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Developing critical analysis skills in academic writing

Article  in  Nursing standard: official newspaper of the Royal College of Nursing · September 2007

DOI: 10.7748/ns2007.09.21.52.35.c6595 · Source: PubMed

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Knowles J, McGloin S (2007) Developing critical analysis skills in academic writing. Nursing Standard. 21, 52, 35-37. Date of acceptance: June 26 2007.

associated with delivering a high standard of individualised patient care. In post-registration studies there has been a shift from diploma level I studies (level 2, Scottish Higher Education (SHE 2)) to degree level H studies (level 3, SHE 3 and SHE 4). This may be because many of the course applicants already have diplomas from pre- registration or bridging course studies.

Lee (2003) identified that students require help in progressing from diploma to degree level work. Students find this progression daunting, and learning to write at the higher level can be a major hurdle to completing their studies (Booth 1996). Hatchett (2006) recognises that it takes time to develop the skill of critical analysis in academic assignments. This article aims to offer guidance on and clarify the differences between passing at diploma and degree level.

Diploma level I

At diploma level I students are expected to demonstrate a good understanding of a subject and the basic concepts from the literature. They are required to distinguish relevant material from irrelevant, and present findings in a clear and logical manner (Smy 2003). This is achieved by reading the literature and summarising it in their own words (Hendry and Farley 1998). Students should avoid excessive direct quotation from the literature (Lee 2003) because this style of writing does not demonstrate comprehension.

Referencing is important at this level of work. If the student fails to use correct referencing and identify the sources, then the text is plagiarised (Logue 2004). The work should be referenced using the specified university referencing and presentation requirements. Whitehead (2000) states that academic style: ‘is designed to prevent the presentation of subjective, anecdotal and

Developing critical analysis skills in academic writing

september 5 :: vol 21 no 52 :: 2007 35NURSING STANDARD

PRE-REGISTRATION NURSING courses are increasingly being offered with BSc and BSc(Hons) pathways. It is argued that nurses need degree-level education to function in the interprofessional team at a similar level to other professional groups (Snow 2006). Members of the Department of Health’s (DH) Modernising Nursing Careers board are debating whether pre-registration training should be provided exclusively at degree level entry (Snow 2006).

Nurses are required to develop an aptitude for critical thinking to be safe, competent and skilled practitioners (Girot 2000). Edwards (1998) suggests that through critical analysis students become more open, enquiring, knowledgeable, experienced, reflective, integrated, sensitive to multiple perspectives and confident to develop their clinical practice. These qualities are

Summary Students may often feel confused about what is expected of their work at different academic levels. This article aims to demystify the skill of critical analysis in academic writing.

Authors Judie Knowles is senior lecturer, Faculty of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, Havering Campus, Romford; Sarah McGloin is senior lecturer, Faculty of Health, Wellbeing and Science, Suffolk College, The Ipswich Hospital NHS Trust, Ipswich. Email: [email protected]

Keywords Academic assignment; Critical appraisal; Degree courses These keywords are based on the subject headings from the British Nursing Index. This article has been subject to double-blind review. For author and research article guidelines visit the Nursing Standard home page at www.nursing-standard.co.uk. For related articles visit our online archive and search using the keywords.

If you would like to contribute to the art and science section contact: Gwen Clarke, art and science editor, Nursing Standard, The Heights, 59-65 Lowlands Road, Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex HA1 3AW. email: [email protected]

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emotive material’. Writing in a colloquial manner is also not appropriate in academic writing (Mardell and Moore 2005).

Level I (SHE 2) assignments tend to require largely descriptive writing which outlines and explains a general concept and demonstrates comprehension (Bloom 1956). However, students who achieve higher grades for level I work will broadly discuss the salient concepts and issues while examining others in more detail and depth. These assignments demonstrate application (Bloom 1956), where students apply their knowledge and understanding from theory to their practice experiences.

Successful assignments at this level answer the question, follow a logical sequence of introduction, main body and conclusion, use appropriate paragraphing, and put forward arguments in a coherent manner which are supported with references. Box 1 shows an example of work written at diploma level I (SHE 2).

Degree level H

At degree level H, students read widely to develop a comprehensive answer to a set question. This is achieved by undertaking an in-depth literature search and review using electronic databases such as the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Medline and the British Nursing Index. Through reading widely students are able to examine the current evidence base and develop arguments which will inform their practice and enhance their written work. Students need to be clear about the focus of their answer. Work at this level should contain clear links from the theory to the students’ experience of practice. Their ability to construct an argument from an original viewpoint, with evidence of independent thought and comment, supported by research and theory rather than unsubstantiated comment must be demonstrated (Booth 1996). The work should be fully and accurately referenced.

