U7A1-28 - **TUTOR IT IS REQUIRED THAT YOU FOLLOW ALL INSTRUCTIONS AS OUTLINED. - SEE ALL DETAILS BELOW*** Planning, Designing, Foundation, Tools, and Strategy Action Planning, Designing, Theoretical Foundation, Data Gathering Tools, and Intervention Stra

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 1/17

Chapter 7 Setting Goals and Objectives

Chapter Overview The purpose of this chapter is to explain:

Transitioning from program hypothesis to goals and objectives The purpose of and criteria for a complete mission statement The relationship between agency mission and program goals and objectives The purpose of and criteria for a goal statement The parts of a complete objective The components of an outcome The purpose of an outcome objective The ways in which outcome objectives fit with goals and with process objectives The ways in which process objectives and activities work together

The following topics are covered in this chapter:

From Program Hypothesis to Goals and Objectives The Function of a Mission Statement Goals and Objectives: A Framework for Action Agency Example: Safe Haven The Formulation of Goals The Formulation of Objectives Requirements for All Objectives

Clarity Time Frames Target of Change Results Criteria for Measurement Responsibility

Outcome Objectives Process Objectives and Activities

Time Frames Target and Result Criteria for Measurement or Documentation Responsibility

Integrating Outcome Objectives, Process Objectives, and Activities Activities Is It Worth the Effort? Summary Case Example Review Questions

From Program Hypothesis to Goals and Objectives Up to this point we have encouraged a great deal of theoretical and hypothetical thinking about needs and social problems, resulting in a hypothesis about how the problem can be reduced if certain interventions or services are created and provided to the target population. At this point we move to program planning activities in a human service organization.

All of the components of the program hypothesis, including the problems and needs being experienced by the target population, the provision of services needed to address these problems, the monitoring of service provision, and the expected short- and long-range results of services provided, must now be incorporated into the agency’s program plans All of these components fit with the phases of the logic model as presented in

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 2/17

the agency s program plans. All of these components fit with the phases of the logic model as presented in Chapter 1. Table 7.1 illustrates the compatibility between the program hypothesis and the logic model.

The Function of a Mission Statement It is fairly common among human service organizations to succumb to the temptation of attempting to go off into many directions at the same time. When funds become available to address a particular problem, some organizations will bid on the contracts even if this is not their main area of expertise. Too much diversity of program efforts is seldom healthy or productive. Every organization needs a sense of direction. Without a clear focus on its reason for existence, an organization can easily become unproductively involved in whatever happens to be the dominating problems or issues of the day. A mission statement formalizes a reason for existence by providing a long-term sense of direction and continuity (Andringa & Engstrom, 2002). A good mission statement is lofty, inspiring, concise, and understandable (Brody, 2005).

A mission statement is formally approved and sanctioned by designated officials in public agencies and by boards of directors in private agencies. Another way of describing the purpose of a mission statement is that it establishes broad and relatively permanent parameters within which goals are developed and specific programs designed. A mission statement includes, at minimum, a target population and a statement of the agency’s vision for what ideally might be achieved in collaboration between the agency and the target population. A good, clear

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 3/17

mission statement is usually limited to just a few sentences. Table 7.2 presents some examples.

The key is that a mission statement should focus on what lies ahead for its clients or consumers if the agency is successful in addressing their problems and meeting their needs. Some mission statements make the mistake of describing their services (a key to this is when the mission statement uses the term provide). It is perfectly acceptable to have follow-up statements about services or agency values, but the mission statement itself should be brief, clear, and stated in outcome terms.

As Brody (2005) points out, the mission statement should be the most enduring part of the organization. When an agency continually changes or modifies its mission statement, that agency is usually having problems finding its niche and is likely to be experiencing internal problems. Implicit in the relative permanence of a mission statement is an understanding that the problems or conditions of concern to the agency are broad enough in scope and scale that they are unlikely to be achieved in the near future. Just as the mission statements “to strengthen independent functioning,” “to promote family stability,” and “to promote and protect a chemical dependency–free lifestyle” are legitimate statements in the year 2020, so they are likely to be relevant in 2030 and beyond. Even though the concepts of independent functioning or family stability might be operationalized differently in the future, the concept will continue to have validity.

