Report Organizational behaviour

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CATANO | WIESNER | HACKETT

NELSON SERIES IN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENTHRM

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

IN CANADA SEVENTH EDITION

C ATA N O W IE S N E R H A C K E T T

RECRUITM ENTAND SELECTION IN CANADA

SEVENTH EDITION

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION IN CANADA SEVENTH EDITION

Part of the market-leading series in Human Resources Management, this new seventh edition of Recruitment and Selection in Canada has been updated to reflect current examples and research.

The Nelson Series in Human Resources Management is the best opportunity for students and practitioners to access a complete set of HRM products. The series provides quick access to information across many HRM disciplines and over the years has become an essential source of information, meeting the requirements for professional designation from the CPHR Canada and the provincial HR associations. This one-stop resource will prove useful for anyone looking for solutions for the effective management of people.

Other titles in the Nelson Series in Human Resources Management: Strategic Human Resources Planning, Monica Belcourt, Mark Podolsky Industrial Relations in Canada, Robert Hebdon, Travor C. Brown Management of Occupational Health and Safety, E. Kevin Kelloway, Lori Francis, Bernadette Gatien Managing Performance through Training and Development, Alan M. Saks, Robert R. Haccoun Strategic Compensation in Canada, Richard J. Long, Parbudyal Singh

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ISBN-10: 0-17-676466-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-17-676466-1

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Victor M. catano SAINT MARY’S UNIVERSITY

Willi H. Wiesner McMASTER UNIVERSITY

rick D. Hackett McMASTER UNIVERSITY

series eDitor:

Monica Belcourt YORK UNIVERSITY

RecRuitment and Selection

in canada seventh edition

NELSON SERIES IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENTHRM

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This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit nelson.com to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest.

Recruitment and Selection in Canada, Seventh Edition

Victor M. Catano, Willi H. Wiesner, Rick D. Hackett, and Monica Belcourt

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library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Catano, Victor M. (Victor Michael), 1944-, author Recruitment and selection in Canada / Victor M. Catano, Saint Mary’s University, Willi H. Wiesner, McMaster University, Rick D. Hackett, McMaster University ; series editor, Monica Belcourt, York University. — Seventh edition.

(Nelson Education series in human resource management)Includes index.ISBN 978-0-17-676466-1 (softcover)

1. Employees—Recruiting—Canada— Textbooks. 2. Employee selection— Canada—Textbooks. I. Hackett, Rick D., 1956-, author II. Wiesner, Willi H. (Willi Harry), 1952-, author III. Title. IV. Series: Nelson Education series in human resource management

HF5549.5.R44C35 2018 658.3’11 C2017-904905-4

ISBN-13: 978-0-17-676466-1 ISBN-10: 0-17-676466-6

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To my wife, Jan, and to our sons Victor and Michael and their families; you are the joy of my life. Also to Spike, my faithful cat, who once again helped me type the manuscript.

Vic Catano

To my precious wife, Linda, our children Jared (and Breanne) and Rachel (and Brian), and our grandchildren, Reiner and Adelei. You bring joy to my life.

Willi Wiesner

To Patti, my wife of 33 years, and my two sons, Aaron and Tyler, for their ever present unconditional love and support.

Rick D. Hackett

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vNEL

About the Series xvii

About the Authors xviii

Preface xx

Acknowledgments xxvii

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection 1

Chapter 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity 27

Chapter 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues 65

Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models 113

Chapter 5 Job Performance 179

Chapter 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process 228

Chapter 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening 290

Chapter 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments 326

Chapter 9 Selection III: Interviewing 392

Chapter 10 Decision Making 457

Glossary 514

Index 520

BrieF contents

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contents

About the Series xvii About the Authors xviii Preface xx Acknowledgments xxvii

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection 1

Chapter Learning Outcomes 1

Opening Vignette: Signs that You Made a Bad Hire 2

Why Recruitment and Selection Matter 3

Recruitment and Selection as Strategic Objectives 6

Vision, Mission, and Values Statements 6

Develop Strategic Objectives 7

Analyze the External Environment 8

Identify the Competitive Edge 12

Determine the Competitive Position 13

Implement the Strategy 14

Evaluate the Performance 15

Recruitment and Selection and the HR Profession 15

An Introduction to Ethical Issues and Professional Standards 18

Ethical Dilemmas in Recruitment and Selection 20

Human Resources and the Internet 21

Summary 23

Key Terms 23

Discussion Questions 23

Exercises 23

Case: Recruitment and Selection at Google 24

Endnotes 25

Chapter 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity 27

Chapter Learning Outcomes 27

Opening Vignette: The “Sham Psychometric Test” Controversy 28

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viii NELcontents

The Recruitment and Selection Process 31

The Hiring Process 31

A Selection Model 34

Building a Foundation 36

Reliability 36

Interpreting Reliability Coefficients 38

Measurement Error 40

Factors Affecting Reliability 40

Methods of Estimating Reliability 41

Choosing an Index of Reliability 44

Validity 44

Validation Strategies 45

Factors Affecting Validity Coefficients 51

Usefulness of Validity Coefficients 53

Bias and Fairness 53

Bias 53

Fairness 56

The Legal Environment and Selection 58

Summary 59

Key Terms 60

Discussion Questions 60

Exercises 61

Case: Emotional Intelligence or Cognitive Ability? 62

Endnotes 63

Chapter 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues 65

Chapter Learning Outcomes 65

Opening Vignette: No Babies Allowed 66

Part I: A Basic Background in Legal Requirements for Nondiscriminatory Recruitment and Selection 67

Constitutional Law 68

Human Rights Law 68

Employment Equity 74

Labour Law, Employment Standards, and Privacy Legislation 76

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ixNEL contents

Part II: Key Legal Concepts in Recruitment and Selection 81

Direct Discrimination 83

Adverse Effect Discrimination 87

Adverse Impact 89

Workplace Discrimination in the United States 90

Direct Discrimination and Adverse Effect Discrimination 92

Bona Fide Occupational Requirement 94

Reasonable Accommodation 95

Individual Accommodation 96

Reasonable Alternative 98

Sufficient Risk 99

Legal Concepts Applied to Recruitment and Selection 100

Part III: Some Practical Guidelines in Nondiscriminatory Recruitment and Selection 102

Key Practical Considerations in Nondiscriminatory Recruitment 102

Legal Requirements and HR Practice 105

Summary 106

Key Terms 107

Discussion Questions 108

Exercises 108

Case: Victim of Discrimination? 110

Endnotes 111

Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models 113

Chapter Learning Outcomes 113

Opening Vignette: Hiring the Right Person 114

Part I: Work and Job Analysis 114

What is Work and Job Analysis? 114

Subject-Matter Experts 118

Job Analysis and Employment Law—A Reprise 119

Job Analysis Methods 120

Getting Started: Gathering Job-Related Information 121

Work and Worker-Oriented Job Analysis 125

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x NELcontents

Survey of Work-Oriented Job Analysis Methods 126

Best Practice in Choosing Job Analysis Methods 146

Part II: The Role of Competencies in Recruitment and Selection 154

What is a “Competency”? 155

Competency Framework or “Architecture” 156

Competency Categories 156

Competency Dictionaries 159

Competency Profiles 160

Legal Defensibility of Competency Models 162

Assessing Employee Competencies 162

Validating Competency-Based Selection Systems 164

Competency Modelling versus Job Analysis 165

Leadership Competency Models 166

Summary 168

Key Terms 169

Discussion Questions 169

Exercises 170

Case: The Need for Job Analysis 171

Endnotes 172

Chapter 5 Job Performance 179

Chapter Learning Outcomes 179

Opening Vignette: Using Facebook to Make Hiring Decisions 180

Job Performance 181

Job Performance as a Multidimensional Concept 184

Performance Dimensions 185

A Multidimensional Model of Job Performance 185

Task Performance 187

Contextual Performance 187

Adaptive Work Performance 189

Counterproductive Work Behaviours 191

Types of Counterproductive Work Behaviours 191

Withdrawal Behaviours 191

Workplace Deviance 194

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Predicting Task, Contextual, Adaptive, and Counterproductive Job Performances 198

Measuring Performance 200

Effective Performance Measures 201

Identifying Criterion Measures 203

Multiple, Global, or Composite Criteria 203

Consistency of Job Performance 205

Job Performance Criteria and Performance Appraisal 206

Objective Performance Appraisal Measures 206

Subjective Performance Appraisal 208

Absolute Rating Systems 210

Perceived Fairness and Satisfaction with Rating Systems 214

Creating a Job Performance Database 215

Human Rights and Performance Appraisal 215

Summary 217

Key Terms 218

Discussion Questions 218

Exercises 219

Case: The Quality of Performance Assessment 219

Endnotes 220

Chapter 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process 228

Chapter Learning Outcomes 228

Opening Vignette: Employers Brew Up New Ways to Recruit Talent 229

Part I: Strategic Recruitment 231

External Factors 231

Internal Factors 236

Organization Analysis 237

Job Analysis 238

Human Resources Planning 238

Recruitment Action Plan 239

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Part II: Recruitment Sources 243

Traditional Recruitment Sources 244

External Candidates 246

E-Recruiting: Use of the Internet and Social Networks 253

Comparison of Recruitment Methods 262

Frequency of Use of Recruiting Methods 264

Part III: Attracting Job Applicants 264

The Organizational Context 266

Corporate Image and Applicant Attraction 267

The Person–Organization Fit 271

Communication and Perception 272

Accurate Expectations 273

Realistic Job Previews 274

Expectation-Lowering Procedures 276

Decision-Making Training 277

Evaluating Recruiting Efforts 277

Recruitment Audit 279

Summary 280

Key Terms 280

Discussion Questions 281

Exercises 281

Case: Recruiting in a Competitive Environment 282

Endnotes 283

Chapter 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening 290

Chapter Learning Outcomes 290

Opening Vignette: Sales Growth Trends at Living Healthy Inc. in Poor Health 291

Applicant Screening 292

Recruitment, Screening, and Selection 292

Screening Methods 293

Application Forms 294

Weighted Application Blanks 295

Biographical Data 297

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Résumés 301

Reference Checks 305

Work Experience 309

Social Media Networks 311

Virtual Career Fairs 313

Virtual Job Auditions 313

Summary 314

Key Terms 314

Discussion Questions 315

Exercises 315

Case: In Search of a Communications Director at ABC Glass, Inc. 316

Endnotes 317

Chapter 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments 326

Chapter Learning Outcomes 326

Opening Vignette: Listening to the Airport Guru 327

What Do You Know About Employment Testing? 327

Employment Testing 328

Choosing a Test 328

Ability and Aptitude Tests 330

Emotional Intelligence 339

Psychomotor Ability Tests 341

Physical and Sensory/Perceptual Ability Tests 341

Physical Fitness and Medical Examinations 342

Pre-Employment Drug and Alcohol Testing 345

Work Samples and Simulation Tests 347

Assessment Centres 352

Personality Inventories 355

Polygraph Testing 362

Honesty/Integrity Testing 362

Evaluating Effectiveness of HR Assessments 367

Comparing Selection Predictors 367

Applicant Reactions 370

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Summary 371

Key Terms 372

Discussion Questions 373

Exercises 373

Case: Applicant Testing at the RCMP 374

Endnotes 375

Chapter 9 Selection III: Interviewing 392

Chapter Learning Outcomes 392

Opening Vignette: The Hiring Interview 393

Purposes and Uses of the Interview 394

The Cost of Interviewing 395

Screening Interviews 396

Screening Interview Format 396

Decisions Based on the Screening Interview 399

Applicant Behaviours and Interviewer Impressions 399

Value of the Screening Interview 399

Predictive Validity of Screening Interviews 402

Cautions on Using Screening Interviews 402

A Model of Information Processing and Decision Making in the Interview 403

Unstructured Interviews 407

Attempts to Improve Interview Effectiveness 412

Structuring Employment Interviews 413

Panel and Serial Interviews 413

Structured Employment Interview Techniques 416

The Experience-Based Interview 421

Comparison of the Structured Interview Approaches 422

Structured Interviews in Practice 424

Interview Practice and Human Rights 427

Designing Interview Questions 430

Interviewer Training 431

Interview Coaching for Applicants 432

Other Approaches to Interviewing 432

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xvNEL contents

Research Issues 435

Summary 436

Key Terms 437

Discussion Questions 437

Exercises 438

Case: Attracting and Retaining Millennials 440

Endnotes 441

Chapter 10 Decision Making 457

Chapter Learning Outcomes 457

Opening Vignette: Should We “Trust Our Gut” on Selection Decisions? 458

The Context of Selection Decisions 460

Selection Errors 461

Collection and Combination of Information 464

Why Do Employers Resist Using Statistical Approaches? 466

Group Decision Making 468

Incremental Validity 470

Setting Cutoff Scores 472

Decision-Making Models 472

Unit and Rational Weighting 473

Multiple Regression Model 474

Multiple Cutoff Model 477

Multiple Hurdle Model 478

Combination Models 479

Profile Matching Model 480

Making Selection Decisions 482

Top-Down Selection 482

Banding 482

Practical Considerations 483

Making Selection Decisions: Conclusions 484

Hiring Selected Applicant(s) 485

Preparing to Make a Job Offer 485

Making a Job Offer 486

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Employment Letters and Contracts 492

Acceptance and Implementation of Employment Letters and Contracts 500

Summary 502

Key Terms 503

Discussion Questions 504

Exercises 504

Case: Selection System at Google 506

Endnotes 509

Glossary 514

Index 520

contents

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xviiNEL

aBout tHe series

More than ever, human resources management (HRM) professionals need the knowl- edge and skills to design HRM policies and practices that not only meet legal require- ments but also are effective in supporting organizational strategy. Increasingly, these professionals turn to published research and books on best practices for assistance in the development of effective HR policies and practices. The books in the Nelson Series in Human Resources Management are the best source in Canada for reliable, valid, and cur- rent knowledge about HRM.

The texts in this series include:

• Managing Performance through Training and Development

• Management of Occupational Health and Safety

• Recruitment and Selection in Canada

• Strategic Compensation in Canada

• Strategic Human Resources Planning

• Industrial Relations in Canada

• Research, Measurement, and Evaluation of Human Resources

The Nelson Series in Human Resources Management represents a significant develop- ment in the field of HRM for many reasons. Each book in the series was the first and is now a market leader in the functional area. Furthermore, HR professionals in Canada must work with Canadian laws, statistics, policies, and values. This series serves their needs. It is the only opportunity that students and practitioners have to access a complete set of HRM books, standardized in presentation, which enables them to access informa- tion quickly across many HRM disciplines. Students who are pursuing HR designations through their provincial HR associations will find the books in this series invaluable in preparing for the knowledge exams. This one-stop resource will prove useful to anyone looking for solutions for the effective management of people.

The publication of this series signals that the HRM field has advanced to the stage where theory, research, and evidence-based experience guide practice. The books in the series present the best and most current research in the functional areas of HRM. Research is supplemented with examples of the best practices used by Canadian compa- nies that are leaders in HRM. The books serve as an introduction to the functional area for the new student of HR and as a validation source for the more experienced HRM practitioner. Cases, exercises, and endnotes provide opportunities for further discussion and analysis.

As you read and consult the books in this series, I hope you share my excitement in being involved and knowledgeable about a profession that has such a significant impact on the achievement of organizational goals, and on employees’ lives.

Monica Belcourt, Ph.D., FHRL Series Editor July 2017

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xviii NEL

aBout tHe autHors

Victor M. catano Dr. Catano is Professor of Industrial and Organizational Psychology at Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. He is a registered psychologist in Nova Scotia and a member of the Human Resources Association of Nova Scotia.

He is a past editor of Canadian Psychology and has acted as a reviewer for numerous scholarly journals and granting agencies. He has published over 250 scholarly articles, conference papers, and technical reports. Dr.

Catano’s current research interests include personnel psychology; the psychology of labour relations; organizational and environmental constraints on productivity; and the impact of psychological environments on the health, safety, and productivity of workers. Dr. Catano also has extensive consulting experience in personnel selection with both private and public organizations.

In recognition of his contributions to the science and practice of psychology in Canada, Dr. Catano was elected a Fellow by the Canadian Psychological Association and an honorary member by the Canadian Forces Personnel Selection Officers Association. He is a recipient of the Canadian Psychological Association’s Award for Distinguished Contributions to Education and Training and the Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology’s Distinguished Scientist Award. The Human Resources Association of Nova Scotia awarded him an honorary membership in recognition of his distinguished contributions to human resources in Canada.

Willi H. Wiesner Dr. Wiesner is Associate Professor of Human Resources and Management and Director of the MBA Program at the DeGroote School of Business, McMaster University. He has served as Institute Coordinator and President of the Canadian Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and as Chair of the Human Resources and Management Area of the DeGroote School of Business at McMaster University from 1997 to 2008 and 2012 to 2013. Dr. Wiesner advises firms in both the private and public sector and gives workshops on employee selection,

performance appraisal, work-team effectiveness, and other human resources areas. His recent research and publication activities have focused on employment interviewing and selection, group decision making, and work-team effectiveness.

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xixNEL aBout tHe autHors

rick D. Hackett Dr. Hackett is a Professor and Canada Research Chair of Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance at the DeGroote School of Business, McMaster University. He is Associate Editor of the Journal of Business and Psychology, past Editor-in-Chief of the Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association, and Past-President of the Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. From 2001 to 2003, Dr. Hackett was Visiting Scholar at the Hong Kong University of Science

and Technology. He consults employers on pre-employment psychological testing and researches leadership and its impact on individual and organizational outcomes.

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xx NEL

PreFace

Recruitment and Selection in Canada, Seventh Edition, is designed to meet the needs of both students and practitioners working in human resources or personnel psychology. It provides an up-to-date review of the current issues and methodologies that are used in recruiting and selecting employees to staff Canadian organizations. Over the years, the field of personnel selection and staffing has become more quantitative and subject to both federal and provincial human rights legislation. This book provides an intro- duction to these more technical areas in an easy-to-read style. Every chapter includes examples, discussion questions, cases, and other materials that illustrate how the prac- tices discussed in the text are carried out in both private- and public-sector organizations in Canada. Many of these illustrations are drawn from current events reported in the media and are presented in Recruitment and Selection Today feature boxes.

// MEETINg ScIENTIfIc ANd LEgAL STANdARdS Recruitment and Selection in Canada provides an introduction to sound procedures in recruitment and selection that meet scientific, professional, and Canadian legal stan- dards. It presents recruitment and selection as essential components of strategic HR planning and emphasizes their role in enhancing productivity. Starting with a review of the social and economic factors that affect recruitment and selection, the text next pres- ents key elements in a recruitment and selection system, with an emphasis on the need for a solid scientific and legal foundation on which to build that system. Job analyses and competency modelling are introduced as the keys to developing a recruitment and selection system and to understanding the relationship between improved selection sys- tems and increased organizational productivity. Also discussed are contemporary devel- opments related to competencies, counterproductive work behaviours, interviewing, cognitive ability testing, personality testing, drug and honesty testing, decision making, and finalizing the deal with the selected candidate. Recognizing the constraints under which organizations operate, the text presents recruitment and selection within the con- text of a global market and competition.

// A cANAdIAN REfERENcE ON REcRUITMENT ANd SELEcTION The seventh edition of Recruitment and Selection in Canada offers several advantages to both students and practitioners. First, it provides an up-to-date introduction to the cur- rent developments in recruiting and selecting employees within a Canadian context. The approach taken is to incorporate the Canadian material organically into the develop- ment of the text rather than “Canadianizing” a popular American text. This approach has allowed us to focus in greater detail on issues of concern to Canadian organizations and to Canadian HR practitioners. Canadian examples and websites, and links to both

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xxiPREFACENEL

public and private organizations, and relevant examples from around the world, are featured.

We have attempted to provide as complete coverage as possible of current issues in recruitment and selection by integrating the role of recruitment and selection in a context of strategic human resources planning. The text emphasizes the necessity of satisfying both professional and legal requirements at all stages of the recruit- ment and selection process, and offers guidelines on how this can be accomplished. The Recruitment and Selection Notebook feature boxes highlight the key points that flow from the text.

Increasingly, both students and practitioners must understand the scientific, tech- nical, and legal aspects that form the basis of current recruitment and selection practices. We have provided a complete and thorough introduction to this essential material in a readable, nontechnical style that minimizes scientific jargon and emphasizes under- standing of the basic concepts in a context of application. To assist understanding, we have also included learning outcomes at the start of each chapter, definitions of impor- tant concepts throughout each chapter, and both exercises and case material at the end of each chapter to illustrate important principles and concepts.

This text is designed for one-semester courses in HR management, staffing, per- sonnel psychology, and personnel selection. It is also ideal for short courses that form part of diploma, certificate, or professional upgrading programs. The previous edi- tions of Recruitment and Selection in Canada were adopted for courses taught as part of degree programs in colleges and universities; as well, they were used as a standard reference for graduate courses and still can be found on the bookshelves of many HR professionals.

// AddRESSINg ThE NEEdS Of STUdENTS ANd TEAchERS One of the strengths of this text is the systematic integration of the different aspects of recruitment and selection with current legal and technical practices. However, the needs of students and instructors may differ across the settings in which this text may be used. Some students may already have had a substantial introduction to measurement issues in other courses that form part of their program. In those cases, parts of Chapter 2 can be omitted. Later chapters in the text, however, refer to material contained in Chapter 2 or to concepts introduced in it, but the student can easily read the relevant sections of this chapter in conjunction with the later reference.

