U.S. DIPLOMACY

DIPFORCESFACTORSFUNCTIONSWITHNOTESWeek12.pptx

Home >History homework help >U.S. DIPLOMACY

U.S. Diplomatic History Diplomacy-Forces, Factors, and Functions

James R. Corcoran, Ph.D.

Page 1: Welcome to U. S. Diplomatic History. In this course we are going to be looking at the history of American diplomacy from the period of the American revolution right up to the present time. This introductory lesson is about forces, factors and functions of U. S. Diplomatic history.

FUNDAMENTAL US FOREIGN POLICIES

ISOLATION

FREEDOM OF THE SEAS

MONROE DOCTRINE

PAN-AMERICANISM

OPEN DOOR

PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES

Page 2: We begin with fundamentals of U. S. Foreign policies. Over the period of a long history, we have toward to a general policy of Isolation. This is not necessarily due to policy deliberations alone, but also to our geographic location, bounded on either side by vast oceans, which have tended to protect us from foreign incursion. Bounded on the north and the south by relatively non-injurious nations: Canada and Mexico. From the very beginning, the united states focused on freedom of the Seas. This can be seen, for example, in our earliest operations at sea during the revolution against the British. We had mainly civilian ships before we actually formed the navy. Later we see president Jefferson's dispatch of U. S. Navy and U. S. Marine forces to the Mediterranean to protect our ships from raids by the Barbary pirates at Tripoli. Following that, in the 1800s President Monroe developed the Monroe Doctrine basically to preclude European interference in affairs in the western hemisphere: North America, Central America and South America. That tied directly to a general understanding of a policy of Pan-Americanism where we cooperate and work together as much as possible and in as many ways as possible with the various nations of the Americas. At the same time we maintained an Open Door policy which means that we are open to interaction and relations with various nations around the world and we seek for those nations to be open to us. America now subscribes, and has subscribed generally to Peaceful Settlements Of Disputes.

FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION

WEAK NEIGHBORS

ROOM FOR EXPANSION

“HYPHENATED” AMERICANS

A MERCANTILE AND INDUSTRIAL PEOPLE

A DEMOCRACY

PRIMACY OF DOMESTIC POLITICS

EUROPE’S DISTRESSES

In view of all of the above, on page 3 are the Fundamental Factors that lead into the formulation of U. S. Foreign Policies . Again, the Geographical Position with vast oceans on either side and bounded on the north by a friendly country – Canada, and on the south by a country that posed no relative threat to the United States – Mexico. This has been beneficial to us, Weak Neighbors – weak from the standpoint that they could not mount any threatening actions against the United States. Traditionally, in our history, which needs to be taken into account, is the Room For Expansion of the United States. We have, from the beginning, plenty of room for expansion but then in the 1800s we moved beyond the continent to overseas, which we will talk about eventually; the taking of the Philippine Islands as a territory, along with Guam as a territory, and Puerto Rico and Samoa and other places overseas. That basically eliminated our room for expansion. We traditionally have had “Hyphenated” Americans: Japanese-Americans, Chinese-Americans, Irish-Americans. This has really given America a great deal of benefit and the activity of bringing people of other cultures, other nations, other backgrounds into the mix within America has been one of the strong points of the United States since its very beginning. We have been A Mercantile And Industrial People we have always been, from the beginning, very active in trade and the most effective in the industrial revolution and building an industrial base that, even today, is predominate among world nations. All that based on A Democracy which ascribes to democratic principles as made clear in the Declaration of Independence and in the creation of the Constitution. In the centuries since our founding the Primacy Of Domestic Politics usually has occupied our main attention and domestic politics has a great deal to do with the way U. S. Foreign Policy is formulated. Even up to today, but from the beginning and during revolutionary times and after, Europe’s Distresses have meant that America, for the most part, benefits from when Europe has problems. We become more closely tied with Europe and these distresses work on us both positively and negatively, depending on how we play it.

CLAUSEWITZ’S REMARKABLE TRINITY

THE MAINTENANCE OF A VIABLE BALANCE BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT, THE PEOPLE, AND THE MILITARY.

