Leadership Competency Wk 3 Discussion 1

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Defining Leadership Code

Five Rules of Effective Leadership

E x c e r p t e d f r o m

The Leadership Code: Five Rules to Lead By

B y

Dave Ulrich, Norm Smallwood, and Kate Sweetman

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o n e

Defining

Leadership Code

n o o n e d i s p u t e s that leadership matters. We recog-

nize good leadership firsthand when a leader we admire

inspires, excites, engages, or even leaves us. Beyond our

personal awareness, research has shown that the quality of

leadership helps meet the expectations of investors, cus-

tomers, and employees. While we can stipulate that

leadership matters and that we know it when we

encounter it, it is much more difficult to find the elusive

answer to the simple question, “What makes an effective

leader?” In study after study about what CEOs worry

about, a chronically important topic is how to develop the

next generation of effective leaders.

2 The Leadership Code

This book attempts to do the improbable, if not the

impossible. In a brief and clear way, we want to synthesize

large numbers of frameworks, tools, processes, and studies

of leadership to identify the essential rules that govern what

all great leaders do. The challenge of synthesizing this

amorphous and enormous body of knowledge is not easy,

but it is important. Defining the essential rules of leadership

serves two purposes: we want to help leaders be better lead-

ers themselves and simultaneously help those charged with

building better leadership in their organizations.

Being an effective leader starts with the self. If you

want to build leadership in your company, you need to

model what you want others to know and do. When you

can clearly declare what makes an effective leader and then

model that behavior, your employees will have clear

expectations of what they should know and do, your cus-

tomers will be delighted to do business with you, investors

will have more confidence in the intangible value of your

company, and you can make wise investments in finding

and developing future leaders.

Being an effective leader requires that you help others

to lead. Leaders succeed by enabling others to do the right

work right. Modeling the rules of leadership ensures that

you lead well, but helping others master those rules guar-

antees future success. When we know and follow the

leadership rules, we lead well; when we help others learn

Defining Leadership Code 3

and follow those rules, we expand leadership from a per-

sonal ability into an organization capability.

The leadership rules we propose in this work offer a

unified way of thinking about being a better leader and being

a better leader. We have examined the broad field, talked

in depth with the smartest leadership people we know,

and passed all that information through the screen of our

own collective hundred years of experience in the field.

Through that process, we have discovered and validated

what we now know to be the five essential rules all excel-

lent leaders must follow. Since these rules form the basis

for all good leaders just as our genetic code determines our

elemental core as people, we call it the leadership code.

This leadership code, like any other code, provides both

structure and guidance, and helps you know not only what

to do to be a better individual leader, but also how to build

better leadership capability. Some leaders seem born to the

code, others need to learn it, but it is the sine qua non of

effective leadership. The code also avoids the trap of

emphasizing one element of leadership over others. For

example, when we ask thoughtful participants in programs

where we teach, “What makes an effective leader?” we

often get a long list of outstanding ideas. Some focus on

the importance of having a vision for the future; others

on executing in the present; others on personal charisma

or character; others on engaging people; and others on

4 The Leadership Code

building long-term organizations. Shopping lists of leader-

ship attributes are useful, but they may distort the funda-

mentals of effective leadership. Purchasing food on a whim

from a last-minute shopping list may not lead to healthy

eating across all four food groups. The four food groups

offer a decision architecture that ensures balance in pur-

chasing food and healthy eating—if the framework is fol-

lowed. Having a leadership code that captures the entire

domain of what makes an effective leader helps leaders

avoid fads and quick fixes that offer the illusion of true

leadership but, like snack foods, fail to sustain success.

So, we do not disagree with most of the current hot

topics that entice leaders. We agree that leaders need to

have innovative (e.g., blue ocean) strategies, forge long-

term relationships with customers, innovate, execute, build

high-performing teams, ensure accountability, manage

people, communicate, engage others, create workforce

plans, exercise judgment, have emotional intelligence, and

possess an honorable character. Any one of these topics

deserves (and has received) extensive research, thinking,

and practice. What we offer in this book is a synthesis of

these ideas, a way to cover the landscape of leadership so

that we see the whole of what makes an effective leader,

not just one of the parts.

