants (11%) reported earning a high school diploma (compared to

33% nationally). Through a review of the email domains of the participants, it was

determined most of the respondents (248; 82%) were employed by organizations in Deaf-

centric categories (i.e., schools for the deaf, deaf job placement programs, and deaf social

service agencies). Overall, the two main differences in demographics were hearing status,

which was by design, and educational level.

58

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Instrumentation

Deaf Acculturation Scale (DAS)

Maxwell-McCaw and Zea (2011) developed the DAS, a 58-item instrument that uses

a 5-point Likert-type scale designed to measure five Deaf identity subscales: Cultural Identity

(e.g., I call myself Deaf. I often wish I could hear better or become hearing.), Cultural

Involvement (e.g., How much do you enjoy going to deaf parties/gatherings? How much do

you enjoy participating in hearing political activities?), Cultural Preferences (e.g., I would

prefer my education to be at a deaf school. I would prefer my children to be hearing.),

Cultural Knowledge (e.g., How well do you know important events in American/world

history? How well do you know names of famous hearing actors?), and Language

Competence (e.g., How well do you sign using ASL? How well do you speak English using

your voice?) The scale applies to the assessment of whether an individual is acculturated to

the hearing or Deaf culture: DAS hearing (DASh) and DAS deaf (DASd).

The DAS design fits for both the hard-of-hearing and deaf communities because its

framework allows the two diverse cultures to be viewed independently in terms of their

dimensions and subscale measures. Moreover, the DAS constitutes two main acculturation

subscales, the Acculturation to Hearing Culture scale (DASh) and Acculturation to Deaf

culture scale (DASd). These two constituents of the DAS are each made up of different

subscales that appraise acculturation across as the five identity subscales. These subscales

include feelings of belonging to the deaf world and the behavioral response upon exposure to

Deaf culture. The DASd (α = 0.77 to 0.94 for the subscales and 0. 95 for the overall scale)

and the DASh (α = 0.32 to 0.83 for the subscales and 0.86 for the overall scale) are reliable

and valid (Maxwell-McCaw et al. , 2019) and used in various previous studies (e.g., Schmitt

& Leigh, 2015; Brice & Strauss, 2022). Other DAS subscales are language competence and

cultural knowledge, which measure the hearing culture and other aspects of Deaf culture.

59

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Leader-Member Exchange-7 Scale (LMX-7)

The LMX-7 measures the degree to which followers and their leaders have a sense of

trust, mutual respect, and sense of obligation toward each other. The LMX-7 comprises seven

queries that are in the 5-point Likert scale format (Bauer & Erdogan, 2016). The seven items

describe distinctive characteristics of the working relationship and affiliation between the

leader and the follower (e.g., How well does your leader understand your job problems and

needs? How would you characterize your working relationship with your leader?)

English to ASL Back-Translation

Presenting an English-based survey in ASL is a complicated process but necessary

because the subjects’ native language is likely to be ASL and ASL has no written form.

Back-translating is the process of translating a source language (English) into a target

language (ASL) and back to the source language (English). “ASL is a distinct language from

English, and that translation process is very complex” (Glickman, 1993, p. 134). Colonomos

and Bienvenu (1991) developed a model for the back-translation process between the English

text and ASL used by Glickman (1993) and other researchers.

To validate the translation of the survey items, we used the following steps:

1. We assembled a team of Native American Sign Language (ASL) users who were also flu-

ent in written English and familiar with the various styles of English text.

2. The team translated the DAS and LMX-7 items from English text to ASL. This involved

two separate rounds of translation, with the second and third ASL users translating the Eng-

lish text into ASL and recording their translations on video.

3. The video translations were scrutinized by three interpreters who were certified at the na-

tional level by the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf and had the advantage of being chil-

dren of deaf adults. They then translated the video back into English text.

60

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

4. The English text translated from the ASL videos was compared to the original (back-trans-

lation) text for content and accuracy.

5. The comparison indicated a 98% agreement regarding the accuracy of the English-to-ASL

translation.

