Review/Critique

Joumal of Sport Management, 1987, I, 4-24

Sport Management: Past, Present, Future

Earle F. Zeigler The University of Western Ontario

The author argues that present conditions justify an analysis of sport manage- ment, broadly interpreted, from the standpoint of its historical background, its present status, and its possible future. Three reasons are given: A new North American Society for Sport Management has just been established; serious criticism has been leveled at both professional sport and so-called educational sport; and management theory and practice has become an in- creasingly complex subject. Several questions are considered: What has been the historical background of sport management? What is its present status? What plan should be followed for the finest sort of progress in the years ahead? And what may be reasonably concluded from this analysis? The author con- cludes that (a) the field still has an opportunity to relate significantly to the developing social science of management but time is running short; (b) the vast enterprise that is sport must relate more effectively to the urgent need for qualified managers; (c) the new North American Society for Sport Manage- ment can make a significant contribution to this development; and (d) such development should be carried out in full cooperation with the National As- sociation for Sport and Physical Education within the AAHPERD and the Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

This is most definitely the time to consider sport management from the standpoint of its past, its present, and its possible future.* This is true, I believe, because the organization of the North American Society for Sport Management during the 1985-86 academic year by university and college personnel from the United States and Canada could well be an important step forward in the history of sport. Quoting from Article n (Purpose) of the newly formed professional group's constitution.

The purpose of the Society shall be to promote, stimulate, and encourage study, research, scholarly writing, and professional development in the area of sport management {broadly imerpreted). (p. 1)

Direct all correspondence to Earle F. Zeigler, Faculty of Physical Education, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ont., Canada N6A 3K7.

Paist. Present, Future • 5

Building on the ashes of the now deftinct Sport Management Arts and Science Society, it is important to define the terra "broadly interpreted" above by quot- ing fiirther from the new Society's stated purpose:

This statement of purpose means that the members of this Society are con- cemed about the theoretical and applied aspects of management theory and practice specifically related to sport, exercise, dance, and play as these en- terprises are pursued by all sectors of the population, (p. 1)

Tbis explanation is extremely important. It means that in the furtherance of these aims and objectives the members of the Society will do their best to (a) support and cooperate with local, regional, national, and international organizations hav- ing similar purposes, (b) organize and administer meetings to promote the pur- poses stated above, and (c) issue appropriate proceedings and journals as this becomes possible.

These words are followed in Section 2 of Article n by another extremely important statement: The Society shall conduct its activities solely to promote the above-stated purpose, but this shall in no way be construed as an effort to bring about pecuniary profit. This means that the founders of our Society want the ideal enshrined that this organization shall indeed serve the evolving profession as a whole—not any specific individual, group, or university.

A second reason for professional people involved with sport, however interpreted, to scrutinize the enterprise is tfiat highly commercialized sport spon- sored by a relatively few universities is increasingly giving an important cultural activity (sport!) an overall bum rap! By that I mean sport is too important to our countries, and the entire world for that matter, to allow it to become anything less than a socially useful servant, a function it has the capability to fulfill for all people. This issue is raised strongly and clearly in the first article of a recent series prepared by The New York Times entitled "When the Cash Register is the Scoreboard" (June 8, 1986). As Michael Goodwin states.

Sports has become a big, profitable business on many campuses. A power- ful, business-oriented constituency, often unconcerned about the academic side of the university, has sprung up around athletic programs . . . Athletic departments, facing the pressures of bills to pay and expectations to meet, are as bottom-line-oriented as any company on the Fortune 500. Although they are ostensibly part of the universities they rqjresent, many athletic depart- ments operate as separate, autonomous units, raising and spending millions of dollars with little or no university oversight.

Goodwin continues with a devastating analysis ofthe developing situation that has, for these institutions at least, gotten out of hand. The result has been a poor educational situation generally with highly questionable ethical practices emerging on all fronts (pp. 27-28). Let it be said further that, in addition to these comments about what I am (with no malice intended) designating as semiprofes- sional sport in certain universities, the values and norms of our respective coun- tries must continue to prevail through adequate legislation for professional sport as well.

® Zetgler

A third reason for taking a hard look at sport management right now, one that follows directly from the situation just described to a considerable degree, is that the complexity of administration or management (terms I am now using almost interchangeably) is well known even to the lay person today. Recently I defined management as involving "the execution of managerial acts, including conceptual, technical, human, and conjoined skills, while combining varying degrees of planning, organizing, staff, directing, and controlling within the management process to assist an organization to achieve its goals" (Zeigler & Bowie, 1983). Applied to our field, then, and to the purpose ofthe new society (NASSM), this description ofthe management process would apply to an organi- zation that somehow, somewhere in North America is offering at least some aspect of developmental physical activity in sport, exercise, dance, and play to one or more sectors of the population.

Given heightening demands such as these, why people still submit their names to selection committees for consideration for managerial posts has become somewhat of an enigma to me. Maybe I'm simply getting old, but I must say they are perhaps unwittingly asking for it. This seems especially true in sport and physical education, but I really don't have all of the facts to back up such an assertion. The words of Seward Staley still ring in my ears: "The best job at the university level is that of a full professor!" Even so, he was the dean at Illinois for a long time.

Some educated guesses as to why physical educator/coaches are willing to assume positions of administrative responsibility can nevertheless be made. First, such positions do pay relatively higher salaries, and thus the total amount earned builds up over the years if a person survives the rigors of such a post and continues with it indefinitely. In Canada one gets an administrative stipend of varying amount initially, and this is either removed or one "grows up to it" after the term of office has been completed.

