Mind and Body Phil 336
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1— Two Concepts of Mind
1—
What Is Consciousness?
Conscious experience is at once the most familiar thing in the world and the most mysterious. There is nothing we know about more directly than consciousness, but it
is far from clear how to reconcile it with everything else we know. Why does it exist? What does it do? How could it possibly arise from lumpy gray matter? We
know consciousness far more intimately than we know the rest of the world, but we understand the rest of the world far better than we understand consciousness.
Consciousness can be startlingly intense. It is the most vivid of phenomena; nothing is more real to us. But it can be frustratingly diaphanous: in talking about conscious
experience, it is notoriously difficult to pin down the subject matter. The International Dictionary of Psychology does not even try to give a straightforward
characterization:
Consciousness: The having of perceptions, thoughts, and feelings; awareness. The term is impossible to define except in terms that are unintelligible without a grasp of what
consciousness means. Many fall into the trap of confusing consciousness with selfconsciousness—to be conscious it is only necessary to be aware of the external world.
Consciousness is a fascinating but elusive phenomenon: it is impossible to specify what it is, what it does, or why it evolved. Nothing worth reading has been written about it.
(Sutherland 1989)
Almost anyone who has thought hard about consciousness will have some sympathy with these sentiments. Consciousness is so intangible that even this limited attempt
at a definition could be disputed: there can arguably be perception and thought that is not conscious, as witnessed by the notions of subliminal perception and
unconscious thought. What is central to conscious
C o p y r i g h t 1 9 9 6 . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r , e x c e p t f a i r
u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/12/2022 8:25 AM via UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND GLOBAL CAMPUS AN: 55770 ; David J. Chalmers.; The Conscious Mind : In Search of a Fundamental Theory Account: s4264928.main.edsebook
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ness, at least in the most interesting sense, is experience. But this is not definition. At best, it is clarification.
Trying to define conscious experience in terms of more primitive notions is fruitless. One might as well try to define matter or space in terms of something more
fundamental. The best we can do is to give illustrations and characterizations that lie at the same level. These characterizations cannot qualify as true definitions, due to
their implicitly circular nature, but they can help to pin down what is being talked about. I presume that every reader has conscious experiences of his or her own. If all
goes well, these characterizations will help establish that it is just those that we are talking about.
The subject matter is perhaps best characterized as ''the subjective quality of experience." When we perceive, think, and act, there is a whir of causation and
information processing, but this processing does not usually go on in the dark. There is also an internal aspect; there is something it feels like to be a cognitive agent.
This internal aspect is conscious experience. Conscious experiences range from vivid color sensations to experiences of the faintest background aromas; from hard
edged pains to the elusive experience of thoughts on the tip of one's tongue; from mundane sounds and smells to the encompassing grandeur of musical experience;
from the triviality of a nagging itch to the weight of a deep existential angst; from the specificity of the taste of peppermint to the generality of one's experience of
selfhood. All these have a distinct experienced quality. All are prominent parts of the inner life of the mind.
We can say that a being is conscious if there is something it is like to be that being, to use a phrase made famous by Thomas Nagel. 1 Similarly, a mental state is
conscious if there is something it is like to be in that mental state. To put it another way, we can say that a mental state is conscious if it has a qualitative feel—an
associated quality of experience. These qualitative feels are also known as phenomenal qualities, or qualia for short.2 The problem of explaining these phenomenal
qualities is just the problem of explaining consciousness. This is the really hard part of the mindbody problem.
Why should there be conscious experience at all? It is central to a subjective viewpoint, but from an objective viewpoint it is utterly unexpected. Taking the objective
view, we can tell a story about how fields, waves, and particles in the spatiotemporal manifold interact in subtle ways, leading to the development of complex systems
such as brains. In principle, there is no deep philosophical mystery in the fact that these systems can process information in complex ways, react to stimuli with
sophisticated behavior, and even exhibit such complex capacities as learning, memory, and language. All this is impressive, but it is not metaphysically baffling. In
contrast, the existence of conscious experience seems to be a new feature from this viewpoint. It is not something that one would have predicted from the other
features alone.