GOVERNMENT

PEOPLE

MILITARY

MILITARY POLICY SERVES FOREIGN POLICY

Page 4. It goes without saying that military policy, in the United States, serves foreign policy. This is a vey important factor. If you look at Clausewitz's principle of Policy, Violence and Chance which plays out in the form of People, Government and Military, one of the key principles it states is that in civilian control over the military, the civilians make the policy and then military, following on that, carries out its policy.

THE EXECUTIVE & FOREIGN AFFAIRS

TREATIES

SEVER DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS

RECOGNIZE NEW GOVERNMENTS

NOMINATE AMBASSADORS

DENOUNCE TREATIES

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF

Page 5 The Executive And Foreign Affairs. When we say executive we mean the executive branch of government. The three branches: the executive (the president), the legislative (congress) and judicial (the Supreme Court, and lower courts). The executive branch includes the president, and all the departments and agencies of the U. S. government. The president has the power to make Treaties and it must be kept in mind that treaties must be ratified by the congress (legislative). The president has the power to Sever Diplomatic Relations; to Recognize New Governments when they come into being, and to Nominate Ambassadors. this is a very important point, the U. S. ambassador to each nation around the world is the direct representative of the president of the United States. The ambassador, when he, or she, is appointed by the president, is confirmed by the Senate (the upper house of the congress). Then he/she has a letter, a personal letter from the president of the United States giving him/her the power over U.S. organizations and activities in the country in which he/she is stationed. Therefore, the ambassadors, around the world, represent the president of the United States directly. The executive can Denounce Treaties and he can actually withdraw from treaties. A good example is President Carter’s withdrawal from the Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic Of Taiwan - China in 1979. After he had done that, congress (legislative), not being content with an ally being ignored for the purpose of establishing formal diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China – China-Mainland, the congress came up with the Taiwan Relations Act which allows for continued economic and cultural relations with Taiwan in the absence of formal diplomatic relations and also allows for the continued sale of military weaponry and equipment to Taiwan as the United States sees the extent necessary to have Taiwan defend itself and defend its national security. There is a clause in the Taiwan Relation’s Act which allows for the United States to come to the assistance of Taiwan in the case its national security is threatened, following an agreement between the president and the congress. That is a good example of the president’s power to denounce treaties. And, finally, we know that the president, according to the constitution of the United States, Section 108, is the COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF of the forces of the United States.

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF

Page 6: The Commander-In-Chief has at his disposal many different organizations. This is an older chart, but it is a chart that lays out very well the connection the President, Secretary of Defense, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs , Vice Chairman and the National Security Advisor in the White House and the National Security Council which is formed by the Vice President, Secretary of State, and when this chart was made, and we will be talking about the changes that have been made since then, especially since 911, here it says the Director of Central Intelligence (since 9/11 the Director of National Intelligence). And, this chart again primarily is to just give you an idea of the way America generally has operated.

COMMANDER-IN CHIEF

Lt-Rt: General Colin Powell, James Baker, Dick Cheney, Vice President Quayle, Brent Scowcroft, President Bush, Paul Wolfowitz

Page 7: You see here a meeting of some of these team advisors to the President. This meeting took place before the United States actually kicked off Desert Shield and Desert Storm in 1991. I only show this to give you a visual example of how this interaction would take place. On the left you have General Colin Powell, who was at that time Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, by the way he was the first African-American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and later in the 2nd Bush Administration (George W. Bush), as we will talk about, he was the Secretary of State. He was the first African-American Secretary of State also. Next to him you have the Secretary of State, in the 1990s, James Baker, a former Marine Corps Officer who served as a Junior Officer for four years in the Marine Corps and then went to law school and later played various roles in government up to this point in time. His service as Secretary of State is one that I particularly focus on because of the importance of what he had done during this period of time, particularly the politics of diplomacy which you should look into very carefully in this course and other classes related to this course. Next we have, of course, Secretary of Defense under the first bush administration, Dick Cheney, and as you know, under the 2nd bush administration was the Vice President. We have Vice President Dan Quayle in the center. Then the National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft, a retired U. S. Air Force Lieutenant General who had vast experience in political-military affairs within the National Security Council. Next to Scowcroft, President George H. W. Bush. Then the Deputy Secretary of Defense for Plans at that time Mr. Paul Wolfowitz. I should let you know at this time that I had served under Paul Wolfowitz when he was the Ambassador to Indonesia in the late 1980s when as a full Colonel I was the Chief of the Office of Military Attaché for Defense Programs, we sold the F16 to the Republic of Indonesia, the Harpoon missal, and other weapon systems and equipment. I was there in 1986-87-88 under ambassador Wolfowitz, then after that he went to the Department of Defense to his position as a Deputy Secretary for Plans.