We characterize the leadership code as a set of five

rules. Rules lay out how a game is played; they suggest

Defining Leadership Code 5

the basic elements of any endeavor. Knowing the rules

enables you to adapt your behavior and succeed. In

sports, rules determine the type of talent and game plan

that teams adopt. In writing, rules shape the use of

language to communicate. In politics, rules often establish

who wins and loses. In driving, rules ensure safety and

fluidity. In leadership, rules resolve what makes an effec-

tive leader.

HOW WE DISCOVERED THE

LEADERSHIP CODE

In our efforts to arrive at the core rules of leadership, we

decided to rely not only on our experiences, but also to

mine a vast, well-researched body of knowledge painstak-

ingly accumulated by multiple generations of leadership

experts and organizational behavior theorists. In a brief

and clear way, we wanted to synthesize the existing frame-

works, tools, processes, and studies of leadership to define

the rules that all great leaders follow. To streamline our

efforts, we “socially networked” our way through the

ranks of many of the most recognized leaders in the field

of leadership today and did considerable reading, thinking,

debating, and writing ourselves. Our goal: to identify an

underlying framework of knowledge, skills, and values

common to all effective leaders.

6 The Leadership Code

In our work, we found that the state of the art of

leadership has evolved over time, each new stage building

at least in part on its predecessors. A brief history of mod-

ern attempts to understand leadership may help you to put

this conclusion in perspective. Interestingly, as we orga-

nized this history, we realized that the six key questions

that any journalist asks to uncover the full story have been

asked and thoroughly investigated over the past few

decades: who, what, when, where, why, and how. To

these questions was added a seventh: for whom?

• Physical traits: Who is a leader? Remember

when all leaders were supposed to be tall and

authoritative, with a firm handshake and a

steady gaze? Leadership theorists sought a core

set of leadership traits according to height,

gender, heritage, and speaking style—to no

avail. Successful leaders could have a variety

of backgrounds as well as physical and

personality traits.

• Style: How do you behave as a leader? “Take care”

or “take charge”? Leadership theorists sought to

characterize a leader by style, often a trade-off

between people and task. Generally, leaders

exhibited a preferred style, but the best leaders

could be both soft and hard, caring about people

Defining Leadership Code 7

and managing tasks. Leaders were given number

rankings (1–9; 9–1; 9–9) to capture their tendency

to focus on people or tasks.

• Situation: When and where do you focus on the

person or the task? At this stage, the answer to

the leadership question is: “It depends.” Leadership

theorists realized that the appropriate leadership

style depended on understanding the particulars

of the situation.

• Competencies: What exactly do leaders know

and do? Leadership theorists attempted to identify

the core competencies, or knowledge, skills, and

values of successful leaders.1 Competencies were

identified by what leaders said and did and were

often tailored to not only the situation but to

the business strategy. The world is awash in

competency models.

• Results: Why does leadership matter? More

recently, the focus has shifted to the truth that

without results, competencies don’t matter.2

Leadership is about getting the right results in

the right way. Leaders who can achieve a balanced

scorecard of employee, customer, investor, and

organization results will more likely succeed.

8 The Leadership Code

• Brand: For whom are you leading? Students of

leadership now realize that leadership is linking

the external identity of the firm (its brand) with

the internal culture. Leaders ensure that the

behaviors of employees reflect the leadership

brand.

We believe it is time to synthesize decades of empiri-

cal research and theorizing about leadership. Faced with

half a million books on leaders and leadership, we turned

to recognized experts in the field who had already spent

years sifting through the evidence and developing their

own theories. These thought leaders had each pub-

lished a theory of leadership based on a long history of

leadership research and empirical assessment of what

makes effective leadership. Collectively, they have written

over fifty books on leadership and performed well over

2 million leadership 360s. They are the thought leaders of

this field.3

In our discussions with them, as well as our reading

and analysis, we constantly returned to two basic sets of

questions:

1. What percent of effective leadership is basically

the same? Are there some common rules that

any leader anywhere must master? Is there a

recognizeable leadership code?

Defining Leadership Code 9

2. If there are common rules that all leaders must

master, what are they?