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That is, consciousness is surprising. If all we knew about were the facts of physics, and even the facts about dynamics and information processing in complex
systems, there would be no compelling reason to postulate the existence of conscious experience. If it were not for our direct evidence in the firstperson case, the
hypothesis would seem unwarranted; almost mystical, perhaps. Yet we know, directly, that there is conscious experience. The question is, how do we reconcile it with
everything else we know?
Conscious experience is part of the natural world, and like other natural phenomena it cries out for explanation. There are at least two major targets of explanation
here. The first and most central is the very existence of consciousness. Why does conscious experience exist? If it arises from physical systems, as seems likely, how
does it arise? This leads to some more specific questions. Is consciousness itself physical, or is it merely a concomitant of physical systems? How widespread is
consciousness? Do mice, for example, have conscious experience?
A second target is the specific character of conscious experiences. Given that conscious experience exists, why do individual experiences have their particular nature?
When I open my eyes and look around my office, why do I have this sort of complex experience? At a more basic level, why is seeing red like this, rather than like
that? It seems conceivable that when looking at red things, such as roses, one might have had the sort of color experiences that one in fact has when looking at blue
things. Why is the experience one way rather than the other? Why, for that matter, do we experience the reddish sensation 3 that we do, rather than some entirely
different kind of sensation, like the sound of a trumpet?
When someone strikes middle C on the piano, a complex chain of events is set into place. Sound vibrates in the air and a wave travels to my ear. The wave is
processed and analyzed into frequencies inside the ear, and a signal is sent to the auditory cortex. Further processing takes place here: isolation of certain aspects of
the signal, categorization, and ultimately reaction. All this is not so hard to understand in principle. But why should this be accompanied by an experience? And why,
in particular, should it be accompanied by that experience, with its characteristic rich tone and timbre? These are two central questions that we would like a theory of
consciousness to answer.
Ultimately one would like a theory of consciousness to do at least the following: it should give the conditions under which physical processes give rise to
consciousness, and for those processes that give rise to consciousness, it should specify just what sort of experience is associated. And we would like the theory to
explain how it arises, so that the emergence of consciousness seems intelligible rather than magical. In the end, we would like the theory to enable us to see
consciousness as an integral part of the natural world. Currently it may be hard to see what such a theory would be like, but without such a theory we could not be
said to fully understand consciousness.
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Before proceeding, a note on terminology. The term ''consciousness" is ambiguous, referring to a number of phenomena. Sometimes it is used to refer to a cognitive
capacity, such as the ability to introspect or to report one's mental states. Sometimes it is used synonymously with "awakeness." Sometimes it is closely tied to our
ability to focus attention, or to voluntarily control our behavior. Sometimes "to be conscious of something" comes to the same thing as "to know about something." All
of these are accepted uses of the term, but all pick out phenomena distinct from the subject I am discussing, and phenomena that are significantly less difficult to
explain. I will say more about these alternative notions of consciousness later, but for now, when I talk about consciousness, I am talking only about the subjective
quality of experience: what it is like to be a cognitive agent.
A number of alternative terms and phrases pick out approximately the same class of phenomena as "consciousness" in its central sense. These include "experience,"
"qualia," "phenomenology," "phenomenal," "subjective experience," and "what it is like." Apart from grammatical differences, the differences among these terms are
mostly subtle matters of connotation. "To be conscious" in this sense is roughly synonymous with "to have qualia," "to have subjective experience," and so on. Any
differences in the class of phenomena picked out are insignificant. Like "consciousness," many of these terms are somewhat ambiguous, but I will never use these terms
in the alternative senses. I will use all these phrases in talking about the central phenomenon of this book, but "consciousness" and "experience" are the most
straightforward terms, and it is these terms that will recur.
A Catalog of Conscious Experiences
Conscious experience can be fascinating to attend to. Experience comes in an enormous number of varieties, each with its own character. A farfromcomplete
catalog of the aspects of conscious experience is given in the following pretheoretical, impressionistic list. Nothing here should be taken too seriously as philosophy,
but it should help focus attention on the subject matter at hand.
