for Eng.Kelvin History assignment

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Dante Alighieri: De Monarchia (On the monarchy)

BOOK I. WHETHER TEMPORAL MONARCHY IS NECESSARY

FOR THE WELL-BEING OF THE WORLD

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

1. All men on whom God has stamped the love of truth should especially concern themselves in

laboring for posterity, in order that future generations may be enriched by their efforts, as they

themselves were made rich by the efforts of generations past. For that man who is imbued with

learning, but cares not to contribute something to the public good, is far behind in his duty, let

him be assured. Indeed, he is indeed, not “a tree planted by the rivers of water that brings forth

his fruit in his season” [Ps. 1.3], but rather a destructive whirlpool, always engulfing, and never

giving back what it has devoured.

Often meditating with myself upon these things, lest I should someday be found guilty of the

charge of the buried talent [Mt.24.14-30], I desire to bear fruit, and to establish truths not

attempted by others. For he who should demonstrate again a theorem of Euclid, who should

attempt after Aristotle to set forth anew the nature of happiness, who should undertake after

Cicero to defend old age a second time - what fruit would such a one yield? None; his tedious

superfluousness would merely occasion disgust.

2. Now, inasmuch as among other mysterious yet essential truths, knowledge of temporal

Monarchy is most important and least taught, and inasmuch as the subject has been shunned by

all because it has no direct relation to gain, therefore my purpose is to bring it out from its

hiding-place, that I may both keep watch for the good of the world, and be the first to win the

laurels of so great a prize for my own glory. Verily, I undertake a difficult task and one beyond

my powers, but my trust is not so much in my own worth as in the light of the Giver “that gives

to all men liberally, and upbraids not.”

CHAPTER II: To what end does government exist among all men?

1. First, we must ascertain what temporal Monarchy is in its idea, as I may say, and in its

purpose. Temporal Monarchy, called also the Empire, we define as a single Principality

extending over all peoples at one time. Concerning it three main questions arise. First, we may

ask and seek to prove whether it is necessary for the well-being of the world; secondly, whether

the Roman people rightfully appropriated the office of Monarchy; and thirdly, whether the

authority of Monarchy derives from God directly, or from another - the vicar of God.

CHAPTER III: To actualize the whole capacity of the intellect in speculation and action

In beginning, then, let it be recognized that God makes nothing in vain; but that whatever comes

into being comes with a definite function. For, according to the intention of the Creator, as

Creator, the ultimate end of a created being is not the being itself but its proper function.

Wherefore a proper function exists not for the sake of the being, but the being exists for the

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function. There is, then, some distinct function for which humanity as a whole is ordained, a

function which neither an individual nor a household, neither a village, nor a city, nor a

particular kingdom, has power to perform.

What this function is will be evident if we point out the distinctive capacity of humanity as a

whole. A faculty shared by many diverse species is not a differentiating characteristic of any one

of them. […] Although other beings possess intellect, theirs is not intellect distinguished by

potentiality, as is man’s. Such beings are intelligent species in a limited sense, and their existence

is not an uninterrupted act of understanding. It is evident, therefore, that the differentiating

characteristic of humanity is the distinctive capacity or power of their intellect.

3. […] It is a common saying that the speculative intellect becomes by extension the practical,

whose end is to do and to make. The things to be done are those controlled by political sagacity,

and the things to be made are controlled by crafts, but they are all handmaids of speculation, the

supreme end for which the Primal Good [i.e. God] brought into being the human race. From this

now grows clear the saying [of Aristotle’s] Politics that “the vigorous in intellect naturally

govern other men.”

CHAPTER IV: To attain this end humanity requires universal peace

1. It has now been satisfactorily explained that the proper function of the human race, taken in

the aggregate, is to actualize continually the entire capacity of the intellect, primarily in

speculation, then, through its extension and for its sake, in action. And since it is true that the

individual man seated in quiet grows perfect in knowledge and wisdom, it is plain that amid the

calm and tranquility of peace the human race accomplishes most freely and easily its given work.

Whence it is manifest that universal peace is the best of those things which are ordained for our

beatitude.

And hence to the shepherds sounded from on high a message not of riches, nor of pleasures,

honors, length of life, nor of health, nor of beauty; but the message of peace. For the heavenly

host said, “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace among men in whom he is well

pleased”[Lk. 2:14]. Likewise, “Peace be unto you”[Jn.20:21] ] was the salutation of the Savior of

men. It befitted the supreme Savior to utter the supreme salutation. It is evident to all that the

disciples desired to preserve this custom; and Paul likewise in his words of greeting[Rom.1:6].

