RESPONSE TO EACH TEAMS GCCM PLANS

Version #

Date of Issue

Author (s)

Description of Change

0

1/21/2021

Christina Horning

Created 1st Draft + Appendix A

1

1/22/2021

Ana Paddack

Added Revision Log, propose outline based on samples, added weekly readings 1 through 5 in Appendix A and added citations to reference page

2

1/22/2021

Christina Horning

Adjusted table format, selected readings 14-17 to summarize

3

1/24/21

Christina Horning

Alphabetized reference list. Input summaries 14-18.

4

1/25/21

Jenny Wilson

Added weekly readings 19-20 in Appendix A

5

1/25/21

Charise Moore

Added weekly readings 10-13. Added accompanying citations to the Reference page.

6

1/25/21

John Kelly

Added weekly readings 6-9. Updated reference page.

7

1/26/21

Christina Horning

Updated Table with Week 3 reading list

8

2/18/2021

Ana Paddack

Added Group Motivation and Group Diversity Sections to the plan

9

2/21/2021

Charise Moore

Added the following:

1.Group Communications, Interpersonal Skills, and Technology

2. Group Cohesion

10

2/21/2021

John Paul Kelly

Added Group Leadership and Trust

11

2/22/2021

Christina Horning

Added Diversity portion and Effective Listening to the plan

12

2/22/2021

Jenny Wilson

Added Team Meetings/Assignments and Group Conflict and Decision Making sections.

13

3/11/2021

Ana Paddack

Added Negotiation section to the plan

14

3/16/2021

John Kelly

Team Conflict and Resolution Strategies

15

3/16/2021

Charise Moore

Added Argumentation, The Toulmin Model of Argumentation

Week #

Reading Assignment

Person Reading

Topics put in GCCM

Justification

2

PMBOK Chapter 9.4 Develop Team

Ana Paddack

Teams improve individual competencies, enhance motivation and enhance project performance by providing challenges, opportunities, feedback/support and rewarding high performance. High Performance is achieved by keeping open communication, creating team building opportunities, developing trust, managing and solving conflict in constructive ways.

Tuckman 5 stages of Team Development: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning

Important to justify importance of developing a team, promoting good communication and creating team building opportunities while capitalizing on diversity. Also important for understanding 5 stages of development described by Tuckman

2

Intercultural and International Business Communication

Ana Paddack

Cross border communication across different time zones is common. Culture influences: communication source, receiver, channel, feedback,context, environment and interference. Intrapersonal/Intracultural Communication represents communication with yourself and represents only one culture. Ethnocentrism which involves stereotyping is a major obstacle to intercultural communication.

McGregor’s Theories: Theory Y: employees are ambitious, self-directed and self-motivated engage in reaching their highest potential.

Theory X: Manager uses control to incentivize employees. Lack of training and tools are reasons to stop working and fixing resources is up to manager.

Ochi’s Theory: Combines theory X and Y promotes employee excellence, job rotation, skill development, and loyalty. Workers are trusted to do their job well and management is trusted to support them

Important to understand how culture affects the way people perceive group interactions. McGregor’s Theory X and Y and Ochis’s theory provide good points for further analysis for the GCCM plan.

2

Verbal Communication

Ana Paddack

Definition “use of language and its symbols and sounds to convey messages”. Verbal Communication is complemented by body language, sounds, tone, gestures, movement and stress. Gender, class, ethnicity, education, verbalization can influence communication in a social setting. Main challenge is effective transfer of information due to variability of human speech and personal assumptions and expressions. It is suggested to learn etiquette to use culturally accepted forms of verbal expression

(Sullivan, 2009)

Important to clearly understand what encompasses Verbal Communication to be able to create an effective communication plan

2

Non-Verbal Communication

Ana Paddack

Non-verbal communication is more than body language. It provides the background for communication. It connects the behavior or dress of others or can be a message itself (frown= unhappiness, wave=goodbye)Ekman and Izard argue that facial expressions are not simple reflexes. People can learn to control expressions depending on rules of culture and subculture “In Japan people learned not to show in public anger to high status people in other countries this does not apply”. Nonverbal communication affects all interpersonal encounters. People use it as indicator of the true essence of a person. Confucius Chinese philosopher “one can better understand others by looking into their eyes rather than listening to their words”.

(Frank 2020)

Important to stress significance and weight of non-verbal communication is all personal and virtual interactions

2

Listening with Spirit and the Art of Team Dialogue

Ana Paddack

Dialogue is a creative, open ended activity of a group thinking together “It is a conversation of possibility”

Discussion is about options, conversation about action and choice. Team Dialogue is collective and entails selfless receptivity to other’s ideas to create a common idea shaped and sustained by the power of collective listening and collective spirit.

“Wisdom, insight, change and action don’t come from better thinking, testing and strategizing but from letting go, receiving and listening”

(Levine 1994)

As we work in a team active listening will be key for project success. The concepts of dialogue and discussion are key in understanding the art of listening with spirit and embracing open dialogue. Breaking egocentrism to create one team that represents all our ideas.

2

Time and Culture

John Kelly

Societies across the world place different values on what is more important than time or culture. Culture meaning the enjoyment one gets from living life. Some cultures, such as the United States and Japan, prioritize time over culture. In those societies, time equals money, and money motivates individuals. Time-based cultures focus on work, punctuality and generally concentrate on priorities as they relate to time.

In contrast, European cultures such as Italy value living in the moment. Similar cultures focus on experiencing the joys of interactions, nature, and life. How long something takes is of little consequence to a person who focuses on enjoying the moment.

(Lavine, 2021)

This item is essential because businesses are global now, and a different understanding of cultures is vital for effective communication. Understanding the different values other societies have avoids conflict in multicultural teams.

2

Co-cultural Theory

John Kelly

Co-culture theory focuses on how culture and power impact communication, specifically minorities or those in subcultures (women, disabled, LBGTQ, lower economic status, first-generation college students, immigrants, international students). Co-culture theory has five assumptions, a hierarchy of power exists, dominant group members occupy the most powerful positions, power of the dominant group impacts non-dominant groups, differences and similarities exist between co-culture groups. Co-culture groups are more aware of the importance of strategic communication.

(Orbe, 2009)

Co-culture theory is a part of the plan because we need to recognize the impact dominant group members have on subcultures. To have effective communication, we must create an environment where everyone is comfortable. Co-culture highlights the importance of monitor communication to ensure open and free dialogue exists.

2

Nonverbal Delivery

John Kelly

Nonverbal communication is what the speaker does not say aloud. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, tone, timing, posture, and stance. It can hinder or advance communication and is very complicated. Nonverbal communication is continuous, and it is difficult to determine when the message ends and begins. Actions speak louder than words, so a speaker must be mindful of non-verbal communication. Nonverbal communication is universal. Other aspects of nonverbal communication consist of distance from the speaker to the audience, tattoos or piercings, movement, cadence of speech, and movement.

(McClean, 2010)

Nonverbal communication is just as important if not more important than verbal communication. Nonverbal communication is added to our plan because the speaker must ensure their nonverbal speech matches what they are saying.