Goals and Objectives: A Framework for Action Up to this point in the effectiveness-based program-planning process, activities have focused on gathering data and information about the problem and thinking analytically about cause-and-effect relationships. The next step in the process is setting goals and objectives.

Figure 7.1 Relationship of Mission, Goals, Objectives, and Activities

Goals and objectives provide a framework for action. Goals establish a general direction for a program. Objectives establish precise expectations of what the program is attempting to achieve, including a time frame. Activities specify detailed tasks to be carried out. Objectives and activities also provide a framework for

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 4/17

Activities specify detailed tasks to be carried out. Objectives and activities also provide a framework for monitoring, performance measurement, and evaluation. These relationships are depicted in Figure 7.1.

Agency Example: Safe Haven For the remainder of this book we will use as an illustration a domestic violence shelter for women that we will call Safe Haven. While women are in the shelter they will participate in the services that we have described. We will incorporate all services under three programs: (1) Case Management, (2) Individual and Group Counseling, and (3) Employment Training and Placement. These programs are illustrated in Figure 7.2.

We will assume for the sake of this example that the state is making funds available to test the program hypothesis that if women who are victims of domestic violence primarily due to dependence on their abusers receive and complete prescribed services they will become self-sufficient and be able to leave their abusers and live independently.

Safe Haven will employ a program supervisor in each of the three programs and the number of staff in each needed to provide the services as designed. The steps of developing goals and objectives, designing programs, designing a data collection system, measuring performance, and budgeting will be covered in this and the following chapters.

Figure 7.2 Organizational Chart Illustrating Safe Haven Programs

The Formulation of Goals The next step after deciding on the program structure is to create program goals. Program goals help to focus a program’s efforts and are intended to be compatible with the agency’s mission. Goals are statements of expected outcomes dealing with the problem that the program is attempting to prevent, eradicate, or ameliorate. They are responsive to problems and needs, and represent an ideal or hoped-for outcome (Coley & Scheinberg, 2000).

A goal statement should fit within a system and serve as a transition between mission and objectives. It should flow logically from the agency’s mission statement while providing a framework and sense of direction for the objectives that are to follow. Goal statements provide a beacon that serves as a constant focal point and lends a

sense of direction to the program. They are the reasons for which the program is funded and implemented. They are statements of preferences or values.

Goal statements should be worded so that they tend to build consensus. They need not be measurable or fixed in time. A program should have only one goal, and from this will flow a set of objectives and activities designed to move toward achievement of the goal. In some cases, goals may be specified by funding sources, and the agency or program will be expected to work within these limits. In these instances the mission statement should be

i d t fit b t i ti l i i d l

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 5/17

reviewed to ensure a fit between organizational mission and program goals.

If the overall state-level expected outcome is to reduce the incidence of domestic violence and promote self- sufficiency among the at-risk population, goals for the three Safe Haven programs might read as follows:

Case Management Program: To guide women who have been victims of domestic violence in learning basic home management skills and use of community resources necessary to achieve a positive and stable lifestyle

Individual and Group Counseling Program: To enable counseling participants to trace the early years that shaped their attitudes toward domestic relationships and to learn to redirect their efforts in a way that leads to positive and productive relationships

Employment Training and Placement Program: To assist participants in finding a career path, enrolling in and completing the necessary training programs, and securing beginning employment

Each of these program goals helps to further the mission of the total organization, understanding that the mission is something that is always an aspiration but in most cases is never fully achieved.

The Formulation of Objectives In effectiveness-based program planning, one should be able to make explicit two things about a program: (1) the results that are to be achieved and (2) the manner in which these results will be achieved. The specification of results is a statement of the ends or expectations of the program. In the program-planning literature, these ends are referred to as outcome objectives (Brody, 2005; Coley & Scheinberg, 2000; Poertner, 2000). The specification of service provision is an articulation of the means that will be used to achieve the ends, and these are referred to as process objectives. Finally, under process objectives, we find listings of specific activities that represent a further breakdown or refinement of the details of program implementation.

This approach further supports the logic model as presented in Chapter 1 and as illustrated in Figure 7.3. Outcome objectives identify and define expected program outcomes. Process objectives and activities work together to define the process of service provision to the client. Outputs become measures of processes and activities invested in the program.

