CT 1 Modern Leadership

Examination of Modern Leadership

Module 1: Leadership: History, Fundamentals, and the Modern Context

Module 1 content establishes the context for the entire course dedicated to the examination of modern and postmodern leadership. The introduction of critical theory and its use in ORG561 provides a framework for investigation. The context of social, economic, political, and technological environments informs an exploration of modern and postmodern leadership approaches. Emphasis on leader self-awareness sets the stage for reflection, introspection, and personal leadership development.

Learning Outcomes

1. Compare and contrast historical leadership concepts against modern and postmodern organization needs.

2. Analyze leadership approaches using a critical framework.

3. Construct a personal leadership biography.

For Your Success & Readings

A key to success in ORG561 is to start early, build, reflect, reinforce, build, reflect, and reinforce.

Begin each week’s study by reading and comprehending the learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are always revealed in assignments, discussions, and lectures. Likewise, learning outcomes are reflected in rubrics, which are used as objective measures for scoring and grading. Establish the learning outcomes as your checklist for success.

In Module 1 critical theory is introduced through the readings, lecture, discussion, and Critical Thinking Assignment. The critical approach provides new frameworks on which to research leadership. You may not be familiar with critical inquiry, so seize the opportunity to advance your analytic skills. You are expected to use one or more critical frames in each module of this course. Take the time this week to fully understand the reasoning and context of critical theory.

Studying the history of leadership requires reading publications from earlier eras. Notice that some of the required and recommended readings for Module 1 are not current publications, but these contribute to understanding the earlier periods of organization and leadership study.

Postmodern leadership literature expounds on the notion that self-awareness is a critical component required to lead. In ORG561, the thread of self-examination is woven throughout the course. You will have opportunities to move beyond reflection to develop a better understanding of personal assumptions and biases, skills and competencies, and professional development plans, all related to leadership. Embrace the opportunity!

Required

· Introduction and Chapters 1 & 2 in Leadership: A Critical Text

· Axley, S. R. (1990). The practical qualities of effective leaders. Industrial Management, 32(5), 29-31.

· Brocato, B., Jelen, J., Schmidt, T., & Gold, S. (2011). Leadership conceptual ambiguities. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(1), 35-50. doi:10.1002/jls.20203

· Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2016). Clarifying leadership: High-impact leaders in a time of leadership crisis. Revista De Management Comparat International, 17(3), 212-224.

· Blom, M. (2016). Leadership studies – A Scandinavian inspired way forward? Scandinavian Journal of Management, 32(2), 106-111. Retrieved from, https://www-sciencedirect-com.csuglobal.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0956522116300215 .

· Kooskora, M., & Piigli, M. (2015). Discussion of the leadership profile of female top executives. Journal of Management & Change, 34/35(1/2), 107-122.

· Mumford, E. (1906, September). The origins of leadership. American Journal of Sociology 12(2) 216-240. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2762385.

· Parker, M. (1992). Post-modern organizations or postmodern organization theory? Organization Studies, 13(1), 001-17. 

Recommended

· Cheng, B. S., Chou, L. F., Wu, T. Y., Huang, M. P., & Farh, J. L. (2004). Paternalistic leadership and subordinate responses: Establishing a leadership model in Chinese organizations. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 7(1), 89-117.

· Joplin, J. R., & Daus, C. S. (1997). Challenges of leading a diverse workforce. Academy of Management Executive, 11(3), 32-47. doi:10.5465/AME.1997.9709231662

· Snaebjornsson, I. M., & Vaiciukynaite, E. (2016). Emotion contagion in leadership: Followercentric approach.Business and Economic Horizons, 12(2), 53-62.