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF

8-4-90 at Camp David: review military options two days after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Paul Wolfowitz, Dick Cheney, President G H Bush, Vice President Quayle, John Sununu, William Webster, Marlin Fitzwater, Richard Haass, James Baker, General Colin Powell, Brent Scowcroft, General Norman Schwarzkopf.

Page 8: You see the Commander-In-Chief meeting with his National Security advisors at Camp David to review military options two days after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. And again, around the table are Paul Wolfowitz, Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dick Cheney, President George H. W. Bush, Vice President Quayle, other advisors: John Sununu, William Webster, who at that time was the FBI Director, Marlin Fitzwater, Richard Haass, Secretary of State James Baker, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell, National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft and General Norman Schwarzkopf who commanded the U. S. Forces in the operations in Iraq and Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Desert Shield started in the fall of 1990 and the actual battle, Desert Storm, began January 17th, 1991. On the right, seen sitting in the back, is my West Point classmate, LTG. Howard Graves. He was a special advisor to the JCS and later briefed the leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev, and Foreign Minister Gromyko on U.S. plans for Desert Storm. Notice that at this table, a 3 Star general doesn’t get to sit at the table; these are BIG fixin’s .

SECRETARY OF STATE

Page 9: The Secretary of State, of course, has the primary responsibility for the formulation and the implementation of the foreign affairs of the United States of America. Very important . The Secretary of State is the first among the President’s Cabinet members. The first Secretary of State in American history was Thomas Jefferson and he was the first appointed cabinet officer under George Washington. So, the Secretary of State takes preeminence in the cabinet. The Secretary of States’ responsibility is to run the Department of State to make sure that there is coherent formulation of foreign policy which, of course, had to be worked out with other departments and agencies of the U. S. government and, of course, to express the goals and desires of the sitting president. Then the Secretary of State has the responsibility to oversee the implementation of U. S. Foreign Policy.

DIPLOMATIC AGENTS ABROAD (The Country Team)

Page 10: Diplomatic Agents Abroad, let me talk a little about the Country Team . The Country Team is very important. Normally you would have an Ambassador, if you don’t have an Ambassador you have what is known as a Charge d’ Affairs (sharzeh-duh-fairs; French). You have the Charge in the instance that the Ambassador is not appointed to the country or has left the country or there is an interim before a new Ambassador arrives, or in some cases, the United States does not want to post an individual of ambassador’s rank to the nation involved. So, for whatever reason, then a charge is appointed to the nation. The charge carries out the responsibility for the United States within that nation. In a standard format the Country Team is composed of the Ambassador as appointed by the President and he has a DCM, a Deputy Chief Of Mission , in military terms that would really be the XO, Executive Officer, who handles the day-to-day activities, operations and administration for the organization. Then you have various staff members, organizational members, within the embassy. You could start with Foreign Service Officers , those are people working directly for the State Department, an example is the embassy’s the Political Officer, usually a ranking member of the Country Team—an experienced member, a Foreign Service Officer who is probably on the way to being appointed as a DCM somewhere and has the potential to eventually be appointed as an Ambassador somewhere. And then you have, also, Consular Officers and depending on the size and the importance to the United States of the nation involved you can have many Consulates or you can have a named Consular Officer located in the Embassy itself. There can be various Consulates around the country in different important cities. For example, if you go to China you find a Consulate in Chengdu, Guang Zhou (Canton), Shang Hai, and Shen Yang. Usually depending on the size of the country more experienced Foreign Service Officers are out there on their own running a Consulate. The Consulate carries out U. S. Foreign Policy requirements in the area of the country it is located in. Consular Officers are the ones who handle U. S. visas for people wanting to travel to the United States as well as any affairs involving U.S. citizens in country.