Figure 7.3 Logic Model as Applied to Process and Outcome Objectives

Throughout the literature, a variety of terms are used by planners to distinguish these three different levels, including strategies, milestones, operational objectives, and program objectives. In the following discussion, we will use the program-planning terms outcome objectives, process objectives, and activities. The hierarchy is similar to that depicted in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 Hierarchy of Goals, Objectives, and Activities

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 6/17

Requirements for All Objectives All objectives have a number of elements in common. A good objective is clear, specific, measurable, time- limited, and realistic and represents a commitment. These elements can be addressed through the following questions:

Use of clear, unambiguous terms. Is the objective clear? Does it mean the same thing to anyone who reads the statement? Expected results. Does the objective specify results to be achieved (expected improvements in quality of life of clients or consumers)? Measurable results. Is the objective written in such a way that it can be measured? Are measurement (numerical) criteria incorporated into the objective? Time frame. Does the statement indicate a clearly defined time limit within which the objective will be achieved? Achievability. Is the objective realistic given our technology and knowledge as well as available resources? Accountability. Does the objective identify who has responsibility for ensuring that the objective is achieved?

More specifically, in writing objectives, the following five components should be included:

1. Time frame 2. Target of the change 3. Products (process) or results (outcomes) to be achieved 4. Criteria by which the products or results will be documented, monitored, or measured 5. Responsibility for implementing and measuring achievement of the objective

Several examples are presented in Table 7.3.

The issue of clarity as well as these five components will be discussed in the following paragraphs. In order to emphasize the chronology of the objective-setting process, we will first discuss outcome objectives, and following that we will discuss the construction of process objectives and activities. Outcome objectives should always be developed first (even though they appear last as depicted in the logic model) because it is from the specification of desired outcomes that the remainder of the program-planning process flows.

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 7/17

Clarity

The critical test of an objective is that anyone who reads it will understand it. There should be a minimum of ambiguity. Adjectives, because they are usually open to a wide range of interpretations (e.g., healthy, productive) should be minimized or eliminated in favor of straightforward phrases made up primarily of verbs and nouns. Brody (2005) advises those who write objectives to use action verbs that describe an observable change in a condition, such as reduce, improve, strengthen, or enhance. Everyone who works with the objective should interpret it in essentially the same way. For example, a statement such as “to improve the quality of interaction between spouses” could have many interpretations. It is vague and uncertain without further modifiers and descriptors. A better, more measurable statement would be “to reduce the number of unresolved disagreements each week by at least 40% in at least 60% of participating couples.” Even here, the term “unresolved disagreements” would probably need further definition and clarification.

Precision becomes extremely important as the program goes through its implementation stage. By the time of implementation, the initial authors of the objectives may not be available for interpretation, nor should they have to be if the objectives have been crafted correctly.

One way to ensure clarity (and, later, measurability) is to develop objectives that have behavioral aspects. Examples of these would include statements that begin with verbs such as write, list, increase, reduce, terminate, or demonstrate. Examples that use vague and nonbehavioral (i.e., not observable) referents might include statements that begin with verbs such as understand, know, realize, feel, believe, or enable.

Time Frames

The time frame specified is the date when it is expected that the objective will have been achieved. The United Way of America (1996) describes three levels of outcomes: initial outcomes, intermediate outcomes, andlonger term outcomes. Initial outcomes focus on the first benefits or changes in knowledge, attitudes, and skills that participants experience. They are not the end in themselves, but they are necessary steps toward the desired end and therefore are important indicators of participants’ progress toward that end. Intermediate outcomes focus on the changes in behavior that result from new knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Longer term outcomes focus on

the ultimate outcomes that a program desires to achieve for its participants. It is important to remember at this point that these measures are used to track the progress of individual clients or consumers as well as to aggregate h d l d i l ( l ) f i i d l i P d f

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 8/17

the data at selected intervals (e.g., quarterly) for program monitoring and evaluation purposes. Procedures for these activities will be discussed in Chapters 10 and 11.