· Ulrich, D. (2015).  Leadership capital index . [n.p.]: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

. A Critical Investigation of Leadership

From early childhood we learn about leaders—and that they are meant to be followed. Simple active games, such as follow the leader or movie song lyrics from the likes of Peter Pan (click here and read the first two stanzas) begin to frame our references and perceptions about meaning, purpose, and actions of leaders. Children learn that leaders are to be followed and extolled for their virtues. Becoming a leader, many of us might deduce, carries a notion of supremacy, and children move into adulthood with those early assumptions about leadership. But after more than a century of scientific research on the topic, we know that the term leadership has different meanings and evokes emotional responses based on circumstances, situations, and personal beliefs. Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016), for example, pointed out that leadership is studied more than other management fields. So what happens between the time that children follow the leader and that time when they grow up and face the complexity of leadership and the question they once thought they understood?

Likely, some of the confusion about terminology comes from language used and concept development during youth. With expanding experiences, adult perceptions change and our childhood beliefs do not match the reality of the way organizations work and attempt to survive. Click through each item for examples of how the term leadership might be considered by different people in varying roles in organizations.

Leadership: Interpretations of Term

· Leadership as group

· Leadership as individual

· Leadership as influence

For leadership scholars, even the reasoning behind the examination is unsettled. Zehndorfer (2014) offered explanations for why leadership study is important and suggested that leadership study reduces organizational risk by using history to inform decisions and to avoid mistakes. But Zehndorfer also questioned how leadership success can be measured.  

Northhouse (as cited in Snaebjornsson & Vaiciukynaite, 2016, p. 54) offered a structure for study by identifying four common elements found in most leadership studies:

Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016) advised that numerous definitions and theories present many options for research approaches—and so many choices, the authors contended, compound the difficulty of agreeing on common standards, which makes comparing results and finding commonalities even tougher. 

With no common definition or structure—or even conceptual agreement on leadership or how leaders lead—scholars and organizational managers are wise to continue to probe for answers. To simply accept theories, principles, and concepts based on the latest leadership studies results in trends, altered practices, and fads that may or may not be effective. There may be no guiding star to understanding the definition of leadership, but there are rational methods to help mitigate the risk to organizations.

For the purposes of ORG561: Examination of Modern Leadership, in-depth analysis is the core of discovery. Using critical theory (CT) to ground the investigation, we explore leadership taking a critical approach in an attempt to challenge assumptions about the role of the leader and leadership’s practical application in the modern organization (Western, 2013). Content in Table 1 below displays two common approaches to using critical theory in leadership research.

Table 1

Two approaches for using critical theory in leadership research

Critical Theoretical Approaches to Study Leadership
1. To examine the less obvious and deeper leadership theories and practices in the name of attaining organizational goals.	Or	2. To rethink and reinvent leadership through new discoveries in the attempt to build a better society.

Adapted from Western, 2013

Authors such as Western (2013) and Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016) posited that scholars and managers must move beyond their biases to improve organizations. Critiquing common assumptions and beliefs about leadership is at the heart of critical theory, as noted above. A relatively small but growing number of scholars have adopted critical management studies (CMS) as an approach to study leadership and management in organizations and work (Western, 2013).

To conduct critical analysis, Western purported that frameworks may be used to provide a structure for research. As we move forward in this course to examine leadership, recall that Western (2013) proposed a four-frame structure for critical inquiry—see Table 2, below. This framework will be revisited throughout the course in lectures, discussions, and assignments; study the contents thoroughly.

Table 2

Summary of critical frameworks

Western, 2013, pp. 22-23

Any of the four frames described in Table 2, above,may be used to conduct critical investigation. Of special note is that Western (2013) indicated a preference for the emancipation analysis frame illustrated in Table 2. Zehndorfer (2014), in the book Leadership: A critical introduction, uses a combination of frames such as depth analysis and network analysis to reveal the importance of key theory deconstruction and personal self-discovery as means for advancing knowledge. And, by introducing a new concept, emotion contagion, to study leadership, Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016) may have used the frame of looking awry to identify alternatives.

2. Modern Leadership: From the Historical to the Present

Leadership in History

Much has been written about the origin and evolution of leadership. Documentation in ancient times suggested that our childhood notions of follow the leader, as described earlier in this lecture, were supported by such philosophers as Aristotle and Plato. Observe also that many historical examples of leadership pertained to war and battles, suggesting heroism and grandeur.