Second, there have been no large rewards for scholarly work in sport and physical education in the past, nor has such a professor acquired great kudos in intellectual circles, so maybe administration has provided an opportunity for some to receive a bit of prestige on the local or regional scene at least. Third, it could be argued that physical educator/coaches are better suited constitutional- ly for managerial roles—they have the body type and temperament presumably necessary for so-called positively aggressive leadership (whatever that may be).

Fourth, maybe it gives one a chance to get out of a superfiuity of lecture and activity teaching, or perhaps the demanding routine of coaching, but con- versely, the scholarly productivity ofthe very large majority of administrators, to quote the late Paul Hunsicker of Michigan, would hardly startle the academic world. And yet, oddly enough, isn't that presumably why we think people want to get involved at the college or university level in the first place? Finally, and this is not as facetious as it sounds, lately it's about the only way to get a secretary!

Thus, any one or a combination of these reasons, and perhaps some others not mentioned, could account for the urge to be selected as dean or director, depart- ment chairperson or head, athletic director, supervisor or coordinator of physi- cal and health education (and perhaps athletics), or even program chairperson or head coach. Why people choose managerial posts in public recreation, or pri- vate agencies, or in commercial fitness enterprises could also be conjectured upon at length.

Past, Present, Future '

One interesting thing I've observed, even after efforts by many of us for the past 25 years to upgrade management theory and practice applied to our field, is that—within educational circles in sport and physical education at least—the new manager or administrator is still not aware of the managerial revolution that has occuned within the past 30 or 40 years. (If he or she is aware of it, the difficult and laborious aspects of the management process are usually turned over to some- one with training in business practice.) This is considerably less true for people who assume managerial posts in recreation and other public, semi-public, and private agencies where developmental physical activity is a good part of the or- ganization's program. But even those in these other groups, if they have had only one course in administration or management from one of our departments, pos- sess but a vague understanding of the many aspects and ramifications of the posi- tion being undertaken. What's even worse, after he or she begins the job such a person is still not cognizant of the unbelievable complexity of the position. They learn to do what they do by trial and errorl

The typical approach is to work overtime to get control of the new re- sponsibility and to meet the seetningly endless demands of higher administra- tion, faculty, staff, and students (or the public as consumers, or whatever). Quite soon one gets the feeling of being on a treadmill whose angle is getting sharper, thereby forcing one to trot at a brisk pace simply to keep from falling off the back end! It's an uneasy feeling. The pressure is there constantly; some people end up with ulcers. Work tends to pile up in enormous quantities when one is absent from the office for just a few short days. Then, too, there is always the feeling that one is merely doing what is practical and expedient at the moment. The pattem of operation does indeed become one of trial and error, and it seems impossible to take time out for extended future planning.

Finally, because of the increasing and persistent demands made upon his or her office, the administrator reasons that more help is needed, both adminis- trative and secretarial. Regardless of whether budgetary pressures increase and so-called management in decline becomes a perennial syndrome, positions of this type will likely increase now and in the foreseeable future. It's tfie simple truth that assistants need assistants of their own! What is the answer to this dilemma? VanderZwaag (1984) recently offered a concise prescription: "What is needed is an integrated sport management program that proceeds from a systematic ap- proach to management" (p. v).

Taking this thought to heart, therefore, I will systematize this paper by addressing the following topics related to the management of sport in sequence: What has been the historical background of sport management? What is its present status? What plan should be followed for the fmest sort of progress in the years ahead? And what may we conclude from this discussion? ,

Historical Background

Before we can discuss what we should be doing right now, and how we should be planning for the future of management theory and practice as applied to our field, we would do well to review the situation historically. How did this all hap- pen? It happened because the knowledge explosion that has affected almost the entire world has also affected the managing of organizations, more specifically the individuals managing these organizations. Management tends to be a dynam-

8 Zeigler

ic process typified by steady, almost constant change. The Industrial Revolution ofthe mid-18th century was the precursor, its effects soon spreading to all aspects of life including education. Technological change of necessity has been closely related to administrative or managerial change; new methods of management be- came part of the technological development itself. With this managerial revolu- tion came "more organization, larger-scale organization, more bureaucracy, and more administrators" (Gross, 1964, p. 38).

As westem culture and North American society continued to grow in com- plexity, amazing social changes were occurring. Social change occurs when people develop the desire, physical resources, and technical know-how to perform the tasks in the most expedient manner possible. Our desires are of course closely related to the values and norms of the culture—values that aid in attitude forma- tion so that leaders can gain the support of the people to fulfill their assigned duties and responsibilities.

The continuing industrial revolution, and what has been called the post- industrial revolution by some because of developing cybernetics, coupled with fantastic advances in science and technology, has created a difficult situation for people in our most developed societies. These factors, along with the exploding population and its development of immense urban and suburban areas, have forced a certain percentage of the personpower to concern itself increasingly with the management of the large majority of the people in our society. The ability of a relatively few people to master this task reasonably well has meant that the world as we know it could continue to grow and develop, unless adverse ecologi- cal factors or human mistakes effect a steady-state society.

This is not meant to imply that people have not organized and administered all types of enterprises in the past. TTie point is that an organizational, adminis- trative, or managerial revolution has occurred and will continue because of the ever-increasing complexity of our society. It is the more complex thought and resultant administrative theory that is new in this century. Such theory now serves us in a similar way to manage our organizations, much as earlier, less complex administrative thought and practice enabled people of those periods to accom- plish their goals. Such thought and practice have necessarily been interwoven with the broad processes of historical evolution.