Inter-rater Reliability

The back-translation was successful in producing corresponding English and ASL

sentences for the DAS, the LMX-7, and a demographic scale. For 78 items (98%), an exact

word-for-word back-translation was generated by all three interpreters. For two items (2%),

all three interpreters produced a predictable paraphrase. The inter-rater reliability measure

was 32.5%. Because back-translation is the most-used method of ensuring equivalence

between the original and the translation (Son, 2018) and because the instruments did not

involve specialized language, further psychometric examination did not occur.

Procedure

After obtaining Institutional Review Board approval, a website was created for the

purpose of administering the study; the DAS, LMX-7, and demographic items were provided

through the website. An invitation to take part in the study and an informed consent letter

were placed on the website for 30 days. Since the survey was available online, an electronic

signature for consent sufficed. An introductory letter explaining the study’s purpose was

provided in written English and ASL (via a YouTube video uploaded to the website).

Participants received the 80-item online survey, which comprised the DAS and the LMX-7.

Participants were notified that a printed version was also available that could be completed

and mailed to the researchers; none of the participants opted for the paper copy.

Participants’ responses were gathered on and received from a secure encrypted server.

Anonymity for the survey participants was achieved by disabling IP address tracking. Each

set of responses was assigned a random code for additional confidentiality.

61

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Results

Identity of Sample (Deaf or Hearing)

To what extent did participants endorse hearing acculturation items as compared to

deaf acculturation items? People who are deaf or hard of hearing vary in how they regard

themselves; therefore, a preliminary question for this study is the extent to which participants

identify as deaf or hearing. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare the

participants’ scores on the DASd and the DASh. The results indicated that participants scored

significantly higher on the DASd (M = 4.16, SD = .62) than they did on the DASh (M = 3.1,

SD = .60); this indicates that they identify more as Deaf than as hearing, t(301) = 19.88, p <

.001.

Overall Acculturation Scale

An overall acculturation scale score was determined for each participant by

combining the DASd and DASh scores. The participants were almost evenly divided between

Deaf acculturated (n = 139) and bicultural individuals (n = 138). The remainder of the sample

was split between marginally acculturated (n = 18) and hearing acculturated ( n = 7).

LMX-7 Scores

The LMX-7 measured how much the participants indicated respect for their leader’s

abilities, experienced a developing feeling of trust, and reported feelings of solid commitment

to the leader (MSG, 2017). Scores fell into five categories: very high (30–35), high (25–29),

moderate (20–24); low (15–19), and very low (7–14). Scores in the upper ranges demon-

strated more grounded and stronger, high-quality relationships (i.e., in-group); scores in the

lower ranges showed lower-quality relationships (i.e., out-group) (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1998).

It is worth noting that many of the participants (n = 199; 65%) indicated a more grounded and

stronger, high-quality relationship with their leader. As noted above, 82% (n = 248) of

62

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

participants were employed in Deaf-centric organizations and agencies. Of the 18% (n = 54)

of participants employed in hearing-centric organizations, 59% (n = 32) rated their leader-fol-

lower relationship as very low or low.

Deaf Identity and the Leader-Follower Relationship

The central premise of this study is that participants who have a stronger Deaf identity

will also report a stronger relationship with a workplace leader. The results of a Pearson r

correlation analysis supported a significant positive correlation between the DASd score and

the LMX-7 score, r(300) = .29, p < .001. A linear regression analysis was conducted with the

LMX-7 score (leader-follower relationship) as the criterion variable and the DAS score (Deaf

identity) as the predictor. Deaf identity was a significant predictor of the leader-follower

relationship, ß = .29, t(300) = 5.24, p < .001, and accounted for 8%, r2 = .08 of the variance in

the leader-follower relationship. These findings indicate that Deaf identity is a significant

predictor of the leader-follower relationship, as hypothesized.

