Week 1 Discussion: The Criminal Justice System

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 1 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

American Criminal Justice 1

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What Is Criminal Justice?

Police Courts Corrections

1.3 System, Function, and Decision Points

Complaint, Investigation, and Arrest Booking Charges and the Initial Appearance

Separate Juvenile System Adversarial vs. Inquisitional Individual Rights

1.5 The Size and Scope of the American Criminal Justice System

1.6 Models of Criminal Justice

Individual Rights and Due Process Crime Control Rehabilitation Just Deserts

© Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify the three major components of the American criminal justice system

Identify the responsibilities of each component

Describe how the American system is different from other justice systems

Describe the size and scope of the American justice system

Identify and describe competing models of justice

Chapter Outline

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 2 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Preliminary Hearing/Grand Jury Arraignment Trial Sentencing and Corrections

1.4 What Makes the American Criminal Justice System Unique?

Decentralization Federalism

Restorative Justice

1.7 Chapter Summary

Critical Thinking Questions

Key Terms

Web Links

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 3 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 4 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Associated Press—Red Huber

Casey Anthony walking out of the Orange County Jail with her lawyer, Jose Baez on July 17, 2011.

1.1 Introduction Caylee Anthony was a typical 2-year-old little girl. According to those who knew her, she was a rambunctious, fun-loving child. On June 16, 2008, she and her mother left the home they shared with Caylee's grandparents, Cindy and George. Over the course of the following month, Cindy Anthony asked repeatedly to see Caylee. Each time, her mother offered another excuse as to why Caylee was not available; she was either with her nanny, at the beach, or playing. Cindy and George grew more concerned about Caylee with each passing day.

On July 13, George and Cindy found a notice of a certified letter on their front door. Two days later, George went to the post office to retrieve the letter, which said that their daughter's car had been impounded and was being stored at a local tow yard. Wasting little time, George went to the tow yard to retrieve the vehicle. At the time, George and the tow yard operator noted a strong, unpleasant smell coming from the vehicle. Cindy Anthony called the Sheriff's Office on July 15, 2008, to report that Caylee was missing and that she had not seen the child in 31 days. The grandmother also spoke with the 9-1-1 operator, saying "There is something wrong. I found my daughter's car today and it smells like there has been a dead body in the damn car." She then gave the police her daughter's name: Casey Anthony.

When questioned by the police, Casey Anthony, little Caylee's mother, lied about what had happened to Caylee. Then, July 16, 2008, Casey Anthony was arrested on charges of child neglect, giving false statements to the police, and obstructing a criminal investigation.

On a cool day in December 2008, a badly decomposed body was found in a wooded area not far from the Anthony home. Later, forensics tests would verify that the body was that of Caylee Anthony. The body was found inside a cloth laundry bag that had been placed in a large black trash bag.

The trial lasted 6 weeks and was covered extensively by local and national news media. Millions of people watched as experts testified and were cross-examined, as the prosecution introduced over 400 pieces of evidence, and as alternative theories of the crime were put forth by Jose Baez, the defense attorney. People watched as police detailed their investigation of Anthony and forensics experts discussed DNA evidence and other technical, scientific aspects of the case. They watched as prosecutors pressed witnesses for details and the defense rebutted prosecutorial efforts to paint Casey as a murderer. They got to see, almost firsthand, how a judge controls and conducts a trial. But most importantly, they got to watch Casey Anthony, who had been charged with a crime that, if she were found guilty, could result in her execution. They watched her sit in silence— protected by a series of constitutional rights that forced the state to prove beyond a reasonable doubt to 12 jurors that legally obtained evidence pointed to her guilt.

Yet nothing could fully prepare those who had watched the trial for its conclusion. In what can only be described as unexpected, the jury returned a verdict of not guilty on all but the lesser count of lying to investigators. According to interviews with jurors, they believed that Casey Anthony had likely been involved in the death of her daughter but they did not believe that the prosecution had proved her guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. With time already served, Casey Anthony walked out of jail on July 17, 2011, never again to face murder charges in the death of her daughter.

Crime, it seems, is always on the public mind. Turn on a television set, open a newspaper, or read an Internet blog and chances are good that you will find crime as a topic of discussion. Since you are reading this book and taking a class on criminal justice, you too are probably strongly interested in crime and have had many discussions with friends, neighbors, and even strangers about crime and the criminal justice system. If you are like most people, many of your discussions focused on high-profile cases, such as the Casey Anthony case in Florida, or you may have discussed your views on the punishment of criminals, whether the punishment was too harsh or not harsh enough or whether police pull people over based on the color of their skin. The point is that crime influences how we see the world, it pervades our conversations with others, and it is broadcast by the media. As a testament to the power of crime to capture our attention and to inform our views, consider how popular crime shows are—shows like CSI. Some people argue that the effects of these shows are now seen in some court rooms. Scholars and practitioners alike report that many juries, influenced by televisions shows like CSI, now expect scientifically complex evidence to be presented at trial. This has been called the "CSI effect" (Thomas, 2006).

Perhaps not surprisingly, then, public views about crime are often biased, distorted, and even wrong. A recent Gallup poll of 1,013 adults, for example, found that 74 percent those questioned thought the amount of crime in the United States had increased over the preceding year (Saad, 2011). Views on crime did not vary much based on political orientation either. Over 70 percent of Democrats, Republicans, and Independents also reported that crime in America had increased. Moreover, 51 percent reported that crime had increased in their local communities. As Jones (2009) notes, this is just slightly lower than the record high of 54 percent recorded in 1981 and again in 1992. Even so, evidence from a variety of sources, shown in Figure 1.1, consistently shows that crime has declined in America every year over the last 20 years. Today, crime in America is its lowest level since 1973 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010).

Figure 1.1: Four Measures of Serious Violent Crime Serious violent crime rates, 1973–2009. More recent crime data from the Bureau of Justice may now be available. Visit https://www.bjs.gov (https://www.bjs.gov) .

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 5 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

Figure 1.2: Number of Arrests by Crime Type, 2009 Violent and non-violent crimes. More recent data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation may now be available. Visit https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/ (https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/) .

Source: Adapted from Federal Bureau of Investigation http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/arrests/index.html

What this tells us is that the majority of Americans are woefully uninformed about crime and the criminal justice system. Part of the reason for this is that much of the information the public receives about crime comes from the news media. News media, however, tend to cover cases that are exceptional, unique, or sensational. As the old journalistic saying goes, "If it bleeds, it leads." Let's go back to the Casey Anthony trial as an example. It involved a charge of first-degree murder, which is rare. In 2009, there were 15,200 homicides, compared with 10 million reported crimes. As shown in Figure 1.2, relative to other crimes, arrests for homicide are a small proportion of all arrests made. The trial also involved the murder of a young child, yet most murder victims are between the ages of 20 and 24. In 1976, a total of 544 children under the age of 5 were victims of murder, as were 555 in 2005. Children, the data tell us, are rarely victims of homicide. Moreover, the alleged murderer in the Anthony case was a female, and females rarely commit homicide. For example, 90 percent of all murders are committed by men (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011). Thus, the Casey Anthony trial was unique in that it brought together a number of very unusual occurrences in the criminal justice system.