What we are discovering in North America, of course, is that everything has become big—almost monstrous—and then even bigger still (witness the fate of AT&T!). Thus there is Big Business, Big Govemment, Big Labor (now get- ting a bit smaller). Big Science and Technology, Big Agriculture (some problems here too). Big Religion (including the inroads ofthe fundamentalists in the TV industry). Big Communications Media, Big Education, and now Big Sport and Big Fitness. Of course. Big Sport within Big Education has now become Big Bus- iness too, and this means that good managers and administrators are needed in all of these enterprises if our countries are to grow and prosper.

There is littie evidence that managers or administrators in sport and physical education wherever they may be functioning, either in practice or in administra- tion courses, are concemed with the theoretical aspects of management. In fact, a paradoxical situation arises at the college or university when one is imprudent enough to discuss such a thing as "management theory." The paradox arises be- cause the field seems divided into two groups, neither of which can see the need

Past, Present. Future . 9

or importance of such a subject. These groups might be labeled "practitioners" and "scientists." The practitioners don't believe such a theory will help them on the job, and the scientists have yet to be convinced of the scientific merit of any such investigation.

This feeling of mistrust must somehow be changed. As viewed by Parsons (1958), "a formal organization in the present sense is a mechanism by which goals somehow important to the society, or to various subsystems of it, are im- plemented and to some degree defmed" (p. 44). As society becomes increasing- ly complex, however, there is a strong trend toward the dehumanization of people. They tend to lose their identities as work tasks become increasingly splintered. The individual has become more subordinated to the organization and alienated from other people. There is also a clash of ideological systems within our in- creasingly over-organized society. All around us are examples of inflexibility as totalitarian pattems of management compete with more democratic models. Such models are often subjected to great strain, and the increasing complexity could well bring the large modem organization to the point of extinction.

The Marketing Orientation Concept In order to avoid becoming extinct, any organization today must have a stance in regard to the marketing concept, the business phenomenon that gained such great momentum in the 1940s. Marketing is typically defmed as activities that accelerate the movement of goods and services from the manufacturer to the con- sumer (Rosenberg, 1978, p. 277). Whether one is talking about advertising, dis- tributing, merchandising, product planning, promotion, publicity, and even transportation and warehousing, it is still marketing.

The development of the marketing concept was business' response to a society that was steadily acquiring more buying power. The personal income of the average family rose steadily so that basic essentials used up a smaller portion of a person's salary. The nature of consumer demands was also changing along with rising production levels. All of this led to a dramatic rise in the demand for services between 1950 and 1970. As the social environment changed, the busi- ness community was affected as well. The variety of consumer demands soon ushered in the concept of market segmentation. With each segment having its own needs and preferences, businesses found it necessary to develop individual market-strategy plans. (In this connection sport managers need a better understand- ing of marketing orientation so that the interests of the presumed market segment are best served.)

Though not discussed here at length, it should be understood that com- petitive sport in educational institutions, for example, has faced different mar- keting environments in each of the past three decades. The 1960s saw a great need for additional revenue sources as operating costs skyrocketed. This need continued in the 1970s and was further exacerbated by changing social and eco- nomic influences (e.g., social values, slower economic growth). Now in the 1980s there is more need than ever for sport programs to develop individual strategic marketing plans with concurrent evaluation schedules to serve as control mecha- nisms (Zeigler & Campbell, 1984).

10 Zeigler

Sport Management Literature Spaeth's (1967) examination ofthe literature within sport and physical education in the mid-1960s indicated that the field was virtually unaware ofthe develop- ment of administrative theory and research in other fields. Subsequently, Baker and Collins (1983) reported that approximately 10% of completed iesis research in sport and physical education related to administration or management. (Theses in administration or management are exceeded only slightly by those in exercise physiology.) However, despite positive efforts by some (e.g., Parkhouse in the United States and Chelladurai in Canada), general awareness of the theoretic literature—or any significant contribution to lY—has increased only marginally in the past 20 years. This lack of awareness is troubling, given that the field has recently begun to appreciate that people should be prepared more carefully to assume the managed^ risk. For example, since opportunities to specialize in vari- ous areas within physical education have begun, the sport management special- ization now appears to be the most popular program of the 1980s. One can only speculate about the intellectual level of these programs when the professors and instructors have typically been such reluctant, unproductive scholars themselves.

Present Status Professional Status for Managers in Our Field

In North America within the past 100 years, organized physical education and organized athletics, both within education and within various public, private, and commercial programs of physical activity for people of all ages and abilities, have blossomed into a large and complex enterprise that demands a multitude of good managers. The situation is now such that the appointment of a physical education director, an athletic director, a fitness club manager, a private agency physical director, or a physical recreation supervisor is a very ordinary occurrence. These men and women are gradually assuming positions that have many ofthe earmarks of a profession.

Yet, we must keep in mind that a recognized profession needs an organized body of knowledge based on research. A profession that is fully worthy of the name must meet certain other criteria such as having a code of ethics that is en- forced. For now, however, keep the criterion of an organized body of knowl- edge based on research firmly in mind. Thus the perpetuation of our species—the manager of some type of developmental physical activity as it relates to our profession—requires that a solid organizational structure be developed within edu- cational institutions through which the body of professional knowledge may be transmitted to those who follow.

Given the above statements, let us consider how administrators and managers received their preparation for this demanding position in the past. Tbe answer becomes obvious: Generally many if not all worked their way up through the ranks in an apprenticeship scheme (no matter how ridiculous some schemes may seem when examined in light of subsequent demands made upon the individual). All were interested and active in sport and physical education. Most were physi- cal education majors who had taken sever^ courses in administration at the un-

Past, Present. Future 11

dergraduate or master's levels, either within physical education or in educational administration. Some, especially men, (a) had not majored in physical education but later decided to enter the field because of successful competitive athletic ex- perience, or (b) they had majored in physical education but had not planned to stay in the field. Whatever the case, these people demonstrated good personality and leadership traits. They knew how to get along with people, they made good appearances, they wanted to get things done, they were willing to work hard, and they believed strongly in the benefits of competitive sport.