Using the United Way framework, initial and possibly intermediate outcomes may be the focus of the first year, depending on the problem or need and the services provided. Longer term outcomes would involve multiyear efforts. Wherever possible, time frames should be stated as specific dates, including month, day, and year. These, then, become the dates on which readings are taken to monitor progress and review performance measures that indicate whether the program is meeting its objectives. One-year time frames are usually stated as follows:

By June 30, 20XX (with a specific year, 1 year from the start date, inserted) By the end of the first year (when the start date is not known)

Multiple-year planning may be necessary, given the complexity of most human service program outcome expectations. When multiple-year outcome objectives are developed, they may be stated as follows:

By September 30, 20XX (when the start and completion dates are known) By the end of the third year (when the start and completion dates are not known)

Specific dates are always preferable because they are so much more useful for monitoring purposes, but when a program is faced with an uncertain start date, objectives may have to use flexible time frames that can later be translated into specific dates.

Target of Change

Objectives also specify the population or the elements that are expected to be changed if the objective is achieved. Outcome objectives focus on populations. The following are client populations that might be specified in an outcome objective:

30 women who have been victims of physical and/or emotional violence 75 low-income families 20 parents who have had children removed from their homes for child neglect

Results

Client outcomes identify what positive changes should have been achieved by clients by the time they have completed the program. For example:

20 women who have been victims of physical and/or emotional violence will report at least a 75% decrease in incidences of violence. 50 low-income families will report an income that allows them to meet their basic needs as established in a budget. 20 parents who have had children removed from their homes for child neglect will be determined (by professionally established standards) to be competent to have their children returned to their homes.

Deciding how much to promise in terms of client outcomes takes careful thought in program planning. Occasionally, program planners think that the more they promise, the more likely it is that they will obtain funding for their programs. In most instances, this strategy backfires. Funding source personnel can usually recognize when the projected results are unrealistic and the program is overpromising. And in those instances where the program has overpromised but gets funded anyway, program planners often find that they have put themselves and the implementers of the program in the untenable position of attempting to achieve unachievable outcomes and, eventually, of attempting to explain why they did not. This type of behavior begins to affect an agency’s credibility. A program’s goals and objectives should be seen as a contract. If requested resources are made available, then stated outcomes will be achieved.

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 9/17

Criteria for Measurement

If the objective cannot be measured, the program cannot be evaluated—or at least we will never be able to know whether the objective has been achieved. Remember that failure to measure is like having an athletic event without keeping score. The corollary of this is that we need to state in the planning phase not only what we hope to achieve (such as a reduction in child abuse or an increase in job placements) but also the criteria of acceptable performance. For example:

To reduce incidents of child abuse in District 1 by 15% as measured by referrals recorded in the Child Abuse Central Registry To increase awareness of the warning signs of a potential abuser as measured by the Straus Conflict Tactic (CT) Scales (Straus, 1990) To increase self-esteem as measured by the Hudson Self-Esteem Scale (Hudson, 1982)

To ensure that measurement criteria have been included, one should always look for the phrase as measured by (or something similar) in a complete outcome objective. This part of the objective allows the writer of the objective to state an outcome that may not be completely and precisely understood in the same way by all, with the understanding that its meaning will be further clarified and defined when stating the measurement criteria. For example, “improving healthy communication” may not be understood in the same way by all, but when the criterion for measurement—“as measured by the Flynn Compatibility Scale”—is added, ambiguity is removed.

Responsibility

The final issue is that of accountability for implementation of the objective. Up to this point our concern has been that objectives be clear, specific, measurable, time based, and realistic. The last necessary component is the ability to fix responsibility for seeing to it that activities are carried out and reporting on the objective’s attainment. The statement should include an identification of a title (e.g., supervisor, program administrator) or a person, by name, and a simple additional phrase or sentence such as “The person responsible shall be the child care program manager.”

Not all writers of objectives include the name or title of the person responsible in the objective itself. Nevertheless, the principle of identifying the person(s) responsible is an important one. In the same manner that we identify a specific date of completion for the objective so that we will know when the objective is to be completed, we identify a person or title so that we will know who is to be held responsible for monitoring. When the plan is fully fleshed out, it will include a list of objectives to be achieved and activities to be accomplished. If no one is assigned to track progress and monitor due dates, much of the carefully crafted plan could be ignored and the plan could fail. The person identified is usually considered to be responsible for managing implementation, not necessarily for carrying out the details of the activities.