In the pages that follow, we will take a tour of the American criminal justice system. We will examine the nature of crime—that is, what types of behaviors are defined as crime, how much crime exists in society, and who commits crime most frequently. Following our discussion of the nature of crime, we will examine the big three of the criminal justice system: the police, the courts, and corrections. Issues central to each area will be introduced and explored. You will be introduced, for example, to the history of police, to how courts operate, and to the ever-changing methods our society uses to punish and rehabilitate offenders. You will be introduced to the important concepts that guide the operation

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 6 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

of the criminal justice system and to the various actors within the system. You will also be introduced to the language criminal justice professionals use, to the rules and processes they have to follow, and to the unique challenges they face in dealing with criminal offenders. Their jobs are difficult and sometimes stressful, but they are critical to the administration of justice in America.

The goal of this book is not to make you an expert in criminal justice but to introduce you to the information every student of criminal justice should know. The text also includes and emphasizes scientific findings related to the criminal justice system. You will often read of empirical evidence and what the scientific evidence tells us about everything from the causes of crime to the most effective way police can be used and to how best to rehabilitate criminals. This evidence is generated by independent scholars criminal justice found throughout universities in the United States and abroad. Evidence also comes from "think tanks," or places that employ scholars to evaluate certain criminal justice policies and functions, as well as organizations dedicated to the study of specific aspects of the criminal justice system. The National Center for State Courts, example, collects and disseminates information about courts in each state. The goal of focusing on evidence is not to make you a social scientist but to make you aware of what the empirical evidence says about specific issues. Criminal justice professionals use this evidence to help them do their jobs more efficiently and effectively and to promote fairness and public safety. Legislators, too, use this evidence to craft or refine laws that affect every aspect of criminal justice. Your understanding of the role of empirical evidence in criminal justice will help to make your views on crime better informed. Everyone, after all, is entitled to his or her opinion, but they are not entitled to their own "facts."

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 7 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 8 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Larry Mulvehill/Corbis/AP Images

The police are the only governmental agents who have the legal authority to detain individuals and make arrests.

1.2 What Is Criminal Justice? Every society has rules that people must follow. These rules usually reflect local beliefs and customs, known as mores. Cultural mores define behaviors that are inappropriate, that are considered immoral, and that can result in some form of punishment if their rules are violated. Tribes in the Amazon have rules about behavior, as do tribes in Africa Afghanistan. Every society establishes rules for behavior. Such rules are universal because they are needed to help maintain social order. Modern cultures also have rules that prohibit any number of behaviors. In most societies, these rules are codified, or written down, and are known as laws. In the United States, for example, there are thousands of federal, state, and local laws governing everything from how fast you can drive to the number of billboards that can be placed along a stretch of highway.

When people believe that laws are just and that violations of the law will have consequences, the law is said to have legitimacy. For laws to have legitimacy, however, there to be a way to enforce them. A system has to exist that can decide whether a law was violated, can determine if the person accused was responsible for violating the law, and level sanctions if the person is found to have been responsible for the violation. The criminal justice system thus reflects the various organizations legally responsible for the investigation of crime, the determination of guilt, and the administration of justice. In America, these components are the police, courts, and corrections.

Police

The police have three essential roles, the first of which is law enforcement. In this sense, in order to reduce crime and promote public safety, police arrest or cite individuals who violate the law. They are the only governmental agents who have the legal authority to detain individuals they believe may have violated the law—that is, to make an arrest. Police can investigate a crime by asking questions of individuals and collecting evidence, and they proactively look for law violations while on patrol.

The job of the police, however, entails much more than investigating crime and arresting offenders. In their second role, police engage in what is called order maintenance. In this role, they concern themselves with maintaining community norms and preventing disorder. When an officer responds to a traffic accident and helps direct traffic, he or she is maintaining order so that drivers can reach their destinations with minimal delay. Likewise, officers who attend political demonstrations maintain order by defusing potential violence between protestor and counterprotestor groups. In this role, police seek out situations that might become criminal events but have not reached that stage yet.

The third role of the police is known as service delivery. While the police are the only members of society who are allowed to use force, thankfully most of their efforts are dedicated to endeavors where force will not be needed. Service activities can include taking a report on stolen property, helping a citizen who has locked his keys in his car, or giving directions to lost tourists. While police are unique in their ability to use force, they spend most of their time in actions where they are just helping people in need (Bittner, 1974; Cumming, Cumming, & Edell, 1978; Frank, Brandl, & Watkins, 1997; Haller, 1976; Reiss, 1971; Webster, 1970; Wilson, 1968).

Last, since police are tasked with the important job of enforcing the law, it is important to note that they too have to follow laws and a host of policies and procedures. Police are at all times expected to protect individual rights and to act in a fair and consistent manner.

Courts

The court system involves a series of interrelated agencies and organizations. These all work together to help determine if a crime has occurred and if the person alleged to have committed the crime is guilty or not. However, courts also serve an important role in protecting the rights of the accused and in making sure other criminal justice organizations are operating within the law. Even when an offender has been convicted of a crime, courts may still play a role in making sure that the offender's rights have not been violated.

ProsecutorsProsecutors

Prosecutors determine if sufficient evidence exists to file criminal charges with the court. Once they have made that determination, they file a criminal charge against the defendant. They then resolve these charges by two possible methods: (1) by engaging in negotiations with the accused's lawyer or (2) by presenting evidence at trial.

DefenseDefense Attorneys Attorneys

Defense attorneys represent individuals charged with crimes. Their job is to protect the rights and interests of their clients no matter how serious the charge and whether or not the person is guilty. Sometimes they engage in negotiations with prosecutors to help their clients receive less severe sentences. During a trial, they present evidence in favor of their client and attempt to call into question the evidence the prosecutor has presented.

The Road to Becoming a Lawyer This clip features criminal defense attorney, Dan Lawton and his life-changing experience with the law.

Things to Consider:

Did any of your past experiences with law enforcement motivate you to take this course?

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 9 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…content&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Spencer Grant/age fotostock/SuperStock

Correctional agencies carry out the judge's sentence and help ensure public safety.

Stop and Think 1.1

Imagine the governor of your state calls you to ask how you would reform the criminal justice system. What would you change? What would you expect to happen after these changes? Would there be any potential drawbacks?

What strikes you about Dan's journey to get to where he is today?

JudgesJudges

Judges are responsible for all aspects of the legal administration of justice. They may determine if there is sufficient cause to sign a search warrant, or they may have to determine if evidence was collected legally. During a trial, a judge makes sure that the trial follows the rules of law and that the defendant's rights are protected. Depending on the type of trial, the judge may also determine if the defendant is guilty or not. If the defendant is found guilty, the judge will determine what will happen to him or her. In a sense, the judge acts as an impartial referee between the two competing sides of the prosecution and defense.

Corrections

Just as we speak of the court system as a set of interrelated components, we also speak of a correctional system. After a defendant has been found guilty, the judge determines what will happen to him or her. Judges are not free to assign any punishment they want but only punishments that are allowed by law, given the seriousness of the offense. Judges cannot, for example, order someone convicted of shoplifting to be executed or flogged with a whip.