Such a method of preparing managers or adiininistrators is not unique to our field. Halpin (1958) has pointed to similar circumstances in the professional programs in schools of education, business, public administration, hospital ad- ministration, and social work. He further stated that the more mature profession- al schools of medicine, law, and engineering had exhibited a similar pattem in earlier stages of their development. This is in contrast to the recognized academ- ic disciplines, where administrators were picked typically on the basis of scho- larly and research endeavor (and perhaps because of certain desirable personality traits as well). The latter method of selection is still practiced today, and the large majority of this group may never have taken even one course in management theory and practice. It is tempting to say that what has happened in higher educa- tion generally over the past several decades shows it!

I>espite the decades of inadequacies in professional preparation for manage- ment in our field, it has been offering courses in the organization and administra- tion of physical education and athletics since 1890 (Zeigler, 1951)! By 1927 they were typicaUy included in professional curricula throughout the United States (El- liott, 1927). Since that time there has been a proliferation of similar courses relating to administration and supervision at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. In addition, thousands of master's theses and doctoral dissertations have been deposited on our library shelves. Most of these studies involve the descriptive method of research, or some technique thereof, and there is unquestionably a body of knowledge about administrative/jracricc. Relatively speaking, however, there is still very little research in management theory. What we have is an end- less stream of articles, theses, dissertations, monographs, and texts on the sub- ject matter area, but what it all adds up to is anybody's guess.

What can be said at present? If those working in the area are to gain academic respectability, management theory in this field must increasingly strive for a sound theoretical basis. The fact is, even though organization and adminis- tration have a long history in our professional preparation programs, research in this area has not achieved the recognition accorded to research in, for example, sport and physical education history. How can we improve this situation? First, the terms and concepts employed must be clear and must be related to systematic theory. Second, the theory we develop should be generalizable, and therefore abstract. Third, the research endeavor should be as value-free as possible; if we introduce values, we should treat them as variables in the investigative method- ology. Fourth, such scholarly endeavor will undoubtedly be based on the social (primarily the behavioral) sciences. Finally, although correlations are interest- ing and significant, adequate theory should in the final analysis clarify processes that will produce quality performance (Thompson, 1958, pp. 29-33).

12 Zeigler

A Plan Jor Progress We really don't have much choice other than to make every effort to place profes- sional preparation for administrative leadership on an academically sound basis. The need for vastly improved leadership comes from a number of directions. We simply do not have enough fine leaders in any field, and our field is no ex- ception. Lacking good leadership, an organization begins to falter and may even stumble. Our field needs fine people who will take charge in today's behavioral- ly oriented work environment. We've all heard that management involves the accomplishment of an objective by enlisting the close cooperation of others. How- ever, as Zoffer (1985) states, "But I would add to that the need to achieve a cer- tain excellence—accomplishing goals efficiently, cost-effectiveiy and imagina- tively, while respecting the lives and welfare of the broader community" (p. 2). Sport and physical education have achieved greater recognition within educational circles on this continent than anywhere else. Such achievement notwithstanding, we now must continue to upgrade professional preparation for administrative leadership so that the profession of sport and physical education will consolidate those gains made and, like the successful basketball team, continue to "move strongly down court on balance toward the goal" (Rothennel, private conversa- tion, October 3, 1966).

In future research, Spaeth (Zeigler & Spaeth, 1975) strongly recommended that we strive to examine management as a process or group of processes rather than as an area of content (the old nuts and bolts approach, or "this is how you organize a round-robin tournament"). There is nothing wrong with studies relat- ed to various technical concems, but we do need to investigate the more fun- damental, broader processes of management that might be designated as decision-making, communicating, activating, planning, and evaluating.

Similarly, Paton (Zeigler & Spaeth, 1975, p. 14) suggested a significantly broader approach to teaching administration courses in sport and physical educa- tion. This is an approach he and many of his Canadian colleagues have followed with significant success (e.g., Jackson at Victoria; Soucie, Hansen, Searles, and Chouinard at Ottawa; Moriarty, Olafson, Galasso, and Boucher at Windsor; Bowie at Lethbridge; Chelladurai, Haggerty, and Zeisner at Westem Ontario; Daniel at Toronto; Maloney at Dalhousie; Paton at New Brunswick—to name those who have been involved the longest). This approach emphasizes that the area of con- tent specifically related to sport and physical education (D) should depend in- creasingly on a body of knowledge developed through management research and theory in our field (see Figure 1).

Further, educational institutions provide the setting in which many sport and physical education programs are managed. Current efforts to develop management theory and research on the broad administrative process within the educational setting (C) are directly relevant to our field. The fact that management/admin- istration is practiced in a specific setting has tended to obscure the fundamental similarities of the managerial process. The study of administration as adminis- tration (B) should eventually provide a sounder theoretical base for understand- ing the management process. Finally, underlying all management theory and research are the social sciences, and more specifically the behavioral sciences. Theories related to the behavior of people in organizations (A) have much to offer to an understanding of administration or management.

Past, Present, Future 13

A- scientiflc foundations ol management

—natural, social (behavioral) philosophical foundations

ot management

managemenl theory, research, and practice

educational theory, research, & practice

body of knowledge about developmental physical activity

I I

educational administration- theory, research & practice

the sport & physical education profession

managemenl of sport and physical education- theory, research. & practice

Content relating to A.