2

The Effects of Home Country, Gender, and Position on Listening Behaviors

John Kelly

Listening is a top 10 rated practice for effective business; however, it is frequently overlooked. Listening now requires even more emphasis due to the globalization of business. Listeners must account for cultural differences while listening. Listening is the link to build knowledge and helps develop intellectual capital. Generally, women are better listeners than men. Men are task-focused and hear in terms of goals and current tasks. In contrast, women listen for emotion, content, and delivery. Managers also listen better than non-managers. As one's responsibility increases, so do their listening skills. Culture is also a large factor in what individuals listen for during conversation. Time-based culture is similar to men in that they are task focus. However, a culture that prioritizes life listens similarly to women and what to enjoy what the person is saying.

The effects of the home country, gender, and position on listening behaviors were added to our plan because effective communicators need to know their audience. The only way to ensure communication has intended results is to tailor it to the audience receiving it. By understanding what different genders, cultures, and levels of responsibility look for, we can focus our information for maximum effectiveness.

2

Curing the Common Cold of Leadership: Poor Listening

Charise Moore

Goleman’s article stresses the prevalence of poor listening in leadership and people in general. He highlights the overwhelming factors that lead to this poor habit. From nonstop meetings, phone calls, email, and text messages they all command your attention and lead to distracting you from a source that could be standing right in front of you. “We’re too busy (we think) to take the time to listen fully, this leads to the common cold of the workplace” (p.15). Subconsciously, we tune out what a person is saying before we understand and telling them what we think too soon (p.15). Goleman believes that real listening occurs when you hear the person who is speaking out, no interruptions then responding in a mutual dialogue. The challenge with this habit is changing the behavior to become more an effective listener. It is possible the author points out. The key is being mindful of the moments in your day when you have a naturally occurring opportunity to practice good listening (p.15).

The impact of poor listening skills, the reason for it, and significance of exploring options to overcome it.

2

Perfecting the Art of Active Listening

Charise Moore

Perfecting the Art of Active Listening is a brief but telling article that focuses on the reasons so many poor listeners exist and the reason. Kelly believes that there are reasons that can explain the existence of poor listeners: Lack of formal training; We possess the ability to think faster than we speak; We practice lazy and inattentive listening habits; We lose our listening skills as we develop; We fall victim to listening roadblocks (p. 5). To elaborate further the reasons Kelly provides focuses on the lack of listen courses available in comparison to English and/or writing courses, we think faster than we speak, we listen for the moment over time we lose what we have previously retained, the saying true children are like sponges but as time progresses the art of listening decreases and if a message being is not of interest recipient will be incapable of listening. To adopt active listening skills the author believes that we need to be fully present, use body language to ensure the speaker that you are engaged, listen with the heart, discern mixed or unspoken messages, and refrain from interrupting the other person and possibly take notes to obtain clarity once the speaker has stopped (p.5).

The significance of the article centers around improving the way we listen, understanding the art of it to improve chances of more active listening skills anf information retainment. .

2

Power Behind the Pen: Developing the Role of an Active Meeting Recorder

Charise Moore

Volkema and Avery take the opportunity to highlight the significance of an active meeting recorder aka note taker and the meeting facilitator and the importance of treating the roles as a cooperative team effort. Taking on the role of the active meeting recorder is not one to be taken lightly. It takes time, effort, stellar listening skills, and the ability to interact with the group and facilitator to ensure that information is captured accurately and precisely. The authors describe how the role is an often-overlooked source of assistance. Often the tasks are reverted to an individual not part of the work group possibly a secretary or intern (p.45). This role is not powerless and carries significant weight. The active recorder purpose is not only to document the meetings discussion but to assist the facilitator or in some instances take on facilitative tasks when appropriate. By legitimating the role of the recorder and treating the facilitator and a unit, decision making groups can give their meetings more direction and their participants more opportunities for involvement (p.48). Ending with greater satisfaction and productivity.

Highlights the significance of the active recorder and benefits of having a collaborative relationship with the facilitator to increase meeting productivity.

2

Gender Composition on Team Performance and Decision Making

Charise Moore

The authors center the article around the impact of varying gender composition in group decisions and its influence on economic performance. Research has shown that the most generous groups consist of two men and one woman and that groups that are majority women are more equalitarian (p.79). This is achieved by performing a study on an online business game, the L’Oréal e-Strat Challenge, which is played by groups of three. The purpose of this study was to simulate real world business decisions and the influence gender composition has on the outcomes and decisions made. The analysis of the study showed that teams formed by three women are significantly outperformed by any other gender combination (p.75). At the top 20%, three-women teams are outperformed by only 0.09. We also find evidence that the optimal gender composition along the whole distribution is that of two men and one woman, although the differences are not statistically significant (p.80). The findings suggest that teams with mixed genders show the highest performance. Diversity in teams could be implicative of good team dynamics (p. 93).

The importance of varying genders on the performance in groups supports an equalitarian approach as the group proceeds with collaboration.

2

What makes age diverse teams effective?

Christina

Wegge, Jungmann, Liebermann, Shemla, Ries, Diesel and Schmidt (2012) conducted a research study to examine productivity levels in age diverse teams. The study included participants of varying ages in three fields of work: financial, administrative, and vehicle manufacturing. Their results demonstrated remarkable advantages and disadvantages to age diversity in teams. Wegge et al. then utilized their results to create a training program with the intended purpose of more successfully assimilating age diverse teams.

This study revealed both advantages and disadvantages to age diversity on teams. This information is useful for training and planning purposes.

2

Age Diversity and Team Outcomes

Christina

A study on age diversity and team outcomes, Schneid, Isidor, Steinmetz, and Kabst (2016) explored research on results of age diverse teams. Their literature review concentrated exclusively on age diversity as they posited that varying diversity attributes required individual focus for research and study. Schneid et al examined age diversity’s function or relationship to overall team performance, group creativity, efficacy, team satisfaction, financial results, and team member retention. The research team found inconclusive results pertaining to age diversity and performance in most factors they reviewed.

Although this study was deemed inconclusive, it is always valuable to consider diversity effects and include training where necessary.

2

Creating Effective Project Teams Using Personality Models

Christina

Stepping away from traditional project team formation research, Ki-Young, Bozkurt, and Sunkara shifted their focus to the lesser studied diverse characteristic team formation. The study’s authors focused on methods of maximization, particularly as it pertained to personality traits. Ki-Young et al reviewed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) and Kolbe Conative Index (KCI) to determine which personality model would be most effective for their study’s purposes. To be able to include quantitative measure rather than just personality type, they decided to use the KCI and FIRO-B models to create their own numerical model from which to develop effectual teams.

Personality models are an effective tool to create effective project teams.

2

Critical Skills: Listening

Christina

Ungvarsky discusses listening as a skill, one that requires constant active thought and analysis. Ungvarssky states that it is this “intentional” or active listening that is a learned skill required for successful relationships both business and personal. To listen properly, one must pay attention and listen without planning their response while listening (Ungvarsky, 2020). The idea is to focus, maintain eye contact, provide affirmative responses, and to extract the message without judgement. After the speaker is done relaying their message, the active listener can then request clarification where required and repeat back the message to the speaker as they understand it.

Active listening is a critical skill both professionally and personally. As it pertains to project teams and communication planning in general, it never hurts to review the steps of active listening.