Visual experiences. Among the many varieties of visual experience, color sensations stand out as the paradigm examples of conscious experience, due to their pure,
seemingly ineffable qualitative nature. Some color experiences can seem particularly striking, and so can be particularly good at focusing our attention on the mystery
of consciousness. In my environment now, there is a particularly rich shade of deep purple from a book on my shelf; an almost surreal shade of green in a photograph
of ferns on my wall; and a sparkling array of bright red, green, orange, and blue lights on a Christmas
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tree that I can see through my window. But any color can be aweprovoking if we attend to it, and reflect upon its nature. Why should it feel like that? Why should it
feel like anything at all? How could I possibly convey the nature of this color experience to someone who has not had such an experience?
Other aspects of visual experience include the experience of shape, of size, of brightness, and of darkness. A particularly subtle aspect is the experience of depth. As a
child, one of my eyes had excellent vision, but the other was very poor. Because of my one good eye, the world looked crisp and sharp, and it certainly seemed three
dimensional. One day, I was fitted with glasses, and the change was remarkable. The world was not much sharper than before, but it suddenly looked more three
dimensional: things that had depth before somehow got deeper, and the world seemed a richer place. If you cover one eye and then uncover it, you can get an idea of
the change. In my previous state, I would have said that there was no way for the depth of my vision to improve; the world already seemed as threedimensional as it
could be. The change was subtle, almost ineffable, but extremely striking. Certainly there is an intellectual story one can tell about how binocular vision allows
information from each eye to be consolidated into information about distances, thus enabling more sophisticated control of action, but somehow this causal story does
not reveal the way the experience felt. Why that change in processing should be accompanied by such a remaking of my experience was mysterious to me as a ten
yearold, and is still a source of wonder today.
Auditory experiences. In some ways, sounds are even stranger than visual images. The structure of images usually corresponds to the structure of the world in a
straightforward way, but sounds can seem quite independent. My telephone receives an incoming call, an internal device vibrates, a complex wave is set up in the air
and eventually reaches my eardrum, and somehow, almost magically, I hear a ring. Nothing about the quality of the ring seems to correspond directly to any structure
in the world, although I certainly know that it originated with the speaker, and that it is determined by a waveform. But why should that waveform, or even these neural
firings, have given rise to a sound quality like that?
Musical experience is perhaps the richest aspect of auditory experience, although the experience of speech must be close. Music is capable of washing over and
completely absorbing us, surrounding us in a way that a visual field can surround us but in which auditory experiences usually do not. One can analyze aspects of
musical experience by breaking the sounds we perceive into notes and tones with complex interrelationships, but the experience of music somehow goes beyond this.
A unified qualitative experience arises
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Image not available.
Figure 1.1.
Effability and ineffability in olfactory
experience.
(Calvin and Hobbes © Watterson. Distributed by Universal Press Syndicate.
Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved)
from a chord, but not from randomly selected notes. An old piano and a faroff oboe can combine to produce an unexpectedly haunting experience. As always, when
we reflect, we ask the question: why should that feel like this?
Tactile experiences. Textures provide another of the richest quality spaces that we experience: think of the feel of velvet, and contrast it to the texture of cold metal,
or a clammy hand, or a stubbly chin. All of these have their own unique quality. The tactile experiences of water, of cotton candy, or of another person's lips are
different again.
Olfactory experiences. Think of the musty smell of an old wardrobe, the stench of rotting garbage, the whiff of newly mown grass, the warm aroma of freshly baked
bread. Smell is in some ways the most mysterious of all the senses, due to the rich, intangible, indescribable nature of smell sensations. Ackermann (1990) calls it ''the
mute sense; the one without words." While there is something ineffable about any sensation, the other senses have properties that facilitate some description. Visual
and auditory experiences have a complex combinatorial structure that can be described. Tactile and taste experiences generally arise from direct contact with some
object, and a rich descriptive vocabulary has been built up by reference to these objects. Smell has little in the way of apparent structure and often floats free of any
apparent object, remaining a primitive presence in our sensory manifold. (Perhaps animals might do better [Figure 1.1].) The primitiveness is perhaps partly due to the
slotandkey process by which our olfactory receptors are sensitive to various kinds of molecules. It seems arbitrary that a given sort of molecule should give rise to
this sort of sensation, but give rise it does.
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Taste experiences. Psychophysical investigations tell us that there are only four independent dimensions of taste perception: sweet, sour, bitter, and salt. But this four
dimensional space combines with our sense of smell to produce a great variety of possible experiences: the taste of Turkish Delight, of curried blackeyed pea salad, 4
of a peppermint Lifesaver, of a ripe peach.
