compose a critical analysis of a journal article found in the Digital Library regarding a leadership topic. If possible, find a topic that is related to the Middle East.
Doolaa Bee
CriticalThinking1.docxYour essay must include the following:
· Title page
· Introductory paragraph (a brief paragraph that simply introduces the topic)
· Body (a series of cohesive paragraphs that include in-text citations and further discuss the topic (this is where your critical analysis comes in with support by the in-text citations)
· Concluding paragraph (a brief paragraph that summarizes the information, refers back to the introductory paragraph, or offers a future outcome of the information presented in the essay body)
· Reference page(s) formatted according to Saudi Electronic University and APA standards
· it is not appropriate to use first-person voice.
November 2008, Volume 83, Issue 1 , pp 85–100| Cite as
Women, Management and Globalization in the Middle East
· Authors
· Beverly Dawn Metcalfe Email author
Article
First Online: 07 February 2008
Abstract
This paper provides new theoretical insights into the interconnections and relationships between women, management and globalization in the Middle East (ME). The discussion is positioned within broader globalization debates about women’s social status in ME economies. Based on case study evidence and the UN datasets, the article critiques social, cultural and economic reasons for women’s limited advancement in the public sphere. These include the prevalence of the patriarchal work contract within public and private institutions, as well as cultural and ethical values which create strongly defined gender roles. The discussion examines the complexities of conceptualizing women’s equality and empowerment in Islamic states. The paper reveals that there have been significant achievements in advancing women in leadership and political roles, but that there are still institutional and cultural barriers embedded in business systems. Linking feminist, development and management theoretical strands a development framework is proposed which is sensitive to the Islamic Shar’ia encompassing government, organization and individual level strategies. It is suggested that scholars should integrate literatures from gender and management, development and Middle East studies, and in particular that critical scholars of gender and organization should consider the interrelations of the national and transnational in critiques of contemporary global capitalism to understand the complexity of women and social change in the ME.
Keywords
women globalization Middle East management transnational feminisms empowerment
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References
1. Acker J.: 1992, Gendering Organizational Theory. In Mills A., P. Tancred, (Eds) Gendering Organizational Analysis. London: Sage Google Scholar
ment and Globalization in the Middle East Beverly Dawn Metcalfe ABSTRACT. This paper provides new theoretical insights into the interconnections and relationships between women, management and globalization in the Middle East (ME). The discussion is positioned within broader globalization debates about women’s social status in ME economies. Based on case study evidence and the UN datasets, the article critiques social, cultural and economic reasons for women’s limited advancement in the public sphere. These include the prevalence of the patriarchal work contract within public and private institutions, as well as cultural and ethical values which create strongly defined gender roles. The discussion examines the complexities of conceptualizing women’s equality and empowerment in Islamic states. The paper reveals that there have been significant achievements in advancing women in leadership and political roles, but that there are still institutional and cultural barriers embedded in business systems. Linking feminist, development and management theoretical strands a development framework is proposed which is sensitive to the Islamic Shar’ia encompassing government, organization and individual level strategies. It is suggested that scholars should integrate literatures from gender and management, development and Middle East studies, and in particular that critical scholars of gender and organization should consider the interrelations of the national and transnational in critiques of contemporary global capitalism to understand the complexity of women and social change in the ME.