Correctional agencies are tasked with carrying out the sentence handed out by the judge. This may be something as relatively minor, like probation, which allows an offender stay in the community under certain conditions, or it could involve incarceration, where the defendant is not allowed to be free in the community but is instead confined. Offenders can be confined at home, known as house arrest, or they can be confined in a community-based correctional facility or in a jail or prison. In a very small number of cases, depending on state and federal law, a defendant may even be sentenced to death, in which case he or she will be incarcerated in a prison until execution.

The primary role of correctional agencies is to help ensure public safety. Many people believe that correctional agencies achieve public safety merely by incarcerating people. That is only one way in which they try to achieve this goal. For instance, correctional agencies monitor and supervise offenders in the community to help ensure public safety, they offer drug and alcohol treatment to reduce crimes committed because of addiction, and they sometimes help offenders to find jobs or receive mental health counseling so that they will be less likely to offend again. They also supervise and guide individuals recently released from prison on parole. Offenders can be released early from prison and placed on parole, where they have to meet with a parole officer and meet specific conditions, such as finding a job. In this sense, correctional agencies try to treat, rehabilitate, and reform offenders while they are serving their court-imposed sentences.

The American criminal justice system is described by the unique organizations that compose the system. We have examined the big three—that is, the police, courts, and corrections. However, some scholars argue that the criminal justice system is actually made up of more than these three components. Reiss (1971), for example, identifies seven interrelated components of the criminal justice system, including:

The citizen law enforcement system, composed of citizens and businesses that bring complaints or who were victims of crimes or witnesses to them

The police system, which investigates crime, makes arrests, and maintains public order

The defendant system, which includes all individuals charged with crimes and their defense lawyers

The public prosecution system, which determines if a crime has occurred, if criminal charges are warranted, and how best to prosecute each case

The court system, where guilt or innocence and matters of law must be determined

The correctional system, which treats and incarcerates criminal offenders

The appellate judicial system, which settles appeals from people convicted of crimes

Obviously there is much overlap between our initial description of the criminal justice system and that provided by Reiss. However, what Reiss points out is that each component of the system is fairly autonomous—that is, each can act fairly independently of other actors or agencies in the system. Reiss also points out that each component must, at times, work with other components in order for the system to work as a system and not simply as a bunch of individual pieces.

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 10 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 11 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

1.3 System, Function, and Decision Points The criminal justice system reflects not only a series of loosely coupled agencies but also a process that involves a series of decision points. These decision points act as a filter, keeping some cases in the system while disposing of or removing other cases. Figure 1.3 is a graphical depiction of the criminal justice system, the various decision points in system, and the overall filtering effect of case processing. Let's start at the beginning.

Complaint, Investigation, and Arrest

Most crimes come to the attention of police because a person or organization reported a crime (Skogan & Antunes, 1979). Only rarely do police actually catch people in the act of committing a crime. At the time a complaint is made, police take a report and investigate the crime. Depending on the situation, police may have little information to go on and may simply file the report. Other times, however, they may have to interview witnesses, collect and document evidence, and locate the likely offender.

Figure 1.3: All Arrests This figure depicts the types of crime in terms of numbers, with all arrests being the most numerous, followed by misdemeanors and then felonies.

If the police believe enough evidence exists that a crime was committed and that a specific person was responsible for the crime, they may choose to arrest the individual. An arrest occurs when a person is placed in custody or is no longer free to move about. Depending on the circumstances, police may seek a warrant from a judge authorizing police to take steps to detain the individual. Warrants can also allow police to search a person's property or home. Depending on the state and the circumstances of the case, however, police can also issue a summons requiring an individual to appear in court.

Booking

You may have seen a police drama where a person suspected of a crime is brought into a police station, fingerprinted, and photographed. This is a depiction of a booking process. Booking usually occurs at a police station, although it can also occur in a jail. At booking, the suspect is fingerprinted and photographed; in many places today, the person's DNA is also collected and sent to a state DNA repository. Necessary paperwork documenting the arrest of the individual is also completed. After being processed into the system, suspects may be released on their own recognizance or bail may be established.

Charges and the Initial Appearance

Prosecutors hold an enormous amount of power. One way they exercise their power is through the determination of which, if any, charges are to be pursued against a suspect. is not unusual for a prosecutor to choose not to press charges against a suspect. This often occurs when the prosecutor believes that the evidence is not sufficiently compelling that it would not hold up in court. Conversely, if the prosecutor believes that a crime has been committed and that the evidence points to the suspect as the likely offender, he she then decides which charges to pursue. The level at which a person is charged is important because it sets in motion the rest of the criminal justice system. For example, individuals charged with very serious crimes are treated differently from those charged with lesser crimes.

After the charges have been filed with the court by the prosecutor, the person will be taken to see a judge—called an initial appearance. During the initial appearance, the suspect will be informed of the charges leveled by the prosecutor. If the judge believes that the

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 12 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Sean Justice/Corbis/AP Images

During the booking process, the suspect completes the necessary paperwork and is photographed and fingerprinted. Frequently a DNA sample is taken as well.

evidence to detain the suspect is insufficient, the judge may dismiss the case. However, if the judge believes that the evidence is sufficient, the case may be allowed to go forward. When this happens the defendant is informed of her or his rights and may petition the court for release pending trial.

In most cases, the defendant is released with a promise to return to court at a later day. The technical term for this is ROR, or released on own recognizance. In other situations, however, bail may be more appropriate. Bail is set by a judge and allows a defendant to be released in exchange for money, or a bond. The exchange helps to make certain that the defendant has a good reason to return to court, and it helps to keep people not yet convicted of a crime out of jail. Even so, a judge can also deny bail if the alleged crime is very serious, if the defendant poses a flight risk or is not likely to return to court, or if he or she has a lengthy criminal record.

Preliminary Hearing/Grand Jury

In some states, a hearing is held after the initial appearance. Its purpose is to decide if the prosecution has sufficient evidence to prosecute the defendant. During a preliminary hearing a judge makes this decision and can, if the evidence is insufficient, dismiss the case. In other states, a prosecutor presents the evidence to a grand jury. The purpose of this jury to determine if the prosecutor has enough evidence to prosecute the defendant.

If a judge agrees that the prosecutor has enough evidence to prosecute the defendant, a bill of information is filed accusing the defendant of a crime. If a grand jury agrees that the prosecutor has sufficient evidence to prosecute the defendant, an indictment is issued. An indictment also formally accuses the defendant of a crime.

Arraignment

At the arraignment phase, the defendant is again notified of the charges leveled by the prosecutor. At this stage, he or she is allowed to enter a plea. All states allow a defendant to plead guilty or not guilty to the charges. In some states, the defendant can also plead nolo contendere, or "no contest." A no contest plea simply means that the person doesn't admit guilt but will not contest the charges. If a person refuses to provide a plea, the court will enter a not guilty plea.