Usually country team meetings are held regularly depending on the nation involved and the situation. But the meetings are scheduled, probably about once a week, where the Country Team comes together in a secure space. You will have a Director of the CIA office in the country, called the station chief. You will have the Defense Attaché who will be the senior U. S. Military officer designated to be the senior attaché depending on the country. You will probably have attaches from the various services and depending on the situation in the country, for example, if the Air Force was very strong and very important to the United States it could be that the Defense Attaché would be an air force officer, generally an 06, a Colonel, and again, depending on the importance to the United States it could be a Brigadier General. I myself served as Defense and Army Attaché and Security Assistance Officer with the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka (Dacca) Bangladesh. My main reason for being there (1978-79-80) was because I was a China Foreign Area Officer (FAO) and at that time the largest PLA Mil. Group outside China, commanded by a PLA Major general, with a one star deputy, was in Bangladesh. I handled overt intelligence gathering, military-to-military affairs with the host nation and all Mil Atts. in-country, foreign military sales (FMS) and foreign military assistance (FMA), international military education and training (IMET) and other tasks. The position was for an 0-5 Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Army. Generally, however, U.S. attachés around the world would be a full Colonel and in certain situations such as in China could be a Brigadier General.

In addition to those members I have already mentioned on the Country Team, depending on the nation involved, you’ll have other members such as a Commercial Attaché from the Department Of Commerce, an Agricultural Attaché from the Department Of Agriculture. You could have an FBI representative on station depending on the needs of the relationship with the U.S. You could have a Treasury Attaché from the Department Of Treasury. All of these would be members of the Country Team and would meet regularly and coordinate with each other, on an ongoing basis, the activities and the operations of the U. S. Embassy in the country involved. Always attending would be the General Services Officer who is kind of like the logistics officer in the military and he takes care of all the logistics for the Country Team for the Embassy, and for the Consulates around the county and for other U. S. organizations in the country. Then you would have a Security Officer, called the RSO (Regional Security Officer) responsible for the security of the Americans belonging to the Country Team and family members, dependents and others within the country--he is a trained security officer. That’s the general description of the Country Team as much as is required for operating this course.

GOVERNMENT-GOVERNMENT COMMUNICATION

Page 11: The primary function of the U. S. Embassy is Government-to-Government Communication. So, where the President would not talk directly to the leader of the host nation that communication is done through the Ambassador or through the ambassador’s representative. So you will find that the ambassador is meeting on an as needed basis with the leader of the country or the representative of the leader of the county. And the various members of the country team are meeting regularly with their counterparts. And so that is the way Government-to-Government Communication plays out.

THE SENATE & FOREIGN AFFAIRS

DECLARES WAR

CONFERS/REJECTS PRESIDENTIAL NOMINATIONS

SENATE RESOLUTION

LAUNCH INVESTIGATIONS

RATIFIES/REJECTS TREATIES

SCFR

Page 12: We look at the other branch of the U. S. Government, the Senate and how it handles Foreign Affairs. As you know, in the Constitution of the United States , Article 1, Section 8, is the Senate, the Congress of the United States and has the only, the Sole Authority To Declare War. Why is war declared? Why is that such an important aspect of governmental responsibility? The idea of declaring war was placed into the constitution to insure that no one person or no one group is able to take the United States to war. The act of declaring war requires deliberation by Congress and that deliberation should bring on to the congressional floor the desires and the opinions and views of each Senator’s Constituents. That is the basis, the principal of the Constitutional requirement to declare war and that only the Senate can do that.