2

Hofstede- Cultural Dimensions

Christina

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted a study that assessed workplace values and the ways they influenced work culture. The six dimensions of national culture named the Hofstede Model include: (1) Power Distance Index (PDI), (2) Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV), (3) Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS), (4) Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), (5) Long Term Orientation vs. Short Term Informative Orientation (LTO), and (6) Indulgence vs. Restraint. Hofstede’s Model describes dimensions of values and how they affect the workplace. PDI is about power and how it is handled, IDV examines individuality vs. community- or “I vs. We”, MAS dimension analyzes penchants between masculinity vs femininity, UAI analyzes level of discomfort regarding uncertainty- flexibility vs. rigidity, LTO analyzes how closely tradition is valued vs. changing with the times, and lastly, IVR analyzes gratification vs. restriction (National Culture, 2021).

Hofstede’s workplace values are a useful tool for managing teams and determining what team members value most in the workplace.

2

Relation between Big Five Personality Traits and Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Jenny

Case study of intercultural dynamics within a multinational tech company. User Five Factor Personality Model to evaluate how personality scores correlate to cultural dimensions. A correlation exists, but is dependent on the job category and evidenced in leadership characteristics.

The discussion of five major personality traits is helpful research for discerning what contributes to organizational culture. The case study also provides significant insight into intercultural dynamics within an organization

2

Simplifying Learning and Communicating Concepts

Jenny

This video describes the Feynman Technique for learning new topics. The initial step is to study the topic. Then write about the topic and speak aloud. When you’re stuck, study more and repeat the process using more simplified language and/or graphics. Repeat until you have used the simplest language possible. This will demonstrate you have understood the topic.

The Feynman Technique provides a strategy for communicating clearly and effectively. This is particularly useful for training dynamics.

3

(*)PMBOK Guide: Ch. 13, Section 13.1 Identify Stakeholders

John Kelly

Stakeholder management is identifying people, groups, and organizations that impact or are impacted by the project. The project manager must also plan, manage and monitor stakeholder engagement—Additionally, the project management but review project documents to understand the project's goals. Identifying stakeholders occurs throughout the lifecycle of the project. New stakeholders emerge, and some go away. Consultation with the most affected stakeholders is vital. Once identified, the PM must create a way to document changes to the project, highlight organizational research, and gather relevant data. The PM needs to present data to the stakeholders allowing them to make informed decisions. Perform stakeholder analysis to determine the stakes. For example, a business owner is concerned with financial success and other provided expertise. Once the PM understands the stakeholders prioritizes, they can present the most applicable information.

Identifying stakeholders is a critical step in project management. Knowing who has a vested interest in the project makes it easier to create useful documentation. Without stakeholders the project has little direction and oversight.

3

(*)PMBOK Guide: Chapter 10, Section 10.1, Plan Communications

John Kelly

Planning communications management is developing a way to communicate activities based on the information needs of the stakeholders. The includes when, how, and what to share and with whom. The plan must consider the member's locations and preferred methods of communication. Depending on the size or complexity of the project, required communication to management may increase or decrease. Communication is the most critical aspect of project management. When detailed information is transmitted, individuals can make an informed decision and highlight potential problems.

A communication plan is necessary for all projects. We added it to our project, so every member knows when and how information is transmitted. The plan shows who needs information and how to share that data.

3

(*)Communication

Ana Maria

Communication is the means by which info is exchanged with the goal of sharing relevant info and ensuring information is understood. Communication can be formal, informal, active, passive, conscious and unconscious. These factors modify written, verbal and body language. The Berlo’s model provides simply structures to understand the complex aspects of communication. Message transmission and reception depends on personal values, vested interests, frame of mind and learning styles. Traditional channels (paper, telephone, face to phace) are being replaced by e-mail, teleconferencing, social media. Acronyms and jargon can make communication more efficient but alienate those not familiar with it. Small projects could work with verbal communication that relies on memory and interpretation but larger/complex projects require a culture of effective communication based on coordination and planned dissemination of relevant information.

When talking about a communication management plan it is important to understand what is communication and what it entails. The article offers important information on understanding the complex aspects of communication

3

(*)Communication Planning

Ana Maria

Communication planning process involves defining the type of communication that will be delivered, recipients and timing for dissemination. Key is “to get the right message at the right time” Communication can be Synchronous and involves real time exchanges samples include life meetings, audio and video conference calls, instant messaging, texting. Communication can also be Asynchronous when it is challenging to get the team together at the same time due to time zone difference. Mail,package delivery, fax, e-mail are some samples of asynchronous communication.

We added this reading to our plan as it is important to fully understand all factors and challenges that affect communication planning

3

(*)Understanding and Meeting Client Expectations

Jenny Wilson

Client satisfaction is critical to a project’s success, but stakeholders must contribute to the project. As the leader of the project, the project manager is responsible for including and motivating the client.This includes educating the client on project management and narrowing their participation to areas in which their expert knowledge is most valuable.

Educating the client on project management helps to set expectations of the project lifecycle, and mitigate potential frustration down the road. Encouraging the client to contribute their expertise gives them increased ownership over the project.

3

Project

Stakeholders

Jenny Wilson

This source discusses the various categories internal and external stakeholders may fall into: top management, project team, peers, customers, Government, etc. It identifies the benefits and challenges of involving each stakeholder category in the project.

The analysis of each stakeholder group is useful when considering potential conflicts and the mitigation efforts they may require.

3

Communications Planning

Jenny Wilson

A communication plan is created to structure the flow of information and capture the information needs of project team members and stakeholders. The level of detail included in the plan is dependent on the complexity of the project. Complex projects should include more detail to ensure information is being communicated effectively. However, the communication plan should be mindful of overloading members with information.n It should include a communication matrix and document control.

Establishing a communication plan provides the organization a project team needs to avoid potential communication gaps. The matrix serves as a visual for communication responsibilities. Document control provides accountability.

3

Communication Systems

Charise Moore

Communication systems are the different processes and methods in which information is delivered in a business between managers and lower level employees. Communication whether written, verbal, nonverbal, visual, oral, electronic has a significant impact on the way business is conducted (p.198). The goal of communication is to convey a message that is clear and easily understood. There are challenges that can occur at various stages during the pursuit to communicate. This can be a result of differing expectations and perceptions, lack of basic language skills, distractions, and /or selectivity (p.198). Unclear, inaccurate, or inconsiderate business communication can waste valuable time, alienate employees or customers, and destroy goodwill toward management or the overall business. For example: Written communication is the most common form of communication as more companies operate their businesses in virtual sitting. The emphasis is on good writing skills within a growing industry of remedial writing and to convey in an accurate and concise manner. Oral communication: Listening is often overlooked for important elements. Nonverbal communication: facial expressions, body gestures, and tone of voice may provide more insight then verbal communication.External/Internal communication are also significant mediums that have proven to be essential for a business to be online and keep employees in the loop. Overall, good communication should be complete, concise, clear, concrete, considerate, and courteous (p.201).

This article summarizes the significance of the various communication methods that are utilized to convey messages.

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The Measurement and Evaluation of the Internal Communication Process in Project Management

3

The Effects of Group Longevity on Project Communication and Performance

3

(*)Stakeholder Theory

Charise Moore

Stakeholder theory focuses on the attempt to identify , explain, and prescribe an organization's relationships and responsibility to other actors (p. 930). In the past stakeholders sole responsibility was centered around obtaining the greatest profit. The extent of current uses of stakeholders extend to: a) descriptive b)instrumental-how to accomplish desired outcomes c) normative uses-prescriptive manners (ethics & philosophies) ( p. 930).

