A Brief History of Police in the
United States
Chapter 2
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020. 2
English Roots of Policing
• Roots of U.S. policing traced back to
England
– Night watch system brought to the United
States by early English settlers
– Wardens and watchmen
3Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.1: Identify the influence of English roots of policing on U.S. policing.
US policing traced back to England:
Night watch system: Early policing system that required voluntary citizen participation in which able-bodied males donated their time to help protect cities, enforce laws, and maintain order.
Position of warden:
Philadelphia residents convinced legislators to pass law to create this position
Could hire as many watchmen as needed
Paid through taxes
Public order in England:
Public order in England until 19th century was the responsibility of local justices of peace, constables supported by citizens, posses, military and yeomanry, the watch and ward except for a brief period during Oliver Cromwell’s rule (1653–1658)
During riots, constables and watchmen were supported by the military and yeomanry--a cavalry force largely composed of landowners
Wardens and watchmen
Served warrants; acted as detectives and patrolled streets
Susceptible to political interference
Considered inefficient and corrupt
English Roots of Policing
• Rapid growth of cities
• Municipal policing guidelines by Sir
Robert Peel and Patrick Colquhoun
• Territorial strategy of policing
4Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.1: Identify the influence of English roots of policing on U.S. policing.
Municipal policing guidelines developed in England by:
Sir Robert Peel: Founder of modern territorial policing (London Metropolitan Police) in 1829 in London
Patrick Colquhoun: Superintending magistrate of the Thames River Police, a forerunner of the Metropolitan Police and author of works on metropolitan policing
Police organized along military lines and under government control
Territorial strategy of policing
Police as part of the public and not separate
Officers with good appearance and quiet demeanor
Territorial strategy of policing: Officers to walk prescribed beats to prevent and deal with crime
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
• Day watch systems established in U.S.
cities
• 24-hr protection
• Watch and ward systems replaced by
centralized government police agencies
who:
– Had the power to arrest without a warrant
– Carried revolvers
5Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.2: Describe the influence of technology on the evolution of early U.S. policing.
Day watch systems in the United States: Philadelphia, 1833; Boston, 1838; New York, 1844; San Francisco, 1850; Los Angeles, 1851.
Centralized government police agencies: tasks included crime prevention, provision of a wide variety of services to the public, enforcement of “morality,” and the apprehension of criminals.
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
Peel’s Principles of Policing
6Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
• Preventive policing by municipal police
and county sheriffs
• State and federal agencies set up to
support police work
– Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
established in 1908
7Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.2: Describe the influence of technology on the evolution of early U.S. policing.
Preventive policing by municipal police and county sheriffs:
Search for missing children
Mediating quarrels
Helping at fire scenes
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
• Technological progress
– Rapid growth in use of:
• Call boxes
• Telegraphs
• Teletypes
• Two-way radios
• Patrol cars
8Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.2: Describe the influence of technology on the evolution of early U.S. policing.
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
• Technological progress
– Boston Police Department
• All station houses connected by telegraph in 1871
• First telephones in 1878
• First motor patrol in 1903
– St. Louis, Missouri
• System to alert local public radio station about crime in
the 1920s
• Transmitting station in 1930 to send messages to
squad cars and police stations
9Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.2: Describe the influence of technology on the evolution of early U.S. policing.
Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
• Technological progress
– Chicago Police Department Detective Division
• All squad cars equipped with radio receiving sets
in 1929
• One-way radio system supported by Chicago
Tribune through their station WGN
10Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.2: Describe the influence of technology on the evolution of early U.S. policing.
The Political Era
• Lack of authority to establish mandate for
actions
• Small departments operated
independently within jurisdictions
• Large departments divided into precincts
operated as individual branches
• Racial and ethnic cleavages and clashes
of economic interest
11Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.3: Summarize the issues facing policing during the Political Era.
The Political Era
• Influence of politics on law enforcement
– Police officers hired and fired through political
connections
12Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.3: Summarize the issues facing policing during the Political Era.
Police officer hired and fired by elected officials: Throughout most of the 19th century and into the 20th, the basic qualification for becoming a police officer was a political connection rather than a demonstrated ability to perform the job. New York police officers in the 1830s were hired and fired by elected officials who expected those they hired to support them politically and fired those who did not. This led to:
Officers representing local political party/politician instead of legal system
Political corruption and manipulation
Police officers vulnerability to bribes
Frequent conflicts with union workers, rioters, and looters
The Political Era
• Influence of politics on law enforcement
– Partisan style of policing
– Complete authority of command officers and
supervisors
– No specialization and minimal or nonexistent
training
– Officers expected to “handle” problems
13Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.3: Summarize the issues facing policing during the Political Era.