Plea bargaining is a major informal part of the criminal justice system. It involves the prosecutor and defendant, or the defendant's lawyer, who engage in an exchange whereby they bargain over the defendant's plea of guilty. Prosecutors may, for example, offer to drop several charges if the defendant pleads guilty to another charge. Some charges carry jail or prison time while others do not. A defendant may, for example, be given the option to plead guilty to a charge that does not carry prison time. Conversely, the defendant may offer information about other crimes and plead guilty in return for a reduced charge.

Over 95 percent of all criminal cases are disposed of through guilty pleas (Devers, 2011).

The high percentage of guilty pleas reflects two realities in the criminal justice system: first, the majority of people arrested, charged, and prosecuted are probably factually guilty. Often it is in the best interest of the defendant to plead guilty so as to avoid the time, costs, and emotional stressors that go with a trial. Second, even factually innocent defendants may choose to plead guilty. They may not have competent lawyers, they may wish to avoid the embarrassment and humiliation of a trial, or they may simply want process to be over so that they can get on with their lives (Feeley, 1979). Others who plead guilty, however, may be mentally ill or may be coerced into pleading guilty.

Figure 1.4: Case Flow Through the Criminal Justice System What is the sequence of events in the criminal justice system?

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 13 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Sean Justice/Corbis/AP Images

A jury makes a determinination of guilt in less than 5 percent of all criminal cases.

Trial

About 5 percent of all criminal cases end up in trial. Trials allow prosecutors to present evidence of an accused's guilt, including witness testimony as well as any technical or scientific evidence of the person's guilt. Trials also allow defense attorneys to present a client's case, to bring forth their own witnesses and their own evidence. Each side also has the opportunity to question witnesses and to question the evidence presented.

In the majority of trials, a judge listens to the evidence from both sides and then makes a determination of guilty or not guilty. In less than 5 percent of all criminal cases, a jury listens to the evidence and makes such a determination. Unlike the trials covered on television, most trials are completed in just a day or two and do not involve lengthy lists of witnesses or the presentation of hundreds of pieces of evidence.

If a judge or jury believes that the prosecution has proven beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is factually guilty, the defendant may be found guilty of all charges or of only some of the charges. It is important to point out, however, that a judge or jury may believe a defendant to be factually guilty but also find that the prosecution did not prove the guilt of the individual beyond a reasonable doubt. In these instances, the judge or jury may find the defendant not guilty. Notice that defendants are not found "innocent" of the charges but rather "not guilty." A defendant

may be found not guilty for reasons that have little to do with actual innocence.

Sentencing and Corrections

If a defendant pleads guilty or is found guilty, it is the duty of the judge to determine the sentence, usually within some legal framework or guideline. Depending on the severity of the crime and the defendant's past criminal history, a judge may sentence a person to probation, to some type of intermediate sanction such as a halfway house, to jail or prison, or, in very rare instances, to death. It is the job of the corrections department to carry out the judge's sentence.

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 14 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 15 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

1.4 What Makes the American Criminal Justice System Unique? Most justice systems share the same goals: to determine guilt and to punish those found guilty. How they reach these goals, the processes they use, and the laws they have to follow, however, vary from one country to another. In Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia, for example, religious beliefs are expressed in Sharia law, which guides how the justice system operates. America, however, has a somewhat unusual system of justice. Below are aspects of the American justice system that are unique.

Decentralization

Compared with other countries, the American criminal justice system is unique. Part of what makes it so is decentralization. Most countries, for example, have a national criminal justice system—that is, the police, courts, and correctional systems all operate uniformly across all regions under one authority. It is also not unusual in other countries for the police to be part of the military. In the United States, by contrast, the criminal justice system is composed of multiple subsystems. The primary responsibility for operating a criminal justice system falls to local jurisdictions, such as city or county agencies. There are thousands of local jurisdictions across the 50 American states, and the majority of these operate criminal justice systems unique to their region. In addition to the thousands of local jurisdictions, each state also operates a criminal justice system distinct from the systems of other states. Finally, the United States has a federal system, which deals with national issues.

Critics of decentralization argue that it increases the cost of criminal justice because many of the components of the criminal justice system are duplicated. For example, there are over 12,000 local police agencies, 3,000 county sheriffs, 49 state police agencies, over 90 federal law enforcement organizations, and over 2,000 other specialized law enforcement agencies (Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 2011). Depending on the type of crime and where it was committed, several police agencies may become involved in the investigation. This overlap is also inefficient, as it would be much more cost-effective to have a single police agency investigate a crime.

So why is the administration of justice in the United States decentralized? Our Founding Fathers, the men who wrote our Constitution, feared a large, powerful, overarching government. Their experiences taught them that the power of government can sometimes be used to take away an individual's rights unjustly. Because of this, they created a system that made local jurisdictions responsible for the administration of justice. Moreover, they also believed that communities were in the best position to respond to most criminal acts and that citizens in communities had the right to regulate behavior they viewed as dangerous or threatening to the social order.

Decentralization of the criminal justice system remains a uniquely American characteristic. Because the criminal justice system is so decentralized, it is sometimes difficult to speak about "the criminal justice system" for no other reason than there are actually thousands of criminal justice systems in America. While these systems have to follow many of the same laws and processes, they are free to address issues of local concern. One jurisdiction, for example, may rely on aggressive policing and prosecution to handle crime problems, while another may rely more on a community-based approach. Keep this in mind as we progress through this book. The crime problems facing jurisdictions can be very different, and so can the methods they employ to deal with these problems.

Federalism

The American system is also unique because it was built on the idea of federalism. Under federalism, the United States has a two-tiered criminal justice system, one of which operated and managed by each state. Most laws that affect individuals and define the types of behaviors considered criminal are passed by state legislatures, prosecuted by representatives of the state known as prosecutors, and punishable by the state. All states, for example, maintain prisons where offenders found guilty of certain crimes can be incarcerated. However, under federalism the federal government is allowed to operate an independent criminal justice system. Like the states, the federal government can pass laws that apply in limited circumstances. Many laws involving drug distribution, terrorism, and crimes that cross state lines involve the federal system. Violations of these laws can be prosecuted by federal prosecutors, tried in federal courts, and punished in federal prisons. Many other countries have only one criminal justice system, usually at the national level.

Separate Juvenile System

Another uniquely American tradition is that we have separate justice systems for adults and juveniles. These systems have different rules, processes, and goals. While we will discuss the juvenile justice system in more detail later, it is worth noting that in America youth accused of crimes are treated differently from adults. We have even created an entirely different language for juvenile justice. For example, instead of being found guilty, as in the adult court, youths guilty of a crime are said to be "adjudicated." Alternatively, most justice systems worldwide process youths accused of crimes in the same justice system as that in which they process adults.

Adversarial vs. Inquisitional

The American system of justice is also adversarial. In an adversarial system, the state is free to investigate an alleged crime and to present evidence from the investigation to an impartial judge or jury. Individuals charged with a crime, with the help of a lawyer, are free to question the evidence and to present evidence of their own. In this way, the two parties advocate for their respective positions in the hope of convincing the judge or jury. Other systems of justice are called inquisitional. In these systems, judicial representatives guide the investigation of the crime and the collection of evidence. Evidence of guilt or innocence is then presented to a judge or to a panel of judges by the state. The judges are then free to ask questions about the evidence. They are also free to ask the person charged with the crime, usually with a lawyer present, about his or her

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 16 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Spencer Grant/age fotostock/SuperStock

In inquisitional justice systems, judicial representatives present evidence before a judge or panel of judges, who are then free to ask questions.

views. In an inquisitional system the responsibility for finding the truth rests on the judiciary.