Identifying and prioritizing stakeholders is another critical factor in determining who would be a valuable contributor and hold weight in making decisions that will result in desired outcomes. There three critical characteristics that would assist with making this decision including: 1) Power to influence 2) Legitimacy of their claim and 3) Urgency of claim (p.931). In general, communication scholars draw upon stakeholder theory to understand how organizations communicate with and are held accountable to multiple stakeholders (p.931).

This article summarizes the effort that goes into identifying stakeholders and determining what level of decision making should be appointed to who. Stakeholders can make or break a project and ensuring that the appropriate stakeholder(s) is involved from start to end will benefit the overall progress success.

3

Communication Skills

3

Stakeholder Analysis: Process Model

3

Project Communications Management in Practice

4

(*)Chapter 10: Leading People and Organizations

Ana Paddack

P-O-L-C framework: Includes 1) Planning (vision & mission, strategizing and goals and objectives) 2)Organizing (organization design, culture and social networks) 3)Leading (leadership, decision making, communications, groups/teams, motivation) 4) Controlling (systems and processes, human resource strategy).

The big five personality traits that predict leadership are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.

Traits associated with leadership are: integrity, intelligence (both mental and emotional intelligence), extraversion, conscientious, open to experience and self esteem. One of the limitations of using a trait approach to predict leadership is that it ignores the situation in which leadership occurred. Under different conditions different leadership traits might be needed.

Leaders can have task oriented or people oriented behaviors. The three types of decision-making style are authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. These behaviours are also limited to the environment and there is no best style as the effectiveness of each style can vary across situations.

Contingency approaches to leadership describe the role a situation would play in choosing the most effective leadership style.

Transformational Leaders lead employees by aligning their goals to the leader’s goals using charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Transactional leaders ensure employees demonstrate the right behavior because leaders provide the right resources in exchange.

We selected the content of chapter 10 because it helped us define what leadership is and identify the traits and behaviors of effective leaders.

4

(*)Chapter 14 Motivating Employees

Ana Paddack

Motivation is defined as achieving a goal that mixed with ability and environment can lead to high performance. Motivation alone is not sufficient. Ability which includes having the skills and knowledge required to perform a job is also important in addition to having the resources, information and support one needs to perform well. Motivation is essential in leading the P-O-L-C framework.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs says that human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. Once lower-level needs are satisfied it no longer serves as motivators. Needs are hierarchically organized as Physiological (air, food, water). Safety, Social, Esteem and Self-actualization

ERG Theory by Clayton proposes that basic human needs are grouped under three categories (existence, relatedness and growth).

Two-factor Theory differentiates between factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees and finally acquired-needs theory argues that people have stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power and affiliate with others. Process-based theories use the mental processes of employees as the key to understanding employee motivation. According to equity theory, employees are demotivated when they view reward distribution as unfair. In addition to distributive justice, research identified two other types of fairness (procedural and interactional), which also affect worker reactions and motivation. According to expectancy theory, employees are motivated when they believe that their effort will lead to high performance. Reinforcement theory argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. By properly tying rewards to positive behaviors, eliminating rewards following negative behaviors and punishing negative behaviors, leaders can increase the frequency of desired behaviors. Skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback increase motivation. Goal-setting theory is one of the most influential theories of motivation. To motivate employees, goals should be SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely). Setting goals and objectives is a task managers undertake when involved in the planning portion of the P-O-L-C function.

We selected the information from this reading to better understand motivation, motivational theories and how fairness perceptions are determined and their consequences to be able to provide recommendations that will help us develop motivation skills.

4

Motivation: Origins of the Extrinsic/Intrinsic Debate

John Kelly

This article focuses on the effect of extrinsic vs. intrinsic forms of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is an inner desire or motivation to perform because it provides reinforcement (Hummel, 2014). Extrinsic motivation is doing an activity because you want to receive an award or some recognition. The article concludes that managers should use a variety of positive consequences to maintain and improve performance. The report states that managers and leaders must utilize various motivation tactics based on the situation and the follower preferences.

Understanding the different methods of motivation is essential for those who wish to lead effectively. As leaders, we will encounter different types of follows and be involved in various situations. In regards to motivation, one-size does not fit all. A leader must recognize the environment they operate in and understand what motivates their followers. By being aware of their followers and the situation, the leader can implement the best motivational tactics to get the best results.

4

(*)The Four Intrinsic Rewards that Drive Employee Engagement

Jenny Wilson

As the work requirements have changed, worker expectations have evolved. The authors argue that worker motivation is centered on purpose and intrinsic rewards are driven by:

1. Committing to a meaningful purpose

2. Choosing the best way of fulfilling that purpose

3. Making sure that one is performing work activities competently, and

4. Making sure that one is making progress to achieving the purpose.

The authors also provide seven guidelines for building a high-engagement culture within the workplace.

This source is useful for understanding what motivates team members and how to encourage them.

4

(*)Extrinsic Motivation

Jenny Wilson

Extrinsic motivation is associated with material rewards outside the individual (e.g., payment). Emphasis is placed on the reward and not the behavior.

This source provides a clear and concise definition of extrinsic motivation.

4

(*)Intrinsic Motivation

Jenny Wilson

Intrinsic motivation align’s with an individual’s internal drive. It links behavior with purpose.

This source provides a clear and concise definition of intrinsic motivation.

4

(*)Leadership Theories and Studies

Christina Horning

The Encyclopedia of Management defines leadership as a method of motivating people towards achieving goals. In this definition, leadership is a social construct that encourages others to participate of their own volition and their participation is directed towards a common goal. The article reviews the study of leadership over time to bring more clarity to the definition. Further, it is stated that management and leadership are different concepts. The distinction between them is their level of authority. Management has authority over those they lead by the formality of the position. Leaders, however, may not necessarily have formal authority to aid them in their leadership goals and therefore must rely on their influence. Historical Leadership theories described were Trait, Behavioral, Contingency, Leader-Membership Exchange, Charismatic, and Substitutes for Leadership as leadership perspectives. The leadership theory review emphasized Trait Approach, Leader-Behavior Approach, and Contingency Theory as the primary theories. None of the theories were deemed a sufficient encapsulation of leadership on their own and the other frameworks mentioned remain useful in leadership theory (Encyclopedia of Management, 2009).

The importance of this reading is to explore different leadership theories. Primarily, the distinction between leadership and management is an important concept to be familiar with.

4

(*)Situational And Contingency Approaches To Leadership

Christina Horning

Contingency approaches to leadership emphasize the leader’s traits and situational approaches focus on the leader's perceived behaviors. The contingency model is called a Trait Contingency Model of Leadership, that is, a model where the leader’s traits are the determiner for success. Ayman & Hartman (2004) state that the least preferred coworker, or LPC interacts with the leader’s traits in this scenario. Their view is that the leader’s “inner needs” are reflected onto the subordinate in the situation. The contingency model is further divided into those who are task-oriented and those who are relationship-oriented. This model incorporates traits, climate, and situation to determine a team’s efficacy. Cognitive resource Theory (CRT) is another contingency approach that looks at two factors- a leader’s experience and intelligence. The leader’s stress is also a factor in this theory.