Partisan style of policing: Lack of a strong central administration led to little or no accountability for either the politicians or the police. Corruption, graft, and bribery reached a new level where police promotions and assignments were auctioned to the highest bidder, and illegal operations, including gambling halls and brothels, made monthly contributions to police officers.
Examples:
New Orleans and Chicago Police Departments: In 2014, ex-mayor Ray Nagin was convicted on 20 criminal counts, including bribery and money laundering during his terms as mayor, for which he was sentenced to 10 years in prison. The police department entered into one of the most far-reaching consent decrees to date with the DOJ because of long-standing police abuses, racist policing tactics, and widespread violations of the Constitution.
Chicago was plagued by continuing problems with political corruption and has been called “the most corrupt city in the country” with crimes that include ghost payrolls, bogus contracts, city official thefts, bribes, and police brutality.
The Political Era
• Pendleton Act--an attempt to address
corruption
– Post of sheriff stayed
• Police Accountability
– Influence of politicians on hiring and firing still
continues
– Raised issues of how police can be
responsive to citizens instead of politicians
14Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.3: Summarize the issues facing policing during the Political Era.
Pendleton Act: Required that government jobs be awarded on the basis of merit rather than on the basis of friendship or political favors. However, the position of the sheriff stayed. To date, the sheriff is a political figure charged with police duties.
Sheriff: Typically, an elected official responsible for county law enforcement and, in many instances, the county jail. Daily activities influenced by politicians.
The Reform Era
• Radical reorganization of police agencies
including:
– Strong centralized administrative bureaucracy
– Hiring and promotion based on merit
– Introduction of highly specialized units
– Infusion and application of science
15Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.4: Explain the effect on policing of the changes implemented during the Reform Era.
The Reform Era
• August Vollmer’s contribution to policing
• Change in service role of police
– Wickersham Commission (1931)
• Formed by President Hoover to investigate rising
crime rates
• Police seen as law enforcers instead of service
providers
16Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.4: Explain the effect on policing of the changes implemented during the Reform Era.
August Vollmer: Served as chief of police in Berkeley, California, from 1905 to 1932. Known as the father of modern policing systems. Promoted professionalism and higher education for police officers. August Vollmer’s contribution to policing:
Improved quality of police personnel
Recognition of police professionalization
Policing as a profession of choice
Change in service role of police: The passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1920 and the onset of the Great Depression in 1929 placed the police under a new public mandate for crime control and public safety. Police stopped providing other services like assisting the homeless, babysitting, and helping people find employment.
The Era of Social Upheaval
(1960s and 1970s)
• 1960s--most challenging era in U.S.
policing
– Crime rate doubled (per 100,000 persons)
– Civil Rights movement started
– Anti-war sentiment
– Urban riots
17Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.5: Describe the relationship between the social upheaval of the 1960s and 1970s and the increased emphasis on research on police effectiveness.
The Era of Social Upheaval
(1960s and 1970s)
• Social disorder created fear in public
• Historical role of police questioned
• Introduction of college degree programs
on law enforcement
– To generate a professional image of police
– To create a pool of qualified applicants
18Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.5: Describe the relationship between the social upheaval of the 1960s and 1970s and the increased emphasis on research on police effectiveness.
Social disorder: It appeared that the family, church, and police were losing their grip on society.
Historical role of police questioned:
One of the earliest responsibilities of the police was the responsibility of controlling slaves and Native Americans. Even after the American Civil War, when emancipation occurred, police and sheriffs were a tool for elected officials to control, and in some instances, subjugate minority.
College degree programs: Changes were part of the1967 report of the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, which was partially responsible for Congress passing the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. This act established the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) and provided a billion dollars each year to improve and strengthen criminal justice agencies.
The Era of Social Upheaval
(1960s and 1970s)
• Research on Police Effectiveness
– Several studies conducted to understand
• Styles of policing
• Police–community relations
• Police selection and training
19Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.5: Describe the relationship between the social upheaval of the 1960s and 1970s and the increased emphasis on research on police effectiveness.
Studies conducted:
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA): Provided a billion dollars each year to improve and strengthen criminal justice agencies
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967): Represented a major effort to better understand styles of policing, police–community relations, and police selection and training
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (1967): Another major effort to better understand styles of policing, police–community relations, and police selection and training
National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973): Another attempt to better understand styles of policing, police–community relations, and police selection and training
Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA): Established in 1979 (operational in 1983), the commission conducts evaluations based on specific standards for law enforcement agencies and accredits agencies meeting the criteria
The Community-Policing Era
(1980–2000)
• Rise of community-oriented and problem-
oriented policing
– Both emphasized
• Importance of police–community relationship
• Maintenance of order through negotiations
between the police and the public
– Community relations programs
20Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.6: Identify aspects of the community policing model and problem-oriented policing.