In addition to the senate’s authority to declare war it can Confirm, or Reject, Presidential Nominations. If the President nominates someone to be an Ambassador to a particular country then the Congress, the Senate meets on that and if for some reason or another the Senate does not think that individual is adequate to be the Ambassador to the country in question then they can be denied (rejected) confirmation. Normally the senate confirms the Ambassador’s nomination.

And also, the Senate can come up with Resolutions relating to different aspects of foreign policy. The senate can Launch Investigations into Foreign Policy areas. One good example you will read about is the Iran Contra Affair where the White House, in Violation of the Boland Amendment, which prohibited assistance to the contra group fighting against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in the 1980s. The White House conducted activities in violation of that law and so was in violation of the Arms Export Control Act(AECA). U.S. military anti-tank Tow (about 1,500) and air defense Hawk missiles (about 1,000) were sold to Iran by the Reagan Administration in violation of the Arms Export Control Act and in violation of the Boland Amendment. The profit ($12,000,000) from selling these weapons illegally to Iran was then illegally forwarded to the contra group which was fighting to overthrow the Sandinistas , the elected government of Nicaragua. That was the Iran contra affair. The Senate conducted an investigation that involved a number of White House staff members to include U. S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel, Oliver North. He and some 15 administration officials were found guilty and were sentenced to prison terms. On final review the senate had promised certain release for North’s testimony. And so, Oliver North did not serve his sentence. But many others actually were sentenced – found guilty and served prison time. So that is an example of the Investigation Authority of The Senate .

The Senate has the authority to Ratify Or Reject Treaties. And probably, one of the more important examples of this was the attempt of World War I President Woodrow Wilson to have America enter into the League Of Nations. For political reasons the Senate voted against becoming a member of the League Of Nations which in probably, a general way, contributed to the coming about of World War II. One doesn’t know what would have happened had the U.S. been a member of the League Of Nations—what effect that would have had, mitigating the rise of Imperial Japan’s military forces and the rise of Nazi Germany's military forces.

Then you have the Senate Committee On Foreign Relations (SCFR) , this is the organization within the legislative branch which does many deliberations on U. S. Foreign Policy.

The three branches of government, Executive (the president), legislative (Congress), and Judicial (the Supreme Court and lower courts) were designed to check and balance each other so that no single branch could take over running the nation. That system may seem awkward to us, but it has worked, generally, to keep a single person, or small group of people, from taking over the U.S. So, have patience. As former British prime minister Winston Churchill said of democracy when he was voted out of office at the end of victory in WW II “It has been said that democracy is the worst form of government, except for all the others which have been tried.”

DIFFERENT FORMS OF DIPLOMACY

DOLLAR DIPLOMACY

IRISH DIPLOMACY

“BIG STICK” DIPLOMACY

GUNBOAT DIPLOMACY

PING PONG DIPLOMACY

SMILING DIPLOMACY

COCA-COLA DIPLOMACY

POWER DIPLOMACY

Page 13: The Different Forms Of Diplomacy. Diplomacy is carried out in so many different ways and receives so many different names—for example there is such a thing as Dollar Diplomacy, especially during the Cold War which lasted from 1945 until 1991 when the soviet union collapsed and disappeared form the face of the earth, ending the Cold War. America was seen many times to buy other nation’s cooperation in foreign policy, especially nations in need of financial assistance and this is called Dollar Diplomacy. You have what I like to refer to as Irish Diplomacy : telling a man to go to hell in such a way that the man looks forward to the trip . “Big Stick” Diplomacy during the Roosevelt era in early 1900s, Theodore Roosevelt had a saying: “walk softly and carry a big stick.”

