LP762-L2 week 8

Using the Indigenous Conceptual Framework in Assessment—Part 1: A Native American Perspective

BY PAUL DAUPHINAIS, CAROL ROBINSON-ZAÑARTU, ELVINA CHARLEY, OLIVIA MELROE & SALLY A. BAAS

NASP Communiqué VOLUME 47 ISSUE 1, PP. 1, 24-25

By Paul Dauphinais, Carol Robinson-Zañartu, Elvina Charley, Olivia Melroe & Sally A. Baas

The Indigenous American Subgroup (IAS) of the NASP Multicultural Affairs Committee authored a position statement for practicing school psychology with Indigenous youth, families, and communities in 2012 (NASP, 2012) introducing a graphic (at right) and the intersectionality of the eight-star model against the backdrop of NASP practices, and described its use in a subsequent publication (Charley, Robinson-Zañartu, Melroe, Dauphinais, & Baas, 2015). The current article provides an example of using the framework during the assessment process from the perspective of a Native American school psychologist, using the four points of the red star, which incorporate four aspects of being human, and the four points of the black star, which demonstrate how relationships are constructed. At the center of the star is the yellow circle that represents the sun or, beginning, as a core of one's culture and identity. Within each of these dimensions, the first author, a Native American school psychologist, reflects on each of those eight points, asking himself questions or commenting on what he might do to better understand the Native American child and his mother with whom he is about to interact, often highlighting issues particular to being a Native American school psychologist.

Reflection.  Being a Native American school psychologist is confusing and stressful at times. Being a Native American school psychologist practicing in a Native American community, I question my professional background. But being a child who does not understand that school can be a place of comfort is worse.

The case study used is based on aggregated data from the first author's years of experience as a Native American school psychologist working in several school systems on an Indian reservation. It reflects a typical referral to determine whether the student has a specific learning problem and whether he is in need of special education services. These referrals are especially significant for children of color because there may be unintentional bias in determining eligibility or diagnosis (e.g., Morgan & Farkas, 2016); these decisions and considerations are profound for Indigenous youth being assessed in determining eligibility and placement. We need to get it right. In school year 2014–2015, 17% of all Native American children and youth were served by IDEA with an IEP, the largest percentage of all groups (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017).

Reflection.  I sense pain in myself: pain from thinking, pain from knowing this little person across the table is much like me. He wonders what I want. I sense fear of more failure, fear of not knowing.

The Assessment Process

Assessment is a process, not an event. This is particularly important when a Native American child or youth is referred. Each cultural dimension represented by the eight points of the two overlapping stars of the Indigenous Conceptual Framework guides us through the assessment process. By responding to questions engendered within the context of these eight points (cf., Charley et al., 2015), the questions become a salient means to examine this cross-cultural experience. These questions help clarify and include information that is unique to indigenous youth in this context.

Case Example: John

John is 9 years of age and currently in third grade. He was retained in second grade. He has one older sister and two younger brothers, and lives with his mother, who is employed. His parents were never married but lived together until the youngest child was born. The father visits infrequently. John and his family are tribal members and live on the reservation. He attends the tribal school within the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Indian Education.

John's third grade teacher is concerned that he has not learned to read well enough to be independent when reading in the content subjects (social studies and science), and that he seems to struggle with reading comprehension. She reports that John exhibits some negative behaviors and becomes oppositional when asked to read aloud. He refuses to respond to questions that are presented about reading sections that students are expected to have read independently. Data submitted in support of the referral included state standardized tests that show John's reading at the 20th percentile, with similar science and social studies scores, while math is at the 60th percentile. The school's CBM data for reading (DIBELS) shows significantly lower fluency and recall scores when compared to same-grade students.

John's mother reported that the pregnancy was without any significant problems and full-term. Delivery was unremarkable and developmental milestones were delayed in the onset of walking as well as when John began to talk. His medical history included recurring otitis media at 18 months through 3 years of age; pressure equalization tubes were implanted at age 4.

His mother was able to elaborate on the developmental history, noting that John was a difficult child to manage as a toddler and just didn't seem to learn from consequences when efforts were made to change the behavior. She struggled to get him up and ready to catch the bus for school; he told his mom he does not like school.

Reflection.  Little Person's Mom, what is your child like at home? When is he happy, sad, angry? Is his dad with him? Many of our families struggle—does yours? How? Some of our children's parents drink or do drugs—do you? Did you drink when you were pregnant with your child? How is his health? Little Person's Mom, what do you see in your child? What do you want for your child?

Yellow Circle: Culture and Identity

The rising sun signifies the beginning. Culture and identity reflect the context and environment from which one develops values, assumptions about life, behavior, social norms, and belief systems. This core is the basis for what we believe about wellness, healing, ability and disability, the nature of learning, giftedness, and respect (Charley et al., 2015).

Reflection.  We are who we are: We are the person of our family, we are the person of the community, we are the persons of our tribe. But, who are we? What do I know about us? What should I know? What do I see? Do you see what I see?