In ancient times and especially in some cultures, leaders were expected to motivate and inspire as depicted in the following quote:

A leader is best when people barely know he exists, when the work is done, they will say: we did it ourselves.Lao Tzu, Chinese philosopher

Thoughts about leadership were widely documented in the form of drama, letters, pictures, and public oratory. From multiple forms of communication, scholars were able to classify discourses and authors in time. A brief overview of early, predominant leadership discourses are presented in Table 3 below.

Table 3

Leadership discourses: A historical perspective

Higgs, 2003, p. 275

In ORG561, modern discourses are studied in depth in later modules. Here, data displayed in Table 3 established the progression of leadership thought as influenced by social, political, and economic conditions.

Historically, the terms leader and leadership are most noticeably associated with successful outcomes. This hasn’t always been the case, however. Throughout history, there have been leaders who were exposed as deceptive, as in the case of the 37th president of the United States, Richard Nixon. In the United States, the president is considered the national political leader; Nixon resigned in the wake of public outcry against illegal and covert acts associated with political scandal. Other leaders such as Adolf Hitler managed to lead and inspire even while conducting mass genocide. The dichotomy between the label or term of leader and deceptive or destructive practices seems incongruous to many. The idea that leadership can be associated with the “dark side” of human behavior has been studied by researchers such as Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk, Kiewitz, and Tang (2010).

Leadership History in ORG561

For purposes of ORG561, the historical context of leadership is limited to the 20th century and the relationship of leadership to organizations. Articles by Axley (1990); Black (1990); Mumford (1906); and Hunter and Bedell-Avers; and Mumford (2007) [required readings] provide a snapshot into traditional thinking about leadership.

Mumford (1906), for example, explained leadership origins in the context of sociology. Mumford suggested the research purpose was not to identify the fundamental principles of leadership, but rather to provide grounding for further investigation. Social science focuses on associations among living organisms, and leadership is explored by searching for characteristics that are similar or different between one association and another, according to Mumford. Even at this early stage of leadership research, assumptions were put forth that served as guideposts for other scholars. Early assumptions about leadership were described as  functions by Mumford. That is, leadership occurred:

· within every stage of the social process

· within social interests of individuals and groups and the combinations of both.

Over time, assumptions about leadership changed when more academic fields became engaged in leadership study. Disciplines such as behavioral psychology, social psychology, political science, and, later, neuroscience are examples of branches of learning that advanced the study of leadership. In later modules, we’ll take a closer look at research methods associated with some of these disciplines.

Leadership Approaches

For purposes of ORG561, we will examine leadership from many different angles, with the major emphasis on leadership in the context of contemporary organizations loosely defined as post-World War II. Within that time span, modern and postmodern organization thought was developing.

In Module 3, leadership theories are discussed against the backdrop of modern and postmodern organizations. In Module 3, leadership theories are discussed against the backdrop of modern and postmodern organizations. These variables greatly influenced the movement of leadership study over time. These variables greatly influenced the movement of leadership study over time.

Prior to the turn of the 21st century, leadership was often explained according to different approaches to leadership. Approaches are sometimes labeled as styles, combining traits with approaches. Examining leadership approaches offers a way to test knowledge and assumptions against our individual experiences.  Following, in Table 4, are examples of often-cited leadership approaches with which you may be familiar. Take the time to think about when and where you might have encountered some of these examples in your reading and real-world experiences.

Table 4

Modern leadership-approach examples with overviews

Individualist A common reference to focus on the individual in a leader capacity. The basis of leadership-development programs. Much research on traits and behaviors of the individual.	Contingency In response to the simplistic view of common leadership characteristics and traits. Suggests organizational situations require specific types of leaders. Addresses social context.
Paternalistic In response to leadership approaches from Western scholars. Adopts cultural norms, e.g., from China and East Asia. Combines authority with discipline, benevolence, and personal virtues.	Authoritarian Emphasis is on command and control. Structure, rules, and policies are valuable contributors.  Often studied in context of organizational performance: tactical vs contextual.