Content relating to B.

Content relating to D.

Content relating to C.

L

Figure 1 — Proposed content for sport and physical education management courses (adapted from Paton).

A Competency-Based Approach to Management Development

I am convinced that our field should move as rapidly as possible to introduce a comprehensive management competency development approach; it should be a requirement in all professional preparation programs. (I was originally con- vinced about this when I introduced the case method approach to the teaching of human relations and admitiistration to the field in 1959, the idea being that almost anything represented an improvement over the old stereotyped approach in use at that time.) I now believe that a true competency development approach should be adopted as soon as possible so that our graduates will be equipped to cope with the managerial demands of their positions. Bureaucratic forms of or- ganizations are being challenged by the varieties of organizational upheaval that are occurring. We are told that the combined demand for more and faster speeds is undermining the great vertical hierarchies that have characterized our institu- tions in the past (Toffler, 1970, 1980). Undoubtedly these emerging pattems are leading to changes in managerial practice.

We really don't comprehend all that these changes will mean to the manage- ment of sport and physical education. Interestingly, more than 30 years ago Snyder and Scott (1954) recommended the implementation of a problem-solving approach in our professional preparation programs. This recommendation has been reas- serted many times but it still has not been implemented! It would seem that we now have an obligation to ensure that our profiessional preparation programs, as well as our in-service training as it emerges through the work of our professional

^* Zetgler

associations, are so organized that people wUl be as ready as possible for change when it occurs. This statement has obvious implications for management training.

It was for this reason I became concemed with the dimensions of manage- ment competency as it applied to the administration of sport and physical educa- tion. I began working with others, such as Marcia Spaeth, William Penny, Garth Paton, and John Baker, to pull together from any reliable source available what might be called the body of knowledge on this aspect of our field. (King McCristal, David Matthews, and Laura Huelster, all ofthe University of niinois, were most helpfiji and supportive in this endeavor.) In view of the aphorism "better late than never," I am nevertheless a bit embarrassed to confess that, probably be- cause of intervening factors, it has taken me over 25 years to arrive at the point where a model for a competency-based approach to management development in sport and physical education was offered to the field (Zeigler & Bowie, 1983). Actually, the final steps might not have been taken yet were it not for Gary Bowie's (Lethbridge) insistence in the late 1970s that such was urgent.

Back in 1968, Cyril White, an Irish sport and physical education sociolo- gist, argued that the field had many characteristics of a multidiscipline and some aspects of a cross-discipline. He postulated that our future development to so- called interdisciplinary status would require more sophisticated research abilities and orientation than the field possessed at that time. However, as Phil Sparling (Georgia Tech) pointed out in 1978, the field seemed to be moving in an opposite direction to that postulated by White. White's original idea made sense to me, and it still does today and could become true eventually. This will not occur[ however, unless the profession makes a solid, conscious effort to define what it is that we do, and then do itl

In the early 1970s, therefore, I tried to help resolve the controversy in the field concerning the relationship between what some called the subdiscipli- nary aspects and those aspects designated as subprofessional in nature (e.g., management theory, and practice). This resulted in the construction of a taxo- nomic model for "optimum professional development in a field called 'X ' " (Zei- gler, 1972). The model included the following five subdivisions: operational philosophy, a theory embodying assumptions and testable hypotheses, professional preparation, professional practice, and disciplinary research and scholarly en- deavor (see Figure 2).

The inclusion of operational philosophy (of "X") as an overarching entity in the model is based on the social theory (Parsonian Action System) that the values and norms ofthe social system will be realized eventually if all goes well. Put simply, this means that decisions regarding the development of a profession are based on the prevailing values and norms over and above any scientific evi- dence that may be available to create, strengthen, or broaden existing theory. Thus, a hierarchy of control and conditioning operates within the system that ex- erts pressure downward, affecting the society, the social systems, the structure of collectivities, and the structure of roles. Also, we should not forget that such pressure may be exerted upward as well (that's how gradual change occurs—and even revolutions if the demand for change is strong enough!).

The second phase of the model is theory, or the systematic arrangement of facts or knowledge about a subject or field. From such theory we can also

Past, Present Future 15

PHILOSOPHY OF "X"

THEORY Assumptions

and Testable

Hypotheses

PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION

DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

ROFESSIONA PRACTICE

1. Public 2. Semi-public 3. Private

Figure 2 — A model for optimum professionai development In a field called *'x**.

derive assumptions and testable hypotheses that should soon clarify a develop- ing, and presumably coherent, group of propositions that can be used to explain the phenomena observed. Obviously, any profession must have a sound body of knowledge to undergird it if it is to survive with its professional status fiilly recog- nized in society.

Professional preparation, the third division of the model, should be designed to educate the practitioner, the teacher of practitioners, the scholar and the researcher, and the administrator. Professional practice, the fourth entity in the model, relates typically to service provided for the public, the semi-public (or semi-private) agency, and the private agency. Disciplinary research and related scholarly endeavor, the fifth division, involves those individuals from the specif- ic profession (or closely related ones) who contribute to the body of knowledge on which the professional practice is based. We have classified such knowledge into subdisciplinary and subprofessional knowledge (e.g., in sport and physical education, the tenable theory about the functional effects of physical activity and the tenable theory about how best to administer programs of developmental physi- cal activity to promote the fiill dissemination of such knowledge, respectively). I believe this model can be adapted to any profession.