John's presence invigorates my own stream of memories and identity consciousness. We are of the same tribe and community. His family name is known to me, but we are not of the same extended family. We share the same heritage, culture, and language background. I think about this shared community context as well as the shared community cultural experiences. I share my own experiences growing up in the community, knowing that John will reciprocate and share information about his family. I inquire about his family. I share about the cultural experiences practiced by some in the community and ask John about his own cultural experiences. Do you go to Pow-Wows? Yes, he does, but does not dance. His family has taken part in some other traditional ceremonies, but I surmise that they are not fully immersed in a traditional lifestyle. I know that this is typical for many of the community members, so John is very similar to other children in this regard and he is a “typical” child in this community relative to background experiences.

The Red Star

The red star represents the four aspects of the human being. Our  spirituality is personal, yet expressive of what we value and illustrative of how we think and act. Our  cognition and learning milieu is contextual to the cultural teachings. The human being learns  social norms and ways of  behaving within an environment that is unique to the family, community, and tribe. The human being is a  physical being; there is pride in physical appearance, our art, our dance. It is intertwined with all aspects of the human being; when one facet suffers, the human being suffers.

Red Star: Spirituality

I may or may not express to John or the family my own views about spirituality, but I respond positively and in an accepting manner to John or his family if they explain their beliefs and traditions. I find a place for this information in the assessment results. This aspect of John and his family is integral to his self-concept and self-image and can be an area of strength upon which to support him in his academic struggles and with peer relationships.

Reflection.  Spirituality is part of who I am and part of who the community members are, living by the values of my tribe given to us by our forebears. They are:

· To cherish knowledge is to know wisdom.

· To know love is to know peace.

· To honor creation is to have respect.

· Bravery is to face the foe with integrity.

· Honesty in facing a situation is to be honorable.

· Humility is to know yourself as a sacred part of the creation.

· Truth is to know all of these things.

Red Star: Cognitive and Academic

I understand through practice and through limited published research studies on assessment with Native Americans that it is important to question the validity of standardized norm-referenced tests, especially with cognitive skills. I question such a practice and ask, Is the test that I might administer valid for the Native Americans, and is the standardization sample sufficiently representative of the Native American population? (APA, 2011; Garcia & Tehee, 2014; NASP, 2010). I have found some tests are not practical because the sample of Native Americans in the norming process is nearly negligible and part of the group labeled  other.

Reflection.  Whose measurement stick? Lost without context. Ways of knowing. Who measures this?

I have made every effort to examine other methods of assessment to better understand how to determine eligibility for special education services with a Native American child like John, without the use of standardized, norm-referenced tests. I take an ipsative approach; that is, I determine how much progress John makes under certain conditions of intervention over a period of time. This focuses on the functional aspects of a disability, rather than possible misrepresentations of the standardized, norm-referenced test results. I recognize that some of the cognitive skills John demonstrates are not part of the repertoire of any current tests, but are valuable data that informs the team of John's ability and strengths. John has culturally embedded knowledge as a facet of his cognitive skills that are obviously attributable to skills gained in the culture of the community.

Reflection.  What is John thinking and feeling? I am scared. Mom said I would be “tested” by the doctor. What does that mean? Am I sick? I don't like school; it is hard. I don't read like the other kids. No one tells us stories like grandpa and grandma. I don't know my numbers. Playing is freedom to learn. Show me how; I will do it. Tell me stories of why things are. I know about stuff. I know how to…. I can figure things out.

I review John's records, which include grades, attendance, and state and national standardized test scores administered in the fall, winter, and spring. I use very simple, but powerful tests of reading skills to determine deficits through the DIBELS probes, which are administered school-wide. There are no norms but grade level expected rates as well as generally accepted growth scores are provided. RTI was implemented to determine through progress monitoring whether John was responsive to interventions. By this process, I was able to assess what interventions indicated growth and what skills John lacked.

Red Star: Social–Behavioral

One aspect of the referral was that John exhibited behaviors that were a concern to the school. I understand the community culture, and may be able to determine what behaviors are defined by cultural practice and what is unacceptable in both mainstream and this Native American community.

John has a history of “oppositional behaviors” as noted in the developmental history and reported by the referring teacher. He is reported to talk back and not listen when asked to do things and does not seem to learn from incentives for positive behaviors or consequences of negative behaviors. I attempt to sort out what may determine such responses from John.

Reflection.  Who are we? Who came before us; did they suffer? What sacrifices did they make for us to have what we have today? What suffering did they endure to save our community? They were pushed away from their land—from “home.” As children, they were taken away with other children from family. No parents, only matrons and prefects. Away from home, learning without meaning—Why? Who are we now? Sometimes we hurt each other. Sometimes we hurt our children. What is that like to be hurt and not know it? Is this little person across from me hurt—does he suffer?