Table 1. Multiple Regression Results

Predictor Variables M SD ß t p

Cultural Identification 4.23 .47 -.060 -.810 .418

Cultural Involvement 4.45 .64 .240 3.75 < .001

Preferences 3.80 .84 -.380 -5.49 < .001

Cultural Knowledge 3.42 1.13 .167 2.20 < .001

Language Competence 4.50 .73 .422 6.15 < .001

A multiple regression was conducted predicting the leader-follower relationship

(LMX-7 score, criterion variable) from the DASd subscales (predictor variables): Cultural

Identification, Cultural Involvement, Cultural Preferences, Cultural Knowledge, and

63

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Language Competency. As Table 1 indicates, the regression model was significant, F(5, 296)

= 24.123, p < .001, with an R2 = .29.

Of the predictors investigated, Cultural Involvement (ß = .22, t(296) = 3.70, p < .001),

Cultural Preferences (ß = -.40, t(296) = 6.16, p < .001), Cultural Knowledge (ß = .17, t(296)

= 2.24, p < .001), and Language Competence (ß = .40, t(296) = 6.28, p < .001) were

significant. Cultural Identification was not a significant predictor of LMX, (ß = .02, t(296) =

-.373, p > .05). Language Competence was the most significant predictor of scores on the

LMX-7; Cultural Involvement and (to a lesser extent) Cultural Knowledge are also

statistically significant predictors of LMX.

A correlation analysis between the participant scores on the LMX-7 and scores on the

subscales of the DASd showed a positive relationship between LMX and Cultural

Identification, Cultural Involvement, Cultural Knowledge, and Language Competence,

meaning that as the level of these variables increased, the participants’ ratings of their

employers increased (see Table 2). These findings also support the idea that a strong Deaf

identity is associated with greater satisfaction with the leader-follower dynamic.

Table 2. Correlation Between DASd Subscales and the LMX-7

DASd subscales r P

Cultural Identification .205 < .001

Cultural Involvement .326 < .001

Preferences -.002 .972

Cultural Knowledge .282 < .001

Language Competence .416 < .001

_________________________________________________________

Finally, to explore the differences in deaf employees’ relationships with their leaders,

the participants were divided into two groups, deaf acculturated (n = 135) and hearing

64

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

acculturated (n = 24). Participants scoring as bicultural on the DAS were excluded because

these people often had equally high levels of Deaf and hearing acculturation. A Welch’s t-test

was used because this statistical analysis is robust when there are unequal sample sizes and/or

unequal variances. The results showed that deaf acculturated participants (M = 25.41, SD =

5.33) reported having a better relationship with their leader than hearing acculturated

participants (M = 21.25, SD = 5.37; see Figure 1), t = -3.49, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 5.34).

Figure 1. LMX-7 Score by Acculturation Status

These findings support the importance of Deaf identity in positive leader-follower

relationships. Deaf acculturated participants reported having a better relationship with their

employers than did hearing acculturated participants.

General Discussion

Identity is a multifaceted, intricate, and complex issue that involves culture, language,

and a sense of belonging—personally and in the workplace. The current study addressed

three questions: To what extent did participants endorse hearing acculturation items as

compared to deaf acculturation items? To what extent does overall Deaf identity predict the

65

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

workplace leader-follower relationship? To what extent does each of the subscale scores on

the DAS predict the workplace leader-follower relationship?

The study’s findings support the hypothesis that Deaf identity is a predictor of the

leader-follower relationship. This conclusion is important because self-identity, within the

context of an organization, is central to attaining a positive leader-follower relationship, em-

ployee satisfaction, and organizational success (MacKinnon & Heise, 2010). The deaf fol-

lower’s self-identity informs their work identity and belief in their capabilities. Therefore, a

strong self-identity is central to developing a strong work identity. In turn, a strong identity

yields a more productive and loyal employee.