Outcome Objectives Outcome objectives are the centerpieces of program plans in that they explain the reason for the existence of the program as well as project measurable results. Outcome objectives flow directly from the problem analysis phase in a number of ways. First and foremost, an outcome objective is a statement that is intended to reflect a reduction in the incidence or prevalence of the problem or need. Outcome objectives should state clearly what effect the intervention is expected to have on the target population. For example:

To increase the graduation rate among high-risk adolescents To prevent the reoccurrence of child abuse or neglect in 25 families To return 100 children in foster care to their natural parents

The problem analysis section will provide the numbers necessary to meet the criteria of measurability and specificity discussed above. By identifying the numbers of individuals or families with a particular problem, we have established the outside limits for the program. Given agency, personnel, and resource constraints, we

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 10/17

p g g y, p , , identify the number of clients or consumers that we realistically expect to be able to serve during a given period of time. Now the task is to predict our success rate. The example in Table 7.4 of an outcome objective illustrates the five parts (NB: the wording may seem awkward, but the phrase “it is the objective of this program” is not included in each statement for the purpose of brevity).

To restate, outcome objectives flow from the problem analysis phase and focus on a reduction of the problem or an improvement in the quality of life of the program’s target population. They are statements that translate a program goal into precise and measurable language. Once the outcome objectives are clearly conceptualized and stated, their companion process objectives should begin to become clear. These are addressed in the next section.

Given the complexity of the problems that we are attempting to resolve, it is often necessary to think of outcome objectives in hierarchical terms, as with the United Way of America’s (1996) use of initial, intermediate, and long-term outcomes. In most program plans there will be more than one level of outcomes, and all will deal with a positive change in the quality of life of the clients. In incorporating outcome objectives into the model for effectiveness-based program planning, we deal with only two levels—intermediate and final—which correspond roughly to the United Way’s initial and intermediate. The third level, long-term outcomes, are the same as impact, as defined in the logic model. These long-term outcomes reflect the reason for the existence of the program and project expected outcomes in the total community, not just one agency’s clients, as in the following examples:

To reduce the incidence of physical violence against women To increase the number of homeless persons who become self-sufficient and secure a permanent residence To reduce the number of adolescents who participate in street gangs

Most programs designed to achieve these outcomes would require a mix of interventions. The hierarchy of outcomes for family violence programs would be as follows:

Final or ultimate objective:

Reduce the reoccurrence of domestic violence in at least 75% of participating families

Intermediate objectives:

Resolution of emotional and psychological issues that act as barriers to self-esteem and self-confidence Achievement of a certificate for successful completion of employment training Placement in a job for which the client was trained Mastery of independent living skills, including financial management skills and making use of available community resources

With the homeless, interventions might include a combination of learning basic job-finding skills (such as resume preparation and interviewing), learning a skill (such as short-order cooking or construction skills), and

finding affordable housing. With potential high school dropouts, interventions might include a combination of developing a relationship with a mentor, participating in after-school activities, and improving academic performance. In each instance, it is expected that if clients improve in the areas specified, they will achieve the stated overall expected outcome or result. We know (or believe) this because our research done during the problem analysis phase supports this hypothesis.

h b i d h i h h f h i i d i d hi h fi l l

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 11/17

What must be recognized, however, is that each of the interventions designed to achieve the final or long-term outcome objective also must have expected outcomes. If one phase of the family violence intervention is designed to ensure the development of independent living skills, then there must be a measurable outcome for that phase. In this instance it would mean that clients were able to secure permanent housing, make acceptable child care arrangements, and build a social support network. The expected outcome might read as follows:

To achieve all objectives in the Individual Rehab Plan (IRP) related to self-sufficiency and independent community living (NB: this would assume that housing, child care, and social supports were included in IRP objectives)

Likewise, there must be measurable outcomes for increasing self-esteem, lowering social anxiety, managing finances, and for employment training and placement. It is these outcomes in combination that we believe will enable a woman at risk to achieve a violence-free life, self-sufficiency, and independence. So to understand all the necessary components of the program, we must understand whether each individual client achieved expected outcomes and then aggregate all client data to understand the effectiveness of the program.

Once we know that these lower level outcomes have been achieved, and whether there have been subsequent incidents of violence, we can begin to support or reject the intervention hypothesis that states that achievement of these lower level outcomes will lead to a reduction in family violence.

The two levels of outcomes used in effectiveness-based program planning are referred to as final (e.g., reduction in reoccurrence of domestic violence) and intermediate (e.g., improved self-esteem, lowering of social anxiety, improvement in independent living skills, finding reliable social supports, improving financial management skills, learning employable skills). Table 7.5 depicts the relationships between final and intermediate outcomes.