Note: Approach examples were randomly selected for illustration purposes only.

Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang, & Farh, 2004; Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003; Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk, Kiewitz, & Tang, 2010; Mumford, 1906; and Western, 2013).

The approaches described in Table 4, above, may be scrutinized in relationship to the business environment. For example, the business environment in the 1950s was one of rapid industrial growth. Management expectations centered on control and efficiency. Thus, an authoritarian leadership approach was common and valued by investors. Look for specific instances of how contextual variables influenced organizational leadership approaches to reinforce comprehension. In that context, Table 4 provides examples of modern and postmodern leadership approaches that are representative of more recent thinking.

Table 5

Postmodern leadership approach examples with overviews

Authentic In response to corporate scandals.  Emphasis on moral character and self-awareness. Authenticity of followers included.  Transparency of information. Some distinctions associated with components of transformational leadership.	Value-based In response to perceived ethical and moral deficiencies in leaders. Values at the center of decision making for individual, organization, community, and greater social good. Public organizations emphasized but not limited to those. Have a strong sense of purpose and make values actionable.
Post-heroic Built around shared and collaborative leadership. In contrast to earlier “hero” approach, which is construed as masculine. Seen as aligned with more feminized approach. More empowering. Relinquishes control.	Egalitarian In response to shifts from function- to process-driven organizations. Intended to promote collaboration and decrease resistance. Shared decision making. Empowerment.

Hoch, Bommer, Dulebohn, & Wu, 2016; Iqbal, Nadeem & Zaheer, 2015; Parush & Koivunen, 2014; van Niekerk & Botha, 2017).

Check your understanding of the concepts before moving on to the next portion of this lecture.

3. The Leader in You

To grasp the significance of you in the study of modern leadership, recallthe table Overview of Modern and Post-modern Time-frame and Characteristics. As organizations were challenged to respond to social, political, economic, and technological changes leading up to the turn of the 21st century, transformation required effective leadership to meet new organizational needs in postmodern times.

As we learned in Module 1, postmodern leadership approaches have yet to be developed around a single definition or standard. However, a common element emerges in postmodern leadership literature: the call for leaders to possess an understanding of self. Many terms—such as self-assessment, self-reflection, self-realization, and self-awareness—were used to make the case that to be effective postmodern leaders, we must embrace a willingness and ability to reveal ourselves (Gandolfi & Stone, 2016; Higgs, 2003; Rubens, Leah, & Schoenfeld, 2016 ; Shamir & Eilam, 2005).

Gandolfi and Stone (2016) suggested that emotional intelligence is associated with understanding personal behaviors. For purposes of ORG561, we’ll use the term self-knowledge as an overarching label representing the ideas of self.

Social psychologists have developed multitudes of tools to expand self-knowledge. A simple internet keyword search of “leadership self-assessment” in 2017 produced more than four million results. And most high schools and colleges administer self-assessment instruments. The CSU-Global Career Center provides leadership self-assessment resources. 

Tested, alternative techniques to expand leadership self-knowledge originated from educational research. Five such techniques are highlighted here and include:

· Personal interpretation of leadership

· Locate yourself

· Life story

· Leadership metaphor

· Leadership biography

Let’s look at each of these in more depth.

· Personal Interpretation of Leadership

· Locate Yourself

· Life Story

· Leadership Metaphor

· Leadership Biography

Leadership Approach and Assumption	Biographical Explanation
Feminized leadership approach Characterized by feminine rather than masculine ways of leading. Relies on experiences of equal treatment and self-confidence	I grew up in Iowa, which at the time was one of only three states in the nation offering interscholastic sports for girls. Playing high school sports provided rich opportunities to experience teamwork and the power of competition. In my small rural town, people of the community valued both girls’ and boys‘ sports’ teams equally.

As a summary of this lecture, review the following video. Consider how leadership approaches, critical thinking, and self-knowledge might be characterized in the leadership lessons here. Video:  How to Start a Movement