Journal

PREPOSITIONS

Chapter 16

Words which combine with noun phrases to form phrases with an adverbial function

locative (where)

temporal (when)

manner (how)

In English prepositions precede the noun phrases they govern

In some languages, words with a similar function follow their noun phrases (and may be called postpositions).

In English, prepositions are often homophonous with words with a different function.

PRESPOSITIONS

Two ways of approaching the semantic description of a linguistic element that displays a range of meanings in different contexts.

Monosemic approach:

Look for a single general meaning underlying all the variants

attribute the variations to local contextual effects

only the underlying general meaning is stored in long-term memory

Polysemic approach:

Accept that multiple senses are individually stored in long-term memory

Different contexts can make different selections

SEMANTIC DESCRIPTION APPROACH

Must determine whether the different meanings of a word in different contexts are due to the selection of different senses or to contextual modulation of one and the same sense.

PRINCIPLED POLYSEMY MODEL

Starting from the primary sense of a word: ask whether or not the meaning of the word in a given context can be inferred from the primary sense taken together with features of the context.

If the answer is in the negative: the word in question in the context in question represents a different sense from the primary sense.

DETERMINATION PROCESS

Not derived by extension from any other sense in the network

All the other senses in the network are derived from it either directly or indirectly.

Has a formal relationship to the other senses in the network

PRIMARY SENSE IN A NETWORK

Differences in the interpretation of prepositions can occur due to differences of vantage point.

Descriptions assume that each speaker is using him/herself as vantage point in formulating the utterance.

VANTAGE POINT

Canonical front and back:

inherent orientation of many objects

If an object X has a canonical front and back:

in front of X is ambiguous

can mean either "at or near the canonical front of X" or "situated somewhere on an imaginary line between X and the relevant vantage point"

If an object X does not have a canonical front and back:

the expression in front of X means "situated somewhere on an imaginary line between X and the relevant vantage point"

ORIENTATION

Basic sense from which all the other senses are directly or indirectly derived

Involves one entity being in a static spatial relation to another, such that the first entity is higher than the second

The terms trajector (henceforward TR) and landmark (henceforward LM) are used to distinguish the two entities

For over, the TR is higher than the LM.

The trajector for a spatial preposition can be defined as the entity whose location is being specified

The landmark is the entity with respect to which the trajector is being located.

OVER

The primary sense of in comprises a spatial relationship and a functional feature.

The functional feature is that of CONTAINMENT

It is not necessary for the TR to be completely surrounded by the LM for in to be appropriate

IN (THE PRIMARY SENSE)

The spatial relationship involves:

an LM which possesses an exterior

a boundary

an interior where the TR is located

IN (SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP)

Carry over from the CONTAINMENT functional feature of the primary sense

Development of this sense is motivated by the fact:

there is a tight correlation between being located in a bounded LM and a particular state

conferred by virtue of being so located

IN (THE PRIMARY SENSE)

“IN” can be employed with certain states:

conceptualized as constraining the TR

posing difficulty in leaving

EMPLOYMENT OF “IN”

Denotes a spatial relationship

TR is directed towards a highlighted LM either by virtue of its motion or by virtue of its inherent orientation

When the TR is animate and in motion:

the LM is typically interpreted with the associated function of "goal“

TO (THE PRIMARY SENSE)

Involves two elements:

a bounded LM

an entry point, an exit point, and a continuous series of points connecting entry point and exit point.

This evokes an associated functional feature of PATH.

THROUGH (THE PRIMARY SENSE)

Sense Development:

the correlation in experience between motion along a path and purposeful activity, leading eventually to through signaling "purposeful activity" in the absence of "motion along a path".

THE EXTENDED ACTION SENSE

A particular outcome is facilitated by a particular

LMs provide the means whereby the outcome is achieved.

Meaning arises from the close association in experience between paths and means of achieving particular goals.

THE “MEANS” SENSE

A large number of temporal uses of prepositions are related to spatial construals of the same lexical form.

Generally accepted on historical and developmental grounds the spatial uses are primary.

Temporal uses of prepositions:

involve construing time as a line on which points can be located

line usually has a direction-future ahead of the TR and the past behind.

passage of time is construed as motion towards the future of the TR relative to the LM

the TR construed as stationary and the LM moving

SPACE AND TIME

In some cases:

there is no precise spatial model

there are sufficient points of resemblance to make the derivation intelligible

time is construed as a quantity

there can be more or less

ADDITIONAL CASES OF SPACE AND TIME