Similarly, Chapter 5 includes a brief discussion of issues related to performance and an expanded section on counterproductive work behaviours. We believe that students must be conversant with all aspects of the recruitment and selection system, and measure- ment of performance is essential to evaluating the effectiveness of any selection system. Often the problem with poor selection systems is not the selection instruments used, but how performance is measured. Performance is the bottom line and we have integrated that into the text with a very brief introduction of some performance measurement tools. We rely on other courses in performance management to present detailed instruc- tion on the use of these tools. In light of current thinking, we have included a section on adaptive performance apart from contextual performance in discussing performance as a multidimensional construct.

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xxii PREFACE NEL

// chANgES IN ThE SEVENTh EdITION We consulted with users and non-users of the sixth edition to determine how we could improve this text and incorporated much of that feedback into the seventh edition. In addition to a more practical application of topics, new photos with captions, replacing and updating some of the opening vignettes, and adding new discussion questions and titles to the end-of-chapter cases, the following list highlights some of the new and updated topics that have been included in the seventh edition.

chApTER 1—AN INTROdUcTION TO REcRUITMENT ANd SELEcTION

• Chapter 1 has been thoroughly updated and reorganized with a stronger focus on strategic planning and how it applies to recruitment and selection.

• The content is now more explicitly tied to Figure 1.1, Example of a Human Resources System.

• Expanded coverage of talent management as it relates to recruitment and selection.

• Updated section on Economic Climate and Rapid Advances in Technology and the Internet.

• Reduced the statistics and added a discussion of HR departments needing to recognize the changing face of the Canadian labour market.

• New Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.2, Become a CPHR.

• Updated coverage of CPHR Code of Ethics & Rules of Professional Conduct (2016).

• Added new end-of-chapter case: Recruitment and Selection at Google.

chApTER 2—fOUNdATIONS Of REcRUITMENT ANd SELEcTION I: RELIAbILITY ANd VALIdITY

• New margin glossary term, “competencies,” in the chapter introduction.

• Increased coverage of reliability to include expanded discussion of cognitive ability.

• We added a new glossary term and coverage of “face validity.”

• Expanded coverage of bias and fairness with fuller discussion and explanation as it relates to Figure 2.6, An Example of Range Restriction.

• New Recruitment and Selection Notebook 2.3, Practical Steps to Ensure Reliable and Valid Selection.

• Added new end-of-chapter case: Emotional Intelligence or Cognitive Ability?

chApTER 3—fOUNdATIONS Of REcRUITMENT ANd SELEcTION II: LEgAL ISSUES

• In the Labour Law, Employment Standards, and Privacy Legislation section: expanded the coverage in Part I: A Basic Background in Legal Requirements for Nondiscriminatory Recruitment and Selection, and the discussion of the Federal Contractors Program (FCP).

• Updated Figure 3.1, Proportion of Complaints Received in 2016 by Ground of Discrimination and Table 3.2, Complaints Received by CHRC by Types of Allegations Cited.

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xxiiiPREFACENEL

• Updated and expanded coverage of privacy issues and legislation in Labour Law, Employment Standards, and Privacy Legislation.

• Expanded the coverage of the four-fifths rule.

chApTER 4—JOb ANALYSIS ANd cOMpETENcY MOdELS

• Updated job analysis and competency modelling to reflect current research.

• New coverage of Licensed Practical Nurse to tie together the different aspects of job analysis and competency modelling.

• Expanded coverage in What Is Work and Job Analysis? section as it relates to strategic planning and organizational analysis.

• Added new Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1, Job Description for a Licensed Practical Nurse at an Assisted Living Facility and 4.2, NOC Description for Licensed Practical Nurse (Code 3233).

• Streamlined coverage of Direct Observation by removing some of the figures.

• Expanded coverage in Worker Traits Inventories section and added new Table 4.6, Sample of Trait Inventory Used as Part of LPN Job Analysis.

• Added new Table 4.7, Core and Job-Specific Competencies for LPNs Working in an Assisted Living Facility and Table 4.8, Sample Behavioural Interview Questions for LPN Applicants at an Assisted Living Facility, and new coverage as it relates to LPN.

chApTER 5—JOb pERfORMANcE

• Expanded discussion of social media and LinkedIn.

• Expanded and updated the coverage of cyberbullying and anti-bullying legisla- tion in Interpersonal Workplace Deviance section.

• In the section related to subjective performance appraisal, added discussion of error (e.g., leniency as it relates to subjective performance ratings).

chApTER 6—REcRUITMENT: ThE fIRST STEp IN ThE SELEcTION pROcESS

• Social network recruiting data illustrated in a new figure (Jobscience).

• Added new Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.1, Elements of a Plan for Recruiting Members to Increase Diversity.

• Added new section, Attracting the Target Applicant Pool’s Attention, and a new Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.3, Nine Simple Steps to Writing a Compelling Job Advertisement, offering tips on producing job advertisements to attract the target applicant pool.

• Expanded discussion of executive search firms under Employment Agencies.

• Increased coverage of social network recruiting, including a new Recruitment and Selection Today 6.4, How to Use Social Media as a Recruiting Tool, and new Recruitment and Selection Today 6.6, How Manufacturers Are Recruiting Millennials.

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xxiv PREFACE NEL

chApTER 7—SELEcTION I: AppLIcANT ScREENINg

• Thoroughly revised the chapter by streamlining some of the academic literature, thus making the content more engaging for students.

• Clarified topic coverage and an overall more concise discussion of BIB dimen- sions and LIMRA weighted application blanks, Biographical Data and Concerns Over the Use of Biodata.

• Updated the coverage of résumés and added new references to websites offering instructions on how to prepare an effective résumé.

• Added new coverage of Applicant Tracking System (ATSs).

• Expanded Recruitment and Selection Today 7.2, What to Look for When Examining a Résumé.

• Updated Reference Checks and Negligent Hiring coverage and added a new Recruitment and Selection Notebook 7.1, Measures Toward Avoiding Negligent Hiring Claims.

• Updated coverage on social media networks.

chApTER 8—SELEcTION II: TESTINg ANd OThER ASSESSMENTS

• Streamlined this chapter (especially the section on Assessment Centres) by removing some sections (HIV testing, political skill, and team selection) and updating content to capture recent developments on pre-employment drug and alcohol testing, genetic testing (Bill S-201) and polygraph testing.

• Expanded coverage of job-related KSAOs and practical examples added in the Ability and Aptitude Tests section.

• More concise coverage of Cognitive Ability Tests and Practical Intelligence and Job Knowledge sections, with examples added throughout.

• Added examples in the Work Samples discussion, revised and expanded coverage of situational judgment tests (SJTs), and added coverage of SMEs.

chApTER 9—SELEcTION III: INTERVIEwINg

• Streamlined the coverage of screening and typical screening interviews.

• Added two new Recruitment and Selection Todays: 9.2, Can Computers Replace Recruiters? and 9.6, The Strangest Things People Have Done in Job Interviews.

• More concise coverage of Structured Employment Interview Techniques and The Situational Interview.

• Expanded coverage of behaviourial interviews.

chApTER 10—dEcISION MAKINg

• New opening vignette: Should We “Trust Our Gut” on Selection Decisions? emphasizes the importance of HR professionals knowing how to integrate data

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xxvPREFACENEL

from the different assessments obtained from job candidates.

• New Recruitment and Selection Today 10.2, 5 Benefits of Involving Your Team in the Hiring Decision, highlights the issues related to teams or groups when they make selection decisions.

• Streamlined coverage of banding.

• Revised the end-of-chapter case about Google.

// INSTRUcTOR RESOURcES The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) program delivers research-based instructor resources that promote student engagement and higher-order thinking to enable the success of Canadian students and educators. Visit Nelson Education’s Inspired Instruction website at nelson.com/inspired to find out more about NETA.

The following instructor resources have been created for Recruitment and Selection in Canada, Seventh Edition. Access these ultimate tools for customizing lectures and presentations at nelson.com/instructor.

NETA TEST bANK

This resource was written by John Hardisty, Sheridan College. It includes over 450 multiple-choice questions written according to NETA guidelines for effective construction and development of higher-order questions. Also included are over 260 true/false and short-answer questions.

secure online testing system that allows instructors to author, edit, and manage test bank content from anywhere Internet access is available. No special installations or downloads are needed, and the desktop-inspired interface, with its drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools, allows instructors to create and manage tests with ease. Multiple test versions can be created in an instant, and content can be imported or exported into other systems. Tests can be delivered from a learning management system, the classroom, or wherever an instructor chooses. Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero for Recruitment and Selection in Canada, Seventh Edition can be accessed through nelson .com/instructor.

NETA pOwERpOINT

Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have been created by Jeff McNally, University of New Brunswick. There is an average of 35 slides per chapter, many featuring key figures, tables, and photographs from Recruitment and Selection in Canada, Seventh Edition. NETA principles of clear design and engaging content have been incorporated throughout, making it simple for instructors to customize the deck for their courses.

The NETA Test Bank is available in a new, cloud-based platform. Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero® is a

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xxvi PREFACE NEL

IMAgE LIbRARY

This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables, and photographs used in the book. Instructors may use these JPEGs to customize the NETA PowerPoint or create their own PowerPoint presentations. An Image Library Key describes the images and lists the codes under which the JPEGs are saved. Codes normally reflect the Chapter number (e.g., C01 for Chapter 1), the Figure or Photo number (e.g., F15 for Figure 15), and the page in the textbook. C01-F15-pg26 corresponds to Figure 1-15 on page 26.

NETA INSTRUcTOR gUIdE

This resource was written by Jeff McNally, University of New Brunswick. It is organized according to the textbook chapters and addresses key educational concerns, such as typical stumbling blocks students face and how to address them. Other features include notes for End- of-Chapter Discussion Questions and Case Questions, and Sources of Lecture Enrichment.

Offering personalized paths of dynamic assignments and applications, MindTap is a dig- ital learning solution that turns cookie-cutter into cutting-edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers. MindTap enables students to analyze and apply chapter concepts within relevant assignments, and allows instructors to measure skills and promote better outcomes with ease. A fully online learning solution, MindTap combines all student learning tools—readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments— into a single Learning Path that guides the student through the curriculum. Instructors personalize the experience by customizing the presentation of these learning tools to their students, even seamlessly introducing their own content into the Learning Path.

// STUdENT ANcILLARIES

Stay organized and efficient with MindTap—a single destination with all the course material and study aids you need to succeed.

Built-in apps leverage social media and the latest learning technology. For example:

• ReadSpeaker will read the text to you.

• Flashcards are pre-populated to provide you with a jump start for review—or you can create your own.

• You can highlight text and make notes in your MindTap Reader. Your notes will flow into Evernote, the electronic notebook app that you can access anywhere when it’s time to study for the exam.

• Self-quizzing allows you to assess your understanding.

• Videos provide additional insights to topics discussed in the textbook.

Visit nelson.com/student to start using MindTap. Enter the Online Access Code from the card included with your text. If a card is not provided, you can purchase instant access at NELSONbrain.com.

00_FM.indd 26 11/14/17 7:04 PM

xxviiNEL

acknoWleDgMents

The production of any book is a collaborative effort. Many people, other than the authors whose names appear on the cover, play an important role. We would like to acknowledge their assistance and to thank them for their valuable contributions to this process. We have tried to present in this book the latest scientific foundation for human resources management. We could not have done that without the research compiled by our academic colleagues throughout North America and the experience of human resources practitioners in adapting that research to the workplace. This book would not exist without their work.

We are also indebted to our past and present students who have challenged our ideas and made us be clear in the exposition of our arguments. In particular, we owe a debt to our students at Saint Mary’s and McMaster universities; their feedback on earlier edi- tions of this text was invaluable. Over the years, the book has benefited immensely from the feedback of reviewers and users at various colleges and universities across Canada. We are grateful for their thoughtful comments, which have helped to make this a better text. We hope that the seventh edition continues the improvement of the text, and wish to thank reviewers who assisted in reviewing earlier editions of this textbook: Diane White, Seneca College; John Hardisty, Sheridan College; Karen MacMillan, Western University; Judy Benevides, Kwantlen Polytechnic University; Jeff Young, Mount Saint Vincent University; Mark Podolsky, York University; Lisa Bering, Humber College; and Colleen Morrison, College of the North Atlantic. And for their useful suggestions and thoughtful comments on this edition, we are grateful to the following reviewers: Allan Kozachuk, Saskatchewan Polytechnic; Shamena Maharaj, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre; Steve Risavy, Wilfrid Laurier University, Derek Rolstone, Red River College; Karen Stephens, Camosun College; and Uthpala Tennakoon, Mount Royal University.

Monica Belcourt, the editor for the series, deserves special praise. She was the glue that held everything together and kept the project on track. It is truly the case that without her efforts, this book would not have materialized. We must also acknowledge the patience and professionalism of the team at Nelson: Jackie Wood, Senior Publisher; Elke Price, Content Manager; Amanda Henry, Executive Marketing Manager; Jaime Smith, Production Project Manager; and Karen Rolfe, freelance copy editor.

Finally, we are most grateful to our families and friends who provided us with sup- port and understanding throughout the long nights. They inspired us to think and write clearly.

Victor M. Catano Saint Mary’s University

Willi H. Wiesner McMaster University

Rick D. Hackett McMaster University

00_FM.indd 27 11/14/17 7:04 PM

00_FM.indd 28 11/14/17 7:04 PM

NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter introduces the topics of recruitment and selection in Canadian organizations.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the importance and relevance of recruitment and selection to Cana- dian organizations;

• describe where recruitment and selection fit into the organization as a whole and the human resources management system in particular;

• discuss strategic planning as applied to recruitment and selection;

• explain how changes in both the external and internal environments have an impact on recruitment and selection;

• identify which professional associations and groups in Canada have a stake in recruitment and selection; and

• outline basic ethical and professional issues in recruitment and selection.

An inTROduCTiOn TO RECRuiTmEnT And

sELECTiOn

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL2

Finding the right candidate for a job is one of the most difficult decisions an organization has to make. Even though we may have an extensive recruitment and selec- tion procedure in place, a bad candidate may slip through. There is no such thing as perfect hiring. The cost of a bad hire can be extensive. According to a study by the Society for Human Resource Management, the cost of a bad hire may be as much as five times the bad hire’s salary, and may even be higher depending on the person’s posi- tion in the company. Bad hires are made often due to a hiring manager having a “gut feeling” about a candidate or because they “liked” the candidate rather than deter- mining if the candidate had the ability and skills to do the job. You can tell early on if you made a bad hiring decision; there are several telltale signs that many research studies have identified.

• not having the skills you expected. The bad hires are unsure how to do the necessary tasks associated with their job, or how to operate essen- tial equipment.

• Constantly complains. The bad hires complain about everything from the work environment to the nature of the work and coworkers. They are always negative.

• Conflicts with coworkers. The bad hires clash with other employees and don’t fit the organiza- tional culture. They are incompatible with other members of the team.

• missed deadlines. New employees may take longer to perform a task and may miss a deadline; however, constantly missing deadlines may indi- cate a more serious problem indicating that they are incapable of doing their job.

• Poor work quality. After an initial learning curve, the bad hires constantly make mistakes. Repeating the same errors after being corrected suggests they cannot learn how to do the job.

• Attendance problems. Continually being late, and taking extended lunch breaks or unexpected time off may indicate the employees are dissatisfied with their job and that the work is not their priority.

• underperformance. Asking questions is important but constantly asking the same questions about their job or role may impede the work and produc- tivity of their coworkers.

• decrease in morale. Poor interpersonal relation- ships with other team members leads to a decrease in unit morale. The bad hires blame coworkers for the problems they are having. They get into arguments with coworkers about anything and everything.

• unhappiness. The employee’s unhappiness may be reflected in constantly criticizing management and coworkers, wasting time on the phone and the Internet, and making unreasonable demands, among others.

• Always on your mind. You are always thinking about the problem hire, even at night in bed. You are losing sleep because you are worried what that person will do next.

What should you do with a bad hire?

You will need to make a decision about whether you can train the new employees to adapt to your company and to their job, transfer them to a different position for which they are better qualified, or whether it is best to cut ties with the employees. Most new hires are on a probationary con- tract that allows the employer to discharge them without penalty. Keeping the employees after that date may lead to significant costs related to their discharge if you cannot show that they are incompetent.

If you decide to terminate the new hire, then you must begin the recruitment and selection process anew. This means learning from what went wrong with the bad hire. What is the best way to recruit the employee? How do we determine if the candidate is both a good fit for the job and the organization? Is the job description up- to-date? What are the skills needed for the job? Should we assess the required skills with more than an interview and résumé? Who should do the interviewing? What are the legal requirements we have to follow in hiring? How will we make a decision after collecting all of this information? Our hope is that this text will help you answer these questions and avoid bad hires.

signs THAT yOu mAdE A bAd HiRE

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NEL 3CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

// Why RecRuitment and Selection matteR Our purpose in writing this book is to reduce bad decisions by laying out the “best practices” in finding and hiring people who will contribute to the overall success of an organization and its products or services. Best practices are valid, reliable, and legally defensible. They must comply with relevant legislation. Throughout this book, we will focus on the best practices to recruit and select talent in a Canadian context.

By definition, best practices are supported by empirical evidence that has been accumulated through accepted scientific procedures. Best practices do not involve “hunches,” “guesses,” or unproven practices. Best practices involve the ethical treat- ment of job applicants throughout the recruitment and hiring process. Best practices result from human resources (HR) professionals following the accepted standards and principles of professional associations. The inability to defend recruitment and selec- tion practices before a judicial tribunal may have serious financial consequences for an organization.

Best practices do not have to be perfect practices. As we will see in later chapters, no selection procedures are free from error and always lead to correct decisions. However, employers must show that their procedures are fair and do not discriminate against pro- tected groups covered by various laws. Recruitment and selection have moved far beyond the time when a manager could look over a few résumés, talk to one or two applicants (who were mostly friends of current employees), and make a hiring decision. If people are an organization’s most important asset, then those responsible for recruiting and selecting personnel must be capable of finding the best person for each position in the organization.

Using “best practices” in recruitment and selection adds value to an organiza- tion and contributes to the success—including positive financial outcomes—of a com- pany. Ployhart, Van Iddekinge, and MacKenzie2 showed how selection of employees through an employment test of cognitive ability and personality led to increases in the human capital (i.e., a unit’s composition of employees’ knowledge, skills, and ability) in 238 units of a restaurant chain, and then to a unit’s service performance and effectiveness.

HR is a very broad field. Figure 1.1 presents a simplified model of some of the major HR functions within an organization. By no means is the model complete; its purpose is to emphasize that recruitment and selection are but one component of the HR system. That component, however, is a very important one that helps an organiza- tion meet its goals and objectives by producing competent, committed, and effective personnel.

Figure 1.2 presents another way of looking at the functions in which HR personnel may become involved. These functions are grouped around the broader function of talent management, which can be thought of as an organization’s commitment to recruit, retain, and develop the most talented and superior employees. It describes an organization’s commitment to aligning all of its processes and systems to retaining and developing a superior work force.3 Talent management gives the line manager a signifi- cant role and responsibility in the recruitment, selection, retention, and development of superior employees with less involvement of HR. In some organizations only top

talent management An organization’s commitment to recruit, retain, and develop the most talented and superior employees.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL4

Performance Management

Strategic Objectives Organizational Requirements

Legislative Environment Legal Rights Human Rights

Vision Mission Values

Social/Economic Environment Globalization Labour Market Demographics Marketplace

Retention Compensation Bene�ts Quality of Work Life Personnel Support

Personnel Requirements Identify HR Requirements Recruit and Select Train and Develop Employ and Promote Exit

Personnel Competent Committed Effective

Work Environment Leadership Occupational Health and Safety Labour/Employee Relations Complaint Resolution

figuRE 1.1

ExAmPLE Of A HumAn REsOuRCEs sysTEm

potential employees are included in the talent management system; in others, talent management applies to all employees. Talent management is a business strategy directed at ensuring the attraction of top talent to the organization.

Part of talent management involves developing an employee’s career across the orga- nization and knowing when suitable positions become vacant in the organization. To be effective with this function, larger organizations rely on Human Resources Information Systems (HRIS). HRIS are computer-based systems that track employee data, the needs

human Resources information Systems (hRiS) Computer-based systems that track employee data, the needs of HR, and the requirements and competencies needed for different positions, among other functions.

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NEL 5CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

of HR, and the requirements and competencies needed for different positions. HRIS software is generally bundled with payroll and accounting functions. HRIS can be cus- tomized to include whatever information the organization believes is important.

We will examine only the recruitment and selection function of talent management in this book. The other books in the Nelson HR series cover the other talent management functions. You may have already taken courses in these areas. We focus on recruitment and selection because they are the means organizations use, for better or for worse, to find and choose employees. To be effective they should follow from an organization’s strategic planning. Our intent in this book is to present those best practices that will lead to the staffing of organizations with the best qualified candidates.

Recruitment is the generation of an applicant pool for a position or job in order to provide the required number of candidates for a subsequent selection or promotion program. Recruitment is done to meet management goals and objectives for the organiza- tion and must also meet current legal requirements (human rights, employment equity, labour law, and other legislation).