The idea here is that diplomacy must be backed with power. This is a vey important principle in the world of diplomacy, that diplomacy not backed by power really has very little effect. Gunboat Diplomacy was used during the Theodore Roosevelt era. When intimidating a nation, the U. S. sends its Navy to that nation to try to get them to do, or to stop doing, what we wanted them to do or stop doing. Ping Pong Diplomacy, very important, in the 1970s, Communist China, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC), invited, on a no-notice basis, the touring American ping pong team to Beijing to participate in matches. This was the beginning of the opening between China and the United States which resulted in the formal establishment of diplomatic relations in 1979. Smiling Diplomacy –Russia, when it was still the Soviet Union, especially toward countries known as Third World Nations; (today as Lesser Developed Nations or Emerging Nations, Poorer Nations) they accused Russia of conducting Smiling Diplomacy, being falsely friendly while working to bring about actions that the Soviet Union wanted in whatever country. America has frequently been accused of Coca-cola Diplomacy , that is in bringing almost overwhelming influence, especially in emerging nations with the Cultural Trappings of America: McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken , Coca-Cola, music, rock music, blues music and movies and other tremendously effective cultural aspects of America and the influence they have to move into other nations. Power Diplomacy is using the economic, the political and the military power of a nation to bring about its desires in the area of foreign relations.

U.S. Diplomatic History; Diplomacy-Forces, Factors, and Functions “We are not about to send American boys ten thousand miles away from home to do what Asian boys ought to do for themselves.” -- President Johnson, October 21, 1964

Page 14: In talking about U. S. Diplomatic History; Diplomacy-Forces; Factors; And Functions, we see President Lynden Johnson, in 1964, in this case where a U. S. President will make a statement which then later is done completely in reversal, and in this case the quote, “We are not about to send American boys ten thousand miles away from home to do what Asian boys ought to do for themselves.” was followed after 1964, a year later he authorized the deployment of U. S. combat forces to Vietnam which then brought us into a ten year war in Vietnam. That war is important in American Diplomacy because it is really the first instance in which America was unsuccessful in its war operations . When I say that, what I mean is, looking at the Reasons And The Purposes Of Going To War in the case of Vietnam in the 1960s, America committed U. S. Combat Forces to South Vietnam, the Republic Of Vietnam, to maintain South Vietnam's Sovereignty against the Communist North Vietnam regime, the Democratic Republic Of Vietnam. And the idea was to do what America could--to preserve South Vietnam's Sovereignty. Sovereignty , very important for you to continue to keep in mind is composed of three major elements, that is Territorial Integrity, Unity, and Independence. As it turned out, because Washington, from Truman to the Eisenhower administration, the late 1940s to the 1950s into the Kennedy administration in the early 1960s into the Johnson administration in mid-to-late 1960s the administrations did dot formulate a coherent strategy for what was to be done in Vietnam and it was piecemealed (in military terms), kind of rationed out here and there in different programs, not tied to each other so that a lack of coherent strategy In The Vietnam Theatre. Eventually America was put in a position where it had enter into an agreement with Communist North Vietnam that American combat forces would be withdrawn from Vietnam in 1973 and part of the agreement was that Communist North Vietnam would not continue to conduct activities in South Vietnam . However, after American combat forces were withdrawn, Communist North Vietnam Forces violated that and continued their activities and after a period of two years after the last American combat unit had left Vietnam , South Vietnam, the Republic of Vietnam fell to the Communist North Vietnam military invasion and occupation and today it is one country--Communist Vietnam. That was an example of U. S. Diplomatic History; Diplomacy-Forces; Factors; and Functions

Terms to Know

ISOLATION	FREEDOM OF THE SEAS	MONROE DOCTRINE
PAN-AMERICANISM	OPEN DOOR	PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
TREATIES	SEVER DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS	RECOGNIZE NEW GOVERNMENTS
NOMINATE AMBASSADORS	DENOUNCE TREATIES	COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF
SECRETARY OF STATE	DIPLOMATIC AGENTS ABROAD (THE OUNTRY TEAM)	GOVERNMENT-GOVERNMENT COMMUNICATION
U. S SENATE & FOREEIGN AFFAIRS	FORMS OF DIPLOMACY	FUNDAMENTAL US FOREIGN POLICIES
FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS	THE EXECUTIVE & FOREIGN AFFAIRS

~End~