Community Policing: A model of policing based on establishing partnerships among police and other citizens in an attempt to improve quality of life through crime prevention, information sharing, and mutual understanding
Problem-Oriented Policing: Encourages officers to take a holistic approach, working with other citizens and other agency representatives to find long-term solutions to a variety of recurrent problems
Community relations programs: Developed in the 1960s, initially as an experiment in bridging the gap between the police and the community. Such programs were later to become a revolution in policing.
Included community center and school meets, neighborhood storefront offices, ride-along programs, fear-reduction programs, police academies for citizens, cultural diversity training, Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)
The Community-Policing Era
(1980–2000)
• Return to Peel’s principals of policing
– Move from crime fighting model to community
policing
– Enhanced professionalism and better
communication with community
21Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.6: Identify aspects of the community policing model and problem-oriented policing.
The Community-Policing Era
(1980–2000)
• Problem-oriented policing
– CompStat policing
• Maximized use of technology
• Technology downside
22Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.6: Identify aspects of the community policing model and problem-oriented policing.
Problem-Oriented Policing: Encourages officers to take a holistic approach, working with other citizens and other agency representatives to find long-term solutions to a variety of recurrent problems
Example of problem-oriented policing: Police officers often report that the same families continue to account for many crimes over the years and across generations. Rather than dealing with all of these calls as separate incidents to be handled before clearing the calls and going on to other calls, problem-oriented policing focuses attention on the underlying difficulties that create patterns of incidents.
Compstat policing: Use of computerized statistics to plot specific incidents of crime by time, day and location.
Enabled effective allocation of resources
Led to significant reduction in crime rates
Enabled crime analysis programs to track crime and make predictions of crime trends
Helped develop strategies to apprehend offenders
Facilitated the use of record management systems
Enabled computer-aided dispatch and 911 systems
Maximized use of technology
Increased specialization
Provided better training
Expanded educational opportunities to enhance police image and create a more effective police force
Technology downside
Increased gap between officers and citizens
Community relations programs introduced to reduce gap
The Homeland Security Era
(2001–Present)
• New era in U.S. policing after 2001
terrorist attack
– Homeland security
• Federal law enforcement agencies
• Police in larger metropolitan areas
• USA PATRIOT Act
• Return to gathering of intelligence through
community-oriented policing
23Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.7: Evaluate at least three contemporary policing strategies in terms of their effectiveness.
A Brief History of Police in the
United States
The Four Eras of Policing
24Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.7: Evaluate at least three contemporary policing strategies in terms of their effectiveness.
Some Contemporary Policing
Strategies
• Intelligence-Led or Intelligence-Based
Policing
• Terrorism-Oriented Policing
25Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.7: Evaluate at least three contemporary policing strategies in terms of their effectiveness.
Intelligence-Led or Intelligence-Based Policing
Identifies risks or patterns to make predictions
Helps to proactively identify and anticipate problems
Terrorism-Oriented Policing
Adds new duties to those already assumed to detect and prevent terrorist acts
Increased security
Requires additional appropriate training
Policing in the Past, Present, and
Future
• Influence of political and social environments
• Past
– Police personnel from all walks of life
– Did not need technical expertise
• Today
– Specialized police personnel with technical expertise
– Need for police and community to work together to
control crime and terrorism
• President Obama’s report on 21st-century policing
26Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.7: Evaluate at least three contemporary policing strategies in terms of their effectiveness.
President Obama’s report on 21st-century policing:
Commissioned to identify practices to promote effective crime reduction while building public trust, in response to serious incidents between the police and the community.
Report contained several underlying themes on the basis of which specific recommendations were made.
Policing in the Past, Present, and
Future
Contemporary Police Issues
27Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Covers Learning Objective 2.8: Describe the challenges facing contemporary police departments.
Police agencies still have many common issues and challenges. Historical analysis reveals the roots of many current issues in policing--such as professionalism, discretion, inefficiency, and corruption--and helps to clarify the complexities and variations of police operations in the United States today.
Professionalism: An end state that is largely based on ethical practice and other related characteristics such as good personal character, personal and organizational accountability, a commitment to higher education and continuous training, and intolerance for misconduct.
- Slide Number 1
- Slide Number 2
- English Roots of Policing
- English Roots of Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- Evolution of Early U.S. Policing
- The Political Era
- The Political Era
- The Political Era
- The Political Era
- The Reform Era
- The Reform Era
- The Era of Social Upheaval (1960s and 1970s)
- The Era of Social Upheaval (1960s and 1970s)
- The Era of Social Upheaval (1960s and 1970s)
- The Community-Policing Era (1980–2000)
- The Community-Policing Era (1980–2000)
- The Community-Policing Era (1980–2000)
- The Homeland Security Era (2001–Present)
- A Brief History of Police in the United States
- Some Contemporary Policing Strategies
- Policing in the Past, Present, and Future
- Policing in the Past, Present, and Future
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