Selection is the choice of job candidates from a previously generated applicant pool in a way that will meet management goals and objectives as well as current legal

Recruitment The generation of an applicant pool for a position or job in order to provide the required number of candidates for a subsequent selection or promotion program.

Selection The choice of job candidates from a previously generated applicant pool in a way that will meet management goals and objectives as well as current legal requirements.

Strategic HR Planning

Training & Development

Succession Planning

Compensation & Bene�ts

Performance Management

Career Management

Recruitment & Selection

Talent Management

figuRE 1.2

TALEnT mAnAgEmEnT funCTiOns

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL6

requirements. It can involve any of the following functions: hiring at the entry level from applicants external to the organization, promotion or lateral transfer of people within the organization, and movement of current employees into training and development programs.

Effective recruitment and selection practices can mean the difference between an organization’s success or failure. As noted in the opening vignette, bad hires may cost an organization as much as 30 percent of a new hire’s earnings. Differences in skills among job candidates translate into performance differences on the job that have economic consequences for an organization. Hiring people with the right skills or the highest levels of those skills leads to positive economic outcomes for the organization. Hiring a person with the wrong set of skills can lead to disaster for both the person and the organization. Effective recruitment and selection practices identify job applicants with the appropriate level of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other requirements needed for successful perfor- mance in a job or an organization. Effective recruitment and selection strategies flow from an organization’s strategic objectives.

// RecRuitment and Selection aS StRategic objectiveS There are two basic principles that underlie the Human Resource System presented in Figure 1.1. First, HRM must carefully coordinate its activities with the other orga- nizational units and people if the larger system is to function properly and, second, HRM must think strategically in systems terms and have the welfare of the whole organization in mind. Human resources must be fully in touch with the needs of the larger organization and play a strategic role. As a staff unit, the role of HR is to support line units pursuing the central mission of the organization. HR profes- sionals must have an understanding and appreciation of their interdependencies with, and reliance on, other stakeholders throughout the organization. Recruitment and selection must be carried out in the context of the organization’s strategy, not simply as an isolated function divorced from other aspects of the organization. The HR function must be an organizational asset. In today’s competitive, ever changing, and unforgiving business environment, HR must be seen as effectively aligned with the organization’s strategy or will be considered irrelevant by senior managers. The following sections present the seven steps in a strategic planning process relevant to recruitment and selection.

viSion, miSSion, and valueS StatementS

Figure 1.1 shows that an organization’s mission, vision, and values influence its strategic goals and objectives that result in how the organization undertakes to recruit and select talent. The vision and mission statements of organizations are prominently displayed on their websites. Vision statements present an organization’s future aspirations. They describe a future level of excellence or quality that serves to influence the organization’s behaviour.

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NEL 7CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

The vision statement of the Public Service Commission of Canada, which is respon- sible for staffing most positions within the federal government states: “Building tomor- row’s public service today: Modern, impartial and fair.”4

A mission statement should accurately and briefly explain why an organization exists and what it hopes to achieve in the future. Mission statements are statements of the core purpose of the organization; they define the organization’s business; and they are the guiding force that provides employees with a direction, purpose, and context for their activities. WestJet has developed the following mission statement: “To enrich the lives of everyone in WestJet’s world.”5

The vision and mission statements lead to a set of values, which are the principles or beliefs that guide an organization’s work. A value statement is an expression of a com- pany’s core beliefs. Companies write the statement so the company’s staff and clients are aware of the priorities and goals of the company. For example, a company might list a guiding principle as, “Customer service is priority one.” Values are the principles that drive the organization and the strategic objectives that flow from the principles. Canada Post states the following as its core values:

Our Values:

• Transformation – We will innovate and transform to win in the marketplace

• Customer – We serve Canadians with pride and passion

• Integrity – We act responsibly and with integrity

• Respect – We treat each other with fairness and respect

• Safety – We are committed to a safe and healthy environment for all our stakeholders

develop StRategic objectiveS

Strategy is the formulation of organizational objectives, competitive scopes, and action plans for gaining advantage. It is a plan for achieving the organization’s goals. Strategic objectives or activities that flow from the organization’s values guide the work of the organization over a period of time. They are very focused, more so than the expressions and principles in the vision and mission statements.7 In HR, the strategic objective with respect to selection and recruitment of employees is to obtain the best talent in accor- dance with the organization’s values.

As part of developing strategic objectives, HR staff must decide what type of person they seek to recruit and hire and specify the objectives of the recruitment and selection process. Do we want to simply fill positions or do we want to find people who will fit the organization’s values and culture in addition to being a fit with the job? What are the key characteristics that the people we hire should have? What knowledge, skills, ability, and competencies should they bring to the organization? How do we recruit to ensure we have a diverse work force? How do we recruit the type of people we want based on our objectives? How do we ensure that our recruitment and selection process is compliant with legal requirements? In terms of talent management, will the people we recruit and hire lead to the continuing success of the organization? HR staff must address all of these

Strategy Strategy is the formula- tion of organizational objectives, competitive scopes, and action plans for gaining advantage.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL8

questions before starting to recruit and hire people as they have an impact on recruitment and selection procedures. Belcourt and McBey8 present a detailed discussion of strategic HR planning. We examine briefly the relationship of some of these issues to recruitment and selection.

analyze the exteRnal enviRonment

HR managers must be aware of threats and opportunities in the external environment if they are to accomplish their strategic objectives. This process is sometimes referred to as an environmental scan. It involves a review of technology, laws and regulations, technology, social cultural factors, and changing work force demographics, among other factors.9

legiSlative enviRonment

Figure 1.1 shows that the legislative environment is a major determinant of an organiza- tion’s strategic planning. Recruitment and selection must take place within the context of applicable laws and regulations. Most notably these include concerns for the human and legal rights of job applicants and employees.

Today, women, visible minorities, immigrants, and Aboriginal people make up a significant percentage of entrants into an increasingly older Canadian labour force. Visible minorities possess expertise, skills, knowledge of foreign cultures and business practices, and natural trade links with overseas markets that are of value to employers in the current global economy. Special challenges but tremendous opportunities emerge from having a workplace that is increasingly diverse in functional expertise, gender, age, and culture. Additionally, there exists a growing population of people who have physical or mental challenges. Employers cannot discriminate against existing or poten- tial employees with respect to non-job-related characteristics. Employers must hire on the basis of an applicant possessing the knowledge, skills, and abilities or other char- acteristics that are necessary to perform a job. Strategic planning in staffing helps to establish recruitment and selection systems that are legally defensible. In Chapter 3 we will discuss employment equity and human rights legislation that pertains to women, age demographics, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and those with physical or mental disabilities.

global competition

Foreign trade has always been vital to the Canadian economy, dating back to 1670 when the Hudson’s Bay Company, Canada’s oldest organization, began trading beaver pelts. Canada now participates in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and is considering joining the Trans-Pacific Trade partnership, and a trade agreement with the European Union. As more than half of what is now produced in Canada is exported, we are extremely vulnerable to foreign market conditions. The KOF Swiss Economic Institute produces an annual globalization index of all coun- tries in the world. It ranked Canada as the 10th most globalized country in the world out of the 207 countries it studied. By way of comparison, the Netherlands was

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NEL 9CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

ranked 1st and the United States was ranked 34th. There has been a continual increase in globalization since 1970. The index is based on economic, social, and political glo- balization. The economic dimension of the KOF Index measures an actual trade and investment volume on the one hand, as well as the extent to which countries apply trade and capital movement restrictions to protect their own economies on the other hand. The social dimension of globalization reflects the extent of the dissemination of information and ideas, whereas the political dimension shows the degree of political cooperation between coun- tries. Canada was near the top 5 percent of countries on the social and political globalization scales, but in only the top 20 percent for economic globalization.10

Increasing globalization has changed the level of competition as new players enter international markets and trade barriers between countries are softened. In the retail sector, large U.S.-owned discount chains such as Costco and Walmart are serious threats to the survival of smaller, Canadian-owned retailers that must scramble to increase efficiencies and lower their operating costs. Similarly, competition has led to Hudson’s Bay acquiring the prestigious U.S. retailer Saks Fifth Avenue, and opening Saks stores throughout Canada. Canadian businesses must continually work on improving their competitiveness in providing goods and services domestically and internation- ally. Within the context of higher costs for HR in Canada, companies and organizations must find ways to become more efficient. One of the important ways is to find the best, most produc- tive employees through the use of best practices in staffing that are outlined in this text.

the economic climate

The state of the economy has a profound effect on staffing. Economic booms bring with them skilled labour shortages, so recruitment and retention take on strategic impor- tance and are given high priority. Economic slowdowns or recessions generally lead to cutbacks in jobs, pay, and benefits, or hiring freezes. In these situations HR may be more apt to play a role in letting people go, rather than recruiting people. The objec- tives may be the same—to retain the best qualified talent. In a slowdown many quali- fied people are looking for jobs, so recruitment may be easier for companies that are hiring; however, there are also more unqualified applications to review. The number of people in the applicant pool has a major impact on the quality of those people who are selected for employment. If there are critical shortages of skilled labour or professionals, more emphasis must be placed on recruitment, and companies may become less selec- tive. They may also seek to outsource hiring to placement firms and secure temporary workers, either domestic or foreign. On the other hand, employers can take advantage of an oversupply of labour by placing less emphasis on recruitment and becoming more selective in hiring people.

A Canadian company engaged in the global marketplace.

American companies now competing in Canada.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL10

Rapid advanceS in technology and the inteRnet

Technology is affecting every aspect of our lives, from the way we bank to the way we study and pursue our education. Smart phones have had a tremendous influ- ence on how we communicate with each other and the world. Employers now expect new hires to be computer literate and to be familiar with basic computer software. Employers are also using technology to a greater extent than ever before to recruit and select the best employees, including use of the Internet. Almost all recruiting by the Government of Canada is done through the Internet. Government websites offer job posting and résumé-matching services. According to the government, the benefits of e-recruiting, which we will discuss in greater detail in Chapter 6, are access to a larger pool of candidates, lower recruiting costs, elimination of printing costs and print media deadlines, and the capability for the immediate tracking of results.11 The greater use of technology also brings with it a greater concern for privacy and data security. Cyberattacks can cause disruption to services and email and allow breaches of security leading to identity theft.12

changing WoRk foRce demogRaphicS13

The demographic makeup of the Canadian labour force is also undergoing significant transformations. Those of working age 18–64 comprised 68.9 percent of the population with 42.4 percent between ages 45 and 64. For the first time there were more people in the 55–64 age group, where people begin to retire from the work force, compared to those in the 15–24 age group, where people begin to enter the work force. These changes have significant implications for HR. The working population is getting older with fewer younger workers available.

One of the most significant changes in the Canadian work force has been the aboli- tion of mandatory retirement at age 65 in most provinces and territories. Many older workers in good health see their work life continuing beyond age 65. With an aging population this trend will continue to increase. In an expanding economy, the addi- tion of a significant number of older workers can be absorbed without much impact on unemployment rates, but in times of recession, the addition of post-65 workers leaves less room for hiring new entry-level employees. In the past, retirement at age 65 was seen as a graceful way of having employees leave the work force without any evaluation of their performance. Post-65 workers will pose a problem for human resources. When is it time for an employee to retire and what incentives or procedures should be put in place to encourage post-65 retirement? On the other hand, this age group may present a very experienced applicant pool when the number of younger workers is decreasing, as appears to be the case now in Canada.

The Canadian work force is also more gender balanced, comprising 70.3 percent of males aged 15–65 and 68.5 percent of women aged 15–65. The work force is also more highly educated, with 64.1 percent of those between ages 25 and 65 holding a certificate, diploma, bachelor’s, or postgraduate degree from a trade school, college/CEGEP, or university.14 The Canadian labour force is also more culturally diverse than at any other time in Canadian history. Visible minorities comprise 19.07 percent of the Canadian population, and Aboriginal people make up 4.26 percent.15

HR departments will have to develop policies that are defensible and meet legisla- tive requirements in dealing with these changing workplace demographics. HR depart- ments will need to recognize the changing face of the Canadian labour market in the

01_Ch01.indd 10 11/14/17 5:34 PM

NEL 11CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

recruitment, selection, and evaluation of older workers, younger workers, women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities. HR policies will have to accommodate these demo- graphic changes.

type of oRganization

The public sector, both federal and pro- vincial, tends to have more formalized recruitment and selection systems. Gov- ernments are accountable to their elec- torates for managing public employees and, with the exception of political appointees, have established fair recruit- ment and selection procedures that in most cases follow accepted professional standards. Public services tend to be highly unionized (70 percent versus 20 percent in the private sector)16 and to follow negotiated processes for recruit- ment and selection.

In the private sector, recruitment and selection procedures may vary by the type and size of the business or industry. A large segment of the Cana- dian economy is based on small or family-run enterprises. The selection procedures in these types of business may be more informal, as the owners may not have the resources to implement sophis- ticated selection systems. Smaller organizations tend to rely on family and friends of current workers for recruitment of new workers and to use, at most, an unstructured interview in making a selection decision. This is one reason we use more examples from the public sector in this book. In general, larger organizations, public or private, are more likely to use formal recruitment and selection procedures. The challenge for HR is to increase the use of best practices regardless of sector or the size of an organization.

oRganizational ReStRuctuRing

At the same time that technology is reducing the need for labour, organizations must cope with a large segment of their work force that is approaching retirement. To cope with these changes, employers have implemented non-age-related layoffs and early-retirement incentive packages, and have restructured or downsized their enterprises. Most notably, the traditional organizational structure of a pyramid, with a broad base of employees at entry-level positions and fewer employees at each of several higher levels, is being flat- tened. In the coming years, as aging “boomers” retire, will there be an adequate labour supply to replace them? In a seller’s market, more emphasis will have to be placed on

The Canadian work force is composed of many different demographic and ethnic groups.

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01_Ch01.indd 11 11/14/17 5:34 PM

Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL12

recruiting, as more organizations compete to hire fewer qualified candidates. Best prac- tices in recruiting and selection will be essential in finding the right employees for an organization.

Redefining jobS

In today’s information era, workers are required to apply a wider range of skills to an ever-changing series of tasks. Individuals just entering the work force may face at least three to four career changes in their lifetime. Younger workers today, unlike their parents, rarely expect to spend their entire working life with the same organization. Employers will expect workers to possess the skills and knowledge of two or three traditional employees. On the factory floor, jobs are moving targets, as they change rapidly. Workers themselves may be asked to move or rotate among positions; to do so they will need to have or be able to acquire multiple generic skills and competencies. This poses special challenges when trying to match people to jobs. Does it make sense to select people on the basis of very specific skills and abilities required by one job? Should employers redefine recruit- ment and selection in terms of finding people with broader skills or competencies that are of value to the organization and cut across many jobs? Using the procedures outlined in this text will help to answer these questions.

unionized WoRk enviRonmentS

Approximately 30 percent of employees in Canada work in a unionized environment. This figure compares to about 12 percent in the United States and over 70 percent in Europe. These figures may be misleading; looking at the rates by sector shows that employees in public or government organizations are considerably higher. In Canada about 20 percent of private organizations are unionized compared to over 70 percent of the public sector.17

The negotiated collective agreements in place in unionized workplaces generally address issues of recruitment and selection. Most agreements require the employer to post any job vacancies in the unit covered by the collective agreement before they can be advertised more broadly. The agreements may also specify how competitions for vacant positions are carried out, including the selection procedures. In many cases, employee seniority may be a deciding factor in awarding a job to an internal applicant.

HR practitioners working in a unionized environment must know the requirements of any applicable collective agreement with respect to recruitment and selection proce- dures. Failure to follow the procedures outlined in the agreement may lead to grievances and arbitration, even if the HR practitioner is concerned about the soundness of the negotiated procedures from a technical standpoint. The best way to improve the proce- dures is to have HR involved in the negotiating process.

identify the competitive edge

Organizations using effective recruitment and selection practices gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace. Organizations that are better able to attract, select and retain the best talent will be more competitive and successful. They can do this by identifying their target group of applicants and designing their recruitment message to

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NEL 13CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

emphasize the attributes that are attractive to the target group.18 They can help to achieve this by using selection practices that will lead to hiring the right people.

A two-year study by the Work Foundation, in England, established that businesses with integrated HR practices, including recruitment and selection, enjoyed higher profit margins and productivity than those without. The study concluded that if an organiza- tion increased its investment in HR by just 10 percent, it would generate gross profits of £1500 per employee.19 In addition, progressive HR practices lead to greater organi- zational commitment on the part of employees and motivate them to exhibit proper role behaviour, resulting in lower compensation costs, higher-quality work, and higher productivity; as well, good HR practices reduce dysfunctional behaviours and lead to lower operating costs and greater profitability.20

deteRmine the competitive poSition

Jack Welch, the former head of General Electric, wrote that hiring good people is hard, but hiring great people is brutally hard. To win, companies must get the right people in place; without them, all the clever business strategies and technologies are ineffective.21 In this regard, companies and organizations must decide what they wish to compete with other firms for the best talent, supposing that is the value decision they hold. One way of obtaining a competitive advantage is to employ the best practices in recruiting and selecting staff.

beSt pRacticeS

To remain competitive, organizations must have in place HR strategies for recruiting, identifying, and selecting employees who will contribute to the overall effectiveness of the organization. With respect to recruitment and selection, the old ways of hiring on the basis of a résumé and a brief interview (or on whom you know) do not work in the new economy. Those old practices may also lead an employer astray of new legal requirements as well as to an underperforming organization.

The socio-economic changes taking place in today’s workplace have an impact on HR recruitment and selection. Today, more than ever before, effective recruitment and selection matter. Recruitment and selection do not take place in isolation. They are influ- enced not only by the events occurring in broader society that affect the organization as a whole, but also by the somewhat narrower context of the organization itself. Recruitment and selection play an important role in the HRM function. Effective HRM contributes to organizational survival, success, and renewal.22

How do employers ensure that the people they hire will have the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the jobs for which they are being hired? How do employers decide that one candidate has “more” of the required abilities than another? More fundamentally, how do employers know that the knowledge, skills, and abilities that they seek in new hires are actually needed for a specific job? How do employers ensure that their hiring policies and procedures will treat candidates from different gender and ethnic groups fairly, as part of the recruitment and selection process? How do employers accommodate people with disabilities in both recruitment and selection? These are just a few of the questions that must be addressed by any HR manager or practitioner in setting up a recruitment and selection system that will enhance the organization’s competitive position. These are some of the questions we will seek to answer throughout this book.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL14

implement the StRategy

Once the strategy for recruitment and selection has been developed, HR must adopt a process to put the strategy into action. It needs to specify the steps that should be taken to implement the strategy that lead to obtaining the strategic goals. HR must outline the steps that are needed to get the job done. If the goal is to recruit, select, and retain the best talent, what are the steps in the action plan that will help accom- plish this? Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.1 presents the elements that should be covered in a recruitment and staffing action plan. We will cover all of these topics throughout the text by presenting the best practices that meet scientific, legal, and practical considerations.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 1.1

ElEMENTS OF A RECRuITMENT ANd SElECTION ACTION PlAN

1. develop Recruitment strategy

• Identify number of positions to be filled

• Establish selection committee

• Review organization’s goals and objectives based on strategic HR plan

• Establish budget for the recruitment process

• Establish timelines for recruitment and selection activities

• develop/review job description for positions

• develop selection criteria

• develop profile of “ideal” applicant

• develop job advertisement/recruiting materials

2. develop the Applicant Pool

• Review state of the labour market

• Consider employment equity issues

• determine whether recruitment will be internal or external

• In a unionized workplace, identify any collective agreement clauses that apply

• Identify target applicant pool

• Identify recruitment methods to be used

• Place ad/recruiting materials in agreed-on media

3. screen the Applicant Pool

• determine whether applicant pool is large enough; if not, renew recruitment efforts

• Screen job candidates’ application forms and résumés

• Conduct short screening interviews

• Select “long list” of candidates for further review

4. Review and selection of Job Applicants

• Selection committee develops shortlist of candidates

• Arrange visits of short-listed candidates to company

• Conduct realistic job preview for candidates

• Conduct valid and reliable employment tests

• Conduct behavioural-based selection interview

• Identify leading candidate(s) for position

• Complete reference and background checks on leading candidates

• Make hiring recommendation

• Contingent on offer of employment, arrange for any required medical or physical examinations

5. Evaluate the Recruiting and selection Effort

• Review the recruiting and selection process: What went right? What went wrong?

• Review the outcome of the recruiting process

• Review the outcome of the selection process

• Review the performance of people who were hired

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NEL 15CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

evaluate the peRfoRmance

Step 5 in the action plan presented in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.1 calls for the evaluation of the recruitment and selection effort. Did the plan result in hiring the best talent? It is not always easy to accomplish the strategic goals that have been established. There are different ways of determining success of a plan. With respect to recruitment, did the plan result in an increase in excellent applicants? With respect to selection, did the plan result in hiring new employees who have the potential to increase organizational efficiency over and above the contributions of current employees? We will address these questions throughout the book.

// RecRuitment and Selection and the hR pRofeSSion We have emphasized the need for HR staff to be aware of both the external and the internal influences that affect the working environment in which organizations operate. We have also argued that HR staff must not become isolated within the organization. There is another aspect to isolation: HR staff are professionals who must keep abreast of developments in their field through continuous learning. HR staff are responsible for knowing the latest legal and scientific information with respect to recruitment and selection. They are responsible for implementing policies and procedures that are in accordance with accepted professional standards, and which will lead to the recruitment and selection of the best talent.