^® Zeigler

Adapting the Model of a Profession to the Competency Development Model

While the model of a profession as it presumably should function was being fashioned, another development was occurring that I did not at first relate to the work I had been doing. A colleague of mine, Lloyd E. McCleary (now at Utah), had worked closely with us at Illinois and helped some of us to relate his work in educational administration to our work in sport and physical education adminis- tration. As we moved along in the i970s it became increasingly apparent that definite, urgent measures were needed in sport and physical education to prepare people more adequately for assuming administrative risk in the immediate fu- ture. And so, convinced that positive steps were needed to improve professional preparation for managers in our field, a number of people teaching in this area decided to introduce a management stream or minor into the curricula.

To accomplish this for myself personally, I analyzed the literature of management, especially that which applied to the knowledge, competencies, and skills required by the manager. Shortly thereafter, Gary Bowie (Lethbridge) and I joined efforts in the firm belief that *an experiential approach to management competency development was indeed urgently needed in sport and physical edu- cation (Zeigler & Bowie, 1983). To help classify or categorize the more than 100 competencies described in the literature, I employed a highly regarded taxo- nomical model, promulgated initially by Robert L. Katz in 1954 and then slight- ly modified in 1974. In addition to Katz's division of the task of management into three basic skills (conceptual, technical, and human), I added a mixed-skill category and a personal skills category, thus increasing the total to five.

The next step was to adapt the model (see Figure 2) to the quasi-disci- pline/profession of management science or theory. This was readily accomplished (see Figure 3). It became readily apparent that the model for competency-based management education in educational administration, as developed by McCleary and his associates, could be merged readily with my model. It turned out that McCleary (1973) had also employed Katz's taxonomy. Thus it was possible to adapt the McCleary recommendations to my own purposes in keeping with the fivefold classification (adapted from Katz). My debt to the work of McCleary and associates (McCleary & Mclntyre, 1972) is obvious. Our work along these lines culminated in a text for undergraduates that features an experiential approach. Through a series of laboratory experiences as part of a fomiai course, students are given an opportunity to evaluate themselves in relation to the five aspects of managerial skill.

Managing the Enterprise: Looking Ahead

Up to this point, in addition to some introductory and background material, I have argued essentially that (a) the world is changing and becoming increasingly complex, which has obvious implications for the field of sport and physical edu- cation; (b) our field needs managers who can function effectively on the basis of tenable management theory to organize and administer its far-flung programs; and (c) we have not really prepared our people to manage, an inadequacy we should correct soon by implementing a management competency development program of high quality.

Past, Present, Future 17

Definition of t«rm 'competency'

"Competency is the presence of characteristics (or the absence of disabilities) which render a person fit, or qualified, to perform a speci- fied task or lo assume a defined role. To be competent is to pos- sess sufficient knowledge and ability to meet specified require- ments in the sense of being able, adequate, suitable, capable."

(L.E. McCleary)

MANAGEMENT THEORY

S«lt-OsvBiopmsnt: CatsgonM:

ConcapiuBl. Technical Human

Undergraduate a b. c.

General Education Disciplinary core Specialized profes- sional preparation (streaming?)

Graduate a.

b. c.

Professional preparalion stream Disciplinary stream Practitioner stream

1. Public Z. Semi-public 3. Private (e.g.. govemment. Indus- try, commercial, educa- tion, sport & physical ac- tivity, private agency. Individual endeavor, semi-public agencies, etc.)

Research Methods 1. Historical 2. Descriptive 3. Experimental group

method 4. Philosophical and others Related Disciplines and Professional fields'—the behavioral sciences e.g., anthropology, psychology, sociology, social geography, economics, poli.sci.. etc)

A Plan for Competency-based Management Education (including the leactiing/learning process)

1. Ascertain professional functions & needs 2. Specify competencies (including self-

development and those under conceptual. technical, human, and "mixed" categories)

3. Determine performance levels 4. Specify program & content instructional

methodology (involving a problem-solving approach in achievement of performance levels: what needs to be known; where obtained; organization of the learning experience; probable results, etc.

5. Identify & evaluate competency atlainment 6. Validate process periodically

Teaching/Learning Techniques (e.g., lecture discussion, case, role-pi ay ing. action research, pure and applied research, in- dependent study, debate, compu- ter-assisted or programmed instruc- tion, intemship. game theory, panels, forums, etc.—depending upon tech- nique's applicability to learning of a competency) (Adapted from McCleary & Mclntyre)

Figure 3 — A model for management development: A competency-based approach. (*Recognition mnst be given here to researchers in nominally professional fields, e.g., bus. adm., educ. adm., and eval. snbjs.)

*8 Zeigler

Let us assume we can agree on the need to improve the quality of sport and physical education management in the near future. This need is not peculiar to our profession; we hear pleas from all over North America for better manage- ment than is being demonstrated at present. To meet the challenge to North Ameri- can industry and business, for example, we have been exhorted to consider "Theory Z " from our Japanese colleagues (Ouchi, 1981)—actually a debatable theory as it has turned out. Also, there has been a spate of books with the word "excellence" in the title. In Creating Excellence (Hickman & Silva, 1984), we are presented with a list of "new age skills" that management executives should cultivate: creative insight (asking the right questions), sensitivity (doing untu others), vision (creating the future), versatility (anticipating change), focus (im- plementing change), and patience Giving in the long-term). Having mastered these skills, one could handle anything!

Toward the goal of alerting prospective managers of sport and physical education about what they may face in assuming their role in the present societal climate, I will now offer them various opinions and recommendations.

An Ever-Changing Society. First, changing social influences have brought about various types of organizational upheaval. Our present bureaucratic forms of organization, although they may struggle on doggedly, seem to need drastic change in both the structure of the operation and the way managers function within it. There have been the so-called organization men and women, but are we ready for what Toffler has called the associative man or woman—individuals who are not immobilized by concern for economic security (1970, pp. 125-134)?

