Dissertation chapter 1

Police brutality refers to the excessive use of force by law enforcement agents resulting in physical injury/harm, trauma, or death (Amnesty International, 2023). It constitutes various human rights violations by law enforcement agents, including but not limited to physical abuse, racial abuse, torture, and extrajudicial killings. In the broader scope, police brutality and police violence can be used interchangeably, constituting misconduct by the agents and violation of the code of ethics, requiring professionalism in practice and servitude to all with utmost accountability. Police violence is a major causative factor of death among American youth and young men; a 2019 study shows the likelihood of being killed by a law enforcement agent is 1 in 2000 for males and 1 in 33000 for females (Edwards et al., 2019). The group aged 20 to 35 is the most vulnerable to police violence and associated adverse outcomes such as injuries and death (Edwards et al., 2019).

Over the recent years, police brutality has remained a core mainstream political issue affecting all populations. However, the youth males and people of color are most vulnerable to police brutality and the likelihood of being killed by police compared to their white peers (Edwards et al., 2019). Besides, the recent police-perpetrated killings, such as the 2020 murder of George Floyd and the 2014 murder of Michael Brown in the United States, show persistent misconduct by the police (Amnesty International, 2023). Besides, statistics of the police violence victims show that despite African Americans constituting 13 percent of the entire population, they comprised 24% of the people murdered by law enforcement agents. Exploring this study is fundamental to enhancing accountability among the police and crucial to address the disproportionate effects of police brutality by race. Failure to address these concerns could further lead to reduced transparency in the practice of officers and cause adverse police-public relations. The central focus of this chapter is to provide the background, problem, and purpose statement of the study alongside the theoretical foundation, framework, nature, scope, and significance.

Studies on police brutality and its impacts on the victims' families are increasingly growing and have become significant in recent years following the growing awareness of police violence, especially against minority communities (Wu et al., 2023). This issue remains a center of interest following the numerous police-perpetrated deaths, including the murder of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and Eric Garner by police officers (Wu et al., 2023). Police brutality is a historically existing political issue affecting all populations in the United States. Studies estimate a high prevalence of police-perpetrated deaths at almost 30,800 deaths between 1980 and 2018. Nevertheless, consistent evidence confirms that police brutality in the United States disproportionately affects people of color compared to their white counterparts, confirming the existence of systemic racism in policing or law enforcement (GBD 2019 Police Violence U.S. Subnational Collaborators, 2021).

Schwartz (2020) confirms that police brutality is an ever-growing problem in the United States. There were approximately 996 fatal shootings by law enforcement agencies in 2018, which increased to 1004 in 2019, and by June 2020, the record had peaked at 30 shootings per 30 million population. Besides, the findings confirm the existing racial disparities in police violence whereby African Americans and other people of color are more likely to be targeted by police violence and experience the related impacts than their white counterparts (Schwartz, 2020). Additionally, sufficient evidence affirms the emotional, economic, and psychological impacts of police brutality on the victims' families. Lee and Robinson (2019) confirm that the families of police violence victims experience challenges dealing with grief, experience trauma, and associated mental health consequences, including depression, anxiety, etc. Alang et al. (2017) ascertain that victim of police violence and their families experience high risks of adverse health outcomes associated with fatal injuries, loss, and grief, physiological responses leading to morbidity, and psychological effects such as stress. Besides, families experience financial strain with legal, medical, and funeral expenses arising from police-perpetrated violence (Alang et al., 2017).

Regardless of vast sources exploring the aspects of police brutality, there is a limited exploration of the factors influencing the decision by law enforcement agents to use excessive force. Although it is known that police brutality is increasingly rising with time, this research will seek to address a gap in the factors or the motivation of police officers to use excessive force on civilians. Exploring these factors would reveal the mediators between the antecedents (brutality) and consequences (adverse outcomes). Studies such as Alang et al. (2017) and Lee and Robinson (2019) confirm that the families of the victims of police brutality experience adverse outcomes, including financial strain to address the bills and expenses and emotional and psychological effects. However, there is limited research exploring how the experiences of the victims’ families affect their perception of the police or law enforcement agents. This study will fill the gap on the influence that the experiences of the victims’ families have on their perceptions or views about police— considering the evidence that police brutality occurs disproportionately in different races. This study will expand this section to explore the role of race in police violence or brutality.