Recruitment and selection activities within HRM are frequently carried out by in-house HR staff, sometimes assisted by consultants from management consulting firms. These in-house staff and consultants come to HRM from various educational back- grounds, which are augmented by practical experience in managing HR (see Recruitment and Selection Today 1.1).

Many practitioners and consultants involved in HRM hold membership in one or more professional associations and may be certified or registered with an association or professional licensing body in their area of specialization. Recruitment and Selection Today 1.2 gives some basic information on associations having an interest in recruitment and selection practices in Canada. These associations have professional involvement well beyond recruitment and selection. With membership in these associations come certain rights and obligations, including adherence to ethical codes or standards.

Only recently has the HR field gained recognition as an independent profession. Regardless of the educational and experiential routes taken into the HR profession, today there is an increasing emphasis on HR professionals holding the Chartered Professional in Human Resources (CPHR) designation. Legislation in Ontario and Quebec governs use of the designation. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.2 gives an overview of the requirements for the CPHR designation, which was formerly called the Certified Human Resources Professional (CHRP) designation and is still called that in Ontario.

Maintaining memberships in professional associations keeps the HR professional from becoming isolated and provides assistance when the practitioner encounters ethical difficulties. Professional associations have developed well-thought-out codes of conduct and behaviour that are designed to protect both the HR professionals and their clients. These codes help the professional to act in a manner that will be accepted by others in the profession. Whenever possible, we will use these codes to guide our discussion on recruitment and selection practices, as should any HR professional.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL16

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 1.2

PROFESSIONAl ASSOCIATIONS INvOlvEd IN RECRuITMENT ANd SElECTION

Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations (CCHRA)

The CCHRA is a collaborative effort of provincial and spe- cialist HR associations. Its website provides links to each member organization. The mission of the CCHRA includes establishing national core standards for the HR profession and being the recognized resource on equivalency for HR qualifications across Canada.

membership Qualifications

Practitioners and students join provincial associations, not the CCHRA. Membership requirements vary and can be found on each provincial association’s website. Generally, provincial associations require completion of education and training as described under their professional certi- fication requirements; student memberships are normally

available for those taking approved courses in a postsec- ondary or degree program.

Professional Certification Offered

The Chartered Professional in Human Resources (CPHR) designation recognizes achievement within the HR field and the holder’s distinguished professionalism (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.2). To receive this designation, practitioners may have to complete accredited courses, have had supervised professional experience in HR, or other requirements as specified by their provincial HR association (e.g., Human Resources Association of Nova Scotia: HRANS). In Ontario, the Human Resource Profes- sional Association, which still refers to the designation as the Certified Human Resources Professional (CHRP), offers two advanced certifications beyond the CHRP.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 1.1

SEvERAl CAREER PATHS INTO RECRuITMENT ANd SElECTION

Ms. l. became interested in HRM while taking a business program at a community college. After obtaining her college degree, she took eight courses in order to earn a certifi- cate in Human Resources Management. Since then, Ms. l. has worked as an HR specialist in a large manufacturing plant, where she runs an assessment centre used by her employer to hire new workers. Ms. l. hopes to eventually move into a senior HRM position with her present employer or with a similar company in the manufacturing sector.

Mr. R. moved into the field after completing his degree in sociology at university. He started work in the HR department of an aircraft parts manufacturer and, over the following year, earned a Human Resources Certificate. Following completion of his HR program, he accepted a more senior HR position with a new employer. Much of his time is spent in recruitment and selection activities, espe- cially in monitoring the results of an employment equity program put in place by his current employer.

Ms. S. obtained a bachelor’s degree in psychology and became interested in personnel psychology. She went on to complete a two-year graduate program in industrial and organizational psychology. Since receiving her mas- ter’s degree, Ms. S. has worked in the HR department of a major urban hospital, where her primary duties are testing and interviewing job applicants for various hospital posi- tions. Her other duties focus on compensation and benefits.

Ms. M. also received a master’s degree in industrial and organizational psychology, but continued her studies to obtain a Ph.d. She works for an internationally based consulting firm, where she designs and implements large- scale recruitment and selection systems for banks, insur- ance companies, and other financial institutions. She is now a partner with the consulting firm and takes regular overseas assignments to assist clients in Europe and Asia with installation and maintenance of their selection systems.

(continued )

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NEL 17CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

The Certified Human Resources leader (CHRl) was estab- lished for CHRP’s who had managerial responsibilities; the Certified Human Resources Executive (CHRE) designa- tion was established for CHRPs who had participated at the executive level in governance, business strategy, and executive compensation.

Canadian Psychological Association (including the Canadian society for industrial and Organizational Psychology)

The CPA is a national organization that represents all aspects of psychology, including industrial and organizational psy- chology and psychological testing and assessment. Psychol- ogists, particularly practitioners, may also be members of provincial psychological associations. The CPA website con- tains links to provincial associations, provincial regulatory bodies, and psychology programs at Canadian universities.

The Canadian Society for Industrial and Organiza- tional Psychology (CSIOP) comprises CPA members and other professionals with a particular interest in personnel psychology and organizational behaviour. More information on CSIOP can be found at http://csiop-scpio.ca

membership Qualifications

Master’s or Ph.d. degree in psychology.

Professional Certification Offered

Neither CPA nor CSIOP offers professional designations. Psychology is regulated at the provincial level through leg- islation. In order to use the designation “psychologist,” an individual must be registered with a provincial regulatory body after meeting its educational, supervised practice, and other requirements.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 1.2

BECOME A CPHR

The Chartered Professional in Human Resources (CPHR) designation is a recognized level of achievement within the field of human resources. It reflects a conviction that the professional practice of human resources management can safeguard the interests of employers, employees, and the business community. The designation represents con- tinuing recognition of the bearer’s professionalism. CPHRs earn more and get promoted faster than non-designated HR professionals. In addition, there are many advantages to attaining your CPHR designation:

1. Proven Expertise—HR professionals who pursue the CPHR must meet all requirements set out by their pro- vincial HR associations, which aim to measure their competence and experience as HR professionals. By pursuing the CPHR designation, you’ll prove your ability to tackle all aspects of HR and demonstrate to employers and colleagues alike that you are a true HR expert.

2. Continual Learning—To maintain your designation, you will be challenged to continually update your knowledge and skills in HR. As a CPHR, you’ll gain expertise and leading-edge knowledge to help you manage complex and dynamic HR issues and, ulti- mately, become a strategic advisor.

3. demonstrated Commitment—CPHRs must undergo rigorous studies, comprehensive exam(s), and ongoing learning. They are, in short, committed to the profes- sion over the long term. By pursuing your CPHR, you demonstrate your commitment to constantly updating your HR skills and highlighting your long-term passion for the profession. You join the class of HR profes- sionals that employers seek out.

4. Knowledge Community—As a CPHR, you are part of an exclusive, nation-wide community of HR experts. Through special events, conferences, publications,

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL18

// an intRoduction to ethical iSSueS and pRofeSSional StandaRdS Ethics are the means by which we distinguish what is right from what is wrong, what is moral from what is immoral, what may be done from what may not be done. Of course, the laws of our country also tell us what is or is not permissible by imposing penalties, such as fines or imprisonment, on violators. Ethics is a difficult subject because it deals with the large grey area between those behaviours that society punishes as illegal and those that everyone readily agrees are noble and upright. A careful consideration of ethics is important because HRM requires the balancing of the rights and interests of manage- ment with those of workers, as well as the rights and interests of the HR professional with those of the larger society (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.3).

Professional standards follow from a code of ethics and provide guidance on how members should behave in certain situations. In the HR context of recruitment and selection, professional standards offer advice on things such as the appropriate use of employment tests, the standards that different tests must meet, and the qualifications of those using the employment tests.

Ethical standards regulate the behaviour of those using employment tests. In the case of psychologists, the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists*23 specifies four principles on which ethical behaviour is based:

1. Respect for dignity of the persons and peoples

2. Responsible caring

3. Integrity in relationships

4. Responsibility to society.

The ethical standards related to each of these principles apply to all testing carried out by psychologists. These ethical standards cover issues such as confidentiality of test results, informed consent, and the competence of those administering and interpreting

professional standards Professional standards provide guidance on how HR professionals should behave in certain situations including the use of employment tests.

ethics The determination of right and wrong; the standards of appropriate conduct or behaviour for members of a profes- sion: what those mem- bers may or may not do.

and websites, you can connect with other HR profes- sionals across Canada. This powerful network proves invaluable as HR professionals look for solutions, ideas, and the ability to connect with others in the field.

5. Ethical behaviour—CPHRs commit themselves to high standards of ethical behaviour. They are held to the CCHRA National Code of Ethics that covers a

range of important professional issues including con- fidentiality, conflict of interest, professional growth, and more. You gain the confidence of your employer, colleagues, and peers with the knowledge that you are committed to a Code of Ethics that demands the highest standards for the profession.

Join the thousands of HR professionals across Canada who have discovered the CPHR advantage.

Source: Adapted from http://www.chrp.ca/?page=Become_CHRP.

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NEL 19CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

the test results. The foremost concern is to protect the welfare and dignity of those being tested. A consumer or client may bring any concerns over a psychologist’s use of tests, including selection tests, to appropriate regulatory bodies.

The ethical code of the Canadian Council of Human Resource Associations (CCHRA)* that applies to HR practitioners specifies four major principles similar to those in the CPA Code of Ethics. Each principle is then followed by several statements that are related to the principle and guide the CPHR’s actions. The four principles are as follows:

Principle P1: Members have a duty to discharge all of their Professional responsi- bilities honourably, competently, and with integrity. Principle P2: Members have a duty to protect and promote the Profession and to cooperate with the Association. Principle P3: Members have a duty to act in the best interest of their clients and employers. Principle P4: Members must at all times act in a manner that advances the prin- ciples of health and safety, human rights, equity, dignity, and overall well-being in the workplace.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 1.3

lOOKING FOR COMMON GROuNd: ETHICAl COdES

The professional associations described in Recruitment and Selection Today 1.3 have ethical codes that apply to their members. In all of these codes, members are required to obey the laws of the country, avoid conflicts of interest, and remain current in their fields of exper- tise. In addition, these ethics codes outline other obliga- tions that their members have to clients, management, and workers, as well as to the larger society. One of the principles in the Code of Ethics & Rules of Professional Conduct of the Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations states that CPHRs “must at all times act in a manner that advances the principles of health and safety, human rights, equity, dignity, and overall well-being in the workplace.”

The CPA’s Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists presents the following four ethical principles, which pro- vide a guide for individual ethical decision making: respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society.

All of these ethical codes place constraints on what their members may and may not do when practising HRM, including recruitment and selection. However, ethical decision making is not always clear-cut; often decisions must be made in the grey areas of ethics where reasonable people differ in what they consider to be right and wrong. To complicate mat- ters even more, an action that is considered ethical under one code might be deemed unethical under another. These incon- sistencies can and do occur because the CCHRA and CPA eth- ical codes differ in content, scope, and emphasis. The bottom line to this discussion is that ethics is a complex matter and has the potential to be the Achilles’ heel of many a promising HR career. Professionals practising recruitment and selection should read carefully the ethical codes that apply to them and their work, and then discuss the codes with colleagues.

The CCHRA Code of Ethics and Rules of Professional Conduct and the CPA Canadian Code of Ethics for Psy- chologists can be found online using Google or any other search engines.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL20

// ethical dilemmaS in RecRuitment and Selection Ethical dilemmas frequently occur during the employment testing of job applicants with various selection tools during the selection process. From a legal standpoint, an employ- ment interview is subject to the same set of regulations and ethical considerations as any other employment test and must meet professional standards when used in making high-stakes decisions. We present three examples of ethical dilemmas in Recruitment and Selection Today 1.3 that will help to illustrate why codes of ethics are so important and why a professional may need assistance in deciding how to behave.

Ethical dilemmas raise difficult questions that cut to the very core of ethics. But such questions are unavoidable because ethics are central to any group representing itself as a professional association. Fortunately, professional HR associations in Canada have written codes and standards to provide guidance on ethical matters to their members. Violations of these codes and standards may result in professional censure, embarrass- ment, and, in the most serious cases, removal from the profession. Membership in the profession is based on adherence to its ethics and professional standards. Membership in the professional association is a public guarantee that the member operates in accordance with accepted principles. Naturally, these codes should factor heavily into the recruitment and selection work done by HR professionals and described in this book.

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In today’s world, companies and their employees are expected to act ethically.

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NEL 21CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 1.3

ETHICAl dIlEMMAS

1. Situation. You are a management consultant who is asked by a large employer to design and implement a system to select workers for a manufacturing plant. The plant is unionized, and there is a history of poor union– management relations. Management informs you that it intends to break the union and, as a part of this effort, you are to come up with a selection system that will screen out all new job applicants having pro-union attitudes. The idea is to skew the work force toward management so that the union can be broken in a future decertification vote. What’s more, you are to keep the purpose of the selection system a secret and are asked by management to sign a contract in which you promise not to reveal its intentions to the union, the labour board, or any other outsiders.

dilemma. Where do your loyalties lie? Whose interests should you serve? Is it wrong for you, as the manage- ment consultant, to accept a fee to do what management is asking? Is it against your professional code of ethics?

2. Situation. Imagine that you are an HR manager who is considering the use of a selection system. You know that it will do a good job of selecting the best workers, but it also screens out members of visible minorities at a rate much greater than that for the white majority.

dilemma. Should you use this system that will improve productivity, or try to find another that does not screen out so many members of visible-minority groups, but may not be as effective? What if the new system does not do as good a job at selecting the best workers? Should you favour societal goals of increasing visible-minority representation in the work force or the interests of your company? does the selection system violate your code of ethics or legal requirements?

3. Situation. You have been directed by your manager to find a way to reduce employee theft. You believe that this can be accomplished by screening out people who fail a commer- cially available “honesty” test. You purchase the test and administer it to all current employees and new applicants and reject or dismiss those who fail the test, including long- term employees with no history of dishonesty.

dilemma. Should you be concerned that the test is screening out honest people? Should you be concerned about the reliability and validity of the test and whether it is appropriate to use in your situation? Should you be concerned about wrongful dismissal lawsuits on the part of employees, or human rights actions on the part of appli- cants? does use of the tests violate your code of ethics, or the law? Can you defend your actions?

// human ReSouRceS and the inteRnet One of the most significant developments in recent years has been the growth of the Internet, which has made available to students and practitioners a vast array of resources and information related to every aspect of recruitment and selection. It is impossible to list every HR resource that is available on the Internet. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.4 lists some sources that we feel are very relevant to recruitment and selec- tion. Because URLs for websites often change or can be quite lengthy and difficult to type from a text source, we no longer list them in the text. To find the site, simply type the name into your favourite browser. We suggest that you research the sources we have provided.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL22

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 1.4

uSEFul SOuRCES

Human Resources–related Organizations Human Resources information sources Academy of Management Canadian Business Administrative Sciences Association of Canada Canadian HR Reporter American Psychological Association Career Outlook BC Human Resources Management Association Globe and Mail Report on Business Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations HRFocus Canadian Psychological Association HR-Guide.com Canadian Society for Industrial & Organizational Psychology HR Magazine Employment and Social development Canada HR Performance Solutions Human Resources Association of New Brunswick People Management Human Resources Association of Nova Scotia Statistics Canada Human Resources Institute of Alberta Workforce Human Resources Management Association of Manitoba Human Resources Professionals Association (Ontario+) International Personnel Assessment Council International Public Management Association for Human Resources Ordre des conseillers en ressources humaines agréés Saskatchewan Association of Human Resource Professionals Society for Human Resource Management Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Research Journals in Recruiting and selection Academy of Management Review Canadian Journal of Administrative Studies Canadian Labour Law Reporter Harvard Business Review Human Performance Human Resource Management Human Resource Management Review International Journal of Selection and Assessment Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Business Ethics Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Journal of Personnel Psychology Journal of Staffing and Recruitment Personnel Personnel Journal Personnel Psychology Personnel Review Public Personnel Management

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23CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection NEL

// SummaRy Effective recruitment and selection are important because they contribute to organiza- tional productivity and worker growth. Recruitment and selection practices, which have found a place in organization practices, play an essential role in contemporary organiza- tions. Effective human resource management, including recruitment and selection, must be carried out within the context of a strategic plan developed by the organization. This chapter reviews the steps in strategic planning as they relate to recruitment and selection. HR professionals must not become isolated from society and their peers. In recognition of this, professional associations and groups exist to help HR professionals and their cli- ents by establishing ethical codes and standards of practice. Codes of ethics are important to HR as it continues to develop as a profession.

key teRmS

Ethics, p. 18 Human Resources Information Systems (HRIS), p. 4 Professional standards, p. 18 Recruitment, p. 5 Selection, p. 5 Strategy, p 7 Talent management, p. 3

diScuSSion QueStionS

1. How can HR professionals demonstrate that they add value to a company’s bottom line?

2. What are possible consequences of using poor or outdated recruitment and selection practices?

3. What should be the strategic objectives of any recruitment and selection plan?

4. Discuss the impact that current socio-economic conditions are having on recruitment and selection practices.

5. What are ethics and how do they relate to recruitment and selection?

exeRciSeS

1. Visit the Statistics Canada website to determine the current socio-economic and demographic composition of the Canadian work force. Identify how these factors may have an impact on HR recruitment and selection. Illustrate with examples.

2. Think of a job you have held and write two brief profiles of that job. The first profile is to be that of a 95th-percentile job performer—that is, persons you have worked with who would be better than 95 out of 100 of their coworkers. What were those people like? What skills and abilities did they have? Then write a second profile of 5th-percentile job performers—people who were only as good as the bottom

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24 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

5 percent of their coworkers. Compare the profiles and discuss how use of recruitment and selection might be helpful in choosing the 95th-percentile rather than the 5th- percentile performer. How much difference would it make to have the 95th-percentile rather than the 5th-percentile performer on the job? If you were the employer, would these differences be of sufficient value for you to invest the necessary money into recruitment and selection in order to get the 95th-percentile performer?

3. As a class or in small groups, discuss the three scenarios raised in the ethics section of this chapter. Decide what the HR professional should do in each instance, and pro- vide an ethical justification for your decision based on the CCHRA Code of Ethics.

4. Write a brief summary of your preferred career track in HRM. What professional associations would you join and what activities would you engage in? Where do recruitment and selection fit in the mix of activities that you have planned for yourself?

CAsE sTudy RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn AT gOOgLE

Google is consistently ranked by Fortune magazine as one of the best places to work. It provides employees with excellent pay and a series of perks that are unheard of at most corporations. Some of these perks are flex hours; bring your dog to work; casual dress; on-site free massage and yoga; free snacks, drinks, and meals; and a child-care centre among many others. No wonder that Google receives close to 3 million job applications a year. To find the best talent, Google uses care- fully selected strategies, methods, and techniques. Google recruits at college and university campuses and through the Careers section of its website. Google is very selective, hiring only about 7000 of the 3 million applicants. Google uses different methods to select people for different jobs, but there are some common elements: preliminary screening, employment tests, interviews, and background checks. Google is looking for intelligence, creativity, leadership, and fit with the Google culture, as well as the role the person will play as part of Google. Hiring decisions are not made by managers but having a committee composed of peers make the decision, which is much like the process a university uses in hiring, pro- moting, and granting tenure to faculty, rather than hierarchical structures used in industry. One can say that in many ways Google operates in the knowledge industry much like a university.

QueStionS

The intent of this exercise is not to have you develop detailed answers but to begin thinking about the many factors that affect recruitment and selection. We appreciate that the case does not contain detailed information but in our opinion that informa- tion is not needed to meet our primary objective. We will review in detail many of the components of Google’s recruitment and selection procedures later in this text. For now, we would like you to discuss the following points.

1. Is Google’s elaborate recruitment and selection system justified? What are appropriate criteria for assessing its effectiveness?

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25CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection NEL

2. Google receives over 3 000 000 applications for 7000 positions. Is this an effective approach? What is the cost, particularly the human cost, associ- ated with reviewing all of these applications? How do you reduce the number of applicants to a reasonable number that can be run through the selection system?

3. Provide examples of how technology might be used to facilitate and improve the recruitment and selection used by Google.

4. What criteria should Google use in selecting “team players”?

5. Does “peer-based hiring” lead to better employees?

Source: Schmidt, E. and Rosenberg, J. 2014. “How Google Works.” New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing.

// endnoteS 1. Screenrant, Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice Review. Retrieved July 24,

1017, from http://screenrant.com/batman-v-superman-movie-review-2016.

2. Ployhart, R.E., C.H. Van Iddekinge, and W.I. MacKenzie Jr. 2011. “Acquiring and Developing Human Capital in Service Contexts: The Interconnectedness of Human Capital Resources.” Academy of Management Journal 54: 353–368.

3. Michaels, E., H. Handfield-Jones, and B. Axelrod. 2001. The War for Talent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press.