Additionally, there are Behavioral Contingency Models that explore how leaders behave in a situation. Path-Goal theory builds on this as it explores how effectively leaders help members clear the path to their goals. Normative Decision-Making Model is a behavioral model that focuses on how the leader act in response to the situation. Situational Leadership Theory starts with four “leader behaviors” which are: telling, selling, participating, and delegating. This theory relates the success and usefulness of these behaviors to a team member’s maturity level. For this theory, the leader leads based on the situation. They “sell” the task when it needs selling, “delegate” when the situation calls for it, “participate” when needed, and they “tell” when someone needs to be told to do a task. The three behavioral models are distinct in that the normative model looks at the decision of the leader, and the path-goal and situational leadership look at the leader’s behavior.

Ayman and Hartman reviewed the contingency models and theories as well as one that proposed four variables of note, “the substitutes for leadership theory focuses on how subordinates' needs, abilities, and perceptions interact with the situation. In contrast, the contingency model of leadership effectiveness focuses more on the power source of the leader and how that power source interacts with the situation” (Ayman & Hartman, 2004).

This article explains the importance of focusing on the leader’s traits, the situation, and the contingencies when evaluating leadership methods.

4

(*)Motivation and Motivation Theory

Christina Horning

Motivation Theory examines the why of the behavior. The study of organizational behavior focuses on the motivations behind a person’s behaviors. While studying motivation, early studies examined internal drives and cognitive processes. As motivation knowledge and studies evolved, they were divided into content theories (need) or process theories.

Content theories are internal or based on individuals’ inner drives. They include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory- this is Maslow’s hierarchy with less categories, existence, relatedness, and growth- this theory excludes basic low-level needs from the equation, Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, is specifically related to workplace motivation, and McClelland's learned needs (three-needs theory), which suggest individual needs are culturally based.

Process theories of motivation concentrate on cognitive motivation processes. Simply put, behavior is a cognitive and deliberate process. Process theories of motivation are expectancy theory (employees choose behaviors that may lead to expected outcomes), equity theory (more socially based- employees compare their work and rewards to others), goal-setting theory (goals are the motivating factors), and reinforcement theory (behavior is motivated by reinforcers).

The Encyclopedia of Management (2009) states that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was originally intended for use in WWII to place women in their most effective job position, however, it evolved into a useful tool for determining employees’ motivations.

The study of Motivational Theory is key when one is planning on motivating a team or attempting to determine the reasoning for a lack of motivation.

4

(*)Leadership Styles and Bases of Power

Christina Horning

Leadership approach describes a leader’s methods of planning, inspiring, and offering instructions. Bases of power describes the ways in which a manager uses their authority and influence to lead.

Kurt Lewin named three leadership styles, authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.

The authoritarian leader dictates without question or comment from subordinates. The democratic leader encourages collaboration, input, and work-load decisions among the group, and the laissez-faire leader provides a lot of freedom and minimal oversight. Lewin favored the democratic style, however, leaders fair best when they alter their leadership style to fit the situation at hand.

Next, five bases of power were studied as they demonstrate power: coercive (force power), legitimate (employee believes manager has the right), reward (employees allow based on reward), referent (power is based on respect), and expert (power based on assumption of expertise). Power can be expressed through one or more of these bases and they each have their situations where they are effective like leadership styles. Further, power and authority are “multidimensional because relationships are by nature multidimensional”. Just as leadership styles depend on multiple variables, so do power bases.

Knowledge of leadership style and bases of power are important for a leader to be familiar with.

4

Six Bases of Power

John Kelly

1. Power that leaders to socially independent change

2. Power that results in socially dependent change with surveillance necessary

3. Power that leads to socially dependent change with surveillance unnecessary

4. Coercive power & reward power: personal versus impersonal forms

5. Legitimate power: Position, reciprocity, equity, & Responsibility

6. The power/interaction model of interpersonal influence (Raven, 2004).

This article focused on the effects of the six types of power and determined it was challenging to answer. Because different types of power work differently for each leader and follower. The other effects occur due to different skill sets, personalities, and leadership tools. A leader or follow can know what power style is needed but lack the skills to generate the desired effect.

The various types of power are useful information to know and understand. Recognizing the different kinds of control a person has and the type of influence needed to generate results can benefit leaders.

4

Power and Social Psychology

John Kelly

Power is the ability to impose one's will on others (Aanstoos, 2019). The types of power are to coerce, to reward, and to change a belief. These types of power remind me of the carrot or the stick method. A person can either get rewarded or punished depending on their choice. However, the ability to change a person's beliefs is more complicated and requires more energy. Like other studies done on power and its effects, the method used depends on what motivates the follower. Some individuals do not care about rewards and only respond to threats and vice versa. A leader must recognize what motivates their followers.

The concept of rewards versus threats is a known method of getting desired results. The critical topic to get from this article is understanding your follower's motivations is paramount.

4

Life-cycle Model of Leadership

John Kelly

This article focuses on situational leadership (SL) and its principles. The three principles of SA are 1. (1) Self-directed work teams advocates that supervision should be minimal when employees are sufficiently capable of being self-directed; (2) employee competence and dedication or professionalism can be viewed as potent substitutes for leadership; and (3) leaders need to be both socially intelligent and flexible in their behavior (Vecchio, 2007). Additionally, they noted that as follower maturity increases, the need for leadership declines but the need for supervisory supportiveness increases. And at the highest levels of follower maturity, the need for structuring and supervisory consideration becomes irrelevant. This report focuses on managerial dynamics and not authentic leadership. These principles highlight an important factor in project management that mature workers require less direct oversight but still need research and information on any project adjustment.

This information is vital because, as project managers, we need to focus our attention on places that require it the most. Recognizing the mature employees needs less direct supervision, which frees up time to focus on other areas. Additionally, mature works may not enjoy management the deem unnecessary, which can affect production.

4

(*)PMBOK Guide (6th ed.): Section 3.4, Project Manager Competencies

Charise Moore

Project manager (PM) competencies are a critical component of the role. Three key skill sets are believed to be necessary to ensure that the PM can be the most effective; technical, leadership, and business intelligence(p. 57). Technical PM skills are defined as the skills to effectively apply project management knowledge to deliver desired outcomes for projects or programs (p. 58). The PM should be proficient in managing schedules, issue logs, risks, and time management to name a few areas. Strategic and business management skills involve the ability to see the high-level overview of the organization and effectively negotiate and implement decisions and actions that support strategic alignment and innovation (p. 58). The PM should be knowledgeable enough to explain the business aspect of the effort and implement a plan and/or product that benefits the business. Leadership skills involve the ability to guide, motivate, and direct a team (p.60). Leadership skills are critical to the success of the PM role, a majority if not 100% of the time you will deal with a diverse group of people so being able to adapt your styles of leadership creates a path for project success.

The PM skills set topic was selected for this article to highlight the significance of being well rounded in the role. The ideal PM that composes the three skills sets are the most effective and will produce desired outcomes in most efforts.