The questions are simple, but the answers are elusive. In

answering the first questions, experts varied—estimating

that somewhere in the range of 50 to 85 percent of

leadership characteristics were shared across all effective

leaders. The range is fairly broad, to be sure, but blessedly

consistent. As one of our interviews put it: “I think . . . that

85 percent of the competencies in various competency

models appear to be the same. I think we have a rela-

tively good handle on the necessary competencies for

a leader to possess in order to be effective.” Then the

expert added something of equally great significance: “But

there are some other variables that competency models do

not account for. [Among] the variables that I think we

don’t account for include . . . the leader’s personal situation

(family pressures, economics, competition, social, etc.);

[and] internal influences, such as health, energy, vitality,

resilience; the intensity of effort the individual is willing to

put forth, ambition and drive, willingness to sacrifice.”4

Answers like these encouraged us to pursue developing

a framework. From the body of interviews we conducted,

we concluded that 60 to 70 percent of leadership effec-

tiveness would be contained in the leadership code if we

could crack it. Synthesizing the data, the interviews, and

10 The Leadership Code

our own research and experience, we saw a pattern that

organizes the leadership code into a single framework that

we believe is accurate, logical, and useful.

An analogy guided our thinking. How different is the

hybrid Toyota Prius from the Ford F-150 truck? If you are

like most people, you likely view the two vehicles as being

very different from each other. Perhaps even opposites.

The eco-friendly Prius appeals to people interested in

shrinking their personal carbon footprint while still get-

ting about. The massive and sturdy F-150, on the other

hand, is a perfect vehicle for people who equate driving

with personal freedom and who highly value the pure

pleasure of owning the open road. You may love to drive

one and not want to be caught dead in the other, believ-

ing them to be very different species.

But are they really? Underneath the obvious external

characteristics, they share more in common than they dif-

fer. First of all, they are both forms of individual (versus

mass) transportation. They both get you where you need

to go. They each do that by sharing an important set

of core elements: drive train, crankshaft, engine, brakes,

wipers, blades, and batteries. In fact, when you add it

up, the degree to which any two cars share fundamental

similarities is much greater than their differences.

As we listened to leadership experts, we felt that the

same logic would apply. Does an effective leader at, say,

Defining Leadership Code 11

Starbucks or Whole Foods in any way resemble an effec-

tive leader at ExxonMobil? Does an effective leader in a

bootstrapping NGO in any way resemble an effective

leader at the famously bureaucratic United Nations?

Does an effective leader in an emerging market resemble

an effective leader in a mature market? Does an effective

leader in organized crime in any way resemble an effec-

tive leader in organized religion? Does an effective leader

in a Swiss pharmaceutical company share any underlying

characteristics with an effective leader in MoveOn.org?

Does an effective leader at Nokia resemble an effective

leader at Verizon?

Consider the following tale of two brothers. In the city

of Boston, two brothers grew up together in the same

household—Billy Bulger and Whitey Bulger. They defi-

nitely share a leadership gene, or a leadership learning

environment, or both. However, Billy grew up to be the

head of the university system for the state of Massachu-

setts, while Whitey grew up to be the very powerful and

notorious head of the local Irish mafia. Both are leaders,

each with his talents quite differently applied, and each

could be called “successful” in his own pursuit (until that

informant . . . ).

As we worked with these leadership experts and

reviewed the extensive work on leadership, we concluded

that leadership comprises two principle parts: one part the

12 The Leadership Code

leadership code and the other the differentiators. The code

represents about 60 to 70 percent of what makes an effec-

tive leader. It represents the basics, the fundamentals, or

the essentials of leadership. The differentiators may vary

by firm strategy and vision and by individual job require-

ments. Mastering the code becomes the foundation on

which effective leadership is established.