Process Objectives and Activities Once the ends (outcome objectives) have been developed, we are in a position to specify the means (process objectives) by which we hope to achieve the stated results. Again, we return to the program hypothesis, which explains the assumed relationships between means and ends (if the following actions are taken, then the following results can be expected). The “if’ statements in the hypothesis become the basis for the process objectives, just as the “then” statements dealing with the ends form the basis for the outcome objectives.

In developing process objectives we begin with intermediate outcome objectives. Process objectives are the tools we use to describe how these outcomes will be achieved. Process objectives are always related to the lowest level of outcome objectives, which, in most cases, will be the intermediate outcome objectives. We are assuming

and testing the hypothesis that the highest level outcome objectives (final outcomes) will be achieved through the long-term persistence of the lower level outcomes (e.g., the reoccurrence of family violence will be reduced through victims learning independent living skills and securing a steady job).

Process objectives, then, are intended to spell out the milestones necessary to achieve the intermediate outcome objectives. Like all objectives, well-written process objectives require five basic parts: (1) time frame, (2) target (population or product), (3) result (the tangible expectation of this process), (4) criterion (how the result will be measured or documented), and (5) responsibility (who is responsible for ensuring the completion of this process bj ti ) J t ith t bj ti fi d th t bj ti h th i t f b d

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 12/17

objective). Just as with outcome objectives, we find that process objectives have their own set of verbs and descriptors. For example:

To increase the number of cases … To provide individual counseling … To serve hot meals … To recruit program participants … To train volunteers …

Time Frames

Time frames are expressed in process objectives in the same manner as outcome objectives. A date is specified when it is expected that the objective will have been achieved. Time frames should be stated as specific dates, including month, day, and year. One-year time frames are usually stated as follows:

By September 30, 20XX (with a specific year, 1 year from the start date, inserted)

When multiple-year outcome objectives are developed, the year will reflect the longer time required.

Target and Result

Targets of change in outcome objectives focus on the population in need of change. Process objectives focus on the completion of products or milestones or other elements needed in order to implement the program. The purpose of a program-planning effort is the accomplishment of changes that are achievable within stated time frames. To get to the point of successfully achieving client changes, certain processes must first be implemented and followed through to completion. In order to prevent processes from being allowed to continue on indefinitely without concrete, measurable achievement, milestones should be identified that can be used to mark the completion of the process.

The question to be answered in identifying the target and result of a process objective is “What processes must be completed and/or products produced for the program to be implemented and monitored?” The answer to this question can vary from preparation of a training program to hiring of personnel to producing reports.

The following are examples of milestones to be achieved or products to be produced that might be specified in a process objective. Note that target and result are both contained in these milestones.

A screening system will be designed. A training program will be developed A training calendar will be disseminated

Criteria for Measurement or Documentation

Implementation of activities will, once again, require agreement on some type of quantitative measurement that defines completion. The issue here is to ensure that everyone who expects to be guided by a process objective must agree on how all will know when it has been achieved. Sometimes completion of a process objective is obvious, as in the hiring of a client at the conclusion of training. Either the person is put on the payroll or she isn’t. But just to be sure there is no uncertainty, the process objective would state “as documented by an offer, acceptance, and starting date” or something to that effect.

Sometimes completion of a milestone is not as obvious. If a process objective target was “development of a training program,” for example, the terms “development” and “training program” could mean many different things. To one person, training program may mean a one-page, skeleton outline of topics to be covered. To another it may mean complete lesson plans, workbooks, audiovisual aids, evaluation forms, and more. Likewise, development could mean that the person preparing the program says it is complete, or it could mean that all components defined in a contract must meet the approval of the training director In order to prevent conflicting

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 13/17

components defined in a contract must meet the approval of the training director. In order to prevent conflicting opinions to the greatest extent possible, it is useful to specify a criterion for documentation in the process objective.

To ensure that measurement or documentation criteria have been included, one should always look for the phrase as measured (or documented) by in a complete process objective. This allows the writer of the objective to clarify and define precisely how one will know when the target and result have been achieved.