This study is necessary to enhance awareness of the policy brutality issue and its impacts on the victims’ families to advance the public understanding of the adverse outcomes of police brutality. Therefore, this study will form the preliminary phase of promoting systemic change and reforms. Notably, this study is relevant to form an integral part of policy support and decision-making. Exploring the physical, emotional, and financial harm from police brutality would be core to promoting justice and compensation for the victims. This study is needed to provide insights into the support the victims’ families require, including but not limited to counseling services, legal assistance, and financial support. Besides, it is necessary to promote reforms in policing to enhance the accountability of law enforcement agencies, improve ethics-based police training and promote community policing initiatives to advance police-public relations positively.

The problem is that police brutality is a pervasive issue associated with physical harm, adverse psychological outcomes, or even death due to the excessive use of force by police officers or law enforcement agents. Police brutality is a public health issue associated with a high risk of death and injury, reduced safety, and the possibility of survival (i.e., survivability) (Obasogie & Newman, 2017). Obasogie and Newman (2017) confirm police brutality as an outcome of the system's weaknesses or failures to establish the minimum protections to overcome the epidemic of police violence based on the force policies guaranteeing officers to use it against civilians. Edwards et al. (2019) affirm that police brutality is one of the leading causes of death in the United States, especially the male youth (aged between 25 to 35 years).

With the efforts to address racial discrimination and inequalities in the United States, correcting this problem would require system-based solutions. Edwards et al. (2019) and Obasogie and Newman (2017) affirm that police brutality is a racialized problem, affecting people of color more than other races. At least 1 out of 1000 black men in the United States is at high risk of murder by law enforcement agents. Racially, people of color (i.e., Blacks, Latinos, American Indians, or Natives, etc.) are vulnerable to police-perpetrated murder compared to their white counterparts (Edwards et al., 2019). The racialized nature of police brutality shows the existence of systemic racism and disparities, which form the ground for social justice and societal change by addressing system-level inadequacies.

The purpose of this study is to explore police brutality and its impacts on the victims' families. Police brutality is the phenomenon of interest in this paper, crucial to understanding the background of police brutality or violence, the mediating factors, and the overall impacts of this issue. This study will adopt a constructivist research paradigm, which is crucial to forming the social and cultural contexts that shape an individual's experiences. In this context of police brutality and the purpose of exploring the phenomenon of police violence, the constructivism paradigm will enhance the exploration of how social and cultural factors such as race, class, and ethnicity shape the victims' families' experiences. This would form the ground for exploring how racial biases, systemic inequalities, and public-police relations dictate the behavior and practices of the police (Obasogie & Newman, 2017). With the intent to explore a phenomenon (i.e., police violence) and subjective experiences with victims and their families, this study will adopt a qualitative research methodology in gathering evidence.

i. What drives police to use excessive force?

ii. How has the family experience impacted their perception of the police? 

iii. How does race play a critical role in police brutality?

Three core theories of interest in this study (i.e., the social learning theory, critical race theory, and social identity theory) provide the theoretical foundation for exploring police violence, the racial aspect of the issue, and perceptions among the victims. The social learning theory is the central theory of interest, confirming that individuals learn and exhibit behaviors through observation and modeling. Albert Bandura first coined the social learning theory in 1963 to extend the exploration of conventional behaviorist theories. According to this theory in his book “Social learning and personality development,” social learning occurs through the interrelation of environmental, personal, and behavioral factors (Bandura & Walters, 1963). The core proposition of the social learning theory is that human behavior results as an outcome of the interplay between environmental, cognitive, and behavioral factors. Therefore, according to Bandura’s theory of social learning, learning occurs by observing and imitating (i.e., modeling) other people’s behavior and the consequences of their actions. Furthermore, cognitive, and emotional factors, including perceptions and attitudes, contribute to the whole learning process. Another fundamental proposition of the social learning theory is that behavior is reinforced or motivated by social reinforcements, and the social and cultural contexts influence an individual’s learning and behavior (Bandura & Walters, 1963).