The Matter of Individual Freedom. Second, even within our evolving democracy, we still encounter persistent attempts from domineering (and perhaps insecure) individuals to deny others their basic freedom. To what extent should the individual in North American society be able to choose goals and then have a reasonable opportunity to attain them? How crucial is individual freedom as we all strive to improve the quality of life? Are we moving inevitably toward a social system that Skinner would characterize as beyond freedom and dignity? How may we best reach a high level of excellence? Do we want a pyramidal, depersonalized, bureautechnocratic society or one that seems to work for the best interests of individuals (Tesconi & Morris, 1972)? These questions are especial- ly important for managers functioning in some aspect of sport and physical edu- cation, a group not noted for implementing creative models of democratic administration.

Managing by Objectives. Third, an area of concern most neglected by managers has been the determination of the organization's objectives. Everyone agrees on the need for managing by objectives, as espoused by Drucker back in 1954, but the moment one tries to pin down a practicing manager in this regard, one hears an empty recital of words that displays "the lack of a well-developed language of organizational purpose" (Gross, 1965, p. 195). A good response to such a deficiency would be a plan based on systems analysis that could quite quickly help an organization develop a workable general systems model. One of the great advantages of MBO, of course, is that it provides middle managers and employees an opportunity to plan together toward common objectives- objectives for which all will ultimately be responsible. Odiome (1965) has promot- ed MBO as strongly as anyone and, according to Filley, House, and Kerr (1976), it has subsequently been employed more widely than any other similar technique.

Past. Present, Future 19

Positive Approach to Management. Fourth, if a person applies for an administrative post and is then selected, his or her subsequent approach to the task should be a highly positive one. This is especially true in academic situa- tions whereby one is expected to keep up with scholarly writing and research as well as finding time for interpersonal relationships. Admittedly the dual respon- sibility is difficult, but it is not impossible for one wbo works bard and plans carefoUy. Of course, this is why a limited term of managerial service, perhaps 5 years, is highly desirable.

A halfhearted commitment to managing clashes sharply with the duties that the managerial revolution has thrust upon us. As Gross stated, "It provides the people of this planet with their first opportunity of discovering their vast poten- tials for self-development" (1964, p. 807). Viewed in this light, management is a social skill to be employed wisely if it is to help us all. Transferred to the educa- tional setting, who will not admit that an inadequate administrator of physical education or athletics can soon bring a department, division, or school down to a level of bare subsistence (i.e., semi-planned mediocrity)? Thus, considering the importance of the manager's role, and the steadily increasing complexity of the organizational management task, young men and women in the field should be encouraged to prepare themselves adequately for the vital task of managerial leadership. This does not mean the individual must put scholarship and research aside, altiiough it typically has happened that way. The manager should be equipped to promote the idea of management as an emerging social science, as one of the subprofessional aspects of our work that demands continued scholarly research.

Need for an Action-Theory Mei^er. Fifth, what has just been stated provides some substantiation for the gradual emergence of management science. Some say management thought is too practical, others say it is too theoretical. I believe it is more accurate to say that really practical administrative thought will simply have to be based on far more tenable knowledge and theory than is presently available. Scholarly investigation on this topic should be carried out to the greatest possible extent on the "observable facts of real-life administra- tion" (Gross, 1964). A manager on the job is typically confronted with real-life problems. To resolve the problem effectively, something better than trial and er- ror is needed in our increasingly complex society. That something should be the most tenable theory available. In other words, needed is a research strategy charac- terized by a theory-research balance between theoretical and applied investigation.

The Current Theory Debate. Sixth, the mushrooming of the behavioral sciences has made it impossible for scholars to keep up with the vast quantities of literature being produced all over the world. As a result, those preparing for management face an impossible task: keeping up with an information overload as well as retrieving the knowledge that helps to form a sound human behavior inventory. Also, the conflicting approaches to management are espoused in vari- ous books, monographs, and journals. Gordon (1966) defined these historical, overlapping approaches as (a) the traditional, (b) the behavioral, (c) the deci- sional, and (d) the ecological. He recommended that a flexible framework be em- ployed as a synthesis of the four approaches, enabling the student of administrative theory to build a conceptual framework that provides a much fuller perspective and a working model of the management process.

The idea of such a flexible framework emerges from a recent discussion by

30 Zeigler

Hodgetts (1979) in a slightly different manner. He explained there is one point of view that envisions three schools of management thought (the management process school, the quantitative school, and the behavioral school) merging into a systems school. However, a second point of view holds that we already have a well-established systems school of thought and that it, along with the three ap- proaches just mentioned, are moving toward an overarching simational or con- tingency school. This has been called a general contingency theory of management (Luthans & Stewart, 1977), in which management problems can be encompassed in a theoretical framework that integrates and synthesizes the various schools of thought into a workable research design of three dimensions—management vari- ables, situational variables, and performance criteria variables. The objective is to integrate tenable management theory into a composite system for ongoing study and investigation.

The Complexity of Any Administrative Situation. Seventh, years of involvement as a manager/adniinistrator, as well as 30 years of experience with the case approach to the teaching of human relations and administration, leads me to share some thoughts about the complexity of any administrative situation (Zeigler, 1982). This complexity is due to many factors: past experience, present situation, economic incentive, personal attitude are but a few. The work situa- tion itself and any changes that occur add to the mix. The group code within the organization, which in turn is affected by community standards and societal values and norms, are fundamental factors as well. Management says one thing but it does another, and this too can have an impact (Hower in Andrews, 1953, pp. 94-111). In some circumstances, certain factors are important determinants of behavior; in others they might he relatively insignificant. In analyzing a problem, one must gain as much perspective as possible. However, while responding to the facts, half-facts, and opinions as one views them, it is important to bear in mind that each person views a situation differently. This awareness in itself should prevent managers from acting too hastily.