Experiences of hot and cold. An oppressively hot, humid day and a frosty winter's day produce strikingly different qualitative experiences. Think also of the heat
sensations on one's skin from being close to a fire, and the hotcold sensation that one gets from touching ultracold ice.
Pain. Pain is a paradigm example of conscious experience, beloved by philosophers. Perhaps this is because pains form a very distinctive class of qualitative
experiences, and are difficult to map directly onto any structure in the world or in the body, although they are usually associated with some part of the body. Because
of this, pains can seem even more subjective than most sensory experiences. There are a great variety of pain experiences, from shooting pains and fierce burns
through sharp pricks to dull aches.
Other bodily sensations. Pains are only the most salient kind of sensations associated with particular parts of the body. Others include headaches (which are perhaps
a class of pain), hunger pangs, itches, tickles, and the experience associated with the need to urinate. Many bodily sensations have an entirely unique quality, different
in kind from anything else in our experience: think of orgasms, or the feeling of hitting one's funny bone. There are also experiences associated with proprioception, the
sense of where one's body is in space.
Mental imagery. Moving ever inward, toward experiences that are not associated with particular objects in the environment or the body but that are in some sense
generated internally, we come to mental images. There is often a rich phenomenology associated with visual images conjured up in one's imagination, though not nearly
as detailed as those derived from direct visual perception. There are also the interesting colored patterns that one gets when one closes one's eyes and squints, and the
strong afterimages that one gets after looking at something bright. One can have similar kinds of auditory ''images" conjured up by one's imagination, and even tactile,
olfactory, and gustatory images, although these are harder to pin down and their associated qualitative feel is usually fainter.
Conscious thought. Some of the things we think and believe do not have any particular qualitative feel associated with them, but many do. This ap
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plies particularly to explicit, occurrent thoughts that one thinks to oneself, and to various thoughts that affect one's stream of consciousness. It is often hard to pin down
just what the qualitative feel of an occurrent thought is, but it is certainly there. There is something it is like to be having such thoughts.
When I think of a lion, for instance, there seems to be a whiff of leonine quality to my phenomenology: what it is like to think of a lion is subtly different from what it is
like to think of the Eiffel tower. More obviously, cognitive attitudes such as desire often have a strong phenomenal flavor. Desire seems to exert a phenomenological
''tug," and memory often has a qualitative component, as with the experience of nostalgia or regret.
Emotions. Emotions often have distinctive experiences associated with them. The sparkle of a happy mood, the weariness of a deep depression, the redhot glow of a
rush of anger, the melancholy of regret: all of these can affect conscious experience profoundly, although in a much less specific way than localized experiences such as
sensations. These emotions pervade and color all of our conscious experiences while they last.
Other more transient feelings lie partway between emotions and the more obviously cognitive aspects of mind. Think of the rush of pleasure one feels when one gets a
joke. Another example is the feeling of tension one gets when watching a suspense movie, or when waiting for an important event. The butterflies in one's stomach that
can accompany nervousness also fall into this class.
The sense of self. One sometimes feels that there is something to conscious experience that transcends all these specific elements: a kind of background hum, for
instance, that is somehow fundamental to consciousness and that is there even when the other components are not. This phenomenology of self is so deep and
intangible that it sometimes seems illusory, consisting in nothing over and above specific elements such as those listed above. Still, there seems to be something to the
phenomenology of self, even if it is very hard to pin down.
This catalog covers a number of bases, but leaves out as much as it puts in. I have said nothing, for instance, about dreams, arousal and fatigue, intoxication, or the
novel character of other druginduced experiences. There are also rich experiences that derive their character from the combination of two or many of the components
described above. I have mentioned the combined effects of smell and taste, but an equally salient example is the combined experience of music and emotion, which
interact in a subtle, difficulttoseparate way. I have also left aside the unity of conscious experience—the way that all of these experiences seem to be tied together as
the experience of a single experiencer. Like the sense of self, this unity sometimes
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seems illusory—it is certainly harder to pin down than any specific experiences—but there is a strong intuition that unity is there.