Responsibility

As with outcome objectives, the designating of a responsible party ensures that all will know who is expected to implement and monitor the process objective. The statement should include an identification of a title (e.g., supervisor, program administrator) or a person, by name. For example, in the following process objective, the supervisor is designated as the responsible person: “By June 1, 20XX, to complete the outreach, screening, and assessment phases of the program for 30 women who have been identified as ‘high risk,’ as documented in a report written by the social work supervisor.”

Integrating Outcome Objectives, Process Objectives, and Activities The Safe Haven programs will be used to illustrate the relationship between outcome and process. The numbering system proposed here is merely a suggestion. There are no hard-and-fast rules that make one numbering or lettering system superior to another. Use of any system is a matter of choice. The intent is simply that goals, objectives, and activities be coded in some way that makes for easy identification of interrelationships. With the numbering scheme used below, those working with Process Objective 1.1.1, for example, will always know that this objective relates to Goal No. 1, to Final Outcome Objective 1.0, and to Intermediate Outcome Objective 1.1.

Note also that we have used figures between 75% and 90% in our projections for intermediate outcome objectives. This represents about 22 to 27 out of the 30 participants selected for the program. This avoids the unrealistic expectation that the program will achieve 100% success and makes it more likely that the objective will be achieved. If there are research findings supporting a particular success rate, they should be taken into consideration in developing the objective.

Assume that the following program has been funded and begins on July 1, 20XX.

Outcome Objective (Final)

1.0. By June 30, 20XX (probably at least 2 years from inception of the program), there will be no reoccurrence of domestic violence for at least 75% of program participants.

Outcome Objectives (Intermediate)

1.1. By April 1, 20XX (prior to final outcome), at least 80% of program participants will demonstrate at least a 25% increase in self-esteem scores as measured by the Hudson Self-Esteem Scale. Counselors are responsible for monitoring.

1.2. By May 31, 20XX (prior to final outcome), at least 85% of women who have participated in the program will have secured the community resources (housing, child care, and other resources included in the Individual Rehab Plan) necessary to establish independent living. The case manager is responsible for monitoring and evaluation.

1.3. By March 15, 20XX (during the first year of the program), the knowledge and skill necessary to

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 14/17

managing their finances will be mastered by at least 90% of women who have participated in the program, as measured by the Martin Assessment of Financial Management Skills. The trainer is responsible for monitoring and evaluation.

1.4. By December 31, 20XX (probably during the second year of the program), at least 85% of women who have participated in the program will master employable skills as defined in the training curriculum, as measured by receiving a GPA of 3.0 or better in the curriculum in which they participated, and receive a certificate for successful completion. The employment training contractor will monitor and evaluate.

Examples of process objectives for Intermediate Outcome Objective 1.1 might include the following:

Process Objectives

1.1.1. By August 1, 20XX, to recruit at least 30 victims of domestic violence into the program

1.1.2. By September 1, 20XX, to provide at least one individual session and one group session with a counselor each week

1.1.3. By November 1, 20XX, to prepare an Individual Rehab Plan

In establishing dates for outcome and process objectives, remember that the processes must be completed before you can measure the achievement of the expected outcome. This means that services to individual clients and families must be planned and coordinated so that services are completed prior to the dates specified in process objectives.

Activities

The next and final task in structuring the plan is to take each process objective and break it down into specific tasks that must be completed to achieve the process objectives. These we refer to as activities in the classification system suggested earlier in this chapter. In the above example, we might find the recruitment process objective (Process Objective 1.1.1) to include the following activities:

Process Objective 1.1.1 By August 1, 20XX, to recruit at least 30 victims of domestic violence into the program.

1. Convene a task force to develop or refine a screening instrument specific to the Safe Haven domestic violence program. Due date: July 1.

2. Interview at least 20 women who are on the shelter’s waiting list. Due date: July 22. 3. Select the top 10 candidates and rank order at least 5 additional candidates. Due date: July 25. (The

program will eventually have 30 participants. The shelter will phase them in over the course of the first year.)

4. Have the first 10 participants move into the shelter. Due date: July 29.

Figure 7.5 Relationship Between Logic Model and Objectives and Activities

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 15/17

The relationship of outcome objectives, process objectives, and activities to the phases of the logic model are illustrated in Figure 7.5.

Is It Worth the Effort?