4. Government of Canada. “Vision, Mission and Guiding Principles.” December 31, 2015. Retrieved August 8, 2016, from https://www.canada.ca/en/public- service-commission/corporate/about-us/vision-mission-guiding-principles. html?undefined&wbdisabletrue

5. WestJet. “About Us.” Retrieved August 8, 2016, from https://www.canadapost .ca/web/en/pages/aboutus/details.page?article=visionvalues

6. Canada Post. “Vision, Values & Leadership Behaviours.” Retrieved July 31, 2017, from https://www.canadapost.ca/web/en/pages/aboutus/details. page?article=visionvalues

7. Belcourt, M. and K.J. McBey. 2016. Strategic Human Resources Planning, 6th ed. Toronto: Nelson.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid

10. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. 2016. “KOF Index of Globalization.” Retrieved July 19, 2016, from http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch

11. Northwest Territories. “A Guide to Internet Recruiting.” Retrieved May 20, 2014, from http://www.hr.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/documents/guidetoin ternetrecruiting.pdf

12. Chase, S. June 17, 2015. “Cyberattacks Deal Crippling Blow to Canadian Government Websites.” The Globe and Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2016, from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/ canadian-government-websites-appear-to-have-been-attacked/article24997399

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26 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

13. All demographic data in this section are from the 2011 census and are avail- able from Statistics Canada at http://www12.statcan.gc.ca

14. Statistics Canada, “2011 Census of Population.” Retrieved August 5, 2016, from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/index-eng.cfm

15. Ibid.

16. “Perspectives on Labour and Income, 2007.” Retrieved January 4, 2012, from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=75-001-X&lang=eng

17. Kelloway, E.K., V.M. Catano, and A.L. Day. 2011. People and Work in Canada. Toronto: Nelson.

18. Ployhart, R.E. 2006. Staffing Organization, 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

19. Tamkin, P., M. Cowling, and W. Hunt. 2008. People and the Bottom Line. Report 448. London, UK: Institute for Employment Studies.

20. Wright, P.M., T.M. Gardner, and L.M. Moynihan. 2003. “The Impact of HR Practices on the Performance of Business Units.” Human Resources Management Journal, 13, 21–36.

21. Welch, J. 2005. Winning. New York, NY: Harper Business.

22. Tamkin et al. 2008.

23. The Canadian Psychological Association. 2017. Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, Fourth Edition. Available online at http://www.cpa.ca/docs/File/ Ethics/CPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter develops the idea that personnel recruitment and selection strategies based on information obtained through scientific methods are more likely to benefit an orga- nization than decisions based on impressions or intuition. The chapter begins with an illustration of a typical hiring process and goes on to examine basic concepts of reliability and validity that underlie contemporary recruitment and selection practices.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• discuss the basic components that make up a traditional personnel selection model;

• explain the concepts of reliability and validity;

• recognize the importance and necessity of establishing the reliability and validity of measures used in personnel selection;

• identify common strategies that are used to provide evidence on the reliability and validity of measures used in personnel selection;

• discuss the requirement for measures used in personnel selection to evaluate applicants fairly and in an unbiased fashion;

• describe the practical steps needed to develop a legally defensible selection system.

fOundATiOns Of RECRuiTmEnT And

sELECTiOn i: Reliability and Validity

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL28

THE “sHAm PsyCHOmETRiC TEsT” COnTROvERsy

Recently, a controversy erupted in the United Kingdom con- cerning a psychometric test used by the Department of Work and Pensions. The test was developed to help unem- ployed people find work. The following article in Personnel Today gives an overview of the controversy and the nature of the test. This controversy also led to several days of questioning in Parliament. We will deal with the issues of validity and reliability in this chapter and link them to the hiring process. Here is the article by John Hackston from Personnel Today.

Psychometric testing has been in the news recently, and not in a good way. According to recent reports, the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) has required unemployed people to take “bogus” psychometric tests, and threatened to take their benefits away if they refused to do so.

A Guardian report and an accompanying video go on to say that the test is a “sham” and will produce the same results no matter what answers are given. Some websites and blogs go further, saying, for example, that “this ‘test’ is a tool for abuse and psychological torture.”

It seems this particular questionnaire was developed as part of a pilot project put together by the Cabinet Office’s behavioural insight team, otherwise known as the “nudge unit.” This group uses two approaches that are surprisingly novel in governmental decision making. First, come up with ideas for small interventions to “nudge” individuals’ behav- iour in a direction that both works well for them and saves the Government money. Second, carry out randomised controlled trials to see if these interventions actually work.

One trial was in job centres, where 2000 jobseekers were randomly assigned to one of two groups—half went through the existing system and half went through a new process. For the second group, their first visit included a conversation about getting back to work; on every sub- sequent visit they were encouraged to make clear plans for the next two weeks, and if they were still unemployed after eight weeks they were given further help. The results showed that after 13 weeks, the second group were 15%– 20% less likely to be signing on than the first group. The project has now been expanded to larger trials.

Criticisms

So, a success story? Not quite. The psychometric test that has come in for criticism was part of this project, used at the eight-week stage to help jobseekers identify their

strengths, thereby making them more able to put their best foot forward in applying for jobs. It is short (just 48 ques- tions), is completed online and outputs a report with the respondent’s five key strengths—what’s not to like? Plenty, unfortunately, as the implementation of this idea is less than perfect. There are a number of issues:

• Presentation. Try the test for yourself here and see what you think, but the appearance of the questionnaire does not inspire confidence. It has a very basic look and feel, the title text does not quite fit in the space reserved for it, and there is the occasional grammatical error (such as “I always look on bright side” and “Try to find a new way to use them then every day”). This may seem a little picky, but if people don’t take the ques- tionnaire seriously, they will not take any advice derived from it seriously. In the jargon of testing, it will have low face validity.

• The questions. Several questions are a little strange, for example: “In the last month, I have been thrilled by excellence in music, art, drama, film, sport, science or mathematics” or “I have not created anything of beauty in the last year.” Some may not be easy to understand for people with lower levels of literacy or who do not have English as a first language, because of unusual phrasing or double negatives (“I hesitate to sacrifice my self- interest for the benefit of groups I am in” or “I am rarely as excited about the good fortune of others as I am about my own”). As these groups are likely to be over-represented among jobseekers, this may be an issue. Without some additional expla- nation or context, people will misunderstand the questions and the results will be less valid.

• The report. The report lists the respondent’s five key strengths, based on their answers; potentially this is a very positive message. However, it is not immediately obvious that this is what the report is doing, and some additional text helping the reader to understand how they can use the results would be extremely helpful. Some critics have even sug- gested that people will get the same report no matter what answers they put down; this is, in fact, not the case and different reports will be generated from different answers—although, as the reports are very similar, this is not obvious.

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NEL 29CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

• The origins of the questionnaire. It has been reported in the press that the DWP test is a cut- down version of a much longer (120 or 240 ques- tion) “character strengths” survey published by the U.S.-based VIA Institute on Character, and that VIA refused permission for the use of the shorter questionnaire, calling it a “non-validated version.” If true, this is very worrying, as it would mean that this new version of the test is not fit for purpose.

• The way the questionnaire appears to have been used. This may be the biggest issue. Forcing people to complete an open personality question- naire against their will (if this is indeed what has happened) is unlikely to have a useful outcome. Doing so on a large-scale programme in the full glare of publicity could be seen as asking for trouble. This is a real shame, because we know that accurate personality questionnaires, with spe- cific and focused reports, can be incredibly useful in career counselling.

Can the positives outweigh the negatives? Any personality questionnaire is a means to an end, but how it is used is just as important. Unfortunately, the world seems to have decided that the DWP questionnaire was designed from the outset to be used in a less than posi- tive way.

Questions such as “is it reliable?” “is it valid?” or even “could it be useful?” may be drowned out—and the ques- tionnaire, for all its flaws, is part of an approach that does seem to give results.

Errors in implementation can be corrected and a new version trialled; this is a part of the whole ethos of evidence-based policy. Let us hope that the furore does not prevent this happening, and does not detract from the many places where psychometric tools are used in a posi- tive way to widen and inform people’s career choices, to help them in the job search process, and to aid their devel- opment once in employment.

Source: John Hackston, “The Sham Psychometric Test Controversy” Personnel Today, May 10, 2013. http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/

the-sham-psychometric-test-controversy.

The basic premise of this text is that scientific methods will enable an employer to hire job applicants who possess the KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes) and competencies that are required to perform a specific job. One of the concerns with the test used by the DWP is that it was never validated for an intended purpose. In fact, it is not clear what the purpose of the test is. What KSAOs or competencies identified by the test might be related to any job an unemployed person might be interested in pursuing? We argue that science-based selection will meet this goal of hiring the right people for the job and that there is a process that should be followed to identify the KSAOs and competencies and then to measure them; that is, to determine if a job applicant has the “right stuff.” Figure 2.1 presents an outline of the components that make up a selection system. We will review this process and the different elements of the system over the course of this text. In this chapter we will deal with the issues of reliability and validity. These concepts are essential to the legal defensibility of any selection procedure.

By using reliable and valid selection methods, HR managers save themselves and their company much aggravation and grief. The bottom line is that selection proce- dures that are ethical and follow professional standards are defensible, should they be challenged in court or in some employment tribunal. Science-based selection produces employees that are efficient and productive.

Using an employment test with unknown reliability and validity may lead to many uncomfortable minutes on a witness stand under cross-examination. Imagine yourself in the situation trying to defend some procedure you used to assess job applicants when you had not determined the reliability or validity of the procedure and proceeded to make employment decisions based on the procedure.

In this chapter we will develop a basic understanding of several of the measurement and validity issues that surfaced in the DWP case and with which every HR practitioner

KSAOs The knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes necessary for a new incumbent to do well on the job; also referred to as job, employment, or worker specifications.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL30

must be familiar. There are no guarantees, even when professionals attempt to follow accepted procedures, that their work will meet standards set by courts or tribunals, but HR professionals should at least know the standards they are expected to meet in order to defend their work.

Job Analysis

Develop predictors

related to KSAOs

Develop criteria related

to job dimensions

Does the selection

system have utility?

Implement the selection

system

Performance domain:

Identify job dimensions

Obtain criteria data

Is the selection

system valid?

1. Re-analyze job

2. Review performance

and KSAO constructs

3. Review criteria and

predictors

Periodically review

selection system

Obtain predictor data

YES

Identify KSAO constructs

figuRE 2.1

JOb AnALysis, sELECTiOn, And CRiTERiOn mEAsuREmEnTs Of PERfORmAnCE: A sysTEms APPROACH

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NEL 31CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

// The RecRuiTmenT And SelecTiOn PROceSS In most employment situations, there are many applicants for each available job. The employer’s goal is to hire an applicant who possesses the KSAOs required to successfully perform the job being filled. The employer makes a guess about which applicant will per- form the job most effectively. This basic decision, which is made hundreds of times each day throughout Canada, is the end result of a complex process. Correct guesses by the employer have positive benefits for the organization and the employee; bad guesses not only affect the productivity and profitability of the company but also may have negative emotional consequences for the poorly performing employee. As we saw in Chapter 1, bad hiring decisions may cost an employer considerable amounts of money. In addition, bad hiring practices may lead to severe legal consequences.

As part of making a decision, the employer must have a good idea of both the duties that will be performed as part of the job and the level of performance required for job success. The employer must identify the KSAOs that are required for job success and measure or assess the KSAOs or competencies of all job applicants. In Chapter 4 we will discuss different techniques that provide this necessary informa- tion. Hiring someone through an assessment of job-related attributes is based on an assumption that higher levels of attributes are linked to higher levels of job perfor- mance. Recruitment and selection need not be based on guesses on who is best suited to fill a position.

The hiRing PROceSS

Recruitment and Selection Today 2.1 outlines the procedure used by the Toronto Police Service in selecting new recruits for the position of police constable. Candidates must meet a set of minimum requirements; they also must not have a criminal record for which a pardon has not been granted. If candidates meet the minimum requirements, they may proceed to register for general information sessions and undertake a series of employment tests including a test of cognitive ability (PATI), written communication (WCT), physical readiness evaluation for police (PREP), Behavioural Personnel Assess- ment Device for police (BPAD), and vision and hearing tests. Once the applicant has received a certificate from the Ontario Association of Chiefs of Police certifying the test results, he or she may submit an application to Toronto Police Service. After a review of testing results, competitive candidates undergo a pre-screening and pre-background questionnaire followed by an extensive interview that delves into all aspects of the candidate’s personal and professional life. Candidates who are considered for employment are then asked to undergo a more extensive background check and to complete a clinical personality assessment and psychological examinations. At this stage there are likely to be more qualified candidates who have passed all the steps than there are positions, so the recruiting team compares can- didates and decides which applicants will receive employment offers. An offer is then made to candidates pending successful completion of a medical exam.

The Toronto Police Service selection process, which is similar to many others in Ontario, illustrates the major components of per- sonnel selection that we will be discussing throughout this book. These are the components that a candidate sees; however, there

Cadets training on Parade square at Royal Canadian Mounted Police Depot, RCMP training academy in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL32

Sources: http://www.torontopolice.on.ca/careers/uni_minreq.php and http://www.torontopolice.on.ca/careers/uni_become_officer.php. Courtesy of the Toronto Police Service and the Ontario Association of Chiefs of Police.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 2.1

SELECTION PROCESS FOR TORONTO POLICE CONSTAbLES

minimum Qualifications

• be a Canadian citizen or permanent resident of Canada

• be at least 18 years of age

• be physically and mentally able to perform the duties of the position, having regard to your own safety and the safety of members of the public

• Have successfully completed at least four years of secondary school education or its equivalent. (Note: Official transcripts and diplomas will be required.) Where education has been completed outside Ontario, official proof of equivalency must be obtained

• be of good moral character and habits, meaning that you are an individual other people would look upon as being trustworthy and having integrity

In addition, you must:

• Have no criminal convictions for which a pardon has not been granted

• Possess a valid driver’s licence with no more than six accumulated demerit points, permitting you to drive an automobile in Ontario with full driving privileges

• Have current certification in CPR and first aid by the time the offer of employment is given

• Possess a valid O.A.C.P. (Ontario Association of Chiefs of Police) certificate

• Have a minimum of 20/40 (uncorrected) vision, with normal colour acuity

• Successfully pass the hearing standards as out- lined by the O.A.C.P.

• be able to pass a security clearance as well as a background investigation, credit and reference checks

selection Process

• Complete online registration for a General Information Session (GIS)

• Attend General Information Session (GIS)

• Toronto Police Recruiter will be in contact with you

• Complete online registration for one of our mentoring sessions

• Attend your registered PREP, PATI, or WCT mentoring session

• Register for O.A.C.P. testing with Applicant Testing Services

• Perform Test:

– PATI (Police Analytical Thinking Inventory)

– WCT (Written Communication Test)

– PREP (Physical Readiness Evaluation for Police)

– Vision and Hearing

– bPAD (behavioural Personnel Assessment Device for police)

• Obtain O.A.C.P. Certificate of Results

• Submit Toronto Police Service online application

• Pre-Screening

• Pre-background Questionnaire (PbQ)

• blended Interview

• Minnesota Multi-Phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)

• background Investigation

• Psychological Assessment

• Conditional Offer of Employment Pending Medical Examination

• Cadet-in-Training

Please be advised that the process for becoming a Police Constable is competitive and as such, an applicant may be declined at any stage of the process.

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NEL 33CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

is much more to the process. How does an employer know which requirements are needed to carry out the job? Should the employer be concerned if the requirements discriminate against certain groups? Under what circumstances can requirements that do discriminate against groups be used in selection? What standards must be met by the tests used in the selection procedures for the employer to be sure that they are providing valid and reliable information about the applicants? What procedures must an employer follow to ensure that its selection process is in compliance with legal and professional standards?

Every employer who makes a hiring decision follows a hiring process, even though it may not be as structured and detailed as that used by the Toronto Police Service. In many cases the hiring process is informal. The hiring system used by many employers resembles, on the surface, the selection procedure used to hire police constables in Toronto, but there are important differences. When a position becomes vacant, or is newly created, the employer may have a general idea of the duties to be performed as part of the job, which are then included in an advertisement used to recruit candidates for the position. This job advertisement may also state broad educational or experiential requirements expected from the candidates. The important difference is whether the job duties and position requirements have been determined through some systematic investigation—that is, a job analysis—or whether they represent a guess on the part of the employer’s HR department.

Applicants submit résumés and, after a preliminary screening, a few may be inter- viewed. Based on review of the applicant’s file, work references, and impressions formed during the interview, the employer makes a decision to hire one of the candidates. This decision may reflect the employer’s experience, a gut feeling or intuition about a certain candidate, or simply personal preference. The employer has an idea of the type of person who will do well in the job or in the organization and looks for an applicant who matches this idealized employee. In any event, the employer is making a guess about which appli- cant will do well in the job based on information collected from the job applicant that may not, in fact, be related to the job—or it may be of questionable quality.

All too often, unfortunately, the employer’s decision or guess reveals more about the biases of the employer than it does about either the requirements for the job or the qualifications and abilities of the applicants. In this type of selection procedure there is little or no tracking of the performance of the people hired, and only those who happen to do well are recalled and used to reinforce the hiring process. Bad guesses may lead not only to bad hiring decisions and lower productivity, but also to legal difficulties.

Hiring decisions must be defensible; they must meet legal requirements and profes- sional standards of reliability and validity. Defensible hiring decisions are not arbitrary; the measures used to make hiring decisions must be stable and provide job-related information. The Toronto Police Service hiring procedure outlined in Recruitment and Selection Today 2.1 illustrates how selection ought to be done, but before it or any procedure can be considered to be a model selection system, it must satisfy certain standards. Figure 2.1 represents a model of a selection system, including the compo- nents that are not seen by job applicants. The model emphasizes the need for employ- ment decisions to be valid and to meet legal requirements. Unfortunately, practice in HR tends to lag behind the science. Far too many HR interventions, including those in selection, are based on intuition rather than empirical support. There is a stubborn reliance on intuition and use of selection procedures such as an unstructured inter- view even though many practitioners using this procedure know that it is not sound.1 In a study of HR directors and managers, Lodato, Highhouse, and Brooks2 found that practitioners who preferred intuition-based hiring were experiential thinkers who

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL34

tended to make everyday decisions based on their feelings. They also tended to be less experienced than those who preferred selection tools, worked in small organiza- tions, and did not hold professional certifications. The practitioners were consistent in using intuition whether they were hiring salaried or hourly employees. In Table 2.1 we compare some of the differences between empirical evidence-based and practice-based selection processes.

A SelecTiOn mOdel

Figure 2.1 presented an overview of the components and process of a traditional selection system. In this model, job or work analysis information is used to identify both the per- formance to be carried out on the job and the KSAOs or competencies linked to that job.

TAbLE 2.1

HumAn REsOuRCEs mAnAgEmEnT: sCiEnCE vERsus PRACTiCE in sELECTiOn

sCiEnCE-bAsEd sELECTiOn PRACTiCE-bAsEd sELECTiOn

TyPE Of PROCEss AnALyTiCAL inTuiTivE

• Job analysis identifies KSAOs • Select valid measures of

KSAOs • Validate predictors and

assess utility • Retain valid and useful

predictors

• Untested approaches • “Fad”-based selection

system • Lack of use of reliable and

valid selection tools • Techniques and selection

tools chosen on the basis of marketing

• Selection procedures used are rarely validated

AssEssmEnT PROCEduREs

• Objective, reliable, and valid measures

• Unstructured interview

dECisiOn mAKing • Rational • “Gut-feel”

imPLEmEnTATiOn • System-wide • Case-by-case basis

EvALuATiOn Of PROCEss

• Empirical • Subjective

WHy is iT usEd? • Structured procedures • Consistent process • Maintains standards

• Comfort with the process • Flexibility and speed • Fits organizational culture

POTEnTiAL OuTCOmEs

• Defensibility of system • Increased productivity • Effective employees

• Human rights litigation • Lack of competitiveness • Marginal employees

Source: V.M. Catano. “Empirically Supported Interventions and HR Practice.” HRM Research Quarterly 5, 2001, pp. 1-5. International Alliance for Human Resources Research, York University. Reprinted with permission of V.M. Catano.

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NEL 35CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

Job or work analysis information identifies the tasks and behaviours that make up a job and, through inference, the KSAOs that contribute to performance of these related tasks and behaviours. These inferences are based on empirical evidence demonstrating validity between the job dimensions and KSAO constructs in other situations (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 2.1).

The HR specialist must also translate the KSAO constructs into measurable predic- tors. The fact that a security dispatcher sends, receives, processes, and analyzes informa- tion suggests that an applicant for this position should demonstrate a fair degree of cognitive ability. Also, that a security dispatcher must be capable of operating a variety of electronic equipment suggests the applicant should have experience operating such equipment. Similarly, if this same position requires the incumbent to remain calm under stressful conditions, applicants should demonstrate a stable emotional disposi- tion (i.e., low neuroticism or high emotional stability).

The HR specialists must determine how each of these KSAOs will be assessed. With respect to cognitive ability, a general cognitive ability test may be most appropriate. Information about past work history and experience may come from an application form, the candidate’s résumé, or an interview, while information about the candidate’s ability to deal with stressful situations may be assessed through a combination of a per- sonality inventory and a situational interview. The predictors that are chosen must be reliable and valid measures of the KSAO constructs that have been identified as related to job performance. Keep in mind that the goal of selection is to identify job candidates

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 2.1

CONSTRUCTS AND VARIAbLES

Throughout this book we will refer to constructs and vari- ables. These concepts are not as difficult as they may seem to be at first glance.