Sad to say, we will not again be involved this closely with the rich varieties of conscious experience. In addressing the philosophical mysteries associated with
conscious experience, a simple color sensation raises the problems as deeply as one's experience of a Bach chorale. The deep issues cut across these varieties in a
way that renders consideration of the nature of specific experiences not especially relevant. Still, this brief look at the rich varieties of conscious experience should help
focus attention on just what it is that is under discussion, and provides a stock of examples that can be kept in mind during more abstract discussion. 5
2—
The Phenomenal and the Psychological Concepts of Mind
Conscious experience is not all there is to the mind. To see this, observe that although modern cognitive science has had almost nothing to say about consciousness, it
has had much to say about mind in general. The aspects of mind with which it is concerned are different. Cognitive science deals largely in the explanation of behavior,
and insofar as it is concerned with mind at all, it is with mind construed as the internal basis of behavior, and with mental states construed as those states relevant to the
causation and explanation of behavior. Such states may or may not be conscious. From the point of view of cognitive science, an internal state responsible for the
causation of behavior is equally mental whether it is conscious or not.
At the root of all this lie two quite distinct concepts of mind. The first is the phenomenal concept of mind. This is the concept of mind as conscious experience, and of
a mental state as a consciously experienced mental state. This is the most perplexing aspect of mind and the aspect on which I will concentrate, but it does not exhaust
the mental. The second is the psychological concept of mind. This is the concept of mind as the causal or explanatory basis for behavior. A state is mental in this
sense if it plays the right sort of causal role in the production of behavior, or at least plays an appropriate role in the explanation of behavior. According to the
psychological concept, it matters little whether a mental state has a conscious quality or not. What matters is the role it plays in a cognitive economy.
On the phenomenal concept, mind is characterized by the way it feels; on the psychological concept, mind is characterized by what it does. There should be no
question of competition between these two notions of mind. Neither of them is the correct analysis of mind. They cover different phenomena, both of which are quite
real.
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I will sometimes speak of the phenomenal and psychological ''aspects" of mind, and sometimes of the "phenomenal mind" and the "psychological mind." At this early
stage, I do not wish to beg any questions about whether the phenomenal and the psychological will turn out to be the same thing. Perhaps every phenomenal state is a
psychological state, in that it plays a significant role in the causation and explanation of behavior, and perhaps every psychological state has an intimate relation to the
phenomenal. For now, all that counts is the conceptual distinction between the two notions: what it means for a state to be phenomenal is for it to feel a certain way,
and what it means for a state to be psychological is for it to play an appropriate causal role. These distinct notions should not be conflated, at least at the outset.
A specific mental concept can usually be analyzed as a phenomenal concept, a psychological concept, or as a combination of the two. For instance, sensation, in its
central sense, is best taken as a phenomenal concept: to have a sensation is to have a state with a certain sort of feel. On the other hand, the concepts of learning and
memory might best be taken as psychological. For something to learn, at a first approximation, is for it to adapt its behavioral capacities appropriately in response to
certain kinds of environmental stimulation. In general, a phenomenal feature of the mind is characterized by what it is like for a subject to have that feature, while a
psychological feature is characterized by an associated role in the causation and/or explanation of behavior.
Of course, this usage of the term "psychological" is a stipulation: it arises from identifying psychology with cognitive science as described above. The everyday concept
of a "psychological state" is probably broader than this, and may well include elements of the phenomenal. But nothing will rest on my use of the term.
A Potted History
The phenomenal and the psychological aspects of mind have a long history of being conflated. René Descartes may have been partly responsible for this. With his
notorious doctrine that the mind is transparent to itself, he came close to identifying the mental with the phenomenal. Descartes held that every event in the mind is a
cogitatio, or a content of experience. To this class he assimilated volitions, intentions, and every type of thought. In his reply to the Fourth Set of Objections, he
wrote:
As to the fact that there can be nothing in the mind, in so far as it is a thinking thing, of which it is not aware, this seems to me to be selfevident. For there is nothing that we can
understand to be in the mind, regarded in this way, that is not a thought or dependent on a thought. If it were not a thought nor
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dependent on a thought it would not belong to the mind qua thinking thing; and we cannot have any thought of which we are not aware at the very moment it is in us.
If Descartes did not actually identify the psychological with the phenomenal, he at least assumed that everything psychological that is worthy of being called mental has
a conscious aspect. 6 To Descartes, the notion of an unconscious mental state was a contradiction.