The findings of this study indicate that deaf individuals with a strong Deaf identity

rated their relationship with their leader as high and very high. LMX theory states that these

followers, by their ratings of their relationship, do more for the leader and the leader does

more for them. When it comes to the personalities of the followers and leaders within the

context of the in-group, they seem to connect with one another, leading them to work

diligently toward a common goal of satisfying each other (Northouse, 2015). Furthermore,

these findings are consistent with Perkins-Dock, et al. (2015) who found that communication

difficulties and conflicts related to Deaf culture were the top two barriers for employment.

Cultural Involvement

The final research question dealt with the predictability of each DAS subscales on the

leader-follower relationship, beginning with Cultural Involvement. Cultural Involvement was

a significant predictor of the leader-follower relationship, ß = .24, t(296) = 3.75, p < .000.

This supports the idea that the development of a strong Deaf identity involves the follower

modeling specific behaviors that are associated with Deaf culture. The leader demonstrates

support and encouragement by being informed about Deaf culture and identity and by

modeling the same behaviors.

66

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Cultural Preferences

The Cultural Preferences subscale was a significant predictor of the leader-follower

relationship, ß = -.38, t(296) = -5.49, p < .000; however, results indicate that as participants

scored higher on this subscale, their LMX-7 score decreased. These findings are consistent

with Schein (1989); like the individuals from numerous ethnic groups, culturally deaf

individuals like to associate with and to wed individuals from their deaf social group.

Understandably, the leaders may not be deaf and as such are not socially preferred over deaf

members of the group, possibly indicating that cultural preferences do not contribute to the

leader-follower relationship in the same way as other subscales.

Cultural Knowledge

Cultural Knowledge was also a significant predictor of the leader-follower relationship, ß

= .17, t(296) = 2.20, p < .001. This finding suggests the leader was familiar with information

related to the Deaf World, which includes knowing the leaders within the Deaf community,

important events (e.g., Deaf President Now Campaign), national Deaf heroes, and famous

Deaf actors. The follower would also have knowledge of the unique traditions and customs of

the Deaf community. These include a strong devotion to community clubs, events, alumni

events, religious activities, and sporting events (MDHS, 2013). According to MDHS (2013),

“events are frequently filled with entertainment such as Deaf folklore, arts, history, ASL

poetry, songs, and joke-telling” (p. 1). Again, the large number of participants working within

a Deaf-centric organization could explain the leader’s knowledge and support of various

aspects of Deaf culture. This interest by the leader could endear the Deaf follower to the

leader.

Language Competency

Language competency deals with ASL and the follower’s receptive and expressive

communication skills. The language competency subscale was the largest predictor of the

67

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

leader-follower relationship, ß = .42, t(296) = 6.15, p < .001. Communication with Deaf

followers is of utmost concern for leaders with deaf employees (Hicks & Gilmore, 2012).

Likewise, being able to understand the directives and the ability to communicate effectively

and directly with the leader is of great importance to the Deaf follower (Watson, 2015).

Communication struggles with supervisors, coworkers, and customers are a major hindrance

to job preservation and promotion and can affect employees in social interactions within the

work setting. This can, in turn, hinder their sense of fitting in or being one of the team

(Lillestø & Sandvin, 2014).

Although deaf employees have a variety of communication preferences, those with a

strong Deaf identity and a feeling of group identity within the Deaf community prefer ASL as

their language of choice because it is a visual and gestural language (Gertz, 2003). This find-

ing is supported by Watson’s (2016) study, which found that Deaf followers reported a Deaf-

centric work environment provided direct communication with supervisors in ASL, accessi-

bility of communication, and readily available accommodations.

Applications of the Research

It is difficult to read any literature today about business without seeing leadership and

the leader-follower relationship discussed in detail. The leader-follower relationship is a

crucial component of a leaders’ ability to inspire and lead an organization to produce better

services, products, and benefits for its stakeholders. This examination of the effects of

internalized discrimination provides a foundation for leaders and a better understanding of

relationship failures and how to prevent them.