Constructs—ideas or concepts constructed or invoked to explain relationships between observations. For example, the construct “extraversion” has been invoked to explain the relationship between “social forthrightness” and sales; “learning” is a construct used to explain the change in behaviour that results from experience. Con- structs are abstractions that we infer from observations and that we cannot directly observe.

Constructs are collections of related behaviours. The construct may be based on a theory. To be useful, the construct should be measurable. Intelligence, or cog- nitive ability, is a construct that refers to several behav- iours such as verbal and numerical behaviours, spatial ability, and inductive and deductive ability, among others. There are several different theories of intelligence. The theory you adopt may guide how you measure intelli- gence. For example, if you believe that all you need in assessing job applicants is to know their cognitive ability

and not their ability on specific components of intelli- gence, then you would select a test that measures cogni- tive ability. If you thought that several of the intelligence components were important then you would measure, for example, constructs such as verbal ability or deduc- tive reasoning.

variables—simply refer to how someone or some- thing varies on the construct of interest. When we make a measurement we are assigning a numerical value to repre- sent the degree of variation by the person or object within the construct of interest. For example, we can invent an “IQ” score to represent variability in intelligence. The test we choose to measure cognitive ability assigns a score ranging from 0 to 200 to represent “IQ.” The assigned numbers will depend on the measure we use to assess intelligence. Variables allow us to make statements about constructs; for example, “Differences in cognitive ability predict success on the job.” We infer whether this state- ment is correct by looking at a relationship between two variables, one measure that represents cognitive ability and the second measure that represents job performance.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL36

who have those attributes required for success on the job. On the basis of data obtained through an assessment of job applicants, the HR team predicts which applicants will be successful in the position.

The work of the HR team does not end at this point. The team must evaluate the out- comes of its decision making. Did the applicants the team selected perform successfully? Did their decisions result in improved levels of performance and overall productivity than would be the case without such a system? Finally, any selection system must be reviewed periodically to determine whether it is still effective as jobs and organizations change.

// Building A FOundATiOn To move beyond a guess, a selection system must be built on a sound scientific founda- tion. In buying a house, you may not need to know how to lay a foundation, but you must be able to tell whether the house’s foundation is solid. Often, HR managers are asked to adopt selection systems; this chapter provides the tools needed to determine if a selection system or procedure rests on solid footings. There are two major elements to building a sound foundation with respect to recruitment and selection. First, the system must be based on solid empirical support. HR personnel must be able to demonstrate the reliability and validity of their selection systems. Second, any selection system must operate within a legal context.

// ReliABiliTy Consider an HR manager who believes that cognitive ability predicts performance on building widgets and that those with high scores on the test will be the most productive workers. The manager selects an available test of cognitive ability without investigating the reliability and validity of the test. The primary quality the manager assessed was the cost of the test and whether one had to be trained in its use to interpret the results. All the job candidates take the test and those who scored over 120 (out of 200) on the test receive a job offer. After a month or so on the job their line managers view the perfor- mance of the new widget makers as substandard and ask the HR manager to explain the poor performance. The manager decides to have the new hires redo the cognitive ability test. The results of the second administration show that hardly anyone scores above a 100 on the test. The HR manager concludes that, apparently, the test was not measuring cognitive ability in a reliable manner.

Hardly any human characteristic, including cognitive ability, can be measured in an error-free manner. The act of measuring produces a score that measures both the true score and an error component. Reliability is the degree to which observed scores are free from random measurement errors. Reliability is an indication of the stability or dependability of a set of measurements. Reliability refers to the consistency of a set of measurements when a testing procedure is repeated on a population of individuals or groups.3 The cognitive ability test that the HR manager used to predict widget-making performance produced very inconsistent results and is very likely to be unreliable.

Think of an employer who requires each employee to punch a time clock upon arrival at work. Mr. X, Ms Y, and Mr. Z, without fail, arrive at work each morning at 8:55 a.m., 8:56 a.m., and 8:57 a.m., respectively. If, on each day, the time clock stamped these same times, exactly, on each employee’s time card, the time clock would be considered

Reliability The degree to which observed scores are free from random measurement errors. Reliability is an indica- tion of the stability or dependability of a set of measurements over repeated applications of the measurement procedure.

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NEL 37CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

extremely reliable. The observed score—the time stamped on the time card—is the same as the true score, the time the employees arrived at work; no degree of error has been added to the measurement.

On the other hand, if the clock stamped times of 9:03 a.m., 9:00 a.m., and 9:00 a.m. for Mr. X, Ms. Y, and Mr. Z, the measurement would include an error component. Mr. X’s time is off by eight minutes, Ms. Y’s by four minutes, and Mr. Z’s by three min- utes. The time clock is not accurate, or reliable, in reporting the time people arrived for work. In this case, the error appears to be random or unsystematic; the occurrence or degree of the error does not appear to be predictable.

In terms of testing, we expect a test to provide approximately the same information each time it is given to that person. If you were given a multiple-choice test on the content of this chapter, we would expect that you would obtain approximately the same score if you were asked to retake the test, provided you did not undertake additional study of the chapter. The smaller the differences between your two scores, the more reliable, or consis- tent, the test. In the example of the widget makers, the test of cognitive ability should result in similar scores, but not identical scores, on each administration of the test. The more similar the scores on the two administrations of the test, the higher the reliability of the test.

Errors may also be systematic; that is, the errors may be made in a consistent, or predictable, fashion. If the time clock were five minutes fast, it would report the three arrival times as 9:00 a.m., 9:01 a.m., and 9:02 a.m. The clock is still reliable in reporting the arrival times of the three employees, but it is systematically adding five minutes to each worker’s clock-in time. The observed scores are reliable, but they do not represent the true arrival times. In other words, while the observed scores are accurate, they are not a valid indication of whether the employees started work on time. If every widget maker had scored 10 points lower on the cognitive ability test on the second administra- tion compared to the first, the results would still be reliable but not a valid indicator of their ability to do the job. Some of the widget makers who were within 10 points of the 120 point cutoff would now have scored below the cutoff and would not have been hired.

Systematic errors do not affect the accuracy of the measurements but rather the meaning, or interpretation, of those measurements. In terms of testing, several multiple- choice questions might be scored incorrectly on both the first occasion you took the test and on the subsequent administration. The incorrect alternatives may have been identi- fied as the correct answers when the exam was machine scored on both occasions. The incorrect scoring, which is systematic, does not affect the reliability of the test but it leads to the wrong conclusion about how well you know the material. The course instructor misjudges your knowledge of the chapter based on the test score and assigns you a lower grade than what should be the case.

Figure 2.2 presents an illustration of reliability and systematic and random error. It shows the results of four different archers shooting at a target. The shots of Archer A and Archer B are unbiased in that they are affected by random errors, perhaps a strong wind blows occa- sionally during their target practice. However, Archer A’s shots on target are more precise and are still very consistent or reliable. On the other hand Archer B’s shots are very imprecise and inconsistent. The reliability of Archer B’s shooting is very poor; you never know where Archer B’s arrow will end up. Both Archer C and Archer D are affected by some type of bias; perhaps there is a defect in the bows they are using. Nonetheless, Archer C achieves a narrow, consistent grouping of shots, but they are off the centre of the target. While Archer C’s shooting is reliable we cannot make any conclusion about how well Archer C can hit the centre of the target. Archer D is also affected by systematic error, but Archer D’s shots are imprecise and inconsistent. The systematic error has not changed the reliability of the two archers, but it limits what we can conclude about their target-hitting ability.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL38

inTeRPReTing ReliABiliTy cOeFFicienTS

Another way to think of reliability is in terms of the variability of a set of scores. The classical measurement model,4 which has had a major impact on personnel research, assumes that any observed score, X, is a combination of a true score and an error score.

This model assumes that the characteristic being measured is stable and that the only reason an observed score changes from one measurement to another is due to random error. Error scores are independent of the characteristic being measured; errors are attrib- utable to the measurement process, not to the individual. That is, the magnitude of error scores is unrelated to the magnitude of the characteristic being measured. The error score for an applicant with a very high level of the critical characteristic could be very large, or very small; that same situation would hold for any level of the characteristic.

The model also assumes that true scores and error scores combine in a simple addi- tive manner to produce the observed score. Suppose you take a test with 100 questions an infinite number of times (OK; let’s say 1000 is as close to infinity as we might get!) and your average score is 80. Let’s think of this as your true score; the number of ques- tions to which you know the answer. So, any time this test is given you should make 80 correct responses; however, you take a guess on the remaining 20 questions you don’t know and get 10 correct by sheer luck. The number of correct guesses is due to chance.

Archer C Archer D

Archer A

Precise Imprecise

Random Error

Archer B

S ys

te m

a ti

c E

rr o

B ia

se d

U n

b ia

se d

figuRE 2.2

EffECTs Of RAndOm And sysTEmATiC ERROR On RELiAbiLiTy

True score The average score that an individual would earn on an infinite number of administrations of the same test or parallel versions of the same test.

error score The hypothetical difference between an observed score and a true score.

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NEL 39CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

Therefore, the score you obtain on the test, 90, is the sum of your true score, 80, plus the error score, 10, attributable to chance. We can also determine the true scores for all the students in our population. Those true scores will vary across all the students. We then administer the test one more time to all the students and determine how much variance there is in the obtained scores.

If the test is not very accurate—that is, if it adds large random error components to true scores—then the variance of the measured scores should be much larger than the variance of the true scores. Reliability can be thought of as the ratio of true score vari- ance to observed score variance. In Figure 2.3, the normal curve marked “A” represents the distribution of true score and curves “B” and “C” represent distributions of scores obtained with two different tests designed to assess the same, stable characteristic, “A.” The variance for both test distributions, as indicated by their spread, are greater than the variance of the true score distribution with the variance of Test C greater than Test B’s. As illustrated in Figure 2.3, the reliability of Test B is greater than the reli- ability of Test C.

The reliability coefficient ( )rxx is also the degree that observed scores, which are made on the same stable characteristic, correlate with one another. A reliability coefficient, which is a correlation coefficient, ranges in value from 0.0 to +1.0. When a test’s reli- ability coefficient is close to 0.0 all variability in obtained test scores is due to measure- ment error. Conversely, when a test’s reliability coefficient is near +1.0, this indicates that all variability in scores reflects true score variability. The square of the reliability coefficient, ( )2rxx , represents the proportion of variance in the observed scores that is attributed to true differences on the measured characteristic. For the arrival times in our time stamp example, if .33rxx 5 , then only 10 percent of the variability in the reported arrival times, ( )2rxx , is attributable to the true arrival time; the remaining 90 percent of the variability is attributable to the inaccuracy of the time clock. If the accuracy of the clock were 0.85rxx 5 , 72 percent of the variability in arrival times is attributable to the true arrival time and 28 percent is due to error. When the time clock is systematically fast by five minutes— 1.00rxx 5 —the systematic error did not affect the reliability coefficient; the scores are very reliable, but they do not tell anything about the time people actually arrived at work.

Variance of True Score A = 10

Variance of Test B = 15

Variance of Test C = 20

Reliability of Test B = 10/15 = .67

Reliability of Test C = 10/20 = .50

figuRE 2.3

iLLusTRATiOn Of RELiAbiLiTy Of TWO diffEREnT TEsTs Of THE sAmE CHARACTERisTiC

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL40

meASuRemenT eRROR

Measurement error can be thought of as the hypothetical difference between an indi- vidual’s observed score on any particular measurement and the individual’s true score. Measurement error, whether systematic or random, reduces the usefulness of any set of measures or the results from any test. It reduces the confidence that we can place in the score the measure assigns to any particular individual. Does the score accurately represent the individual’s knowledge or ability, or is it so fraught with error that we cannot use it to make meaningful decisions?

Information on the degree of error present in any set of measurements must be con- sidered when using the measurements to make employment decisions. In our example, the manager must consider the possible major sources of the error, the size of the error, and the degree to which the observed scores would reoccur in another setting or with other employees. The standard error of measurement is a statistical index that summarizes information related to measurement error. This index is estimated from observed scores obtained over a group of individuals. It reflects how an individual’s score would vary, on average, over repeated observations that were made under identical conditions.

What degree of reliability does an employment test need to have for it to be used in making employment decisions? Professional standards simply say it should be “suf- ficiently high.”5 The U.S. Department of Labor6 produced an employer’s best practices guide for testing and assessment, which is available through the O*NET Resource Center. The Guide presents guidelines for interpreting reliability coefficients, which we reproduce in Table 2.2.

The Guide goes on to say that a test should not be accepted or rejected solely based on the size of the reliability coefficient. Other considerations exist including the type of test, the type of reliability estimate reported, and the context in which the test will be used. However, many selection specialists believe that the reliability of an employment test or procedure should be at least 0.80.

FAcTORS AFFecTing ReliABiliTy

The factors that introduce error into any set of measurements can be organized into three broad categories: temporary individual characteristics, lack of standardization, and chance. Examples of these factors are given in Recruitment and Selection Today 2.2.

measurement error The hypothetical difference between an observed score and a true score; comprises both random error and systematic error.

TAbLE 2.2

gEnERAL guidELinEs fOR inTERPRETing RELiAbiLiTy COEffiCiEnTs

RELiAbiLiTy COEffiCiEnT inTERPRETATiOn

0.90 and up Excellent

0.80 – 0.89 Good

0.70 – 0.79 Adequate

below 0.70 May have limited applicability

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Testing and Assessment: An Employer’s Guide to best Practices.

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NEL 41CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

meThOdS OF eSTimATing ReliABiliTy

One small problem exists with respect to true scores: we can never know the true score variance, as true scores are abstract constructs. But we can estimate what the true score is likely to be. There are several ways to estimate a test’s reliability. Each involves assessing the consistency of an examinee’s scores over time, across different content samples, or across different scorers. The common assumption for each of these reli- ability techniques is that consistent variability across the measurements represents true score variability, while inconsistency across the measurements reflects random error.

To measure reliability, we have to estimate the degree of variability in a set of scores that is caused by measurement error. We can obtain this estimate by using two different, but parallel, measures of the characteristic or attribute. Over the same set of people, both measures should report the same score for each individual. This score will represent the true score plus measurement error. Both measures reflect the same true score; discrepancies between the two sets of scores suggest the presence of measurement error. The correlation coefficient based on the scores from both measures gives an estimate of the reliability coefficient, rxx . It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain two parallel measures of the same characteristic; therefore, several strategies have been developed as approximations of parallel measures.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 2.2

ExAMPLES OF FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT RELIAbILITY

Temporary individual Characteristics

John stays awake all night cramming for his HR exam. He is nervous and loaded with caffeine when he takes the test. His performance on the test is poor. He asks his professor for a retest, arguing that the score does not reflect his true ability. The professor consents and John does much better on the retest. Factors such as health, motivation, fatigue, and emotional state intro- duce temporary, unsystematic errors into the measure- ment process.

Lack of standardization

Mary and Faizal have been invited to interview for the same position. Mary is interviewed over lunch in a very comfortable restaurant while Faizal is interviewed in a very austere conference room. Faizal is given a few min- utes to answer each question, but Mary is told to take as long as she needs. The manager, who is male, displays a lack of interest in Faizal during the interview, but reacts

very positively to Mary. These are just a few of the ways that lack of standardization can enter the measurement process. Changing the conditions under which measure- ments are made introduces error into the measurement process.

Chance

To prevent job applicants from guessing what the interview questions might be, an HR manager ran- domly draws the questions from a test bank prepared for the position. The questions given to Sam are easier to answer than those asked of Sarah. by luck of the draw, Sam’s interview score is higher than Sarah’s. both scores are dependent on the specific set of questions. Sam may have done as poorly as Sarah if he had been asked the questions given to her, and she may have done as well as Sam on his set of questions. This also argues for standardization of test materials. Factors unique to a specific procedure may introduce error into the set of measurements.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL42

TeST And ReTeST

The identical measurement procedure is used to assess the same characteristic over the same group of people on two different occasions. The HR manager invites the job applicants back for a second employment interview. They are asked the same questions in the same order. The correlation of their first and second interview scores estimates the reliability of the employment interview. High correlations suggest high levels of reli- ability. Giving exactly the same test to students on two occasions is another example of estimating test–retest reliability.

AlTeRnATe FORmS

However, having a person take the same employment interview twice may lead to a false estimate of the reliability of the interview process. The candidates may recall their original answers to the interview questions; they may also have thought of better answers after the first interview and give the improved answers on the second opportunity. To prevent the intru- sion of effects from the first interview, the manager asks the applicants alternate questions during the second interview. The correlation between both interview scores again estimates reliability, with high correlations once more indicating strong reliability. Giving students two different forms of the same test is an example of estimating alternate forms reliability. The two tests cover exactly the same content but the questions are not the same on both occasions.

inTeRnAl cOnSiSTency

Both test–retest and alternate forms procedures require two sets of measurements made on different occasions. In the case of employment interviews, it is quite costly in time and money to put all the candidates through a second interview procedure. Besides, isn’t each question in the interview directed at measuring job-related experience? Why not consider any two questions in the interview to be an example of a test–retest situation, and deter- mine the correlation between scores given to each item in that pair? This is the logic behind establishing reliability through internal consistency. Rather than select any particular pair of items, the correlations between the scores of all possible pairs of items are calculated and then averaged. This average estimates the internal consistency, the degree to which all the questions in the set are measuring the same thing. These estimates are sometimes called alpha coefficients, or Cronbach’s alpha, after the formula used to produce the estimate.

inTeR-RATeR ReliABiliTy

Measurement in personnel selection is often based on the subjective assessment, or rating, of one individual by another. The HR manager’s assessment of job performance is a sub- jective measurement, as we will discuss in Chapter 5. How likely would the rating assigned by one manager be assigned by another? In assessment centres, several judges monitor and then rate the performance of candidates on multiple exercises. The correlations between these judgments estimate the reliability of the assessments. Sometimes, this index is referred to as classification consistency or inter-rater agreement. This distinction is purely semantic. As part of group projects, professors may ask all the members of the group to rate independently the contribution of all the other members of the group. The more consistent the scores, the more reliable they are as measures of a student’s contribution to the group project.

Strategies for assessing reliability and validity are illustrated in Figure 2.4.

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NEL 43CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

Concurrent Criterion-related Validity Evidence: Two tests administered at the same time to two groups.

Criterion-related Validity Evidence: (Two types)

Content Validity Evidence: Checks that test items correspond to what is supposed to be covered in the test.

Test-Retest, or Stability: The test is given more than once to determine correlation.

Alternate Forms or Equivalence: Administering two equivalent tests and then comparing scores.

Internal Consistency: Splitting a test into two equal halves (i.e., odd numbers vs even numbers), and comparing scores for correlation.

Construct Validity Evidence: Demonstrates a relationship between some theory and another set of variables, that is, if you are testing a foreign language, then those skills should show improvement after much instruction.

Validity: “Does the test measure what it is supposed to measure?” (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2010, p. 329).

Validity and

Reliability Evidence

Reliability: “Does the test yield the same or similar score rankings (all other factors being equal) consistently?” (Kubiszyn & Borich,

2010, p.329).

Predictive Validity Evidence: Refers to how well the test predicts some future behaviour, regardless of whatever else it may test.

figuRE 2.4

vALidiTy And RELiAbiLiTy EvidEnCE

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL44

chOOSing An index OF ReliABiliTy

Measures of test–retest reliability, alternate forms reliability, and internal consistency are special cases of a more general type of index called a generalizability coefficient. These three measures, however, provide slightly different views of a measure’s reliability. Each is limited and does not convey all the relevant information that might be needed. The specific requirements of a situation may dictate which index is chosen. As well, it remains within the professional judgment of the HR specialist to choose an appropriate index of reliability and to determine the level of reliability that is acceptable for use of a specific measure. Before using any measurement to make decisions about employees, the HR specialist must consider the consequences of the decisions based on the measure. The need for accuracy increases with the seriousness of the consequences for the employee.7

// VAlidiTy It is important and necessary to demonstrate that a measure is reliable; it is also necessary to show that the measure captures the essence of the characteristic or attribute. Often, validity is incorrectly thought of as indicating the worth or goodness of a test or other measurement procedure. Validity simply refers to the legitimacy or correctness of the inferences that are drawn from a set of measurements or other specified procedures.8 It is the degree to which accumulated evidence and theory support specific interpretations of test scores in the context of the test’s proposed use. Consider the following: During an employment interview, an HR manager measures the height of each applicant with a metal measuring tape. These height measurements are likely to be very reliable. What if the manager assumes that taller applicants have more job-related cognitive ability and hires the tallest people? Are the inferences drawn from the physical height measures valid statements of cognitive ability? In other words, can the manager make a legitimate infer- ence about cognitive ability from the height data? What if your instructor in a course on recruitment and selection in Canada gave you a test composed solely of Canadian history? Would the inferences made from that test be an accurate reflection of your knowledge of recruitment and selection?

Before using any set of measurements, it is essential to demonstrate that the mea- surements lead to valid inferences about the characteristic or construct under study. It is relatively easy to demonstrate that the metal tape provides valid measures of physical height. The metal tape measure can be scaled to an actual physical standard that is used to define a unit of length. The standard exists apart from the measurement process. In the case of length, the standard is a bar of plutonium maintained under specific atmo- spheric conditions in government laboratories. In human resources there is no physical standard external to the measurement process. Consider this situation. You are in charge of hiring pharmacists for a large national chain of drug stores. You have a multiple-choice test that you administer to all candidates. The test is very reliable. You are using it to assess the candidates’ counselling skills and their ability to communicate effectively with clients regarding the drugs that have been prescribed by their physicians. The test, in fact, assesses the candidate’s drug knowledge. Making inferences about their communication skills based on this test is wrong and will provide misleading information, no matter how reliable it is.