Progress in psychological theory rather than in philosophy was responsible for drawing the two aspects of mind apart. As recently as a century ago, psychologists such
as Wilhelm Wundt and William James were recognizably Cartesian in that they used introspection to investigate the causes of behavior, and developed psychological
theories on the basis of introspective evidence. In this fashion, phenomenology was made the arbiter of psychology. But developments soon after established the
psychological as an autonomous domain.
Most notably, Sigmund Freud and his contemporaries solidified the idea that many activities of the mind are unconscious, and that there can be such things as
unconscious beliefs and desires. The very fact that this notion seemed coherent is evidence that a nonphenomenal analysis of thought was being used. It appears that
Freud construed the notions causally. Desire, very roughly, was implicitly construed as the sort of state that brings about a certain kind of behavior associated with the
object of the desire. Belief was construed according to its causal role in a similar way. Of course Freud did not make these analyses explicit, but something along these
lines clearly underlies his use of the notions. Explicitly, he recognized that accessibility to consciousness is not essential to a state's relevance in the explanation of
behavior, and that a conscious quality is not constitutive of something's being a belief or a desire. These conclusions rely on a notion of mentality that is independent of
phenomenal notions.
Around the same time, the behaviorist movement in psychology had thoroughly rejected the introspectionist tradition. A new ''objective" brand of psychological
explanation was developed, with no room for consciousness in its explanations. This mode of explanation had only partial success, but it established the idea that
psychological explanation can proceed while the phenomenal is ignored. Behaviorists differed in their theoretical positions: some recognized the existence of
consciousness but found it irrelevant to psychological explanation, and some denied its existence altogether. Many went further, denying the existence of any kind of
mental state. The official reason for this was that internal states were supposed to be irrelevant in the explanation of behavior, which could be carried out entirely in
external terms. Perhaps a deeper reason is that all mental notions were tainted with the disreputable odor of the phenomenal.
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In any case, these two developments established as orthodoxy the idea that explanation of behavior is in no way dependent on phenomenal notions. The move from
behaviorism to computational cognitive science for the most part preserved this orthodoxy. Although the move brought back a role for internal states, which could
even be called ''mental" states, there was nothing particularly phenomenal about them. These states were admissible precisely on the grounds of their relevance in the
explanation of behavior; any associated phenomenal quality was at best beside the point. The concept of the mental as psychological thus had center stage.
In philosophy, the shift in emphasis from the phenomenal to the psychological was codified by Gilbert Ryle (1949), who argued that all our mental concepts can be
analyzed in terms of certain kinds of associated behavior, or in terms of dispositions to behave in certain ways. 7 This view, logical behaviorism, is recognizably the
precursor of much of what passes for orthodoxy in contemporary philosophy of psychology. In particular, it was the most explicit codification of the link between
mental concepts and the causation of behavior.
Ryle did not put this theory forward as an analysis of just some mental concepts. He intended all of them to fall within its grasp. It seemed to many people, as it seems
to me, that this view is a nonstarter as an analysis of our phenomenal concepts, such as sensation and consciousness itself. To many, it seemed clear that when we talk
about phenomenal states, we are certainly not talking about our behavior, or about any behavioral disposition. But in any case, Ryle's analysis provided a suggestive
approach to many other mental notions, such as believing, enjoying, wanting, pretending, and remembering.
Apart from its problems with phenomenal states, Ryle's view had some technical problems. First, it is natural to suppose that mental states cause behavior, but if
mental states are themselves behavioral or behavioral dispositions, as opposed to internal states, then it is hard to see how they could do the job. Second, it was
argued (by Chisholm [1957] and Geach [1957]) that no mental state could be defined by a single range of behavioral dispositions, independent of any other mental
states. For example, if one believes that it is raining, one's behavioral dispositions will vary depending on whether one has the desire to get wet. It is therefore
necessary to invoke other mental states in characterizing the behavioral dispositions associated with a given sort of mental state.
These problems were finessed by what has become known as functionalism, which was developed by David Lewis (1966) and most thoroughly by David
Armstrong (1968).8 On this view, a mental state is defined wholly by its causal role: that is, in terms of the kinds of stimulation that tend to produce it, the kind of
behavior it tends to produce, and the way it interacts with other mental states. This view made mental states fully internal and
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