Critical analysis is the key concept at this level, where students present the benefits and disadvantages of a specific aspect and support their points with relevant literature and current research. In essence, the student presents a strong

case to justify an opinion (Hatchett 2006). Through critical analysis students demonstrate their ability to understand information with the purpose of explaining the links between the important and the less important parts and the whole (Gopee 2002). For example, in a practice- based unit, they may be required to develop an ethical argument from the evidence which they use to reach a conclusion. This will either support what they are doing already or make recommendations to underpin a change in practice. Students may be required to adopt an ‘analytical and reflective’ approach (Gopee 2002), which demonstrates the personal learning that has been achieved through their studies.

In contrast, some units focus on the theoretical aspects of nursing care such as management theories. Students may be required to critically analyse two or more theories, examining in detail the benefits and disadvantages of the theory for their practice area.

Students frequently ask what critical analysis involves. In the literature there is ambiguity over what it actually is (Edwards 1998, Brechin et al 2000, Hatchett 2006). Based on Bloom’s (1956) six levels of learning, Gopee (2002) outlines a framework of critical analysis. Gopee (2002) guides students to examine how intellectual skills or cognitive levels of learning can be acquired through knowledge of the topic area, comprehension, application, analysis, and synthesis of their findings.

Knowledge refers to an understanding of the terminology, specific facts, ways and means of dealing with specifics. Comprehension means grasping the meaning of informational materials. Application is the use of previous learned information in new and concrete situations to solve problems that have single or best answers. Analysis is the breaking down of information into the component parts, examining the information to develop divergent conclusions and finding evidence to support generalisations. Synthesis involves creatively or divergently applying previous knowledge and skills to produce a new or original whole. Students who achieve the higher grades at level H will demonstrate synthesis in their work. Evaluation involves judging the value of material based on personal views, values or opinions resulting in an end product.

Critical analysis is the argument based on what theories were used, what is the evidence, how it is analysed and evaluated to show how the students reached their conclusion. An effective assignment demonstrates the steps in the student’s thought processes and how different parts of the assignment link to form the conclusion. A good assignment will conclude by demonstrating critical thinking about the assignment, considering counter-arguments. Critical analysis

36 september 5 :: vol 21 no 52 :: 2007 NURSING STANDARD

&art & science study skills

BOX 1

An example of diploma level I writing

Qualitative research is concerned with explaining social phenomenon (Hancock 1998). The qualitative approach focuses on people’s behaviour, opinions and attitudes (Polit and Hungler 2003). This type of research also studies the effects of events on people, cultural influences and developments and differences between social groups (Polit and Hungler 2003).

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relates and compares information from a variety of sources, identifying issues, securing appropriate information and identifying relationships.

Critical thinking is a key component of critical analysis, where critical questions are devised to be answered throughout the work (Browne and Keeley 2001). This helps students to apply rational and logical thinking to interpret the literature.

Consequently at this level students are required to produce a piece of work which comprehensively answers the question set. This should be achieved through detailed critical thinking and analysis. The work should be supported by precise referencing from a range of sources including policy, research, literature and the world wide web. The work should follow a clear and logical order of introduction, main body and conclusion. Clear conclusions and recommendations should be provided and supported by the evidence base. New and creative ideas for practice could be synthesised from the work. An example of work written at level H (SHE 3 and SHE 4) is shown in Box 2.

Conclusion

To achieve success at level H (SHE 3 and SHE 4) students need to develop what they have demonstrated at level I. Level I requires the student to outline the problem or topic through discussion of a subject area. Level H requires

analysis of the problem or topic, with the ability to construct an argument from an original viewpoint (Lee 2003). Further to the descriptive nature of level I, degree level assignments demonstrate critical thinking through critical analysis and reflection (Gopee 2002). In a level H assignment students must demonstrate their ability to reach a conclusion that can be supported by the evidence base and make valid recommendations for future practice NS

september 5 :: vol 21 no 52 :: 2007 37NURSING STANDARD

BOX 2

An example of degree level H writing

Modern matrons have been employed by the NHS since April 2001 (Department of Health (DH) 1999). These roles were introduced following public consultation, and were charged with ‘getting the basics right, without getting bogged down in bureaucracy’ (DH 2000). The key leadership responsibilities were outlined encompassing the fundamentals of basic nursing care (DH 2001, 2003a, NHS Executive (NHSE) 2001). However, they do not demonstrate the intended ‘visible, accessible and authoritative presence in the ward’ (NHSE 2001) as found in a study by Bufton (2005). Indeed, most of the matrons’ time is spent attending meetings (Royal College of Nursing (RCN) 2004), so they are bogged down in NHS bureaucracy.

Matrons cite daily activities such as visits to wards (DH 2002) where the impact of their role in health care arguably allows for subjective measurement. The matron’s role is to ‘improve the quality of the patient experience’ (DH 2003b), indeed the ten key roles of the modern matron (DH 2002) encompass this.

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Gopee N (2002) Demonstrating critical analysis in academic assignments. Nursing Standard. 16, 35, 45-52.

Hancock B (1998) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacin- tyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA6 03_files/IntroQualitativeResearch. pdf (Last accessed: August 7 2007.)

Hatchett R (2006) A guide to academic essay writing in cardiac nursing. British Journal of Cardiac Nursing. 1, 11, 546-549.

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