2. From these things which have been expounded so far we perceive through what best means

the human race may fulfill its proper office. Consequently we perceive the nearest way through

which may be reached that universal peace toward which all our efforts are directed as their

ultimate end, and which is to be assumed as the basic principle of subsequent reasoning. This

principle was necessary, we have said, as a predetermined formula, into which, as into a most

manifest truth, must be resolved all things needing to be proved.

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CHAPTER V: When several things are ordained for one end, one must rule and the others

obey

1. Resuming what was said in the beginning, I repeat, there are three main questions asked and

debated in regard to temporal Monarchy, which is more commonly termed the Empire, and it is

my purpose to make inquiry concerning these in the order cited, according to the principle now

enunciated. And so let the first question be whether temporal Monarchy is necessary for the well-

being of the world. The necessity of temporal Monarchy can be gainsaid with no force of reason

or authority, and can be proved by the most powerful and patent arguments, of which the first is

taken on the testimony of the Philosopher in the Politics. There this venerable authority asserts

that when several things are ordained for one end, one of them must regulate or rule, and the

others submit to regulation or rule. This, indeed, demands credence not only because of the

author’s glorious name, but also because of inductive reasoning.

2. If we consider the individual man, we shall see that this applies to him, for, when all his

faculties are ordered for his happiness, the intellectual faculty itself is regulator and ruler of all

others; in no way else can man attain to happiness.

If we consider the household, whose end is to teach its members to live rightly, there is a need

for one called the pater familias [i.e. head of the household] to direct and govern the members of

the family, according to the Philosopher when he says, “Every household is ruled by its eldest.”

It is for him, as Homer says, to guide and make laws for those dwelling with him. From this

arises the proverbial curse, “May you have an equal in your house” [Homer, Od. 9. 114].

If we consider the village, whose aim is adequate protection of persons and property, there is

again needed for the governing of the whole community one man chosen by the rest, or one who

had risen to preeminence from among the rest through his efforts and acquired their consent to

rule; otherwise, if the leading man lacks support, he cannot rule; sometimes the whole

community is destroyed by many striving for that first place.

Again, if we consider the city, whose end is to ensure comfort and sufficiency in life, there is

need for undivided rule in rightly directed governments, and in those wrongly directed as well;

else the end of civil life is missed, and the city ceases to be what it was.

Finally, if we consider the individual kingdom, whose end is that of the city with greater promise

of tranquility, there must be one king to direct and govern. If not, not only the inhabitants of the

kingdom fail to reach their goal in life [i.e. actualizing the potential of their intellect], but the

kingdom lapses into ruin, in agreement with that word of infallible truth, “Every kingdom

divided against itself is brought to desolation” [Lk.11:17].

If, then, this is true of these instances, and of all things ordained for a single end, it is true of the

statement assumed above.

3. We are now agreed that the whole human race is ordered for one end. It is meet, therefore, that

its leader and lord be one, and that he be called Monarch, or Emperor. Thus it becomes obvious

that for the well-being of the world there is needed a Monarchy, or Empire.

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CHAPTER VI: The order which is found in the parts of the human race should be found in

the race as a whole

1. As the part is related to the whole, so is the partial order related to the total order. The relation

of the part to the whole is as to its end and supreme good, and so the relation of the partial order

to the total order is as to its end and supreme good. We see from this that the excellence of

partial order does not exceed the excellence of total order, but rather the converse.

For example, in the army there is an order among its divisions, and an order of the whole with

reference to the general. Partial order has its end in total order, and exists for the latter’s sake.

Wherefore, if order is discernible in parts of the human community, it should be much more

discernible in the aggregate or totality, because total order is superior to partial. Now, if order is

discernible in various parts of the human race, therefore it ought to be discernible in the totality

itself. The parts which we have designated are those included in kingdoms, and the kingdoms

themselves, which all should be subordinated to one Monarch or Monarchy, that is – to one

Emperor or Empire.

CHAPTER VII: The relation of kingdoms and nations to the monarch should be that of

humanity to God

1. Further, mankind is a whole with relation to certain parts, and it is a part with relation to a

certain whole. It is a whole, of course, with relation to particular kingdoms and nations, as was

shown above, and it is a part with relation to the whole universe, as is self-evident.