It is more difficult to demonstrate the validity of inferences made from many psy- chological measurements because they deal more with abstract constructs, such as cog- nitive ability or intelligence. The measures may not represent important aspects of a

Validity The degree to which accumulated evidence and theory support specific interpretations of test scores in the context of the test’s proposed use.

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NEL 45CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

construct (construct underrepresentation) or they may be influenced by aspects of the process that are unrelated to the construct (construct-irrelevant variance). In most of these cases, independent physical standards for the construct do not exist, making validation more difficult, but not impossible. Validation rests on evidence accumulated through a variety of sources and a theoretical foundation that supports specific interpretations of the measurements.

VAlidATiOn STRATegieS

Validity is a unitary concept.9,10 Content, construct, and criterion-related validities are different, but interrelated, strategies commonly used to assess the accuracy of infer- ences based on measurements or tests used in the workplace. Sometimes these different strategies are mistakenly viewed as representing different types of validity. To overcome this misinterpretation, the older terms of “construct validity,” “content validity,” and “criterion-related validity” are no longer used in the measurement literature, although they are still used in personnel selection systems.

Both construct and content validities are validation strategies that provide evidence based on test content, while criterion-related validity provides evidence based on relation- ships to other variables. Our presentation is based on the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing11 and the Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Proce- dures.12 The latter is an important document that HR and personnel specialists rely on; it uses the traditional terms of content, construct, and criterion-related validities in discussing validation strategies, terms that we will continue to use in this text.

Our presentation of validation strategies is not exhaustive; we will examine only those sources of evidence for validity that are likely to be encountered in employment situations. You may want to refer to both the Standards and the Principles for a more thor- ough discussion of validity issues. The Principles can be viewed online at http://www.siop .org/_Principles/principlesdefault.aspx. The Standards, published in 1999, are currently being revised; they are still applicable to testing situations.

Let’s assume that a company wants to hire a widget maker. The HR department performs a job analysis using one of the methods discussed in Chapter 4. Based on the job analysis, HR personnel hypothesize that cognitive ability is related to performance of the tasks or competencies associated with the position; this relationship is represented by Line A in Figure 2.5. This relationship is based on theoretical and logical analyses of expert opinion and empirical data that show, in this case, that cognitive ability is linked to the job performance of widget making. Both cognitive ability and job performance are abstract constructs, which must be operationally defined, respectively. Rather than trying to develop their own measure of cognitive ability, HR personnel decide to use a cognitive ability test that is commercially available. There are many good measures of cognitive ability (see Chapter 8). They choose the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT), which is often used in employment situations to estimate cognitive ability. Based on research involving the WPT and information in the WPT test manual, they consider it to be both a reliable and valid measure of cognitive ability. The WPT has a relatively high correlation with other established measures of cognitive ability, for example, the Wechsler Adult Intel- ligence Scale, and a relatively low correlation with the 16-PF, a measure of personality. They have established the link, Line C, between the WPT and cognitive ability based on construct validation.

If the HR group had decided to develop their own measure of cognitive ability, they would have had to establish its validity through a research program before they could

content validity Whether the items on a test appear to match the content or subject matter they are intended to assess; assessed through the judgments of experts in the subject area.

construct validity The degree to which a test or procedure assesses an underlying theoretical construct it is supposed to measure; assessed through multiple sources of evidence showing that it measures what it purports to measure and not other constructs. For example, an IQ test must measure intelligence and not personality.

criterion-related validity The relationship between a predictor (test score) and an outcome measure; assessed by obtaining the correlation between the predictor and outcome scores.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL46

use it to make selection decisions. Each construct has a set of associated behaviours or events. Only a relatively small handful of these behaviours are likely to be measured by any test or procedure. If the HR group had used a series of questions in their own test, a first step would be to have experts in cognitive ability assess whether the items on the test were relevant to cognitive ability. Are they the type of items you would expect on a test of cognitive ability? The experts would have to agree on what they meant by cognitive ability before they could answer this question. Doing so would be a case of content validation, determining that the content of their cognitive ability test represents the construct of cognitive ability. Can the HR personnel make reliable and valid con- clusions about the cognitive ability of a job candidate based on scores from their test of cognitive ability?

In the opening vignette, reference was made to face validity; that people who don’t believe that the items on a questionnaire or other assessment instrument is relevant to the reason for taking the test will not take the test seriously and will not respond meaningfully. Face validity is not a “technical” form of validity like content, con- struct, or criterion-related validity. However, it does resemble content validity in that the person taking the test does not view the content as appropriate for the context in which they have been asked to take the test. In content validity, subject matter experts judge the content of the test as appropriate for its intended purpose. Face validity is the degree to which the test takers view the content of a test or test items as relevant to the context in which the test is being administered. Face validity is based on the perceptions or opinions of the test taker, and not those of experts, that the test or items are related to the aims of the test in the situation in which it is being used. For example, job candidates for the widget maker positions are asked to take a cognitive ability test. Some of the questions on the test ask the candidate to answer whether they are neat or organized or if they like working as part of a team.

Construct Level

Measurement Level

Cognitive Ability Job Performance

Job Performance Score

C D E

Wonderlic Test Score

figuRE 2.5

vALidATiOn sTRATEgiEs

Face validity The degree to which the test takers (not subject matter experts) view the content of a test or test items as relevant to the context in which the test is being administered.

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NEL 47CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

While these questions may be legitimate as part of a personality test, they may not appear to the job candidate as being relevant to a test of their cognitive ability. As a consequence, the candidate may not respond seriously or truthfully. While face validity is not a technical requirement for a test, a test that does have face validity is likely to be more technically valid. However, a test that is face valid must also meet the technical stan- dards for validity. Face validity is not a substitute for other forms of validity. Technically valid tests that also have face validity are less likely to lead to public relations disasters as reported in the opening vignette.13

In addition to finding a reliable and valid measure of the predictor, such as cognitive ability, HR personnel also need to find a reliable and valid measure of job performance. What do we mean by finding a “good” measure of widget making? This is usually more difficult than finding a measure of cognitive ability as the performance may be specific to the job or organization. Do all widget makers perform the same tasks or carry out the same job behaviours? Do they produce the same number of widgets? What about the quality? How long does it take to make a widget? Are the widget makers dependent on the work of others to perform their work? Job performance is an abstract construct that involves performance of many behaviours, tasks, and competencies, and not all of these can be assessed as part of the job application process. HR must identify those tasks or competencies that are the most important, the most frequently performed, or the most critical to successful job performance. An HR specialist takes that information and turns it into a performance measure through one of the procedures discussed in Chapter 5. Whatever measure is developed to assess job performance, it should represent important work behaviours, outcomes, or relevant organizational expectations about the employee’s performance. In Figure 2.5, Line D represents the relationship between the score on the performance measure and the construct of job performance; this is also an example of construct validation.

In selecting job applicants, one goal is to hire only those applicants who will per- form at very high levels. If cognitive ability is associated with job performance at the construct level (Line A), then at the measurement level cognitive ability should predict job performance (Line B; the arrow indicates the direction of the prediction). We have to establish the relationship between the predictor and criterion measures empirically. This is an example of establishing the criterion-related validity of the WPT scores in predicting job performance scores, which is a test–relationship validation strategy. This procedure involves establishing a correlation between a predictor, in this case the WPT, and a crite- rion, a measure of widget-making performance.

You may have noticed a problem with criterion-related validity strategies: the cogni- tive ability of the applicants can be assessed prior to offering them a job, but their widget- making performance can be measured only after they are hired. Two strategies get around this problem: predictive and concurrent validity strategies. Neither is a perfect solution; however, both are accepted procedures for establishing the link between a predictor and criterion measures.

In predictive validation strategies evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor scores that are obtained before an applicant is hired and criterion scores that are obtained at a later time, usually after an applicant is employed. If we had hired all of those who had applied for the job we could obtain data on their job performance and calculate the correlation between both variables; however, this would be at a substantial cost. We would be hiring many of the applicants with the knowledge that they would fail on the job, or that they would have to be dismissed because of that poor performance. This not only is expensive for the organization but also causes a great deal of emotional distress for those applicants who fail.

Predictive validation Strategies in which evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor scores that are obtained before an applicant is hired and criterion scores that are obtained at a later time, usually after an applicant is employed.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL48

This procedure also raises serious legal and ethical considerations about the rights of job applicants and the obligations of people who make hiring decisions. To circumvent these problems, a variation on this procedure requires that hiring decisions be made without using information from the predictor measure until it is validated. The hiring decisions are made according to existing procedures; however, data from the new pre- dictor are also collected but not used until performance data are obtained from those applicants who are hired. That is, the HR specialist collects cognitive ability data from all the applicants, but the hiring decision is based solely on information contained in the applicants’ résumés, employment interviews, and references. Job performance infor- mation is then collected from the group of hired applicants and correlated with their cognitive ability scores. If the correlation is high, the cognitive ability test may be used to select future job applicants. The high correlation is evidence that the measure of cognitive ability predicts a measure of job performance.

But there is a problem with predictive validation. Validity concerns the correctness of inferences made from a set of measurements. Does the validity coefficient, which is based on only those applicants who were hired, apply to all applicants? This will be the case only if the hired applicants fairly represent the total pool of applicants; the only way this can happen is if those hired were randomly selected from the larger pool. Therefore, those who are hired on the basis of the existing selection system will likely differ from those not hired on at least one characteristic, whether or not that characteristic is related to job success.

In concurrent validation evidence is obtained about a correlation between pre- dictor and criteria scores from information that is collected at approximately the same time from a specific group of workers. The HR personnel have all current employees complete the cognitive ability test; at the same time, their supervisors assign a rating to the employees to reflect their job performance. A positive correlation between both sets of scores is taken as evidence for the validity of the cognitive ability test as predictor of the job performance measure. While concurrent evidence may be easier to collect, these strategies, too, are problematic. The group of existing workers used to develop the validity evidence is likely to be older, more experienced, and certainly more successful than those who apply for jobs. Unsuccessful or unproductive workers most likely are not part of the validation study as they probably were let go or transferred to other positions. The primary concern here is whether a validity coefficient based on only successful applicants can be used as evidence to validate decisions based on predictor scores obtained from a pool of job applicants who are likely to be both successful and unsuccessful on the job. An additional concern is the same one expressed with predictive strategies: does the validity coefficient computed on one group of workers apply to the pool of applicants? The current workers, who are asked to complete a battery of selection tests, may approach the whole exercise with a different attitude and level of motivation than job applicants. These differences may affect selection instruments, particularly those such as personality and integrity tests that rely on the test taker’s cooperation in responding truthfully. Statistically, validity coefficients based on concurrent evidence will likely underestimate the true validity of using the predictor to make decisions within the pool of applicants. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 2.2 provides some guidance for assessing the validity of selection procedures in smaller organizations.

Despite the flaws, criterion-related validation strategies are probably the most fre- quently used strategies to validate selection procedures. Our interest in establishing a correlation between the predictor and the criterion makes sense only within the con- text of the model shown in Figure 2.5. What we really want to do is predict the job performance at the construct level from the cognitive ability scores obtained at the

concurrent validation Strategies in which evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor and criteria scores from information that is collected at approximately the same time from a specific group of workers.

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NEL 49CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

measurement level (Line E). That is, we want to make an inference about a job appli- cant’s potential job performance from pre-employment measures. We want to say that job applicants with high WPT scores are likely to be employees who perform at high levels once they are hired.

Line E is the relationship that is of primary interest. Similar to Lines C and D, Line E represents a relationship between a measure and a construct; we are predicting the appli- cant’s success on the job (not their performance score as we know what that is) from the tests we administered as part of the selection process. It is an inference or hypothesis, Line E, that can be made only after first establishing the relationships represented by Lines A, B, C, and D. We need to establish that:

• there is a theoretical or logical relationship between the predictor and criterion at the construct level (Line A);

• the predictor and criterion measures are reliable and valid measures of their respective constructs (Lines C and D); and

• there is an empirical relationship between the predictor and criterion measures (Line B).

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 2.2

VALIDITY

Validation studies require relatively large numbers of hires. This is a challenge for many Canadian organizations, particu- larly small businesses that do not hire many people. Several validation techniques are suited for use with small samples:

• build a database by combining similar jobs across organizations or companies, with special care taken to ensure comparability of performance measures.

• Accumulate selection scores and performance mea- sures over time, as workers leave and are replaced.

• Generalize to your particular case the mean (average) predictive validity for a test as found for jobs similar to the one to which you wish to gen- eralize (i.e., validity generalization).

• Generalize to your case the specific validity of the test as previously established for a similar job in another setting (i.e., validity transportability).

Frequently, however, a content sampling strategy may be necessary. The steps for this process are:

1. Tasks (or activities) of the target position are identified by job experts.

2. Job experts infer, on a task-by-task basis, the required knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes (KSAOs).

3. Job experts independently rate the relevance of each KSAO for each task.

4. Assessment items (e.g., test questions, situational exercises, interview questions) are developed to mea- sure the most relevant KSAOs.

5. Job experts provide independent ratings of the degree to which each assessment item is linked to the KSAOs.

6. Job experts evaluate the relationship between per- formance on each of the selection assessments and job success.

7. A scoring scheme is developed for the selection assessments.

The case for the validity of the selection system is then argued on the basis of an explicit systematic linking of the selection assessments (interview questions, test items, situational exercises) to the position requirements (KSAOs), as established by job experts.

Source: P.R. Sackett and R.D. Arvey. 1993. “Selection in Small N Settings.” In Neal Schmitt, W.C. borman, and Associates, eds., Personnel Selection in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-bass, 418–447. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL50

Showing that these four relationships (Lines A, B, C, and D) exist provides evidence for the existence of Line E and allows us to use the WPT scores to select job applicants whom we believe will be successful employees. If the performance measure is based on having applicants perform a sample of the work they will actually do on the job, the performance measure itself may provide direct evidence for the relationship expressed in Line E. For example, the company has job applicants assemble widgets in a vestibule as part of the application process; this is a sample of actual job performance of building widgets. If the score from the WPT predicts the work samples test, then WPT scores directly predict job performance. However, in most situations it is difficult or expensive to obtain valid work samples, leaving Line E to be inferred indirectly.

VAlidiTy geneRAlizATiOn

Suppose in attempting to establish the validity of cognitive ability as a predictor of spe- cific job performance in the target organization, the HR manager discovered that many other studies also investigated measures of cognitive ability as predictors of job perfor- mance similar to widget making. Could the manager somehow combine all the informa- tion provided by these other correlation coefficients to obtain an estimate of the true validity of cognitive ability as a predictor of widget job performance in the HR manager’s company? These other validity coefficients were obtained under vastly different measure- ment conditions and from employees who differ dramatically across these studies on a number of characteristics. The assembly of widgets might not quite be the same. Most likely, the value of the individual validity coefficients will be very inconsistent across all of these other studies. In other words, can the manager estimate the validity of cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance in the manager’s work setting from the validity of inferences based on other measures of cognitive ability found in other work settings with other groups of workers? Validity generalization procedures allow these types of predictions to be made.

Starting in the mid-1970s, Schmidt and Hunter,14 in conjunction with several col- leagues, challenged the idea that a validity coefficient was specific to the context or environment in which it was measured. They used a procedure known as meta-analysis to combine validity coefficients for similar predictor and criterion measures reported by different validity studies. Schmidt and Hunter argued that the relative inconsistency in validity coefficients across studies could be attributed to statistical artifacts such as the range of scores in each study, the reliability of the criterion measures, and sample size (i.e., the number of people in the validity study). In combining the data, meta-analysis weights the results from each separate validity study according to its sample. On the whole, the smaller the study size, the less accurate the results. Validity studies usually involve relatively small study sizes since most organizations do not hire large numbers of people. Schmidt and Hunter demonstrated that, once the effects associated with study size and the other artifacts were removed, the validity between a predictor and a criterion remained relatively stable within similar occupations. For example, the HR manager could use the Wonderlic scores to make predictions about job performance if other validity studies had linked the Wonderlic Personnel Test to job performance for similar jobs and if the Wonderlic scores were a valid measure of cognitive ability.

Should the HR specialist rely on validity generalization evidence or conduct a new validity study on-site? The answer is not straightforward. If the meta-analysis database is large and adequately represents the type of job to which it will be generalized in the local situation, there is a strong case for using the validity generalization data. On the other

Validity generalization The application of validity evidence, obtained through meta-analysis of data obtained from many situations, to other situations that are similar to those on which the meta-analysis is based.

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NEL 51CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

hand, if the database is small, the results are inconsistent, and there is little in common between the specific job and those included in the meta-analysis, then a local validity study should be carried out. If conducted properly with an adequate sample size, the local study may provide more useful information than the validity generalization data. A study carried out on the specific job in the local environment will also provide a means of corroborating questionable validity generalization data.15

FAcTORS AFFecTing VAlidiTy cOeFFicienTS

RAnge ReSTRicTiOn

When measurements are made on a subgroup that is more homogeneous than the larger group from which it is selected, validity coefficients obtained on the subgroup are likely to be smaller than those obtained from the larger group. This reduction in the size of the validity coefficient due to the selection process is called range restriction. Selection results in a more homogeneous group. The applicant pool reviewed by the HR manager contains a broad range of cognitive ability. The people selected for employment are more likely to fall in the upper range of that attribute; the existing workers are also more likely to have levels of cognitive ability more similar to one another than to the applicant pool. The range of cognitive ability scores for the hired workers is narrower or more restricted than the scores of all the applicants. Statistically, the magnitude of correlation coefficients, including validity coefficients, decreases as the similarity or homogeneity of characteristics being measured increases. Figure 2.6 illustrates this effect with a plot of job performance scores against cognitive ability scores; the correlation is 0.55. This correlation is used in developing the regression line that is plotted through all the data points. The HR manager now requires all hires to have a score of 2.7 or higher on the cognitive ability test. The correlation between job performance and cognitive ability for the selected group is 0.30, which produces a flatter regression line than when calculated for all the applicants.

There are several statistical procedures that correct for range restriction and provide an estimate of what the validity coefficient is likely to be in the larger group. Range restriction is often encountered in selecting undergraduate students for graduate or pro- fessional programs. The students who apply for these positions are generally very similar with respect to their grade point averages and cognitive ability; this homogeneity gener- ally leads to low correlation coefficients when their scores on standardized tests, such as the GRE, GMAT, LSAT, and others, are used to predict performance in graduate or professional school.

meASuRemenT eRROR

The reliability of a measure places an upper limit on validity. Mathematically, the size of a validity coefficient cannot exceed the reliability of the measures used to obtain the data. Validity coefficients obtained from perfectly reliable measures of the predictor and criterion will be higher than those obtained with less-than-perfect measures. The decrease in magnitude of the validity coefficient associated with measurement error of the predictor, the criterion, or both, is called attenuation. As with range restriction, there are statistical procedures that provide an estimate of what the validity coefficient would be if it had been obtained by using measures that were perfectly reliable (i.e., 1.00rxx 5 ).

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL52

SAmPling eRROR

Criterion-related validity coefficients are obtained from people who have been hired and are used to assess the accuracy of inferences that are made about individual applicants. The validity coefficient based on a sample is an estimate of what the coefficient is in the entire population; usually, it is impractical or impossible to measure the validity coefficient directly in the population. Estimates of the validity within a population may vary considerably between samples; estimates from small samples are likely to be quite variable. This is one reason for accumulating validity data across similar jobs and occupa- tions through validity generalization; the random error due to the small sample sizes will average out when the correlations are combined across samples.

cORRecTing FOR eRRORS

There are statistical procedures that can be used to correct for range restriction, attenu- ation, and sampling error. A validity coefficient may be corrected for any or all of these factors that may affect validity. The validity estimates produced after these corrections will almost always be higher than the uncorrected coefficients. When correction procedures

0 0

Data points

Linear regression 9

1 2

Cognitive Ability

Jo b

P e rf

o rm

a n

c e

3 4

figuRE 2.6

An ExAmPLE Of RAngE REsTRiCTiOn

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NEL 53CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

are used, both the corrected and uncorrected validity coefficients should be reported along with a justification for the use of the correction.

uSeFulneSS OF VAlidiTy cOeFFicienTS

Figure 2.7 presents the validities for a number of employment tests or procedures with either overall job performance or training measures as the criterion. The validities range from –0.01 to 0.65.

How large should the validity of a test or procedure be for it to be used in selection? The best answer is “larger is better.” The U.S. Department of Labor’s guide for employers on the relation of the magnitude of validity coefficients to their usefulness16 is presented in Table 2.3. The validity coefficients in the table are uncorrected validities. This docu- ment is in use by a large number of U.S. federal departments as well as consulting firms. There is no Canadian consensus document on how large a validity coefficient should be, but the views of Canadian HR practitioners are unlikely to differ.