LEADERSHIP CODE:

TIME, FOCUS, AND SELF

Based on our observations and inputs from the thought

leaders, we suggest that leadership code maps against two

dimensions, time and attention, and is supported by the

strength of the individual leader. Why time? Because

effective leaders are able to think and act both in the short

term and for the long term. Effective leaders project into

the future and define a context in which their organiza-

tion and their people will succeed. Depending on the

need, that projection may take the form of a vision, intent,

purpose, mission, strategy, goal, objective, or plan. In all

of these cases, leaders create a credible and hopeful

image of a future for everyone who needs to invest

financially, intellectually, physically, or emotionally in the

organization, from financial markets to shareholders to

customers to employees to potential hires. They also

Defining Leadership Code 13

connect the future to the present by turning aspirations

into actions.

What do we mean by attention? Effective leaders gauge

when their focus needs to be on architecting the organi-

zation and its capabilities, and when it needs to shift to

individuals and their abilities. They are also able to

connect the two to each other. Sometimes leaders focus

on individual talent and surround themselves with gifted

individual contributors. But all-star teams would not often

beat a high-performing team, and leaders need to meld

individual talents into successful organization capabilities.

In terms of self, leaders must model what they want

others to master. Leadership of others ultimately begins

with the self. Individuals who govern themselves will be

more able to lead others. There is a vast array of self-

leadership requirements, which we called personal proficiency

because an individual leader needs to become highly

proficient in these personal requirements. Without per-

sonal proficiency, it is not possible to keep the other

dimensions in balance. The juggling act is simply too

difficult for someone who is not personally strong, aware,

and centered.

In an effort to create a useful visual, we have mapped out

two dimensions (time and focus) and placed what we are

calling personal proficiency (self-management) at the center

as an underlying support for the other two. Figure 1-1

14 The Leadership Code

Long-term strategic

Individual Organization

Personal proficiency

Rule 5: Invest in yourself

Strategist

Rule 1: Shape the future

Executor

Rule 2: Make things happen

Talent manager

Rule 3: Engage today’s talent

Human capital developer

Rule 4: Build the next generation

Near-term operational

F I G U R E 1 - 1

The leadership code

synthesizes the leadership code and captures the five rules of

leadership.

Rule 1: Shape the Future. This rule is embodied in the

strategist dimension of the leader. Strategists answer the

question, “Where are we going?” and make sure that

those around them understand the direction as well. They

not only envision, but can create a future. As practical

futurists, they figure out where the organization needs to

go to succeed, they test these ideas pragmatically against

current resources (money, people, organizational capabili-

ties), and they work with others to figure out how to get

from the present to the desired future. Strategists have a

point of view about the future and are able to position

Defining Leadership Code 15

their organization to create and respond to that future.

The rules for strategists are about creating, defining, and

delivering principles of what can be.

Rule 2: Make Things Happen. Turn what you know

into what you do. The executor dimension of the leader

focuses on the question, “How will we make sure we

get to where we are going?” Executors translate strategy

into action. Executors understand how to make change

happen, to assign accountability, to know which key

decisions to take and which to delegate, and to make sure

that teams work well together. They keep promises to

multiple stakeholders. Executors make things happen, and

put the systems in place for others to do the same. The

rules for executors revolve around disciplines for getting

things done.

Rule 3: Engage Today’s Talent. Leaders who optimize

talent today answer the question, “Who goes with us on

our business journey?” Talent managers know how to iden-

tify, build, and engage talent to get results now. Talent

managers identify what skills are required, draw talent to

their organizations, develop people, engage them, and

ensure that employees turn in their best efforts. Talent

managers generate intense personal, professional, and

organizational loyalty. The rules for talent managers center

16 The Leadership Code

around resolutions that help people develop themselves for

the good of the organization.

Rule 4: Build the Next Generation. Leaders who are

human capital developers answer the question, “Who stays

and sustains the organization for the next generation?”

Talent managers ensure shorter-term results through

people, while human capital developers ensure that the

organization has the longer-term competencies required for

future strategic success. Just as good parents invest in help-

ing their children succeed, human capital developers help

future leaders to be successful. Human capital developers

throughout the organization build a workforce plan focused

on future talent, understand how to develop the future

talent, and help employees see their future careers within

the company. Human capital developers ensure that the

organization will outlive any single individual. Human

capital developers install rules that demonstrate a pledge to

building the next generation of talent.