In the context of the issue (i.e., police violence) addressed in this study, Bandura’s social learning theory provides a fundamental foundation for understanding what motivates law enforcement agents to violate human rights (Onwunyirimadu, 2022). This theory will form the background for exploring how the police officer embraces violent behavior through factors such as media portrayal of violent policing, learning through other officers using excessive force or social reinforcement like positive feedback, etc. (Onwunyirimadu, 2022). Bandura’s social learning theory will help answer the first research question on driving factors to police brutality by exploring how officers learn aggressive behaviors through observation, imitation, or reinforcement. 

The critical race theory will also form the theoretical foundation of this theory, crucial in exploring how race and racism shape social structures and power dynamics. Critical race theory (CRT) emerged in the United States in the late 1970s and early 80s as a response to the limitations of the traditional approaches in civil rights to address racism. It is traceable to the legal scholars and activists who sought to establish why the traditional civil rights strategies failed to achieve positive change for marginalized communities. Matsuda et al.'s 1993 book "Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment" is one of the earliest influential sources in developing critical race theory (CRT). One of the fundamental propositions in the CRT is that racism is not just an individual problem, but an issue entrenched in the societies' social structures and institutions. Furthermore, CRT proposes that the system and social structures often perpetuate and reinforce racism instead of addressing it. A core proposition under CRT is that racism is deep-rooted in the social, legal, and political structures which shape the experiences of minority communities (Matsuda et al., 1993). 

In the context of police brutality, the critical race theory will be useful in identifying the contribution of racial biases and stereotypes on the disproportionate use of excessive force among people of color, especially African American, and the impacts of police violence on these communities (Angus & Crichlow, 2018). CRT will be relevant to answering the third question on the role of race in police brutality to examine the discriminatory harassment and brutality against people of color by police. This theory will be integral to providing a background on racially motivated violence and misconduct by law enforcement agents (Angus & Crichlow, 2018).

The social identity theory (SIT) will form the third theory of interest to guide the theoretical foundation of this study, revealing how people form the sense of their self and identity. SIT was founded by Tajfel and his colleague, coined in the resources "The achievement of inter-group differentiation" in 1978 and "An integrative theory of inter-group conflict" in 1979. The theorists sought to understand the process of forming and maintaining an identity and how such identity influences the individual's behaviors and relations (Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). A major proposition in this theory is that people form identity through group membership, influencing their personal feelings and perceptions towards their members. Furthermore, an individual's social identity depends on the context, and they strive to differentiate their groups from others, steering intergroup discrimination and conflicts.

In the context of police brutality and its impacts on the victims' families, the social identity theory could be fundamental to exploring how law enforcement agents identify themselves as law defenders and the victims' families as marginalized groups. This theory will form the background for answering the second research question on how families' experiences with police brutality impact their perception. SIT will be integral to exploring how victims' families create a sense of identity and how such experiences with police violence shape their perceptions and sense of identity and belonging (Oliveira & Murphy, 2014). These three theories are fundamental in the qualitative approach of this research as they provide an opportunity to explore the subjective factors contributing to police brutality and subjective experiences with police-perpetrated violence.

A phenomenological research design is selected for this study, considering the effectiveness of this design in providing an in-depth account of people's experiences. Notably, a phenomenological design is integral for this study for exploring subjective experiences, encounters, and individual perspectives to enhance an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon of interest (Sholokhova et al., 2022). Police brutality is a highly emotional and traumatic occurrence that can have long-term and profound consequences for victims' families, including psychological distress, trauma, and skepticism of law enforcement. A phenomenological design allows researchers to delve deeply into these experiences, gaining a better understanding of how people make sense of and cope with traumatic events.