4

(*)Management/Leadership Styles

Charise Moore

Management and leadership styles differ a bit and many business leaders do not understand the difference between the functions/roles and may misinterpret how to carry out their duties to meet organizational goals (p.478). There are several theories that explain how managers and/or leaders practice. Contingency theory focuses on what managers do in practice, it suggests that how a manager operates and makes decisions depends upon a set of circumstances (p.479). This implies that a manager is not self driven something needs to occur in order for the individual to act. Theory X and Y center around how people work for others (p.479). Theory Z being the most ideal theory focuses on best practices for employee and organizational development.

This topic was selected because of its emphasis on management and leadership style, and the role that it plays in business success.

4

(*)Politics, leadership, and the art of relating to your project team

Charise Moore

Politics in project management (PM) refers to the influence and/or persuasion to affect the outcome of an event, decision, or strategic direction (2007). Within any organization you will be faced with both positive and negative politics that will determine how effective you will be as leader or in this case a PM. The positive politics can put you in a position for success. For example cultivating mentors to assistance with building your skill set, or creating a positive impression of yourself. Negative politics could potentially alter the PM’s reputation, and/or project success to name a few. Organizational politics are an unavoidable influence. As project leaders, it's our job to ensure we're acting with others in mind when we act to advance our projects and organizations (2007).

Politics was the chosen topic from the article because of the inability to avoid it in any work setting. It is unfortunately unavoidable and the project managers to be aware of the positive and negative sides of politics to be aware of its impact on their bottom line and how to remain an effective project leader.

5

(*)PMBOK Guide: Chapter 9, Section 9.4 and 9.4 Develop Team

Christina

Building a team is one part of acquiring resources. PMBOK delineates between internal and external resources. Internal resources are assigned- usually by management, and external resources are procured. The project team may not have full control during the selection or resources because of prior contracts, subcontractors, project environment, reporting protocol and a host of other reasons. When the project management team is acquiring resources, they should be prepared to negotiate. A project management plan will include plans for resource management, procurement, budget baseline, schedule, resource schedule or calendar, requirements, and stakeholder analysis (PMBOK, 2017, p.366).

Next the PM will want to use existing organizational data, lesson learns, procurement procedures, interpersonal skills, and decision-making skills to build the team. Virtual teams can be utilized to widen the geographical net. Once team assignments are made, they will be tracked and allocated with resource calendars. Changes to the resource calendar or schedule, or to the resources allocated will require change requests. Project documents, project schedule, resource breakdown structure, lessons learned, resource requirements, risk register and the stakeholder register will all be updated following the resource acquisition process.

Following team assignment, the next stage is team development where the PM seeks to build a cohesive and empowered team. The Tuckman ladder model that consists of the five phases: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning, will typically occur unless the project team is not new to working together (PMBOK, 2017, p.338). Again, project documents will be updated after which the team development will move from the input to the tools and techniques phase. At this stage, location vs virtual, communication, conflict management, motivation, influencing, and team building will be developed and built upon to form the project team. Finally, recognition, rewards, training, assessments, and meetings will all be part of team development.

This section of the PMBOK describes resource acquisition and team development. As far as resource allocation goes, the project team is a vitally important resource.

5

(*) Managing Conflict

Christina

The author describes conflict in this manner as a battle over resources. Conflict can be used positively to enhance creativity and group growth. When not handled in a careful, structured way, conflict can be detrimental to both the team and the team’s progress.

Conflict can be viewed malevolently; however, conflict is also a natural result of teamwork

The author (s) suggest a conflict management plan which they refer to as a crisis communication plan.

Conflict can be categorized in five categories:

(1) Conflicts of substance- Are conflicts about choices or about facts.

(2) Conflicts of value- Conflicts about differing values or priorities.

(3) Conflicts of process- Conflicts of method

(4) Conflicts of misperceived differences- Misunderstandings

(5) Relationship Conflicts- Conflicts due to personality differences

Rather than minimizing or avoiding conflict, team members can choose to engage in conflict management techniques that are non confrontational, controlling, or cooperative. Most recommended is a five-step assertive approach that both avoids judgment and manipulation. The steps are: (1) offer objective description. (2) offer your interpretation (3) express your feelings (4) identify consequences and (5) state your intentions. In this manner, conflict can be addressed without aggression.

Other conflict management techniques include offer suggestions without opinion or attachment, try to find common ground, utilize active listening, stay on point, frame as a problem rather than a competition, treat everyone as an equal, consider how important the conflict truly is (is it worth it), determine whether it must be resolved or if it can be let go as an issue that does not need resolution.

Good conflict management can take many forms- the key is to maintain self-control and use tools and techniques (and a plan) to effectively manage it.

Managing conflict is key to effectively communicating with the project team.

5

(*) Conflict Management

Charise

The article Conflict Management focuses on the both negative and positive impact of conflict management on the success of a project. The goals of conflict management are to: utilise the positive aspects of conflict; resolve organisational and interpersonal conflict; minimise the impact of conflict on objectives (Praxis,). There are several factors that can contribute to conflicts in groups that may alter outcomes. Such as unspoken assumptions, different personal values, conflicting roles, etc. During any project it should be anticipated that conflict may arise, this could be a learning experience for some but a detrimental factor for others. There are warning signs that signal that a conflict may occur, such as hostility and/r challenges to name a few. If unresolved during the initial stage tis could lead to irreversible damage to the project.

There are multiple ways to address conflict within a project team. In some forms of conflict, a meditator may be useful (Praxis,?). Resolution is the key to ensuring the teams objectives are aligned throughout the duration of the project. Conflict resolution is a complex skill but identifying specific techniques or approaches helps to understand what is involved and develop the right competences (Praxis, ). There are several models that have been developed to identify different aspects of conflict resolution. Different styles are needed in different circumstances but everyone has their own preferred style (Praxis,)

As projects, programmes , and portfolios become more robust it is inevitable that the intensity of conflict will increase. This will call for a methodical approach to addressing conflicts.

This article was selected because of its high level focus on conflict management.

The factors that contribute to conflicts and the various methods that exist to help mitigate the conflicts that could potentially impact a project, program , and/or portfolio.

5

(*) A-E-I-O-U Model of Managing Conflict

Charise

Managing conflict can be a touchy area in general and especially within project management. Sometimes conflict arises and you may be uncertain of where to begin. “No one likes confrontation, but it is necessary, there are a few basic tools out there that can make all the difference between a successful outcome and a frustrating one”(Mehl).

Mehl’s A-E-I-O-U approach sums up the ideal model for effective communication. Starting with A or acknowledge which generally sets the tone of how the remainder of the resolution process will go. You set the stage for positivity and ensure that the recipient understands that you see their positive intention. E or express is where you communicate what you see or feel about the situation. I or identify is the stage where you propose solutions to the issues that are causing the conflict and/or miscommunication. O or outcome is the stage where you outline the benefits of the outcome. Lastly, U or understanding is the stage you inquire if your proposed resolution to the conflict is acceptable and meets the needs of both parties.

The key to using the A-E-I-O-U method is separating the person from the problem to develop a constructive plan( Mehl). Set an approach with positive intentionality to refrain from hostility or defensiveness from the recipient.

This article was selected to highlight a constructive method that provides a step by step approach to managing conflict. This method ensures that a positive stage is set early on to make way for a successful resolution.