Individual Rights

Finally, in the American system of justice, constitutional rights are extended to all individuals accused of a crime. These rights limit how the government can collect evidence, for example, and they allow defendants to question witnesses. They even limit the power of the state to punish a person convicted of a crime. The government, for example, can no longer execute people for any crime other than homicide, nor can the government order convicted offenders to be lashed with a whip. Constitutional rights protect people accused of a crime from improper governmental behavior, and they limit the types of punishments that can be administered. In other countries, defendants or those convicted of a crime have no such rights.

Careers in Criminal Justice: District Attorney "Do what you enjoy doing, find your passion, and follow it."

Things to Consider:

What does Dave love about the American justice system? Can you relate to Dave's change of career?

Why do you think he says that people in law enforcement have to care deeply about people?

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 17 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 18 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

1.5 The Size and Scope of the American Criminal Justice System By any definition, the American criminal justice system is massive. The system is so large in part because criminal justice in America is decentralized—that is, every level of government operates a criminal justice system, including the federal government, 50 state governments, and thousands of local jurisdictions. The cost of operating these various systems is over $228 billion per year. Since 1982, this cost has increased by over 300 percent (Kyckelhahn, 2011).

The money spent on the criminal justice system goes primarily to pay for police officers, court personnel, and the correctional system. As Figure 1.5 shows, expenditures on these three components of the criminal justice system have increased substantially since 1982. Expenditures for police, for example, were approximately $40 billion in 1982 but had risen to over $100 billion by 2007.

Expenditures on corrections increased from approximately $20 billion in 1982 to a high of approximately $76 billion in 2001. Since 2001, corrections expenditures have been fairly stable year to year. With the severe budget crises experienced by many states beginning in 2009, it is likely that corrections expenditures will decrease in states such as Ohio, Texas, and California, which have closed prisons to save money. Expenditures on courts followed much the same pattern as police and corrections expenditures, rising from $19 billion in 1982 to about $50 billion in 2007 (Kyckelhahn, 2011).

Figure 1.5: Interrelationships Between System Components Corrections, courts, and the police.

Figure 1.6: Direct Expenditure by Criminal Justice Function, 1982–2007 The criminal justice system costs billions of dollars to operate every year. More recent data from the Bureau of Justice may now be available. Visit https://www.bjs.gov (https://www.bjs.gov) .

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 19 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

Figure 1.6 shows that much of the cost of the criminal justice system is paid for by local jurisdictions. Costs to local jurisdictions were roughly $50 billion in 1982 but had risen to approximately $118 billion by 2002. Costs to local jurisdictions have been relatively stable since 2002. The same pattern can be seen with state and federal expenditures. Costs associated with state and federal criminal justice administration increased each year from 1982 until about 2002‒2003, when year-to-year costs stabilized.

As you can see, the criminal justice system in America is expensive to operate. The $228 billion spent annually on criminal justice employs over 2.4 million people. Law enforcement agencies alone employ over 1 million people, of which about 70 percent are sworn personnel. There are almost 17,000 courts in the United States and approximately 80,000 people are employed in jobs related to the courts. By the end of 2005, a total of 1,821 correctional institutions—including jails, prisons, and detention centers—were in existence and employed over 500,000 people in various roles (Kyckelhahn, 2011). Additionally, there are more than 3,500 probation and parole departments across the United States.

Another reason the criminal justice system is so large is because each year approximately 14 million people are arrested. In 2009, for example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated that 13.6 million arrests occurred. Of these, almost 582,000 were for violent crimes, such as murder, rape, and robbery, while 1.7 million arrests were for property crimes. Offenses that generated the highest arrest counts were 1.66 million people arrested on drug abuse charges, 1.4 million people arrested for driving under the influence, and 1.3 million people arrested for theft.

Correctional populations also reflect the large scope of the American criminal justice system. Over 7.2 million people were under some form of correctional supervision in 2009. Of this total, approximately 5 million people were under supervision while in the community, including 819,308 on parole and 4.2 million on probation. The remaining 2.2 million people were incarcerated. Over 760,000 people were in jails during 2009, while over 1.5 million were incarcerated in state and federal prisons.

The growth in corrections is shown in Figure 1.7. Accordingly, the numbers of people in prison, in jail, and on parole increased almost every year since 1980, although the number of people in jail or on parole has always remained below 1 million. Prison populations, however, increased from about 250,000 in 1980 to over 1.5 million in 2009. Another way of thinking about the growth in the prison population is that it increased sixfold between 1980 and 2009. While this growth was substantial, the growth in the probation population was remarkable. From 1980 to 2009 the number of people on probation increased from about 1 million to over 4 million (Glaze, 2011).

Figure 1.7: Direct Expenditure by Level of Government, 1982–2007 Spending at the local, state, and federal level. More recent data from the Bureau of Justice may now be available. Visit https://www.bjs.gov (https://www.bjs.gov) .

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 20 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

IN DEPTH: America Has the Highest Incarceration Rate in the World

Rates are often used to make comparisons across jurisdictions, states, and nations. Because states and nations may differ considerably in their total populations, the use of absolute numbers tells us very little. For example, one country may incarcerate 150,000 people while another incarcerates 50,000. The populations of each country, however, may be very different. The country that incarcerates 150,000 people may have a population of 100 million, while the country that incarcerates 50,000 may have a population of 10 million.

The calculation of a rate, in this case an incarceration rate, helps us to compare across countries. A rate takes into account the number of people incarcerated and the total population:

Incarceration rate = number of people incarcerated total population × 100,000

Here the incarceration rate would be 150 for every 100,000 people for the country that incarcerates 150,000 and 500 for every 100,000 people for the country that incarcerates 50,000.

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 21 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 22 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Joseph Sohm; Visions of America/CORBIS

The Bill of Rights forms the basis of the due process model.

1.6 Models of Criminal Justice Thus far we have discussed the criminal justice system, its various parts, and its size and scope. Implicit in much of this discussion has been the idea that the various components work together, or cooperate, in order to discern guilt and to bring offenders to justice. When we make a set of assumptions about how the criminal justice system works, how sets priorities, or how it solves problems, we are making a systems model of criminal justice. A systems model, for example, draws attention to the interconnections between the police, courts, and corrections. Models consist of a set of assumptions about how things work in reality. When we assume, for example, that the various components of the criminal justice system work together for the common good, we are employing what is called a consensus model. It portrays the criminal justice system as a unified, deliberate, and efficient assembly line where the various agencies fully cooperate with each other.