When all of the above elements have been fully developed, the complete document represents a plan ready for implementation. A major criticism of this management-by-objectives technology is that it is extremely time- consuming, taking staff time away from an already full schedule. This is a valid criticism. In actual practice, however, social work program planning and social work practice for the foreseeable future are moving toward a recognition that, at least for programs funded by the government and the United Way, performance measurement is an expectation and not an option, as pointed out in Chapter 1.

Effectiveness-based program planning offers the conceptual tools to set up services as live, ongoing, program hypothesis-testing experiments designed to inform practitioners, administrators, and funding sources about the extent to which a program is achieving its objectives. Further, it spells out staff activities in precise language, thereby permitting a proactive approach to ensuring program success. So while the system does require an initial investment, there are clearly benefits on many levels that make the investment worth the effort. The United Way of America identifies just a few of the benefits of outcome measurement, including improving services to clients, providing feedback to staff, enabling board members to understand program issues, identifying training and technical assistance needs, comparing alternative strategies, pinpointing areas of need, ensuring greater precision in allocating resources, and many other benefits.

Summary The foundation of every program is, or should be, the program hypothesis. The program hypothesis answers the questions: What is it that is causing this problem or need or deficit or self-destructive behavior in the person and population targeted for service? What needs to be done to address those problems and needs in a way that offers the greatest likelihood of success, based on the best known research to date? The answers to those questions are then translated into a plan, or into a set of goals, objectives, and activities that direct the design and implementation of services to be provided. These three components of a plan become progressively more specific and measurable as they are developed. Goals are the most general and provide a rallying point around which stakeholders can come to consensus.

Outcome objectives are central to the plan. They state, in definable and measurable terms, what changes are expected in the target population as a result of the services to be provided. Output objectives and activities then spell out the implementation plan in very specific language with deadlines and responsibilities delineated. There is little doubt that developing a plan according to these guidelines is difficult and time-consuming. It may even cut into time allocated for provision of services. But given that the alternative is to continue to provide the same services over and over without knowing whether this is the service needed, and without being able to say anything about success it would seem to be clearly worth the effort The good news is that over time one gets

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 16/17

anything about success, it would seem to be clearly worth the effort. The good news is that over time one gets better and more skilled at conceptualizing and writing goals, objectives, and activities, and developing them takes less time once one masters the basic skills.

Case Example Youngtown Educational Services Inc. (YES) is a nonprofit agency that has been in business for over 40 years. Its mission is to improve the high school graduation rates in the local high schools and to increase the number of graduates who go on to college. Initiated by the local high schools in collaboration with the local chamber of commerce, the agency has had very strong support from the local service groups, the town, and the school district. YES provides tutoring, after-school jobs, and scholarships for advanced education. Over the years it has gradually received increased grant funding from the federal government, to the point where this funding amounted to about 60% of its budget.

The U.S. Department of Education began to require its grantees to demonstrate that their services include all ethnic populations and both genders in relation to the percentage of the population represented in the community. Up to this point, YES was simply providing services and was not keeping track of demographics on those who received services. Faced with a possible loss of over $250,000 in funding, the YES board decided that it would need to undertake some dramatic changes in terms of identifying and tracking target populations.

Review Questions 1. How would you word the YES mission statement to ensure that services were inclusive of all populations

represented in the community? 2. Assume that in providing existing services, some of the distinct needs of Latino students, who made up

16% of the high school population, were overlooked. Speculate with some if–then thinking about what might form the foundation of program hypotheses to meet the needs of these students.

3. Write a goal statement that will provide a beacon or target toward which services can be directed and that will meet the requirements of the Department of Education.

4. Write an outcome objective focused on meeting the educational needs of Latino students. 5. Identify three outputs or services that would help to reach this outcome.

References Andringa, R., & Engstrom, T. (2002). Nonprofit board answer book. Washington, DC: Boardsource.

Brody, R. (2005). Effectively managing human service organizations (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Coley, S., & Scheinberg, C. (2000). Proposal writing (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hudson, W. (1982). The clinical measurement package. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Poertner, J. (2000). Managing for service outcomes: The critical role of information. In R. Patti (Ed.), The handbook of social welfare management (pp. 267–281). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Straus, M. (1990). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The conflict tactic (CT) scales. In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 29–47). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Designing and Managing Programs

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483388328/cfi/6/44!/4/2/4/2@0:0 17/17

United Way of America. (1996). Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach (4th ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author.