I have inquired about his mother's drinking behavior during her pregnancy with John and found that she did drink during portions of the pregnancy. In addition, John's father left the family when John was four years of age. John has been struggling with reading decoding and comprehension for several years. I can hypothesize that John's behaviors might be explained partially by his mother's ingestion of alcohol during pregnancy (possible alcohol related neurodevelopmental disorders), his separation from his father, and frustration with academic skills. Although I do not believe there are any cultural differences that would engender such oppositional behaviors that occur both at school and at home, the root cause might be the effects of intergenerational trauma. John's family has experienced many events that may be signs of what some have identified as cross-generational trauma. Native Americans’ histories include extermination, taking of land, and attempts at assimilation by forcible removal of children from their families and cultures with the intent to “kill the Indian, [and] save the man.” With the loss of traditional parenting and healing practices, we became less responsive to family and less resilient. Recent research has provided evidence that past generations’ exposure to trauma can form a pathway to future generations that puts them at risk for mental health problems (Brave Heart, Chase, Elkins, & Altschul, 2011).

What resources should I pursue to strengthen John's resilience? I attempt to find John's strengths despite his setbacks and the family dynamics. The cultural pieces may be used to bolster these strengths and provide John the grounding necessary to base a change in behavior.

Reflection.  Sociality: interconnectedness; power in community; context for learning; sharing values. Behavioral: in the context of family, peers, school, community, and the outside world.

Red Star: Physical

I know from personal experience that significant health problems exist in most Native American communities, and John may exhibit some of these problems. Because there are significant alcohol, drug, and smoking excesses in many Native American communities, I consider what issues might be applicable to John. John's mother did ingest alcohol during pregnancy; I know that any amount of alcohol has a significant impact on the fetus and subsequently, the newborn. Obtaining this information can be a delicate endeavor, especially if the mother feels some guilt for having done so. I am also aware of the high incidences of otitis media among Native children (Lee, 2014; McShane & Plas, 1982) that can have significant effects on hearing and language acquisition. I found that the medical report indicated John's history of otitis media at an early age and implantation of pressure equalization tubes. I could ask John's mother to clarify and provide more specific information about language delays.

Reflection.  What is John thinking and feeling? If I answer all your questions, will I get better? Would I be happy in school again? Will I learn? Will I be happy at home again?

So, this little person wants to get better and to be better. I can tell him that we, as Native Americans, are resilient: We get better; we bounce back. We are poor, but we have family and community. We have culture: There are important things we do that our grandparents did; how we think about things. We learn about our culture more and more. We all ask: How can we learn more? What does our culture teach us? Is our culture important to school?

Part 2 of this article will focus on the black star, building a relationship that is meaningful and respectful to John as a human being, his family, community, and tribe. As John completes the assessment, the special education team will make a determination based, in part, on the Native American school psychologist's findings.

References

American Psychological Association. (2011).  Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, Amended June 1, 2010). Washington, DC: Author.

Brave Heart, M. Y. H., Chase, J., Elkins, J., & Altschul, D. B. (2011). Historical trauma among indigenous peoples of the Americas: Concepts, research, and clinical considerations.  Journal of Psychoactive Drugs,  43(4), 282–290. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2011.628913

Charley, E., Robinson-Zañartu, C., Melroe, O., Dauphinais, P., & Baas, S. A. (2015, Dec). Using the NASP framework for effective practice with indigenous youth, families, and communities.  Communiqué  44(4), 1, 20.

Garcia, M. A., & Teehee, M. (2014).  Commentary on the American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Albuquerque, NM: The Society of Indian Psychologists.

Lee, T. H. (2014, Dec). Natives prone to chronic ear infections, which endanger hearing.  Indian Country Today. Retrieved from  https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/culture/health-wellness/natives-prone-to-chronic-ear-infections-which-endanger-hearing

McShane, D. A., & Plas, J. M. (1982). Otitis media and American Indians: Prevalence, etiology, psychoeducational consequences, prevention and intervention. In S. Manson (Ed.),  New directions in prevention among American Indian and Alaskan Native communities. Portland, OR: Oregon Health Sciences University Press.

Morgan, P. L., & Farkas, G. (2016, March/April). Evidence of minority under-representation in special education and its implications for school psychologists.  Communiqué,  44(6), 1, 30–33.

National Association of School Psychologists. (2012). Effective service delivery for indigenous children and youth [position statement]. Bethesda, MD: Author. Retrieved from  https://www.nasponline.org/x26819.xml

National Association of School Psychologists (2010).  Principles for professional ethics. Retrieved from  https:/www.nasponline.org/standards-and-certification/professional-ethics

National Center for Education Statistics. (2017, May). The condition of education: Children and youth with disabilities. Retrieved from  https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp

P aul D auphinais is a retired school psychologist in Bottineau, North Dakota. C arol R obinson-Z añartu is Professor Emerita, Department Of Counseling and School Psychology at San Diego State University, where she directs the Native American Scholars and Collaborators Projects. E lvina C harley (D iné) is a school psychologist in the Kayenta Unified School District in Arizona and is cochair of the Indigenous Work Group of the NASP Multicultural Affairs Committee. O livia M elroe is a professor and director of the school psychology graduate program at Minnesota State University-Moorhead. S ally A. B aas, EdD, is a professor and program director, Southeast Asian Teacher Program, Hmong Culture and Language Program, Concordia University, St. Paul, Minnesota

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