The consensus model has been criticized on several grounds. Critics, for example, argue that it paints an overly flattering picture of the criminal justice system. They say that reality, criminal justice agencies do not always cooperate, that sometimes they have different priorities, and that the criminal justice system is not always very efficient. Critics who make these arguments do so from a different systems model—a conflict model. The conflict model draws attention to the very real and sometimes unique issues that go into the administration of justice. Various factors can influence the administration of justice, including local political preferences for the arrest and prosecution of specific crimes, political concerns about who gets promoted in a police department, or the willingness of a prosecutor to file charges. It may surprise you to learn that in some jurisdictions in United States, the police departments do not always have a good working relationship with the prosecutor's office, or that the local courts do not fully trust the police. As in the case of any other complex system or business, the criminal justice system periodically falls victim to ego, political turf wars, and even corruption. These factors are emphasized by a conflict model (Kraska, 2004).

A reasonable question to ask is which one of these models is closest to the truth. In reality, they may both be true depending on the jurisdiction and on unique circumstances. People who study systems such as school systems, medical systems, and the criminal justice system frequently refer to these systems as loosely coupled. A loosely coupled system is one in which each component operates relatively independently of every other one. Many authors have noted how loosely coupled the American system of justice actually is (Eisenstein & Jacob, 1977; Reiss, 1971). Because the system is loosely coupled, many of the controls over the system are internal to each component. The police, for example, have rules unique to the police, while prosecutors have rules unique to prosecutors. In this sense, the conflict model can sometimes describe the criminal justice system accurately.

However, scholars have also noted that during periods of crisis, such as a riot or when especially heinous crimes have been committed, the system goes from loosely coupled closely coupled. Under these conditions, agents in the criminal justice system tend to work more closely with each other to either process all the cases or to solve and try a particularly serious case. The degree of system coupling varies by jurisdiction. Research by Sharp (2009), for example, found that agents in the criminal justice system he studied, namely the police, were willing to work more closely than otherwise with mental health professionals to deal with mentally ill offenders.

Other models of justice also exist. These models overlap in many of their assumptions but tend to emphasize different aspects of system behavior.

Individual Rights and Due Process

This model draws attention to the rights guaranteed to each person by law and by the Constitution of the United States. At its core, this model is about fairness and equity in criminal justice system. The Framers of the Constitution had experienced unfair trials while in England, and they understood how the criminal justice system could be used in ways that were unfair. Partly because of this, they created a set of rights to be shared by all citizens. The first 10 amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights

These rights form what is known as the due process model, which emphasizes the rights of the accused to a fair and impartial hearing; to a trial that is free of racial, religious class bias; to competent defense counsel; and to punishment that is neither excessive nor arbitrary. You may wonder why the Framers and the Supreme Court would hold these rights so dear and extend them to every single criminal defendant—even those obviously guilty. Supporters of the due process model argue that the power of the state to make arrests, to charge people with crimes, to hold trials, and to sanction criminal behavior represents a serious threat to the freedoms and liberties of individuals and groups. History has taught us that sometimes this power can be abused and that it must therefore be kept in check or in balance. One way of keeping the power of the state in balance is to give individuals rights that the state cannot arbitrarily violate.

Due process often incorporates what is known as procedural justice, which is about the fairness of the criminal justice process. Constitutional law as well as a variety of state and federal laws place boundaries on the behavior of agents of the criminal justice system. Police, for example, have to follow laws that guide everything from the decision to arrest to the collection of evidence. When agents of the criminal justice system violate these laws, it corrupts the principle of fairness and may result in the criminal complaint being dismissed—even if the person is clearly guilty. Regardless of how well the criminal justice system succeeds in reducing crime, if criminal justice employees are even perceived to be using unfair methods to arrest, prosecute, and convict an individual, it loses legitimacy with the community and reduces the force of law (Engel, 2005; Tyler & Wakslak, 2004).

Crime Control

Dangerous people exist. These people threaten the lives and property of individuals, families, communities, businesses, and other organizations. A large body of criminological evidence shows that these individuals commit the majority of all crimes and that they commit a broad array of crime (Delisi, 2005). They may break into a home one

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 23 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

day, steal a car a day later, sell illegal drugs several days later, and commit a rape or murder in the weeks that follow. Fortunately this same body of criminological evidence tells us that there are relatively few serious, persistent offenders. Nonetheless, the harm that comes from the crimes these individuals commit is substantial. Ruined lives, loss of hope, feelings of being violated and victimized, tremendous medical bills, and lost relationships accompany the behavior of these offenders.

Crime control advocates point to these offenders as examples for the need of the criminal justice system to protect society by efficiently arresting, prosecuting, and trying these criminals and, upon conviction, imposing serious punishment. In essence, if the criminal justice system could be made more efficient, the argument goes, society could be better protected. Crime control advocates also argue that the courts have given too many due process protections to criminals and that because of this the criminal justice system is often hamstrung in its ability to protect society. From this perspective, minor or accidental infringements on rights by justice professionals, often called technicalities, should not be used to let criminals go unpunished.

As you may have reasoned, the crime control model is often contrasted with the due process model. A pure crime control model does indeed contrast with a pure due process model. If our system of justice were designed only to control crime, individual rights would not be necessary and the state would exercise tremendous power to keep people safe from criminals. However, crime control is just one goal of the criminal justice system. Since we are a rights-based society, the system also has to protect individual rights. Obviously the goals of crime control and due process are not always compatible. There are many guilty people walking free in society because the police did not have enough evidence to make an arrest or because the prosecutor did not believe that a conviction could be won. Witnesses are sometimes intimidated into not pressing charges or into changing their stories, and some are even offered money, drugs, or other things in return for not cooperating with the criminal justice system. When this happens, guilty people sometimes go free. However, the potential social and personal costs associated with reducing due process protections is that innocent people may get swept up in the criminal justice system, ruining their lives. For example, few people would want to live in a society where police officers were allowed to perform searches on any hunch or whim. Moreover, as due process proponents point out, the overall freedom and liberties of citizens may be eroded if legal protections to people accused of crimes are reduced.

In reality, the criminal justice system seeks to achieve the goal of protecting society from serious and dangerous offenders through a system of due process, not in spite of it. Police and investigators work very hard on certain criminal cases to collect enough reliable evidence of an individual's guilt. This is especially true in situations where they may know the offender well—for example, when they have arrested the person many times before. They pass this evidence through various supervisors in the police department to make sure their evidence is sound. If approved, the case is then forwarded to the prosecutor's office, which then again makes sure that there is sufficient, credible evidence for prosecution. The point is, the vast majority of justice professionals care deeply about protecting the public from dangerous criminals, but they work within the law to achieve justice, to protect individual rights, and to control crime.

Working within the system has also been emphasized with the advent of the Miranda warning—the requirement to warn arrestees of their right against self-incrimination and right to counsel. At the time, pundits were concerned that the police's ability to obtain convictions would be undermined through a reduction in suspect confessions. Instead, the ruling forced the police to develop more complex psychological strategies of obtaining confessions. As in this example, due process protections often guide the behavior of criminal justice agents, who can no longer simply handcuff arrestees (Leo, 1996).

Figure 1.8: Adult Correctional Populations, 1980–2009 This graph demonstrates the increase in populations of various sectors of the criminal justice system. More recent data from the Bureau of Justice may now be available. Visit https://www.bjs.gov (https://www.bjs.gov) .