5

(*) Small Group Dynamics

Jenny

This source is significantly comprehensive and discusses group cohesion, climate, socialization, pressures, and conflict.

Group climate refers to the quality of the experience of group members as part of the group. Cohesion contributes to the group climate through task cohesion and social cohesion.

Socialization is the process of learning the group’s norms and behaviours.

Group pressures are the motivating factors for group members to conform to group’s norms and expectations.

Group conflict may fall into three categories: procedural, substantive, and interpersonal.

This source provides substantial information about group dynamics and conflict. It is very useful in understanding the foundational concepts that contribute to both areas.

5

(*) Conflict Management and Negotiation

Jenny

The article clearly outlines sources of conflict and several conflict management methodologies.

The sources of conflict include scarce resources, jurisdictional ambiguities, personality clashes, power and status differences, goal differences, and communication breakdown.

The conflict management methodologies explained are Conflict Resolution Grid, The Five A’s Technique, and Quantum Skills.

This article provides a history of professional conflict management approaches and how they have been applied.

5

Conflict Styles

Charise

Conflict Styles focuses on the five different methods that are used when addressing a conflict. They include : 1) Avoidance-deciding not to engage in the conflict 2) Competition-there is a winner or loser at the end of the conflict discussion 3) Compromise-there is a middle ground, someone gives up something to benefit others 4) Accommodation-someone caterers to another team members to appease them 5) Collaboration-the group comes together to brainstorm a resolution to the conflict.

This article was selected because it identifies styles that are used to approach conflict. Most are done subconsciously as a result of actions learned during childhood.

5

(*) Conflict Styles of Men and Women at Six Organization Levels

Jenny

Researchers analyze conflict styles by organization level and gender. They argue these two elements are salient and ubiquitous features and must be considered when identifying appropriate conflict management methods.

This article provides insight into how organization level and gender play a role in the conflicts an organization experiences.

5

Conflict Management/Resolution

John Kelly

Two behavioral dimensions describe conflict management ranging from high to low (Sullivan, 2009). Under the two dimensions, five conflict management styles exist: competing, accommodating, avoiding, compromising, and collaborating. Depending on the situation and the manager’s personality, choose the most appropriate technique.

Conflict management and resolution are skills needed to lead effectively.

5

(*) Group Cohesiveness

Ana Paddack

Cohesiveness is the sense of community within the group. Researchers are unclear as to whether cohesiveness is a unidimensional (i.e., cohesiveness is a concept in and of itself) or multidimensional (i.e., cohesiveness is actually a collection of more specific concepts) construct. Being committed to a group does not imply that one is committed to its members, and vice versa. Cohesiveness is strongest when the person is attracted to both the group and its members. Cohesiveness is affected by many things: the extent to which group members like each other, the extent to which the group's goals match one's personal goals, satisfaction with how the group is performing, and the existence of outside factors that discourage a member's exiting the group. The biggest impediment to fostering cohesion is the temporal instability of a group. Well-functioning groups should be kept together as long as possible. Conformity tends to be higher within cohesive groups than within more fractious groups. High cohesiveness can be detrimental to decision-making groups. Cohesiveness impacts the stability of group composition regardless of type of group. The less cohesion, the more likely it is that group members will move to other groups if opportunities to move become available. It is recommended that group managers attend to both the group itself and the needs of individual members,and addressing issues of cohesion is a way for managers to simultaneously attack both types of issues. Cohesiveness can be enhanced by reducing the size of the group, emphasizing a common goal, and reducing perceived differences in member status (Parks 2004).

This article was chosen to argument that pros and cost of cohesive teams

5

(*) Groupthink

Ana Paddack

Groupthink refers to the process that leads a group of capable and talented members to render a poor, often disastrous, group decision. Insulation from outside opinion is problematic. Devil's advocacy has been shown to positively impact decision quality when outside resources are not available.

High levels of cohesion can discourage group members from criticizing each other's ideas, for fear of harming relations within the group, yet critical thinking is crucial if the group is favoring a poor choice.

The Eight Symptoms of Groupthink, Identified by Irving Janis are: 1) an illusion of invulnerability, shared by most or all the members, which creates excessive optimism and encourages taking extreme risks; 2) collective efforts to rationalize in order to discount warnings which might lead the members to reconsider their assumptions 3) an unquestioned belief in the group's inherent morality, inclining the members to ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their decisions; 4) stereotyped views of enemy leaders as too evil to warrant genuine attempts to negotiate, or as too weak and stupid to counter 5) direct pressure on any member who expresses strong arguments against any of the group's stereotypes, making clear that this type of dissent is contrary to what is expected of all loyal members; 6) self-censorship of deviations from the apparent group consensus, 7) a shared illusion of unanimity by the false assumption that silence means consent); 8) the emergence of self-appointed mindguards—members who protect the group from adverse information that might shatter their shared complacency about the effectiveness and morality of their decisions. The most straightforward advice for a team leader is to tolerate dissent, actively encourage discrepant viewpoints, and support critiquing of one another's ideas as well as look for outsider feedback (Parks 2004).

Selected to better understand and explain factors that lead to group think and the type of behaviors leaders should embrace to avoid it

5

Groupthink

John Kelly

Groupthink occurs when a group strives towards unanimity in decision-making at the expense of thoroughly examining all possible solutions (Salazar, 2009). Group thinking is associated with characteristics such as group cohesiveness, structural faults, and provocation situational context. Cohesiveness is the primary factor in groupthink. To avoid group thinks to add new members to groups.

Groupthink is a negative trend is groups which limites the free flow of ideas. Adding this to our project would help limit group thinking.

5

(*) Group Conflict

Ana Paddack

Group climate or morale refers to the tone and quality of group interaction that is experienced by group members. Cohesion can be task and social. Task cohesion is the commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group. Social cohesion is the attraction and liking among group members. Balance among the two is key. Groups with good levels of cohesiveness set goals easily; exhibit a high commitment to achieving the purpose of the group; are more productive; experience fewer attendance issues; have group members who are willing to stick with the group during times of difficulty; have satisfied group members who identify with, promote, and defend the group; have members who are willing to listen to each other and offer support and constructive criticism; and experience less anger and tension. Qualities that contribute good climate are participating, messages, feedback, equity, clear and accepted roles and motivation.

Group cohesion is also demonstrated through symbolic convergence which is a sense of community that develops in a group through non-task-related communication such as stories and jokes. Aside from efficiency, teams are also valued for the potential for innovation. Groups can experience challenges of conformity, groupthink and group conflict. Groups experience different kinds of conflict, including procedural, substantive, and interpersonal conflict. 1) Procedural conflict emerges from disagreements with questions about “how” a group should do something. 2) Substantive conflict focuses on group members’ differing beliefs, attitudes, values, or ideas related to the purpose or task of the group. A lack of substantive conflict can lead to groupthink. To avoid this, managers need to listen to all viewpoints, try to find common ground, and then weigh and evaluate the information as a group. 3) Interpersonal conflict emerges from personal conflict between individual members of a group. (Small Group Dynamics Chapter 13.3)

Important to explain relationship between group cohesion and climate and relationship between conformity and groupthink as well as important types of conflict.