Leadership in Organizational Settings. Eighth, in this changing organi- zational environment, the interpersonal skills of the leader(s) need further exami- nation. I strongly believe the executive needs to establish an open climate; that is, associates should collect information about a problem accurately, bring this information back to the decision-making group, and then take part in the deci- sions (Bennis & Slater, 1968).

The concept of leadership has always been elusive. For a long time, so- called '*trait theory" was in vogue—the prospective manager's personal charac- teristics that presumably made him or her a fine leader. In the 1940s, however, trait theory declined because investigations along this line produced no clear-cut results. This approach still has some descriptive value, but it has been largely supplanted by so-called "situational theory." This latter approach argues that situational factors can be delineated in a finite way, and that they vary according to a number of other factors (Filley, House, & Kerr, 1976). Some of these fac- tors are the leader's age and experience, size ofthe group led, cultural expecta- tions of subordinates, and time required and allowed for decision-making. Chelladurai (1985) refers to charismatic leadership and organizational leadership, the latter being ' *just one of the functions of a manager who is placed in charge of a group and its activities, and is, in turn, guided by superiors and organiza- tional factors" (p. 139).

Past. Present. Future 21

For my part, through long experience I have developed a distinct aversion to one-person, arbitrary, authoritative decisions, especially in educational set- tings. I have walked away from such positions of employment on four occasions. (Of course, certain lines of work such as the military or fû e fighting do not have the luxury of time for lengthy discussion to achieve consensus before taking ac- tion.) Nevertheless, I want staff members to be involved in the decision-making process to the greatest possible extent—i/f/iey are willing to become well informed on the matter at hand. Further, once a decision is made democratically by in- formed members of the group, the organization should expect loyal support from all members of the group.

Constants and Generalizations. Ninth, even though the manager must deal with a relatively fast-moving social system, which is not necessarily bad for managers of sport and physical education, change for them has not occurred as rapidly as for certain other segments of society. However, nianagers in our field must now be cognizant ofthe fluid nature of their environments. They must take every opportunity to keep abreast of their associates intellectually. They must be ready to meet change head-on and make necessary modifications so that posi- tive growth will be ensured.

This momentary digression is not meant to imply that few constants carry over from yesterday to today, and thence to tomorrow, which help to maintain the structure and vitality of sport and physical education. Much of what is known about human nature today will be virtu^ly the same tomorTOw. The urgent need is to both strengthen and focus the body of knowledge available to the manage- ment profession so that technological developments are approximated by the understanding and knowledge about effective administration. While such a balance is being established, the constants or principles from the past should be used, and discarded or modified only when there is ample evidence to warrant any change.

Other Recommendations for Managers. Tenth, I would like to make several recommendations for managers as they look to the fiiture (revised from Zeigler & Spaeth, 1975):

1. Managers, in addition to relying on the wisdom of the past, should make it a habit over the years to increase both their theoretical and practical knowl- edge, especially in areas of weakness.

2. Managers should strive to improve their communication skills. Generally people work more enthusiastically with a manager who communicates in terms that they can understand.

3. Managers should be prepared to invest themselves in the external en- vironment. The manager has a community responsibility that, even though ours is a strongly service-oriented profession, he or she should nevertheless become involved in the community to a reasonable degree.

4. Managers should work to strengthen organizational democracy. They should always be aware of the responsibilities and rights of the people working with them to achieve mutual goals. To the extent that individual participation and self-development are promoted, the organization will be stronger for it.

5. Managers should recognize they are taking part in the development of a management profession. This implies an obligation to live up to the requirements of a true profession (service without undue concern for pecuniary reward, ongoing comnutment, mastery of a body of knowledge, adherence to a code of ethics).

^ Zeigler

6. Managers should do their best to improve the quality of management education. Despite some improvement, the field of sport and physical education still does not place enough emphasis on adequate preparation for the manage- ment task. We are especially vulnerable here from the standpoint of management competency development through laboratory and internship experiences.

Concluding Statement First, I believe the field still has an opportunity to relate significantly to the de- veloping social science of management, but we dare not dally much longer! Most professionals in our field are only dimly aware of the scientific development that has occurred in this field. Second, for its very survival as a recognizable entity, the vast enterprise that is sport and physical education simply must relate more effectively to the urgent need for qualified sport and physical activity managers. The new North American Society for Sport Management can contribute signifi- cantly to this development. Additionally, such development should be carried out in full cooperation with the National Association for Sport and Physical Educa- tion within the AAHPERD and the Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

Third, each manager should do some soul-searching and construct a personal philosophy that can be of inestimable assistance in becoming a more effective professional person. In addition to developing an explicit personal philosophy, the manager must look outward at the environment in an attempt to analyze the social forces that impinge daily on the leader, the group, and the organization. Sport, dance, play, and exercise have infiltrated our social environment enor- mously. Our evolving profession cannot succeed without highly qualified, dedi- cated people to manage this most important cultural enterprise.

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** Zeigler

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Note

'This paper is intended to be synoptic in nature. It represents an updated version of ideas, opinions, and recommendations I have expressed about management theory and practice in various publications over 30 years. Prior to collaborating with Gary Bowie to introduce a management competency development approach to professional prepara- tion in sport and physical education, I had collaborated also with Marcia Spaeth and Garth Paton. Some of this material in this paper has been researched by Spaeth and by Paton. respectively, and appeared in Zeigler and Spaeth (1975).