Furthermore, considering the sensitivity of the police violence issue, research bias and preconceptions of predispositions are common problems that would impact the credibility of the overall outcomes. As a result, a phenomenological design is selected for this study as it allows the researcher to set aside the individual preconceived biases and perceptions as they approach the subjects open-mindedly and avoid making assumptions regarding their experiences and viewpoints (Sholokhova et al., 2022). Overall, this design allows for examining the significance and value of these experiences for the persons involved, providing insightful information that can be used to inform practices and policies aimed at combating police brutality and assisting victims' families.

The key concept or phenomenon explored in this study is police brutality and its impact on victims' families. Notably, the three areas of interest include the motivating factors that drive police to use excessive force against unharmed civilians, the role of race on such motivations, and the impacts such experiences have on victim families' perception of law enforcement. This study will embrace a qualitative methodology; the sample will be recruited using purposive sampling for its cost-effectiveness and considering there are limited primary sources to contribute to this study due to its traumatic nature. The data will be collected using semi-structured interviews, allowing the subjects to share their perceptions, subjective experiences, and in-depth explanations of police violence. The interviews will be audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed thematically to establish common patterns and themes of the people's experiences and perceptions of police brutality. Afterward, the findings will be presented narratively for a comprehensive and rich account of police brutality and its impacts on the victims' families.

Accountability: The obligation of law enforcement officers to account for their actions and decisions and be answerable for any violations of the law or agency policy (Krinsky & Phares, 2019).

Community policing: A law enforcement tactic that emphasizes the development of positive public-police relations with the communities they serve, as well as the involvement of community members in identifying and resolving public safety issues (Frazer et al., 2018). 

Culture: The set of shared values, beliefs, and behaviors that shape police officers' attitudes and actions toward the public (Davis, 2019).

Implicit bias: Unconscious perceptions or preconceptions that influence a person's attitude, behavior, and judgment, frequently based on social categories such as race or gender (Davis, 2019).

Misconduct: Behavior by law enforcement agents that violates ethical or legal standards, including but not limited to falsifying evidence, use of excessively unreasonable force, prejudice, or discrimination (Frazer et al., 2018).     

Police brutality: It refers to the excessive use and unreasonable force by law enforcement agents toward unarmed civilians in a police-public interaction (Frazer et al., 2018). 

Racial profiling: It is the practice of law enforcement agents targeting persons based on their race, ethnicity, and nation of origin rather than the individual's suspected criminal behavior (Davis, 2019).  

Restorative justice: A strategy for fair treatment that focuses on repairing injury and reconstruction of relationships between victims, offenders, and the community rather than solely punishing offenders (Frazer et al., 2018).

Use of force: A police officer uses physical coercion or violence in a given scenario, from verbal commands to lethal force (Davis, 2019).

Victim advocacy: The practice of providing crime victims and their families with support, resources, and services such as emotional support, legal assistance, and referrals to community resources (Krinsky & Phares, 2019).

Victims' families: This refers to the individuals directly impacted by police brutality, including the relatives and family members of those murdered, injured, or harmed otherwise by the police (Krinsky & Phares, 2019).

A first assumption for this study is that the participants will express the utmost willingness to discuss their experiences of police brutality as victims of violence or witness to violence (especially for the agents recruited in this study). This assumption is necessary for the context of this study, considering that the participants might be uncomfortable sharing their experiences or fear retaliation for their speaking out.

Secondly, this paper assumes that the information provided by the participants is honest and accurate about the individual's experiences with police violence. The recruits can provide incomplete or inaccurate information, depending on the factors such as memory recall, social desirability bias, or fear of retribution/reprisal. This second assumption is core to enhancing the credibility of the information provided in this study.

The third assumption in this research is that the interpretation of the data will correctly reflect the participant's experiences. This assumption is fundamental for this study, considering that the researcher's personal bias and preconceptions of police brutality can influence the interpretation of data. Overall, this assumption shields the whole research from biases, enhancing the credibility and trustworthiness of the study outcomes.