Deaf identity is strongly related to both language (i.e., ASL) and the norms of the

Deaf community. Frequently, these norms and expectations are substantially different from

those of the hearing community. Often, Deaf employees prefer ASL interpreters and assistive

technology such as Video Relay Service over verbal or written communications

68

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

(Massachusetts Commission for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing , 2022). A leader who allows

deaf employees to choose their preferred method of communication signals to those

employees that they are welcome and valued. Too often the communication preferences and

abilities are not considered by employers, leading to Deaf employees being underutilized or

overlooked for advancement. Understanding and valuing an employee begins with

understanding and valuing the employee’s culture and identity. Like the hearing world, such

understanding begins with basic communication.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Although the current study is among the initial quantitative examinations of the

predictability Deaf identity plays in the leader-follower relationship, certain limitations were

noteworthy. First, in this study, the sample had a higher percentage of college degrees than

the national average for the overall Deaf populace. As indicated by Marschark et al. (2002),

approximately 30% of hard-of-hearing and deaf students who attend postsecondary 4-year

schools will graduate. This is a significant contrast with the sample, as 72% of the

participants held an advanced degree. It is possible that holding an advanced degree also

influences employee-employer relationships. Therefore, replication of the current study with

a sample that more accurately reflects the national statistics is needed

Second, although it was not our intent, most participants were employed by Deaf-

centric organizations. These organizations would be much more familiar with the unique

culture and language of Deaf followers. They would also be more aware of typical

accommodation needed by Deaf followers. Future research should include a cross-section of

deaf followers from both hearing-centric and Deaf-centric organizations.

Finally, the focus of this study was Deaf identity and the relationship between

employer and employee. Although we chose to focus on the hearing and acculturation status

of the employee, research into how those factors affect the leader is needed.

69

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Conclusion

The central premise of this study is that a deaf follower with a strong Deaf identity

reports a strong positive relationship with a hearing workplace leader. The implication is that

leaders who support a strong Deaf identity provide work environments that allow deaf

employees to thrive. Abundant resources are accessible to businesses to provide education

and training in working with Deaf or hard-of-hearing followers. In return, there are

tremendous benefits for the company when they include people who are Deaf in their diverse

workforce. “Leaders who include deaf employees within their recruiting initiatives ultimately

strengthen the overall diversity among the workforce” (Hicks & Gilmore, 2012, p. 1).

Given the increasing focus on and demand for equity and parity in the workplace, it is

important that employers and leaders understand how to promote and support Deaf identity.

Deaf employees offer a unique perspective for innovation in the workplace, but they must

feel comfortable with sharing their experiences. Those who have a strong Deaf identity are

more likely to engage with leaders, be creative in overcoming accessibility challenges, and

advocate for themselves and others who have disabilities (Huyck et al., 2021).

70

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

References

Bauer, T. N., & Erdogan, B. (Eds.). (2016). The Oxford handbook of leader-member

exchange. Oxford University Press.

Boutin, D. L. (2010). Occupational outcomes for vocational rehabilitation consumers with

hearing impairments. Journal of Rehabilitation, 76(3), 40-46.

Brice, P. J. , & Strauss, G. (2022). Deaf adolescents in a hearing world: A review of factors

affecting psychosocial adaptation. Adolescent Health, Medicine, and Therapeutics, 7,

67-76. 1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27186150/

Bradley, C. F., Ebener, D. J., & Geyer, P. D. (2013). Contributors to successful VR outcomes

among non-Latino (Caucasian) and Latino consumers with hearing loss. Journal of

Rehabilitation, 79(2), 24–33. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Contributors-to-

Successful-VR-Outcomes-among-and-Bradley-

Geyer/21e44e7e2a90262434b2887f57925b7a18860372

Cha, S. E., & Roberts, L. M. (2019). Leaveraging minority identities at work: An individual-

level framework of the identity mobilization process. Organization Science, 30(4),

735–760. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2018.1272

Chang, C., & Johnson, R. E. (2010). Not all leader-member exchanges are created equal:

Importance of leader relational identity. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(5), 796–808.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.008

Clegg, C., Unsworth, K., Epitropaki, O., & Parker, G. (2002). Implicating trust in the

innovation process. Journal of Organizational and Occupational Psychology, 75,

409–422. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1348/096317902321119574

Dansereau, F; Graen, G; Haga, W. J. (1975). A Vertical Dyad linkage approach to leadership

in formal organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13 (1):

46–78. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7.