5

Managing Conflict

5

Conflict and Group Communication

John Kelly

This article focuses on how communication contributes to conflict within groups. Each group member may handle conflict in various ways based on a person’s inclination to act when faced with competition(Aakhus, 2002). Five conflict styles describe individuals engaging in conflict: forcing, smoothing, withdrawing, compromise and collaboration.

Communication is vital to group cohesion and project success.

6

(*)Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups

Christina

Creative Commons’ chapter on problem solving and decision making describes problems faced by groups as having three components- the problem or unwanted situation, the ideal or wanted situation, and the hurdles between unwanted and wanted outcomes. Groups must be aware of these components as they tackle problems. Through the problem-solving lens, the members will address the level of task complexity, potential solutions, importance rating, group knowledge about the problem, and importance of the solution.

Although there are a variety of problem-solving approaches, a methodical view is the general recommendation. In essence, define the problem, analyze the problem, produce alternatives, evaluate the alternatives, and then implement the chosen solution. Group problem-solving and decision-making is more challenging and time consuming than individual decision making due to the multiple viewpoints, power dynamics, and varying levels of participation. Brainstorming with certain requirements is suggested- aim for quantity over quality for ideas, do not judge ideas during session, all ideas are welcome, and all contributions are included. It is further suggested in the chapter to begin with a warmup, then have a brainstorming session, followed by clean-up (clarify ideas and eliminate redundancy), then evaluate the results.

Decision making techniques include majority rule, minority rule, and consensus. Majority rule is a popular choice where the majority (one-half plus one) must agree before a decision is made. Minority rule gives a designated person the final vote, and they may or may not consider others’ viewpoints. Finally, consensus rule requires everyone to agree. The decision-making process can be affected by personality factors or situation factors. Individual influences based on personal factors and group size, knowledge level, urgency, and group power of decision making all can play a role

Problem-solving steps and decision-making techniques are an important part of a group communication plan.

6

Group Problem Solving

6

Groups and Meetings

6

Decision Making

6

(*)Decision Making and Group Communication

Ana

A decision is a choice among two or more alternatives. Decision making refers to the process that groups go through to identify alternative choices and the appropriate way to select an alternative. Individual opinions change as a result of group communication. Group members influence each other through the messages they exchange. If a low-status person in the group raises a good idea, it is likely to be rejected publicly by the group members. Even if the idea is accepted, the low-status member is less likely to get credit for the good idea than the more high-status members of the group.

Some groups develop communication patterns that are extremely polite and formal. Other groups embrace open conflict. In these groups, the simple act of agreeing or supporting another person's comments can easily be taken by that person as a challenge. The approaches for decision-making communication include: Functional Approach: suggests the following steps for group decision making (1) define the problem, (2) identify criteria for a good solution, (3) generate alternative solutions, (4) assess alternatives, and (4) choose a solution. These functions define what groups should do.

Decision-Emergence Approach: Describe how decisions will emerge groups (1) orient themselves to the task, (2) engage in conflict with each other, (3) develop some standards about making a choice, and (4) create solutions. Theories of Aubrey Fisher and M Scott Poole explain how decisions emerge and how to make decisions.

Common Difficulties in Group communication include Groupthink, Polarization, Inferential Errors. The use of a facilitator can help overcome problems (AAKHUS 2002).

Important to help support the key role of communications for group decision making and better understanding on approaches for decision making communication

6

(*)Majority Rule

Ana

The principle of majority rule in elections and decision-making was introduced in medieval Germanic law and canon law as a consequence of failures to make decisions by unanimity. The majority principle has been praised for being the only system that satisfies the following criteria: (1) decisiveness, but only when there are no more than two alternatives (e.g., candidates, parties, or policy proposals) to choose from; (2) anonymity or voter equality; (3) neutrality with respect to issues, so the status quo or the largest group does not have an advantage; and (4) monotonicity, or a positive response to changes in voter preference. However, this model relies on two strong assumptions: a single-dimensional issue space and only two alternatives. Even when majority rule is decisive and maximizes social utility, as in a single-dimensional space with only two alternatives, it can produce a tyranny of the majority, where one group always wins and there is a permanent losing minority (Majority rule 2008).

Good article to support fact that majority rule is not effective under all scenarios but it might only be effective when there are two proposals for decision making

6

Consensus (Communication)

6

Problem Solving

6

(*)Problem-solving Approaches

Charise

Group conflict is an inevitable situation. Each member will bring their own characteristics that bring about this situation. To bring resolution, you must first solve the problem. Problem solving approaches refer to specific methodologies, with their own strategies, tactics, and assumptions (d’Estree, 2009).

There are several approach types; mediation, transformative, negotiation, and adjudication to name a few. The mediation approach stresses a focus on identifying underlying interests and reaching integrative agreements(d’Estree, 2009). The transformative approach emphasizes changing the participants and their way of relating. The negotiation approach must influence the other to achieve their own goals. Lastly, in adjudication the parties are supplicants to an authority figure who makes the decision; in some variants such as arbitration, the parties choose to give this authority over to a third party (d’Estree, 2009). .

This article was selected to highlight the significance of varying problem solving approaches when confronted with conflict within a group.

6

Individual Priming in Virtual Team Decision-Making

6

(*)Building More Effective Virtual Teams: An Examination of the Task Variable in Online Group Problem-Solving

Christina

Stephen Dundis and Suzanne Benson wrote a literature review focusing on task type pertaining to group problem-solving and its effect on the process. The prevalence of virtual teams and groups has increased the intricacy of team collaboration and the communication quality of those collaborations. Their purpose was to increase efficiency within that process. The authors reviewed six types of task characteristics: interdependence, goal ambiguity, data gathering/distribution, information processing, evaluation demands, and situational under the assumption that as task demands shift, so do the team member exchanges. Dundis and Benson posit that member interaction increases based on task factors and that these conditions affect group problem solving performance and member satisfaction.

This could be helpful in considering task type vs interaction level requirements.

6

(*)Meeting Management

Charise

“Meetings have been considered very important from time immemorial (Reinsborough, 2007, p. 1). “Today meetings are an essential means for achieving the communication necessary for the operation of virtually all organizations, large and small” (Reinsborough, 2007, p. 1) . There are several major types of meetings that occur including staff, project team, process and procedure, quarterly. A staff meeting usually consists of supervisors/managers with their direct reports, to provide updates from senior leadership regarding organizational changes and/or team changes/goals. Project team meetings usually are dedicated to status updates, kick-offs, etc. Process and procedure meetings are usually to communicate new or modified processes and procedures that may affect a particular group directly. Quarterly meetings are usually a large scale meeting to discuss more high level organizational topics with senior and/or executive leadership.

To ensure that meetings are effective several pre meeting planning procedures must take place prior to. Including the following:

· Determine if a meeting is actually needed

· Prepare the agenda and distribute to participants, remembering to provide ample time for review and pre work if applicable

· Identify the facilitator and note taker

· Ensure the availability of materials/equipment

Conducting the meeting in an effective manner is also a critical component. A few guidelines will help in its effectiveness, including:

· Starting the meeting on time

· Keeping the meeting on track

· Follow the agenda and time schedule

· Identify and assign tasks

· Encourage people to participate

· Control the meeting

Overall, there are a multitude of guidelines and elements that help support effective meeting management.

This article was selected to identify the numerous guidelines that can be followed to manage meetings effectively.