Lastly, the fourth assumption is that the participants have a clear and full understanding of what constitutes police violence or brutality, including using unreasonable force. This assumption acknowledges that police brutality could be a relative experience, influencing responses to individual experiences. These four core assumptions are integral to this study as they acknowledge the possible limitations, highlighting the need for maintaining ethical practices throughout the research process.

This study will explore two core areas; the first relates to police brutality, and the second is its impact on the victim’s families. Furthermore, regarding police brutality, this research will examine the factors driving law enforcement agents to use excessive force against unarmed civilians. The focus of this subsection will examine the motivations and ways police officers learn to use excessive force, relying on Bandura’s social learning theory. This focus will be integral to providing this research with the motivating factors of police violence to address the problem from the root. In exploring police brutality, this paper will also focus on the racial aspect of police violence. This focus is fundamental to establishing the racial prejudices/biases and discrimination that trigger the disproportionate use of force by police officers. Furthermore, this focus will also help explore the aspects of racial profiling and discrimination by law enforcement agents against people of specific ethnic groups or races. It is essential to acknowledge that this study will further explore the impacts of police brutality, specifically on the victim’s families in the United States, considering this issue is prevalent in the selected setting.

The study will include the victim’s families who have experienced or been affected by police brutality and the law enforcement agents who have witnessed the incidents of police violence. Notably, the study will exclude the experiences of the victim’s families who have not reported or publicized their experience with police violence. The theories or frameworks, such as broken windows theory or institutional racism that relate to the issue of police brutality will not be incorporated into the study or investigated. This research will be transferable within the settings in the United States, considering the possible homogeneity of practices and commonality within the systems across the states. However, considering the differences in the social and cultural factors that influence different perceptions and experiences of police violence, this study may not be transferable to other countries and regions.

It is essential to acknowledge that this paper would experience a dependability issue, entailing the challenge of ensuring consistency and reliability throughout the research. The small sample size and subjectivity of the phenomenological research would make the findings of this study not transferable to other settings, contexts, and populations. Recruitment bias is another potential problem with the study due to the reliance on purposive sampling. Using the purposive sampling technique, the participants who are willing and able to share their perceptions and experiences with police brutality might be overrepresented.

Thus, to ensure the credibility of this research, these limitations can be addressed in numerous ways. For example, to overcome recruitment bias, this study recruits a sample from diverse backgrounds and with different experiences. In other studies, it can be addressed by integrating probabilistic sampling techniques such as simple random sampling to ensure objectivity in sample selection. Additionally, addressing the subjectivity issue would require the researcher to engage in reflexive practices in the study, such as bracketing personal biases and assumptions and seeking peer feedback on the research. It is essential to accurately document the procedures and decisions within the research and integrate member checking to enhance the accuracy and credibility for improved dependability and transferability of the findings (Birt et al., 2016).

This study has important implications for law enforcement, social work, and mental health practice. One of the fundamental implications of this research is that it can provide a background for promoting accountability and positive police-public relations. For example, the findings from this study will be fundamental to reorganizing the systems in law enforcement agencies to embrace public-centric strategies and cultivate an environment for the agents that discourages rather than reinforces police-perpetrated murders or police brutality. Policymakers can use these study findings to develop policies that address police violence and promote accountability by establishing ethics-guided systems. Understanding the impact of police brutality on victims' families allows law enforcement agencies to develop policies and procedures that are more responsive to the needs of victims' families. For example, agencies can create training programs to help officers understand and fulfill the demands of victims' families. Furthermore, the study's findings can help law enforcement departments establish more efficient methods of investigating and responding to accusations of police violence.

Besides, the research findings in this study are fundamental for restorative justice initiatives and enhance positive public perceptions about the police by implementing evidence-based policies and initiatives that promote justice. The findings of this study can also be used by social workers and mental health providers to support better families affected by police brutality and to develop interventions to mitigate the detrimental effect of this experience on families. Social workers and mental health professionals can use the study's findings to develop interventions that address victims' families' emotional and psychological needs. Social workers can offer to counsel to families who have been affected by police brutality, while psychologists can help traumatized families.