We found in our work that most individuals have pre-

dispositions to one of these four roles. Some enjoy living

in the abstract and future world of strategy; others in the

concrete and actionable execution space; others are com-

fortable with the social setting required of talent; and

others are gifted at developing future talent. We also found

that as leaders move up the organization into more senior

Defining Leadership Code 17

roles, they need to expand out from their predisposition

and learn to successfully master the rules to play all four

roles. This book offers specific actions that leaders can

master in each of the four roles so that even if the role

does not come naturally, it can be learned.

Rule 5: Invest in Yourself. At the heart of the leadership

code—literally and figuratively—is personal proficiency.

Effective leaders cannot be reduced to what they know

and do. Who they are as human beings has everything to

do with how much they can accomplish with and through

other people. To distinguish between what one does—

even with excellence—and who one is, consider the

following passage from Matthieu Ricard in his book

Happiness:

The striking individuals with whom I’d crossed paths

each had his or her own special genius. I’d have liked

to play piano like Glenn Gould, or chess like Bobby

Fischer, to have Baudelaire’s poetic gift, but I did not feel

inspired to become what they were at the human level.

Despite their artistic, scientific, and intellectual qualities,

when it came to altruism, openness to the world, resolve,

and joie de vivre, their ability was neither better nor

worse than that of any of us . . . I was inspired through

my readings of great figures like Martin Luther King, Jr.,

18 The Leadership Code

and Mohandas Gandhi, who by sheer strength of their

human qualities were able to inspire others to change

their way of being.5

Leaders are learners: from success, failure, assignments,

books, classes, people, and life itself. Passionate about their

beliefs and interests, they expend enormous personal

energy and attention on whatever matters to them. Effec-

tive leaders inspire loyalty and goodwill in others because

they themselves act with integrity and trust. Decisive and

impassioned, they are capable of bold and courageous

moves. Confident in their ability to deal with situations as

they arise, they can tolerate ambiguity. Think of the

steadfastness of Winston Churchill or Nelson Mandela or

Aung San Suu Kyi persevering in the face of certain

danger, and probable disaster. Leaders who demonstrate

personal proficiency follow rules about developing and

increasing personal insight so that they model the change

they want to see in others.

In the last few years, we have worked with these five

rules of leadership. As a result, we can make some sum-

mary observations.

• All leaders must excel at personal proficiency.

Without the foundation of trust and credibility,

you cannot ask others to follow you. While

Defining Leadership Code 19

individuals may have different styles (introvert

versus extrovert, intuitive versus sensing, etc.),

any individual leader must be seen as having

personal proficiency to engage followers.

• All leaders must have one towering strength. Most

successful leaders excel in at least one of the

other four roles. Most are personally predisposed

to one of the four areas. These are the signature

strengths of your leaders.

• All leaders must be at least average in their

“weaker” leadership domains.

• The higher up the organization that the leader

rises, the more he or she needs to develop

excellence in more than one of the four domains.

LEADERSHIP CODE: MAKING IT

REAL FOR YOU AND YOUR

ORGANIZATION

If you want to be a better leader or build more effective

leadership in your organization, you need to learn these five

rules of leadership. As an individual leader, some of these

rules will come naturally; some will have to be learned.

Each person’s leadership will look and feel somewhat

20 The Leadership Code

different, based on personality as well as more external

circumstances (position, job level, industry, company cul-

ture). That said, every leader must master the fundamen-

tals. Without owning these basics, an individual cannot

lead and CEOs cannot invest in future leaders because

they won’t know what they are looking for.

You may ask yourself which of the five rules come

more naturally to you. Where do you enjoy spending

time? What work comes more easily? What work ener-

gizes you? Knowing your predisposition enables you to

develop a signature leadership strength. It also focuses your

attention on what you must learn to progress in becoming

a more effective leader. If you are strong as a strategist, you

may need to pay particular attention to the rules for talent

management, execution, and human capital development.

A simple personal exercise is to take the abbreviated

leadership code survey find out your predispositions

(assessment 1-1). To be more informed, you may want to

solicit feedback from others on how they see you and

compare yourself with others’ national scores.