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 24 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

Rehabilitation

Where the due process model emphasizes individual rights and the crime control model emphasizes public safety, the rehabilitation model emphasizes the diagnosis and treatment of individual offenders. Advocates of rehabilitation argue that many criminals engage in crime for reasons beyond their control. For example, they argue that some people commit crime because they grew up in dysfunctional families or because they have drug, alcohol, or mental health problems. If these problems can be fixed, then crime can be reduced and there will be fewer victims. In this sense, advocates of rehabilitation see the opportunity to use the criminal justice system as part of a larger social welfare system.

Rehabilitation advocates also argue that intervening in the lives of offenders, especially juvenile offenders, is also the right thing to do morally. In their views, society has a moral obligation to help people lead better, more fulfilling lives. Moreover, the state, through a series of intervention and rehabilitation programs, should help to make sure that people convicted of crimes, even very serious ones, learn how to behave prosocially. Advocates, for example, make the point that incarceration alone does nothing to help an offender change, so that with intervention, the likelihood of further criminal activity upon the individual's release is reduced.

Yet current advocates of rehabilitative models also argue that some people simply should not be brought into the criminal justice system. In some ways they take a nonintervention perspective, suggesting that the least intrusive means be used to keep people out of the criminal justice system. For example, they argue that individuals should be diverted from the system, especially first-time offenders and offenders with a very low risk of committing crime in the future. Contact with the criminal justice system, in the form of an arrest or conviction record, can bring serious negative consequences that, in some instances, may lead to an increase in offending. Edward Latessa (2010), one of the most important advocates for rehabilitation, has repeatedly shown, for example, that mixing low- and high-risk juvenile offenders in treatment groups usually increases the likelihood that low-risk youth will reoffend, or recidivate.

There was a point in history when rehabilitation advocates were largely unconcerned with due process rights, and even crime control, because they believed that the state should be given full authority to intervene in a person's life, a person they viewed as sick and not fully responsible for the crimes that may have been committed. Today, this is largely not true. Rehabilitation advocates are not unconcerned about due process or crime control. However, there are important differences. Sometimes, for example, individuals are so mentally ill or so heavily addicted to drugs or alcohol that they do not have to commit a crime for authorities to detain them. All states have some type of law that allows seriously mentally ill individuals, usually people who are a threat to themselves or others, to be detained for a short period of time. Moreover, most rehabilitation advocates now maintain that only offenders at high risk of reoffending should be targeted for serious treatment. By targeting high-risk offenders, rehabilitation advocates believe they are helping also to control crime and to reduce victimization.

Just Deserts

Should all people be treated the same regardless of circumstance, background, or the details of their crimes? Are all thefts, for example, the same? Should a person stealing food

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 25 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

© Belinda Images/SuperStock

Under a just-deserts model, every form of theft is treated the same.

from a grocery store be treated the same as a person who steals from an elderly person, a bank, or a family member? Under a true just-deserts model, the answer would be yes, the crime in each case is theft, and because the just-deserts model emphasizes perceived fairness above other priorities, the punishment should be the same in each case.

Just-deserts theorists often argue that the job of the criminal justice system is only to punish people for the crimes they have committed. They rely on the concept of retribution, or an eye for an eye. If you steal, no matter the reason, you should be punished like all others who steal. By punishing people equally, they argue, justice is served. Notice that the just-deserts model does not embrace rehabilitation as a goal of the criminal justice system. Rehabilitation, with its emphasis on individualized treatment, treats people based on their needs and circumstances. This is contrary to the just-deserts model. Moreover, notice too that the just-deserts model is not focused on crime control. Instead, the aim of the system is merely to dispense justice—that's it, nothing more. If crime control can be achieved or offenders rehabilitated within a just-deserts framework, all the better, but those are not the goals.

While some scholars argue that a just-deserts model invites revenge, just-deserts theory actually developed as an ideology opposed to expansive, overly punitive government. As a philosophy, just deserts argues that punishment should be swift and certain, but that it also should be proportional to the crime committed. England, for example, used to execute pickpockets by hanging. Unfortunately, the large crowds that gathered to watch the execution of pickpockets often ended up being the victims of pickpockets. But the point is that the punishment—execution—was vastly disproportionate to the offense. From a just-deserts perspective, the punishment would be unethical. Just- deserts theorists thus have also argued that many of the punishments we administer to offenders are disproportionate and thus violate the just-deserts model. Some sentencing models rely on the concept of just deserts.

Figure 1.9: Crime Control vs. Due Process The process within the justice system designed to balance crime control with individual rights.

Restorative Justice

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 26 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Stop and Think 1.2

Which of the models of justice do you think is the most equitable and fair? To what degree should fairness be a goal? Is it possible to make the justice system fairer without jeopardizing public safety?

Restorative justice is a relatively new criminal justice model. The roots of restorative justice ideals, however, have been around for a very long time and are based on major theological traditions, including those of Christianity and Buddhism. From this perspective, crime is not necessarily viewed as an offense against the state but instead as an act against the local community. Because crime detracts from the local community, members of the community have a responsibility to address it. Moreover, the overarching goals of restorative justice are to hold offenders accountable for the harm they created, to restore victims emotionally and psychologically, and to protect the community.

Restorative justice programs are in operation throughout the United States and take a variety of forms. What they share in common, however, is that they usually attempt to bring the offender and victim together for reconciliation where possible. Reconciliation often involves an offender taking responsibility for his or her behavior in front of the victim and engaging in behaviors that give back to the victim or the community. Take, for example, a juvenile who vandalizes a neighbor's fence. Instead of simply arresting and processing the juvenile, a restorative approach would bring the juvenile together with the neighbor to explain why he had vandalized the fence. The juvenile may be required to pay for the damages or even to help fix the damage. In this way, the offender is held accountable, the victim is restored, and the state saves what it would have cost to process the case.

Obviously some offenses do not lend themselves to a restorative justice framework. In some instances of violence, for example, it may be wholly inappropriate to bring the offender and victim together with the expectation that reconciliation can occur. Nonetheless, the idea that something good can emerge out of something bad has a strong appeal.

Important differences discussed by Zehr (1990) and by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Traditional vs. Restorative Justice

Traditional Justice Restorative Justice

Crime is an act against the state, a violation of a law, an abstract idea.

Crime is an act against another person or the community.

The criminal justice system controls crime. Crime control lies primarily in the community.

Offender accountability is defined as taking punishment. Accountability is defined as assuming responsibility and taking action to repair harm.

Crime is an individual act with individual responsibility. Crime has both individual and social dimensions of responsibility.

Punishment is effective. (a) The threat of punishment deters crime. (b) Punishment changes behavior.

Punishment alone is not effective in changing behavior and is disruptive to community harmony and good relationships.

Victims are peripheral to the process. Victims are central to the process of resolving a crime.

The offender is defined by deficits. The offender is defined by his or her capacity to make reparation.

The focus is on establishing blame, on guilt, on the past (did he or she do it?).

The focus is on problem solving, on liabilities/obliga​tions, on the future (what should be done?).

