Education Assignment 1
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Creswellrd6e_PPT04.pptxChapter 4
Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
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Chapter 4 Learning Objectives
1. Identify the nine key topics to include in a proposal or a research study.
2. Compare the differences in the structure of proposals for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research studies.
3. Evaluate the quality of your writing for conciseness, coherence, and unnecessary words.
4. Identify ethical issues and strategies for addressing them before conducting a study and during and after a study.
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Introduction
Have an idea of the general structure of topics
Structure depends on the design
Be aware of good writing practices
Anticipate ethical issues prior to the study
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Topics Presented in a Proposal (1 of 3)
Arguments presented in a proposal:
Consider early on in planning the study
The major points that need to be addressed
How they will convey a cohesive picture of the study
What the core arguments to advance are
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Topics Presented in a Proposal (2 of 3)
Arguments presented in a proposal:
What do readers need to better understand the topic?
What do readers need to know about the topic?
What do you propose to study?
What is the setting, and who are the people you will study?
What methods do you plan to use to collect data?
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Topics Presented in a Proposal (3 of 3)
Arguments presented in a proposal:
How will you analyze the data?
How will you validate the findings?
What ethical issues will your study present?
What do preliminary results show about the practicability and value of the proposed study?
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A Qualitative Proposal
Format for a qualitative proposal: No one structure prevails
Example 4.1– constructivist or interpretivist worldview
Introduction
Procedures
Ethical issues
Preliminary findings
Expected impact of study
Example 4.2– participatory or social justice worldview
Introduction
Identify specific participatory or social justice framework
Procedures
Ethical issues
Preliminary findings
Significance of study
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A Quantitative Proposal
Format for a quantitative proposal:
Follow the format of a journal article (Example 4.3)
Introduction
A literature review
Methods
Results
Discussion
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A Mixed Methods Proposal
Format for a mixed methods proposal:
Purpose statement/research question for quantitative and qualitative components
Include mixed methods
Rationale
Design elements
Visual diagram of procedures
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Designing the Sections of a Proposal
Specify the sections early in the design of a proposal
Examine proposals that other students have authored under your advisor
Look for a course on proposal development
Review formats with your adviser
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Writing Strategies
Write ideas down early in the process rather than talking about them
Work through several drafts of a proposal rather than trying to polish the first draft
Do not edit at the early draft stage
Start with an outline
Write a draft and shift and sort ideas
Finally, edit and polish each sentence
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The Habit of Writing (1 of 2)
Make writing a daily activity
Keep a daily chart of activities if you do not feel you have time to write
Write when fresh
Avoid binges
Write in small, regular amounts
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The Habit of Writing (2 of 2)
Schedule writing tasks
Keep daily charts: time spent, page equivalents, percent complete
Plan beyond daily goals
Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public
Try to work on two or three writing projects concurrently so that you do not become overloaded with any one
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Clear and Concise Writing
Readability of the manuscript:
Use consistent terms throughout the proposal
Consider how different type of narrative thought guide the reader:
Umbrella thoughts – general or core ideas
Big thoughts in writing – specific ideas
Little thoughts – reinforcing big thoughts
Attention or interest thoughts – keep the reader on track, organize ideas
Coherence in writing – ideas tie and logically flow
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Coherence (1 of 3)
Coherence in writing – ideas tie together and logically flow from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph
Repetition of same variable names in title, purpose statement, and research questions
Consistent order presenting independent and dependent variables
Hook-and-eye exercise – useful for connecting sentences to sentence, paragraphs to paragraphs
(Figure 4.1)
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Coherence (2 of 3)
Figure 4.1: An Illustration of the Hook and Eye Technique
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Coherence (3 of 3)
Figure 4.1: An Illustration of the Hook and Eye Technique (continued)
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Voice, Tense, and “Fat” (1 of 2)
Eliminate unnecessary words
Delete the passive voice
Scale down qualifiers, eliminate overused phrases
Reduce excessive quotations, italics, and parenthetical comments
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Voice, Tense, and “Fat” (2 of 2)
Voice, tense, and “fat”:
Use active voice
“If the subject acts, the voice is active. If the subject is acted on, the voice is passive” (Ross-Larson, 1982, p. 29)
Use strong active verbs
Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs
Edit and revise drafts of a manuscript to trim fat
Write, review, edit
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Ethical Issues (1 of 13)
Research involves collecting data from people
Researchers need to
Protect research participants
Develop trust with research participants
Promote the integrity of research
Guard against misconduct
Cope with new problems that emerge
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Ethical Issues (2 of 13)
Table 4.1: Ethical Issues in Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research
| Process of Research Where the Ethical Issue Occurs | Type of Ethical Issue | How to Address the Issue |
| Prior to conducting the study | Examine professional association standards. Seek college/university institutional review board (IRB) approval. Gain local permission from site and participants. Select a site for the study. Negotiate authorship for publication. Plan to keep the burden of research for participants to a minimum. | Consult the code of ethics for professional associations in your field or discipline. Submit a proposal for IRB approval. Identify and seek local approvals; find gatekeepers or key personnel to help. Select a site where the researcher can be objective and not have a personal interest. Decide on author order for publication based on each author’s contribution. Use brief instruments, pilot-test user acceptability of data collection, collect data at convenient times, and provide compensation for participants’ time. |