Deluga, R. J. (1998). Leader-member exchange quality and effectiveness ratings: The role of

subordinate-supervisor conscientiousness similarity. Group and Organization

Management, 23, 189–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601198232

Dibben, M. R. (2000). Exploring interpersonal trust in the entrepreneurial venture.

MacMillan.

Erdogan, B., Liden, R. C., & Kraimer, M. L. (2006). Justice and leader-member exchange:

The moderating role of organizational culture. Academy of Management

Journal, 49(2), 395–406. https://doi:10.5465/amj.2006.20786086.

Gertz, E. N. (2003). Dysconscious audism and critical deaf studies: Deaf crit’s analysis of

unconscious internalization of hegemony within the Deaf community. Ann Arbor, MI:

ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/docview/305349414?pq-

origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true

Glickman, C. D. (1993). Renewing America’s schools: A guide for school-based action.

Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers.

Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1998). Relationship-based approach to leadership:

Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years:

Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2),

219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5

Harter, S. (2015). The construction of the self. Guilford Publications.

Hicks, P. & Gilmore, K. (2012). Tapping the Untapped: Including Deaf Employees in

the Workplace. https://www.eremedia.com/tlnt/tapping-the-untapped-including-deaf-

employees-in-the-workforce/.

71

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Houtenville, A., & Kalargyrou, V. (2012). People with disabilities: Employers’ perspectives

on recruitment practices, strategies, and challenges in leisure and hospitality. Cornell

Hospitality Quarterly, 53(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965511424151

Huyck, J. J., Anbuhl, K. L., Buran, B. N., Adler, H. J., Atcherson, S. R., Cakmak, O., Dwyer,

R. T., Eddolls, M., May, F. E., Fraenzer, J-Y., Funkhouser, R., Gagliardini, M.,

Gallun, F. J., Goldsworthy, R. L., Gouin, A., Heng, J., Hight, A. E., Jawadi, Z.,

Kovacic, D., Kumar, R… Steyger, P. S. (2021). Supporting equity and inclusion of

Deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals in professional organizations. Frontiers in

Education,[755457]. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.755457

Jackson, E. M., & Johnson, R. E. (2012). When opposites do (and do not) attract: Interplay of

leader and follower self-identities and its consequences for leader-member exchange.

The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 488–501.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.003

Kauppila, O. (2015). When and how does LMX differentiation influence followers’ work

outcomes? The interactive roles of one’s own LMX status and organizational context.

Personnel Psychology, 69(2), 357–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12110

Kramer, R. M., & Tyller, T. R. (1996). Trust in Organizations: Frontier Theory and

Research. Sage.

LeBlanc, P. M., & Gonzalez-Roma, V. (2012). A team level investigation of relationship

between leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation, affective commitment, and

team performance. Leadership Quarterly, 23, 534–554

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.006

Leigh, I. W. (2009). A lens on deaf identities. New York, NY: Oxford University Press

Lewicki, R. J., McAllister, D. J., & Bies, R. J. (1998). Trust and distrust: New relationships

and realities. Academy of Management Review, 28(3), 438–458.

https://doi.org/10.2307/259288

Lillestø, B. & Sandvin, J. (2014). Limits to vocational inclusion? Disability and the social

democratic conception of labour. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research,

16(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/15017419.2012.735203

Lord, R. G., & Brown, D. J. (2003). Leadership Processes and Follower Self-identity.

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., & Freiberg, S. J. (1999). Understanding the dynamics of

leadership: The role of follower self-concepts in the leader/follower relationship.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 78(3), 167–203.

https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1999.2832

Lord, R., & Maher, K. (1991). Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions

and Processes. Unwin Hyman.