Emphasis is on an adversarial relationship. Emphasis is on dialogue and negotiation.

Imposition of pain is designed to punish and deter/prevent. Restitution serves as a means of restoring both parties; the goal is reconciliation/restoration.

The community remains on the sidelines, being repre​sented abstractly by the state.

The community serves as facilitator in restorative process.

Response focused on offender's past behavior. Response is focused on the harmful consequences of the offender's behavior; emphasis is on the future.

The system depends upon proxy professionals. Participants are directly involved.

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 27 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 28 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

Stop and Think 1.3

Suppose you were given the power to recreate our criminal justice system. What would it look like? What rules would you allow for the collection of evidence and for the arrest and detainment of citizens? How would it determine the guilt of offenders? Finally, what type of sanctions would you allow? Why?

1.7 Chapter Summary The American system of criminal justice is a complex mix of laws, agencies, jurisdictions, and actors. Although these components sometimes have competing priorities, they ultimately exist to address crime. But as we have learned, how the system addresses crime, especially in a democracy, is just as important as the effectiveness with which it addresses crime. In the American system of justice, law places limitations on the actions of criminal justice actors and empowers individuals, even guilty individuals, with guaranteed rights. These rights place a heavy burden on the state: It has to collect evidence of guilt, charge a person with a crime only in the presence of sufficient evidence, and be prepared to engage in an adversarial trial. Only after an offender pleads guilty or is found guilty by a trial can the state administer a formal sanction. This makes the U.S. system of justice somewhat unique in the world as well as somewhat inefficient and has opened it up to criticism.

The lens through which citizens view the criminal justice system is sometimes shaped by their experiences, age, and political ideology. Some see the criminal justice system as an expression of common values regarding what constitutes right and wrong behavior, while others see the justice system as a vehicle used to oppress certain groups. Beyond this, some want the justice system only to mete out justice, while others want it to change offenders so that they will not commit crimes in the future. Some even want to use criminal justice system as a system of last resort and feel that it should more frequently involve the community in matters of justice. Regardless of all the calls for change, however, the American system of justice continues, year by year, decade by decade, to operate in a fairly predictable way.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are the three major components of the criminal justice system and what are their responsibilities?

2. Can you describe the criminal justice process, from arrest to sentencing?

3. Can you describe what makes the American justice system unique?

4. What are the different models of criminal justice and how do they differ?

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the definition.

Adversarial (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system of justice where the state and the defense argue their case before an impartial third party.

Arrest (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A procedure whereby a police officer deprives a person of his or her liberty.

Bail (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

An amount of money or property value required to release an arrested person from custody. This is in place to help ensure that the person returns for his or her court date after release.

Bill of information (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A formal accusation made by a prosecutor charging a person with a crime.

Bill of Rights (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

The first 10 amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Closely coupled (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system where independent components function in unison.

Community-based correctional facility

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 29 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A facility in the community designed to treat indi​viduals convicted of crimes.

Conflict model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

The view that the component parts of the criminal justice system sometimes do not cooperate well.

Consensus model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

The view that the component parts of the criminal justice system cooper​ate well.

Constitutional rights (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Fundamental rights guaranteed and protected by the U.S. Constitution. These rights are protected above all other rights.

Decentralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A characteristic of the criminal justice system whereby the responsibility for criminal justice decision making is dispersed throughout the system.

Defense attorney (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A person hired or appointed by the state to defend the accused in a crimi​nal trial.

Due process model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system of justice that enshrines the accused with legal rights that can​not be infringed upon unless the state follows specific legal procedures.

Empirical evidence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Scientific evidence obtained by rigorous methodological evaluation.

Federalism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system of government where power is divided into three separate but equal branches of government and where all powers not delegated to the branches are reserved for the states.

Grand jury (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A special jury called by the prosecutor that listens to testimony and evaluates evidence to establish probable cause for criminal charges to be filed.

House arrest (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A sentence of confinement to take place in the offender's residence.

Incarceration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A sentence whereby an offender is confined for an established period of time.

Indictment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A formal legal statement that a person has committed a crime.

Initial appearance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 30 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

The beginning of the legal process where the defendant appears before a judge.

Inquisitional (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system of justice whereby the judge investigates the nature of the offense and represents the state.

Jail (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A place of confinement usually operated by local jurisdictions.

Judge (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

An individual responsible for the operation of the courtroom, who protects the rights of the defendant, and who imposes sentence.

Just deserts (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A model of justice that emphasizes proportional retribution for the commission of crime.

Laws (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Codified rules passed by a legislative body.

Legitimacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A belief that the operation of the criminal justice system is largely fair and consistent.

Loosely coupled (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system where components operate independently of every other compo​nent that makes up a system.

Mores (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Rules that reflect local beliefs or customs.

Nonintervention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A belief that the criminal justice system should not intervene formally in a range of situations.

Order maintenance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Actions by officers to resolve problems of social disorder.

Parole (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A mechanism of early release from incarceration that imposes specific conditions on the offender.

Prison (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

An institution designed for the incarceration of criminal offenders.

Probation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A sentence that requires offenders to meet certain conditions while on supervision in the community.

Procedural justice

4/13/21, 8)54 PMPrint

Page 31 of 31https://content.ashford.edu/print/Wright.0304.18.1?sections=ch01,s…ontent&clientToken=d2b81ee3-e113-6c31-95a5-d81af6bf6601&np=sec1.2

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A type of justice that emphasizes fairness and consistency in the determi​nation of guilt.

Prosecutors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

Representatives of the state responsible for criminal prosecutions.

Recidivate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

To commit a crime after having been processed by the criminal justice system.

Rehabilitation model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A model of justice that emphasizes the role of the state in helping offenders avoid further criminal involvement.

Released on own recognizance (ROR) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A type of release after arrest where the arrestee prom​ises to return to face charges.

Restorative justice model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A model of justice that emphasizes the restoration of victims and the offender.

Retribution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A model of justice that emphasizes offender accountability and proportional punishment.

Service delivery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A function of law enforcement that meets the needs of the local community.

Sharia law (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A system of justice that incorporates Islamic religious beliefs into law and the punishment of offenders.

Systems model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A view that the individual components of the criminal justice system operate as a unified whole.

Warrant (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter/books/Wright.0304.18.1/sections/front_matter#)

A petition by the court allowing for the arrest of a criminal suspect or the search of property or residence.

Web Links

A website that collects crime news and information about crime: http://crimeinamerica.net/ (http://crimeinamerica.net/)

A complete account of the Casey Anthony trial, including the evidence presented, phone calls, and trial transcripts: http://investigation.discovery.com/blogs/criminal- report/casey_anthony_full_coverage/caylee_anthony.html (http://investigation.discovery.com/blogs/criminal-report/casey_anthony_full_coverage/caylee_anthony.html)

The National Center for State Courts: http://www.ncsc.org/ (http://www.ncsc.org/)

The National Archive of Criminal Justice Data: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/das.jsp (http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/das.jsp)

Home page to the American Society of Criminology: http://www.asc41.com/ (http://www.asc41.com/)

Home page to the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences: http://acjs.org/ (http://acjs.org/)