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Ethical Issues (3 of 13)
Table 4.1: Ethical Issues in Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research (continued)
| Process of Research Where the Ethical Issue Occurs | Type of Ethical Issue | How to Address the Issue |
| Beginning the study | Identify a research problem that will benefit participants. Disclose purpose of the study. Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms. Respect norms and charters of indigenous societies. Be sensitive to vulnerable populations’ needs (e.g., children). | Determine the needs of participants through a needs assessment or informal conversations. Contact participants and inform them of the general purpose of the study. Tell participants that they have a right not to sign the consent form. Contact indigenous leaders, and involve them in all phases of research. Obtain appropriate consent for vulnerable populations (e.g., parents as well as children). |
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Ethical Issues (4 of 13)
Table 4.1: Ethical Issues in Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research (continued)
| Process of Research Where the Ethical Issue Occurs | Type of Ethical Issue | How to Address the Issue |
| Collecting data | Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible. Make certain that all participants receive the same treatment. Recruit participants by collaborating with stakeholders and community partners. Avoid deceiving participants. Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g., through interviewing, observing). Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site. Avoid collecting information harmful to participants. | Build trust, and discuss extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access with participants. Put into place wait-list provisions for treatment for participants in the control group. Recruit to support the representation of special populations and access to diverse national networks. Discuss purpose of the study and the use of the data. Avoid leading questions, withhold personal opinions, do not disclose sensitive information, and involve participants as collaborators. Provide rewards for participating. Stick to questions stated in an interview protocol. |
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Ethical Issues (5 of 13)
Table 4.1: Ethical Issues in Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research (continued)
| Process of Research Where the Ethical Issue Occurs | Type of Ethical Issue | How to Address the Issue |
| Analyzing data | Avoid siding with participants. Avoid disclosing only positive results. Respect the privacy and anonymity of participants. | Report multiple perspectives. Report contrary findings. Assign fictitious names or aliases, and develop composite profiles of participants. |
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Ethical Issues (6 of 13)
Table 4.1: Ethical Issues in Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research (continued)
| Process of Research Where the Ethical Issue Occurs | Type of Ethical Issue | How to Address the Issue |
| Reporting, sharing, and storing data | Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, and conclusions. Do not plagiarize. Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants. Communicate in clear, straightforward, appropriate language. Share data with others. Keep raw data and other materials (e.g., details of procedures, instruments). Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications. Provide complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict of interest, if requested. State who owns the data from a study. | Report honestly. See American Psychological Association (2020) guidelines for permissions needed to reprint or adapt work of others. Use composite stories to protect the identity of participants. Use biased-free language, and refrain from discriminatory language. Provide copies of reports to participants and stakeholders, and consider website distribution. Keep materials for five years. Refrain from using the same material for more than one publication. Disclose funders for research and those who profit from the research. Give credit for ownership to researchers, participants, and advisers. |
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Ethical Issues (7 of 13)
Prior to beginning the study:
Consider codes of ethics
Apply to the institutional review board
Obtain the necessary permissions to gain access to the site and to study participants
Select a site without vested interests
Negotiate authorship for publication
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Ethical Issues (8 of 13)
Beginning the study:
In the research problem:
Identify a problem that will benefit individuals being studied
In the purpose and questions:
Convey the purpose and sponsors of the research to participants
Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms, obtain informed consent from participants
Respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures
Assess the burden of research on the participants
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Ethical Issues (9 of 13)
Collecting the data:
Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible
Make sure all participants receive the benefits
Collaborate with participants
Avoid deceiving participants
Respect potential power imbalances, consider reciprocity
Avoid exploitation of participants
Avoid collecting harmful information
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Ethical Issues (10 of 13)
Analyzing the data:
Avoid taking sides or disregarding data
Avoid disclosing only positive results – reflect the statistical tests and diversity of perspectives
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Ethical Issues (11 of 13)
Analyzing the data:
Respect the privacy of participants:
Protect anonymity of participants
Remove names from responses
Qualitative researchers use aliases and pseudonyms
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Ethical Issues (12 of 13)
Reporting, sharing, and storing data:
Do not falsify authorship, evidence, data, findings or conclusions
Do not plagiarize
Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants
Communicate in clear straightforward, appropriate language
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Ethical Issues (13 of 13)
Reporting, sharing, and storing data:
Share data with others (e.g. stakeholders, participants)
Keep raw data and other materials for a reasonable period of time
Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications
Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict of interest
Understand who owns the data
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Summary
How to write a proposal
Use one of the outlines for a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods proposal
Importance of putting words on paper
Consider anticipated ethical issues and describe
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