KEY WORDS: women, globalization, Middle East, management, transnational feminisms, empowerment
Introduction As the societies of the Arab ME confront the process of globalization, incorporating pressures for democratic change, social justice and trade development, no issue today offers a more formidable challenge for governments than the unequal status of women. Since the 1970s examination of women’s role in the ME has often dominated in representations of political and economic transformations as evidenced in The Iranian Revolution, current debates about constitutional democracy in Iraq and the Taliban regimes in Afghanistan. Yet, it is only recently that women’s contribution to trade and development is being addressed (Acker, 2005; Noland and Pack, 2004). The Arab Human Development Report 2003 argued that the full empowerment of Arab women, recognizing their right to equal participation in politics, society and the economy, as well as to education and other means of building capabilities was a significant aspect of the region’s future development in a global society (Metcalfe, 2006, 2007; World Bank, 2003a, b, c; World Bank, 2005). The eradication of gender inequalities and the empowerment and participation of both sexes in all spheres of public life are a global concern (Walby, 2005). For example, modernization has transformed women’s opportunities in the UK and USA, yet women’s active participation in political life and congress remains relatively low. A great deal of women-in-management literature has examined the barriers which limit women’s social and economic development, yet these substantive writings are largely positioned within western and developed cultural spaces (for example USA Powell, 2000). The limitations that hinder women’s progress in organizations are well documented, including the persistence of gender stereotypes (Powell, 2000; Reskin and Padavic, 1994; Walby, 1990); biases in recruitment and selection practices (Dickens, 1997; Harris, 2002; Powell, 2000; Truss, 1999); and few female role models (Davidson and Burke, 2004; Powell, 2000). Scholars have also noted how organizations are gendered and reproduce unequal power relations (Hearn et al., 2006; Legge, 2004). Only recently have scholars in management and organization
behaviour examined gender issues within developing or transitional countries or regions (for example Budwhar and Debrah, 2004; Metcalfe and Afanassieva, 2005). While there will be some common concerns that men and women may share globally, it is important to examine the specificities of sociocultural and political processes and their impact on gender systems (Fagenson, 1993; Powell, 2000; see also Roald, 2001). It is, however, the ME countries where the gap between the rights of men and women is the most visible and significant, and where resistance to women’s equality has been most challenging (Mernissi, 1991; Metcalfe, 2007; Moghadam, 2005; UNIFEM, 2004). Women face discrimination in both the economic and social spheres, and many women do not enjoy equal rights as citizens (CAWTAR, 2001; Seikaly, 1994; World Bank, 2003a). Women are not allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, UAE and Kuwait. Although women’s rights organizations have repeatedly raised the issue, not one country in the Arab region has a law that makes domestic violence a criminal offence (UNIFEM, 2004). Arab women are significantly under-represented (or entirely absent) in senior executive positions in politics, public administration and legal systems and professional roles in the private sector. Yet, women are challenging the prevailing social ethics which require that they define their self-identity in the home sphere and eschew a career. In addition to the change that women face in their local communities, their status is affected by transnational feminisms and global political developments. The emergence of extremist Islamic organizations presents a threat to the gains women have achieved as well as to the possibilities of reform (Badran, 2005; UNDP, 2003). The politicization of Islam seriously complicates the advocacy of equal rights (Badran, 2005; Esposito, 2005). This is not to suggest, however, that Islam represents ethical value systems that undermine equality between men and women, rather, as the paper will argue, that Islam has been used in global discourses to reinforce patriarchal social and work systems. This paper contributes to the scarce knowledge that currently exists on the position of women in management and leadership in the ME. Through the integration of literatures in gender, management and ME studies the focus will primarily be on unveiling the socio-cultural, economic and institutional barriers that limit women’s advancement, as well as documenting the progress that has been achieved by women in politics and the professions only in the last few years. The paper presents a framework which can be used to evaluate women’s progress in leadership and management incorporating government, organization and individual level strategies. Signifi- cantly, the model recognizes that the gender regime in Islamic states is based on sex difference (Dickens, 1997; Legge, 2004; Liff, 1996; Walby, 1990). The underpinning arguments presented suggest therefore that we cannot examine women’s public position without connecting to broader socio-cultural debates relating to Islam and gender. Gender, globalization and work The Arab world is diverse economically, socially, historically and politically. Yet Arab people are linked in a variety of ways. The great majority are linked by common language (Arabic), religion (Islam) and cultural identity and heritage (Ahmed, 1998; Ali, 1995, 1999; UNIFEM, 2004). Globalization processes and economic opportunities remain uneven, between countries, within countries and between individuals (Acker, 2005; UNIFEM, 2004; World Bank, 2003a, b, c). The region continues to face social transformations, demographic shifts, economic waves of affluence as well as civil strife (Ali, 1999; Noland and Pack, 2004; Norris and Ingleheart, 2002). Consistent with the contradictory nature of globalization the impact on women has been mixed (Walby, 2005; Pfeifer and Posusney, 2003). One feature of economic globalization has been the generation of jobs in export processing, free trade zones and world market factories as well as ecommerce and finance, especially in oil/gas-rich economies such as Bahrain, UAE and Saudi Arabia. Labour market policies such as Emiritarization, Omanization, Bahrainization and Saudiazation1 have also created job opportunities in public administration for women (Adler, 2004; Moghadam, 2003, 2005). In addition, following international trends there are signs of increased entrepreneurial development amongst women especially in Jordan, Egypt and Bahrain (Basma, 1999; Carter and Weeks, 2002; Tzanntos and Kaur, 2003). 86