Therefore, in the manner in which the constituent parts of collective humanity correspond to

humanity as a whole, so, we say, collective humanity corresponds as a part to its larger whole.

How do the constituent parts of collective humanity come to correspond to humanity as a whole?

Through the principle of humans’ submission to a single Emperor. If humanity corresponds to

the universe itself [which is subject to God, the Supreme Monarch], then humanity should be

subject to a single Prince. We conclude from this that Monarchy or Empire is necessary to the

world for its well-being.

CHAPTER VIII: Men are made in the image of God; but God is one

1. And everything is best disposed when it acts in accordance with the intention of the First

Mover, who is God. This is self-evident, save to such as deny that divine goodness attains the

summit of perfection. It is God’s intention that all things should represent the divine likeness in

so far as their peculiar nature is able to receive it. For this reason it was said, “Let us make man

in our image, after our likeness” [Gen. 1:26]. Although “in our image” cannot be said of things

inferior to man, nevertheless, “after our likeness” can be said of all things, for the entire universe

is nothing else than a footprint of the divine goodness. The human race, therefore, attains its best

when, according to the utmost of its power, it becomes like unto God. But the human race is

most like unto God when it is most one, for the principle of unity dwells in Him alone.

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2. But the human race is most one when all are united together, a state which is manifestly

impossible unless humanity as a whole becomes subject to one Monarch, and consequently

comes most into accordance with that divine intention which we showed at the beginning of this

chapter is the good, nay, is the best disposition of mankind.

CHAPTER IX: Men, as the sons of Heaven, should follow in the footprints of Heaven

1. Likewise, every son acts well and for the best when, as far as his individual nature permits, he

follows in the footprints of a good father. Mankind then acts for the best when it follows in the

footprints of its heavenly Father, as far as its distinctive nature permits.

Now, human reason apprehends most clearly through philosophy that the entire universe in all its

parts, its movements, and its motors is controlled by a single mover – God, and by his divine

Law. If our syllogism is correct, the human race is best ordered when in all of its parts,

movements and motors it is controlled by one Monarch as its one mover, and by one law. On this

account it is manifestly essential for the well-being of the world that there should exist a unified

Monarchy or Empire.

CHAPTER X: In order to settle all disputes a supreme judge is necessary

1. Wherever strife is a possibility, in that place must be judgment; otherwise imperfection would

exist without its perfecting agent. This could not be, for God and creation are not wanting in

necessary things. It is self-evident that between any two princes, neither of whom owes

allegiance to the other, controversy may arise either by their own fault or by the fault of their

subjects. For such, judgment is necessary. And inasmuch as one owing no allegiance to the other

can recognize no authority in him (for an equal cannot control an equal), there must be a third

prince with more ample jurisdiction, who may govern both within the circle of his right. This

prince will be or will not be a Monarch. If he is, our purpose is fulfilled; if not, he will again

have a coequal beyond the circle of his jurisdiction, and again a third prince will be required.

And thus the process could be either carried to infinity, which is not humanly impossible, or a

primal and highest judge will be reached, by whose judgments all disputes will be settled. And

this judge will be the Monarch or the Emperor. Monarchy or Empire is therefore indispensable to

the world, and this truth the Philosopher [Aristotle] saw when he said, “Things have no desire to

be wrongly ordered; inasmuch as a multitude of Princedoms is wrong, let there be one Prince.”

CHAPTER XI: The world is best ordered when in it Justice is preeminent

1. Further, the world is disposed for the best when Justice reigns therein; Justice is preeminent

only under a Monarch; therefore, that the world may be disposed for the best, there is needed a

Monarchy, or Empire.

3. Man’s disposition to Justice may meet opposition in the will; for when the will is stained by

avarice, even if Justice be present, she may not appear in the perfect splendor of her purity,

having encountered a quality which resists her to some degree, be it never so little. So it is right

to repulse those who attempt to impassion a judge.

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In its operation, man’s justice may meet opposition through want of power; for since Justice is a

virtue involving other persons, how can one act according to its dictates without the power of

allotting to each man what belongs to him? It is obvious from this that the extent of the exercise

of Justice will be in proportion to the just man’s power.