This study has the potential to advance social learning theory by investigating how people learn and develop attitudes and behaviors toward law enforcement and police brutality. The study can help researchers gain a better understanding of the factors that led police to use excessive force, as well as the effects that these acts have on victims' families. Furthermore, understanding these factors would be integral to exploring the motivations (i.e., social reinforcements), the contribution of the environmental factors, and the driving motives of the law enforcement agents using excessive force. This understanding of the motivating factors can help researchers establish theories to explain the relationship between police officers and victims' families and recommend policies and evidence-based interventions to avert police brutality.

The findings of this study will help us better understand how police brutality affects victims' families' attitudes and beliefs about law enforcement. This is an opportunity to explore how individual experiences dictate their perceptions regarding law enforcement agencies. This study will be crucial to advance the social identity theory, establishing how police violence could trigger intergroup conflicts and identity crises, which could elicit different and unfavorable perceptions between the public and police officers. Furthermore, this research can help to develop a more insightful comprehension of the connection between race and police brutality. The findings can assist researchers and practitioners in a greater understanding of how race interacts with other variables that influence the likelihood of police misconduct. This study's outcomes will provide an opportunity to expand the aspects of critical race theory in the context of police brutality. It will help identify how systemic racism and bias in law enforcement influences racially perpetrated police violence and how it triggers prejudiced perceptions. Overall, the research findings will help establish a connection between race, ethnicity, and police brutality, which is crucial to promote policies and interventions that address racial bias, and profiling in law enforcement.

This study's findings will be core to raising awareness about police brutality and its impacts on the families of the victims and the larger community. Enhancing public awareness is core to heightening public concerns for reforms and accountability within law enforcement agencies. It will shed light on the public ways police brutality continually perpetuates systemic oppression and inequities. This study can help develop policies and interventions that promote the worth, dignity, and development of people and communities affected by police brutality by better understanding the experiences of victims' families.

This study's findings are fundamental to promoting positive social change. For example, this research can help the larger social justice movement address systemic racism and bias in law enforcement while also promoting accountability and transparency in the practices of the police. Furthermore, these findings provide comprehensive insights into the driving forces for police officers to use excessive force, as well as t impact of police brutality on victims' families. Based on these assertions, policymakers can promote positive social change by identifying and developing effective systems for investigating and addressing accusations of police violence and implementing interventions to support victims' families.

This research can help to promote positive social change by expanding our comprehension of the intricate relationships between law enforcement, victims' families, and broader societal structures. This study can provide insight into how experiences are shaped by broader social, cultural, and historical factors by examining the impact of police brutality through a social learning lens. This understanding can guide efforts to promote more equitable and just policies and practices and help promote more appropriate interventions to address systemic racism and bias in law enforcement. Overall, by enhancing the understanding of police brutality and its impacts on victims' families, it is possible to promote positive social change by establishing evidence-based policies and interventions for addressing the core issue and enhancing accounting in law enforcement agencies.

This chapter focused on investigating police brutality and its impact on victims' families. The problem statement emphasized the prevalence of police brutality, particularly in communities of color, and the scarcity of research on the impact of police brutality on victims' families. The social learning theory, critical race theory, and social identity theory were identified as the theoretical foundation for investigating the research questions. These questions included understanding the drivers of police brutality, the impact of police brutality on victims' families, and the role of race in police brutality.

A phenomenological approach was chosen for the research design, which will involve data collection through in-depth interviews with victims' families affected by police brutality. Police brutality, excessive force, trauma, and systemic oppression were the key concepts and constructs defined. The study's importance in advancing practice, theory, and positive social change was discussed. The study's potential contributions include raising awareness of the consequences of police brutality, informing evidence-based policies and interventions, and promoting a more comprehensive understanding of the complex relationships between law enforcement, victims' families, and larger societal structures.

References