Luft, P. (2000). Communication barriers for deaf employees: Needs assessment and problem-

solving strategies. Work, 12, 51–59. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12441540/

MacKinnon, N. J., & Heise, D. R. (2010). Self, identity, and social institutions. Palgrave

Macmillan.

Marschark, M., Lang, H. G., & Albertini, J. A. (2002). Educating deaf children: From

research to practice. Oxford University Press.

Martin, I. H., Naylor, A. H., Jefferson, J. K., David, N., & Cavazos, A. (2015). A student

perspective on trust and the leader-follower relationship: Implications for leader

development. Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 7(2), 31–42.

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Student-Perspective-on-Trust-and-the-

Implications-Martin-Naylor/84debf7c27dd229fa06c9fc8987260f726f30d8a

72

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4

Massachusetts Commission for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing. (2022). Understanding deaf

culture. https://www.mass.gov/service-details/understanding-deaf-culture.

Maxwell-McCaw, D., & Zea, M. C. (2011). The deaf acculturation scale (DAS):

Development and validation of a 58-item measure. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf

Education, 16(3), 325–342. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enq061

Minnesota Department of Human Services. (2013). Disabilities. http://www.dhs.state.mn.

us/main/idcplg?IdcService=GET_DYNAMIC_CONVERSION&RevisionSelectionM

ethod=LatestReleased&dDocName=id_004566.

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (2021). Quick Statistics

About Hearing. https://www. nidcd. nih. gov/health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing

Northouse, P.G. (2015). Leadership: Theory and Practice. SAGE Publications.

Offermann, L. R., Kennedy, J. K., & Wirtz, P. W. (1994). Implicit leadership theories:

Content, structure, and generalizability. The Leadership Quarterly, 5(1), 43–58.

https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(94)90005-1

Oswald, A. J., Proto, E., & Sgroi, D. (2015). Happiness and productivity. Journal of Labor

Economics, 33(4), 789–822.

Parkes-Harrison, K. (2014). Google is right: We work better when we’re happy.

http://www.futurity.org/work-better-happy/.

Perkins-Dock, R. E., Battle, T. R., Edgerton, J. M., & McNeill, J. N. (2015). A survey of

barriers to employment for individuals who are deaf. JADARA, 49(2).

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol49/iss2/3

Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S., Burt, R. S., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A

cross discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23, 393–404.

https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.926617

Schyns, B., & Day, D. (2010). Critique and review of leader-member exchange theory: Issues

of agreement, consensus, and excellence. European Journal of Work and

Organizational Psychology, 19(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320903024922

Sluss, D. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2007). Relational identity and identification: Defining

ourselves through work relationships. Academy of Management Review, 32(1), 9–32.

https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.23463672

Son, J. (2018). Back-translation as a documentation tool. Translation and Interpreting, 10(2),

89-100. https://doi.org/10.12807/ti.110202.2018.a07

Terras, S. (2012). What every deaf person needs to know.

http://deafcantgetjobs.blogspot.com/2012/11/reasons-employers-wont-hire-deaf-

people.html

Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of

leadership and organizing. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 654–676.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.007

Uhl-Bien, M., & Maslyn, J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager-subordinate relationships:

Components, configurations, and outcomes. Journal of Management, 29(4), 511–532.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(03)00023-0

Walter, G. G., & Dirmyer, R. (2013). The effect of education on the occupational status of

deaf and hard-of-hearing 26-to-64-year-olds. American Annals of the Deaf, 158(1),

41–49. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/508347

Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L.

(2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-

member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational

Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 204213.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002.

73

Hylan and Hawthorne: LMX and Deaf Identity

Published by NSUWorks, 2023

Watson, M. A. (2016). Exploring the experiences of deaf employees working in deaf and

hearing workplaces: A phenomenological study (Doctoral dissertation, Capella

University).

74

JADARA, Vol. 55, No. 3 [2023], Art. 4

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/iss3/4