At a company level, we have used the leadership code

template to track if the organization has the right com-

petency model. Often when we place a company’s seven

to twelve competencies into the five rules, we find that

the model is unbalanced. One company identified twelve

competencies it wanted its leaders to demonstrate, then

Defining Leadership Code 21

Strategist

I have a point of view about the future .……........................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I create a customercentric view of strategy ………................. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I engage my organization in developing strategy …................ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I create strategic traction in my organization …...............…... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Executor

(Strategist Total) ____ � 4 � ____

I make change happen ……….........................................….... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I follow a decision protocol ……….......................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I ensure accountability ……....….....................................….... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I build teams ………........................................…................…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I ensure technical proficiency ……...........................….......…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Talent manager

(Executor Total)____� 5 � ____

I communicate effectively ……................................................ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I create aligned direction ……..................................................1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I strengthen competency in my organization .....................…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I resource to cope with demands …….................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I create a positive work environment ……............................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(Talent Manager Total)____� 5 � ____

For the first four domains of the leadership code, or the action domains, identify which domain had the highest average score. This is your area of strength in the leadership code.

If you scored 3 or lower on any of the items in the personal proficiency domain, identify how you might build your competency in this area to ensure sustained leadership effectiveness.

Scale: 1�Low 10�High

A S S E S S M E N T 1 - 1

Leadership code self-assessment

22 The Leadership Code

built a leadership 360, training, and compensation sys-

tems to encourage these twelve competencies. When we

matched these competencies to the five rules, eleven of

the twelve were in personal proficiency. The company had

a flawed model of the basics of leadership. Even if its lead-

ers excelled at mastering their proposed competencies,

they would not be doing all the basics well. The company

was eating only from one food group and wondering why

it wasn’t healthy. A simple organization exercise is to

match your organization’s competency model against the

Human capital developer

I map the workforce ……......................................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I link firm and employee brand ..................................... .....…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I help people manage their careers ……................................. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I find and develop next-generation talent …........................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I encourage networks and relationships in the organization .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Personal proficiency

(Human Capital Developer Total)____� 5 � ____

I practice clear thinking ..................................................……. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I know myself ………............................................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I tolerate stress ……...........................................................…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I demonstrate learning agility …….......................................… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I model character and integrity ……...................................…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I take care of myself ………..................................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I have personal energy and passion ….........................……... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(Personal Proficiency Total)____� 7 � ____

Defining Leadership Code 23

five rules we have suggested. Do you want leaders who are

effective in all five areas?

The purpose of this book is to synthesize what we

know about the basics of leadership so that we can each

understand how to be and build better leaders. Leadership

can be developed through education, experience, mentor-

ing, coaching, job assignment, and leaders teaching lead-

ers. There is no magic bullet. The essential thing is to

know what leadership dimensions need to be developed,

and then develop them. By defining the basic rules of

leadership, you can examine your own leadership style and

organize effective leadership development efforts to build

future leaders.

If you want to be a better leader or build more effective

leadership in your organization, you need to master these

rules. Some of these characteristics will come naturally;

some will have to be learned. Each person’s leadership

will look and feel somewhat different based on personality

as well as more external circumstances (position, job

level, industry, company culture). That said, every leader

must master the fundamentals. Without owning these

basics, an individual cannot lead and leaders cannot invest

in future leaders—because they won’t know what they are

looking for.

Go to www.leadershipcodebook.com for a brief video

lesson from Dave Ulrich that will help you to interpret

the results of the short leadership code self-assessment

tool in assessment 1-1. He will also introduce you to our

leadership code premium tools collection, including

a full-length leadership code assessment in both

self-assessment and 360 forms.

24 The Leadership Code

Notes

Chapter One

1. Competency theorists include: Richard E. Boyatzis. The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance (New York: Wiley, 1982); Lyle M. Spencer and Signe M. Spencer, Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance (New York: Wiley. 1993).

2. Results-focused theorists include: Jack Zenger, Joe Folkman, Bob Eichinger, and Mike Lombando.

3. These generous thought leaders are named and thanked in the acknowledgments.

4. Personal correspondence with Jack Zenger. Cited with permission.

5. Matthieu Ricard, Happiness: A Guide to Developing Life’s Most Important Skill, trans. Jesse Browner (New York: Little, Brown, 2006), 5.

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