4. From our exposition we may proceed to argue thus: Justice is most effective in the world when

present in the most willing and powerful man; only a Monarch is such a man; therefore Justice

subsisting in a sole Monarch is the most effective in the world.

5. In regard to the will, it must first be noted that the worst enemy of Justice is cupidity, as

Aristotle signifies in the fifth book to Nicomachus. When cupidity is removed altogether,

nothing remains inimical to Justice; hence, fearful of the influence of cupidity which easily

distorts men’s minds, the Philosopher grew to believe that whatever can be determined by law

should in no wise be relegated to a judge. Cupidity is impossible when there is nothing to be

desired, for passions cease to exist with the destruction of their objects. Since his jurisdiction is

bounded only by the ocean, there is nothing for a Monarch to desire. This is not true of the other

princes, whose realms terminate where those of others begin. So we conclude that among mortals

the purest subject for the indwelling of Justice is the Monarch.

6. Moreover, if cupidity clouds the attitude toward Justice, charity or right love clarifies and

brightens it. In whomever, therefore, right love can be present to the highest degree, in him can

Justice find the most effective place. Such is the Monarch, in whose person Justice is or may be

most effective. That right love acts justly may be shown in this way: avarice, scorning man’s

abilities, seeks things beyond him; but charity, scorning all else, seeks God and the welfare of

men. And since to live in peace is chief of man’s blessings, as we said before, and since this is

most fully and easily accomplished by Justice, charity will make Justice thrive greatly; with her

strength will the other grow strong.

7. That right love should indwell in the Monarch more than in all men beside reveals itself thus:

Everything loved is the more loved the nearer it is to him who loves; men are nearer to the

Monarch than to other princes; therefore they are or ought to be most loved by him. This is

because men approach other princes in their partial aspect, but a Monarch in their totality [i.e. as

a community]. And again, men approach other princes through the Monarch, and not conversely;

and thus the guardianship of the world is primary and immediate with the Monarch, but with

other princes it is mediate, deriving from the supreme care of the Monarch.

CHAPTER XII: Humanity is ordered for the best when most free

1. If the principle of freedom is explained, it will be apparent that the human race is ordered for

the best when it is most free. Observe, then, those words which are on the lips of many but in the

minds of few, that the basic principle of our freedom is the freedom of the will.

2. Judgment, I affirm, stands between apprehension and desire; for first a thing is apprehended;

then the apprehension is adjudged good or bad; and finally he who so judges pursues or avoids it.

If judgment entirely controls desire, and is hindered by it in no way, judgment is free; but if

desire influences judgment by hindering it in some manner, judgment cannot be free, for it acts

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not of itself, but is dragged captive by another. Thus brutes cannot have free judgment, for their

judgments are always hindered by appetite. Disembodied souls who have departed in peace, do

not lose freedom of the will, but retain it in greatest perfection and power.

3. With this in mind we may understand that this freedom, or basic principle of our freedom, is,

as I said, the greatest gift bestowed by God upon human nature, for through it we attain to joy

here as men, and to blessedness there as gods. If this is so, who will not admit that mankind is

best ordered when able to use this principle most effectively? But the human race is most free

under a Monarch. Wherefore let us know that the Philosopher holds in his book concerning

simple Being, that whatever exists for its own sake and not for the sake of another is free.

For whatever exists for the sake of another is conditioned by that other, as a road by its terminus.

Only if a Monarch rules can the human race exist for its own sake; only if a Monarch rules can

the crooked policies be straightened, namely democracies, oligarchies, and tyrannies which force

mankind into slavery, and under which zealots of popular liberty, aristocrats called the best men,

and tyrants play at politics. For since a Monarch loves men greatly, a point already touched

upon, he desires all men to do good, which cannot be among players at crooked policies.

Whence the Philosopher in his Politics says, “Under bad government the good man is a bad

citizen; but under upright government ‘good man’ and ‘good citizen’ have the same meaning.”

Upright governments have liberty as their aim, that men may live for themselves, not for the sake

of a tyrant, oligarchy or mob. Governments are not established for the sake of laws, but laws for

the sake of good government; those living under the laws are not ordered for the sake of the

legislator, but rather he acts for them. The Monarch must be held the chief servant of all. A

Monarch is conditioned in the making of laws by his previously determined end. Therefore the

human race existing under a Monarch is best ordered, and from this it follows that a Monarchy is

essential to the well-being of the world.

http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/alighieri-de-monarchia