The validity values in Table 2.3 are suggested guidelines. The validity of a selection test or procedure rests on the integration of scientific evidence obtained through a variety of sources. It includes information that is collected from the existing scientific literature as well as data newly collected as part of the validation effort. Both existing data and theory are used to support the proposition that test scores allow accurate inferences to be made about a candidate’s future job performance. The technical quality of the testing procedure (e.g., careful test development, test reliability, standardized test administration and scoring pro- cedures, sample size, and test fairness) must also be considered along with other validity evidence. The Guide mentions that con- sideration must also be given to potential adverse impact (which we will discuss in Chapter 3), the selection ratio, the cost of a bad hire, the cost of the selection tool, and the probability of hiring a qualified applicant by chance without the aid of the tool. All of this information must be considered, along with the magnitude of the validity coefficient, in choosing an employment test or procedure.

// BiAS And FAiRneSS BiAS

In discussing reliability, we noted that measurement errors could be made in a consis- tent, or predictable, fashion. In the time clock example, five minutes were added to each worker’s arrival time. What if the clock had added five minutes only to the arrival times of female employees? The observed scores are still reliable, but now they validly represent the true arrival times for male employees, but not females. The clock is biased in mea- suring arrival times of female employees. Bias refers to systematic errors in measurement, or inferences made from measurements, that are related to different identifiable group membership characteristics such as age, sex, or race.17 For example, suppose the cognitive ability test that is being used assigns higher test scores to females, when in fact there are no differences in cognitive ability between men and women. Inferences, or predictions, drawn from the biased measurements are themselves biased.

Bias Systematic errors in measurement, or inferences made from those measurements, that are related to different identifiable group membership characteristics such as age, sex, or race.

Gender bias: Giving more weight to male applications.

Fi nn

ba rr

W eb

st er

/ A

la m

y St

oc k

Ph ot

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL54

Source: Figure 1: Accuracy of Selection Methods (p. 3) in I.T. Robertson and M. Smith. 2001. “Personnel Selection,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74: 441-472. Reproduced with permission of british Psychological Society via Copyright Clearance Center.

0.0

0.1

Age (–0.01)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Graphology (0.02)

Years Education (0.10)

Years Job Experience (0.18)

References (0.26)

Conscientiousness (0.31)

Assessment Centres (0.37)

Personality Tests (0.40?) Integrity Tests (0.41)

Job Knowledge Tests (0.48)

Structured Interviews (0.51)

Cognitive Tests (0.51) Work Sample Tests (0.54)

Cognitive ability and Worksample (0.60)

Cognitive ability and Structured Interviews (0.63) Cognitive ability and Integrity

Overall Job Performance Criteria

Training Criteria

Validity

(0.65)

Biodata (0.35)

Interests (0.10)

Years Job Experience(0.01)

Interests(0.18)

Years Education(0.20)

References(0.23)

Biodata(0.30)

Conscientiousness(0.31) Interviews—all types(0.35) Integrity Tests(0.38)

Cognitive ability tests(0.56)

figuRE 2.7

vALidiTiEs Of TEsTs usEd in sELECTiOn

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NEL 55CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

Look at Figure 2.6, once again. The dark blue line represents the relationship between cognitive ability and job performance. Higher cognitive ability scores predict better job performance. The light blue line represents a cut-off score. We want the most productive employees so only applicants with a score higher than 2.7 on the cognitive ability test receive job offers. Let’s assume that most, if not all, of the data points above 2.7 on the cognitive ability measure come from women applicants, but in the population there is no difference in cognitive ability between males and females. Nonetheless, the cognitive ability scores are systematically higher for women on the cognitive ability test. There may be several reasons for this; perhaps the test content may be female centric in that it asks question about topics that women are more likely to be familiar with than men. The cognitive ability test here is predicting that those women scoring above the cutoff will be more productive workers than those men scoring below the cutoff. This type of bias is known as predictive bias; that is, the predicted average performance score of a subgroup, in this case females or males, is systematically higher or lower than the average score pre- dicted for the group as a whole. In Figure 2.6, the average score on the cognitive ability test for all applicants is about 2.2. Those scoring above the cutoff, mostly women, have an average score of about 3.5 while those scoring below the cutoff, mostly men, have an average score of about 1.5. The bias would lead to the hiring of many more women than men based on the group differences between their cognitive ability scores even though both genders do not differ, as a group, in terms of their cognitive ability. In the popula- tion the average cognitive ability of women is about the same as that of men.

This situation results in a larger proportion of the lower-scoring group being rejected on the basis of their test scores, even though they may have performed successfully had they been hired. This condition results from a less-than-perfect correlation between the predictor and criterion measures. One way to overcome this type of bias is to generate separate regression lines (i.e., separate prediction formulas) for males and females.18 In Canadian federal organizations, separate prediction formulas are often used in selecting job applicants from anglophone and francophone linguistic groups. In U.S. federal orga- nizations, the use of different selection rules for different identifiable subgroups (often referred to as subgroup norming) is prohibited by U.S. federal law.

There are other, more complicated, types of bias. Measurement bias occurs in a set of measurements19 when items on a test may elicit a variety of responses other than what was intended, or some items on a test may have different meanings for members of dif- ferent subgroups. For example, the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test contains pictures related to the use of different tools and machines that tended to be used mostly

TAbLE 2.3

gEnERAL guidELinEs fOR inTERPRETing vALidiTy COEffiCiEnTs

vALidiTy COEffiCiEnT vALuE inTERPRETATiOn

Above 0.35 Very beneficial

0.21–0.35 Likely to be useful

0.11–0.20 Depends on circumstances

below 0.11 Unlikely to be useful

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Testing and Assessment: An Employer’s Guide to best Practices.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL56

by males. Males were more likely to recognize these tools and their proper use and perform well on the test. On the other hand, females with good mechanical compre- hension may not do as well on the test because of their lack of familiarity with specific tools pictured on the Bennett test. The result is that the test may underestimate the true mechanical ability of female job applicants.

The statistical procedures needed to establish predictive and measurement bias are often complicated and difficult to carry out. Nonetheless, the question of bias can be answered through empirical and objective procedures. As we will see in Chapter 3, HR professionals may have to demonstrate before courts or tribunals that the employment test or procedures they use are free from bias. As a first line of defence, they should establish before using a selection device that it does not discriminate on characteristics or traits that are not job related, or that it does not discriminate against members of groups protected by human rights legislation.

FAiRneSS

The concept of fairness in measurement refers to the value judgments people make about the decisions or outcomes that are based on measurements. An unbiased measure or test may still be viewed as being unfair either by society as a whole or by different groups within it. Canada is a bilingual country composed of French- and English-language groups. Suppose a completely unbiased cognitive ability test were used to select people for the Canadian civil service and that all the francophone applicants scored well above the highest-scoring anglophone. Such cognitive ability scores would predict that fran- cophones would do better on the job than would anglophones, so only francophones would be hired for the civil service. This outcome would very likely be judged as unfair by English-speaking Canadians, even though it would be the empirically correct deci- sion. Canadians expect their civil service to represent both official language groups. In fact, political considerations might require that the civil service be proportional to the two linguistic groups.

Issues of fairness cannot be determined statistically or empirically. Fairness involves perceptions. An organization may believe it is fair to select qualified females in place of higher-ranking males in order to increase the number of women in the organization; on the other hand, the higher-ranking males who were passed over might not agree. The Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures20 states this about fairness (p. 27): “Fairness is a social rather than a psychometric concept. Its definition depends on what one considers to be fair. Fairness has no single meaning, and, therefore, no single statistical or psychometric definition.” The Principles goes on to identify three meanings of fairness that are relevant in selection:

1. Fairness as equitable treatment in the testing process. All examinees should be treated equitably throughout the testing process. They should experience the same or comparable procedures in the testing itself, in how the tests are scored, and in how the test scores are used.

2. Fairness as lack of bias. A test or testing procedure is considered fair if it does not produce any systematic effects that are related to different identifiable group membership characteristics such as age, sex, or race.

3. Fairness in selection and prediction. This often requires a compromise between the perspective that equates fairness with lack of bias and the perspective that focuses on testing outcomes. A selection test might be

Fairness The principle that every test taker should be assessed in an equitable manner.

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NEL 57CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity

considered fair if the same test score predicts the same performance level for members of all groups, but it might be considered unfair if average test scores differ across groups. The fairness of the test should, in this situation, be evaluated relative to fairness of other, non- test alternatives that could be used in place of the test.

Fairness is an even more complex topic than bias. Achieving fairness often requires compromise between conflicting interests.21,22 This is particularly so in the case where, for whatever reason, there may be persistent dif- ferences in average test scores between different groups in the population but those differences do not neces- sarily indicate test bias. A test score predicts the same level of performance for members of all groups, but the average test score for one group is lower than another group’s, leading to the exclusion of a larger proportion of the group with the lower average score. Lowering the selection standards to include more applicants from this group in order to make the work force more rep- resentative of the general population may come at the cost of hiring job applicants who, while they meet the minimum job qualifications, are not the most qualified candidates for the position. Presumably, the most quali- fied candidates bring the most return in productivity to the organization.

Does an organization have an obligation to make the enterprise as profitable as possible on behalf of its owners, or should it meet the objectives of society by providing equal employment opportunities for members of different population groups? There are no easy answers to this ques- tion. In cases such as this, one resolution is to compare the fairness of the test in question with the fairness of an alternative that might be used in place of the test.23

In addition to the concerns about the impact of tests on different groups, fairness issues also include the reaction of applicants to testing and personnel selection decisions. It is important from business, ethical, and legal standpoints to have tests that are scientifically sound; it is also important to have procedures that are perceived as fair. From a business perspective, the adverse reactions to selection tests and procedures may impair the ability of an organization to recruit and hire the best applicants, thereby reducing the utility of the recruitment and selection process. Applicant reactions to selection procedures may affect applicants’ decision to join an organization and the degree to which they trust the organi- zation and their behaviour once they become an employee.24,25 In Chapter 8 we present some research on applicant reactions to different employment tests and procedures.

From an ethical view, the perceived fairness of the testing procedures may negatively affect the unsuccessful candidates. From a legal perspective, the perception of unfairness may lead unsuccessful applicants to pursue discrimination charges against the prospective employer in various legal arenas.26

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL58

Serious consideration should be given to the perception of a test or selection procedure from the applicant’s perspective prior to its adoption. This does not mean that an employer should discard scientifically valid procedures because they may be perceived as unfair; there is far more risk for an organization that makes employment decisions on the basis of unproven methods. In the final analysis, fairness is a ques- tion of balance.

The legAl enViROnmenT And SelecTiOn

Selection programs and practices must operate within the current legal context (see Chapter 3). The selection devices that HR managers choose to use must meet stan- dards of reliability and validity. Ideally, they do not have adverse impact on members of protected groups. Selection programs that intentionally or unintentionally exclude job applicants using characteristics or factors that are protected under human rights legisla- tion, unless they are bona fide occupational requirements (BFORs), run the risk of being declared unfairly discriminatory, and the organization may be subject to penalties and fines. Selection devices that do not met professional standards of reliability and validity will also be found wanting by courts or other tribunals. Chapter 3 discusses in more detail the standards that must be met for selection practices to withstand legal scrutiny. Recruitment and selection procedures should yield the best-qualified candidates within the constraints imposed by the current legal environment. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 2.3 provides steps to follow to ensure that the selection devices being used are reliable, valid, and do not cause adverse impact. The table indicates where these elements will be examined in other chapters in this text.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 2.3

PRACTICAL STEPS TO ENSURE RELIAbLE AND VALID SELECTION

1. Plan and think about the process before starting the selection process.

Specify the steps to be followed and timelines. Determine whether looking for casual or permanent hires. What information do you need to collect from job candidates? (See Chapter 1.)

2. Conduct a job analysis with respect to the positions under consideration.

Determine the major duties and responsibilities of the job. If the position already exists, determine if the job description, requirements, and job specification need to be updated. If it is a new position, conduct a job analysis and review information that may already exist on the NOC and O*NET. (See Chapter 4.)

3. Identify Important Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Other attributes and/or competencies related to the job’s critical tasks or duties.

The job description and specification that results from the job analysis should include important tasks and duties as related knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes, and/or competencies that are needed to carry out the job successfully. (See Chapter 4.)

4. Identify the possible selection measures that could be used to identify the important KSAOs and /or competencies

The hiring committee and HR must determine if job applicants possess the needed KSAOs and /or competencies. (See Chapter 4.)

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59CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and ValidityNEL

// SummARy Science produces information that is based on accepting as true only that objective infor- mation that can withstand continued attempts to cast doubt on its accuracy. The accuracy of scientific statements is examined empirically through methods that can be observed, critiqued, and used by others. Scientific information is dynamic and constantly evolving. One goal of personnel selection is to use scientifically derived information to predict

5. Choose the most reliable and valid methods to assess the KSAOs and competencies of job applicants.

There may be many different methods of assessing the important KSAOs and/or competencies. HR must choose those that are most reliable and valid. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 provide information on the values of reliability and validity that a selection procedure should have to be considered acceptable. Information on the reliability and validity of tests can be obtained from the test publisher, the scientific literature, or a search of the Internet. (See Chapters 7, 8, and 9.)

6. Assess the adverse impact of the selected selection measures.

The selection methods chosen to assess the important KSAOs and/or competencies must not discriminate on personal characteristics that are unrelated to job performance, or have an adverse impact on groups protected by Human Rights legislation. (See Chapter 3.)

7. Recruit job candidates that are likely to meet the demands of the job.

Establish a recruitment plan that will result in qualifies candidates applying for the job. These candidates should not only fit the job requirements but also be a fit with the organization. (See Chapter 6.)

8. Screen the applicant pool to identify those applicants who have the minimum qualifications for the job.

The Selection Committee or HR manager must review all the applicants that have applied to determine those who met the minimum qualifications required to perform the job successfully. Those who are deemed to be qualified undergo more extensive assessments. (See Chapter 7.)

9. Identify the most qualified or best candidates from those that have been deemed to meet the minimum qualifications.

At this stage, the remaining job candidates undergo extensive assessment by the organization using those reliable and valid selection procedures that will identify the most qualified candidates for the job. (See Chapters 8 and 9.)

10. Decide on which candidates will receive a job offer and will be hired.

HR must integrate the information that it discovered through the selection process. There are different ways to compile the information for use in making employment decisions. (See Chapter 10.)

11. Confirm the reliability and validity of the selection process.

With respect to the newly hired employees, were the selection procedures reliable and valid? Did they lead to hiring the most qualified employees? (See Chapters 2 and 5.)

12. Evaluate the selection process. How satisfied are you with the newly hired employees? Are these employees an improvement over those hired previously, or with another selection system? Are they more productive? (See Chapter 5.)

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60 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

which job applicants will do well on the job. The procedures used to select employees must meet acceptable professional and legal standards. The best way of ensuring this is to be familiar with measurement, reliability, and validity issues and to use only those procedures that will withstand legal scrutiny; that is, the selection procedures validly predict work performance in a nondiscriminatory manner.

Scientific procedures allow for the measurement of important human characteristics that may be related to job performance and are more likely than other procedures to produce results that meet legal requirements. The reliability and validity of the informa- tion used as part of personnel selection procedures must be established empirically. The methods used to establish reliability and validity can be complex and require a good statistical background. As a scientific process, any personnel selection system must be able to withstand attempts to cast doubt on its ability to select the best people for the job in a fair and unbiased manner.

Key TeRmS

Bias, p. 53 Concurrent validation, p. 48 Construct validity, p. 45 Content validity, p. 45 Criterion-related validity, p. 45 Error score, p. 38 Face validity, p. 46 Fairness, p. 56 KSAOs, p. 29 Measurement error, p. 40 Predictive validation, p. 47 Reliability, p. 36 True score, p. 38 Validity, p. 44 Validity generalization, p. 50

diScuSSiOn QueSTiOnS

1. Discuss why it is better to base a selection system on science than a “gut feeling.”

2. Can an invalid selection test be reliable? Can an unreliable selection test be valid? (Hint: Consider finding Canadian history questions on your recruitment and selec- tion exam.)

3. When should you use content, construct, or criterion-related validation strategies?

4. Does an organization have an obligation to make the enterprise as profitable as pos- sible on behalf of its owners, or does it have an obligation to meet the objectives of society by providing equal employment opportunities for members of different population groups?

5. What is your perception of fairness?

6. Do individuals making staffing decisions have an ethical responsibility to know about measurement issues? Why or why not?

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61CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and ValidityNEL

exeRciSeS

1. A marketing company is evaluating a new employment test that measures advertising aptitude of potential employees. You have used the new measure on a trial basis over the past year while you have continued to make selections using your established pro- cedures. You have developed the following database, which includes information on gender, a score from the first administration of the test given during the selection process before the applicant was hired (Test 1), a score from a second administration of the test given at the end of the first year on the job (Test 2), and a performance score assigned by the supervisor at the end of the employee’s first year of employment (Performance). You have been asked to evaluate the reliability, validity, and any gender bias of the new test. (Note: This exercise requires you to calculate correlation coefficients. If you do not know how to do that, your instructor will provide you with the coefficients.)

Employee gender Test 1 Test 2 Performance

1 Male 24 18 20

2 Female 18 13 29

3 Male 21 17 17

4 Male 7 13 8

5 Female 14 28 25

6 Male 20 21 26

7 Male 8 6 7

8 Female 13 9 12

9 Male 15 13 18

10 Male 19 15 22

11 Female 25 22 23

12 Female 23 16 27

13 Male 18 13 10

14 Female 12 14 6

15 Female 17 12 13

16 Female 6 9 12

a. What is the reliability of the new test?

b. What is the predictive validity of the new test?

c. What is the concurrent validity of the job?

d. Is the test biased toward either males or females?

e. Would you recommend that the company adopt the new test as part of its hiring procedures?

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62 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

2. Form a small group. Choose a specific job held by one of the people in your group. After discussing the job, choose one characteristic that you think is crucial to per- forming that job. How would you measure both the characteristic and job perfor- mance? Use Figures 2.1 and 2.5 to help you specify the conceptual and measurement levels. How would you establish the validity of your characteristic as a predictor of job performance?

3. Contact two organizations and identify the type of selection procedure that they use. You may be able to do this on the web or by calling their HR department. Use the criteria in Table 2.1 to determine whether each organization’s selection system is analytical or intuitive. Determine the validity of the selection proce- dures in use by each organization; that is, has the company conducted validation studies and, if so, what was the outcome? Collect any validation reports that the organizations might have produced and bring the reports back to class for review and discussion.

Cognitive ability tests are very reliable and validly measures of job performance (r 0.51)5 . Cognitive ability tests normally assess reasoning, verbal, and quantita- tive ability. A recent survey, however, found that 71 percent of the 2661 employers sampled valued emotional intelligence (EI) over cognitive ability. EI assesses a person’s ability to accurately perceive emotions in themselves and others; and to be aware of how their emotions shape their thinking, decisions, and coping mecha- nisms; their ability to understand and analyze their emotions; and their ability to regulate their emotions. EI correlates with job performance at a much lower level,

5r .30 at most, and in many cases the specific measure of EI did not correlate with job performance. The survey found that 59 percent of the employers would not hire someone with high cognitive ability but low EI. 75 percent said they would promote someone with high EI over someone with a lower value of EI. When asked why emotional intelligence is more important than high IQ, employers said (in order of importance) high EI employees:

• are more likely to stay calm under pressure;

• know how to resolve conflict effectively;

• are empathetic to their team members and react accordingly;

• lead by example; and

• tend to make more thoughtful business decisions.

In discussing the survey results, Rosemary Haefner, vice president of human resources at CareerBuilder, the organization that carried out the survey said, “The competitive job market allows employers to look more closely at the intangible qualities that pay dividends down the road—like skilled communicators and percep- tive team players. Technical competency and intelligence are important assets for every worker, but when it’s down to you and another candidate for a promotion or new job, dynamic interpersonal skills will set you apart. In a recovering economy, employers want people who can effectively make decisions in stressful situations and can empathize with the needs of their colleagues and clients to deliver the best results.”

CAsE sTudy EmOTiOnAL inTELLigEnCE OR COgniTivE AbiLiTy?

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63CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and ValidityNEL

// endnOTeS 1. Highhouse, S. 2008. “Stubborn Reliance on Intuition and Subjectivity in

Employee Selection.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1: 333–342.

2. Lodato, M.A., S. Highhouse, and M.E. Brooks. 2011. “Predicting Professional Preferences for Intuition-based Hiring.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 26: 352–365.

3. American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education. 1999. Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

4. Nunnally, J.C., and I.H. Bernstein. 1994. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

5. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2003. Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures, 4th ed. College Park, MD: Author.

6. U.S. Department of Labor and O*NET. 2000. Testing and Assessment: An Employer’s Guide to Good Practices. Retrieved July 11, 2017, from http://www. onetcenter.org/guides.html

7. AERA et al. 1999.

8. Cronbach, L.J. 1971. “Test Validation.” In R.L. Thorndike, ed., Educational Measurement, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Council of Education.

9. Binning, J.F., and G.V. Barrett. 1989. “Validity of Personnel Decisions: A Conceptual Analysis of the Inferential and Evidential Bases.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 478–494.

QueSTiOnS

1. What do you think? Should the hiring managers prefer EI over cognitive ability in predicting job performance? Why?

2. If you planned to use EI as part of your selection system, discuss the steps that you would take to ensure that you were able to make reliable and accurate inferences about job performance in your work situation. That is, what would you have to do to show that your measure was reliable and valid?

3. EI tests are prone to applicant faking. What can you do to limit faking on an EI test? Would these procedures lower the reliability and validity of the tests?

4. What are the legal considerations of using EI tests with poor reliability and validity? What are the business costs?

Source: Adapted from CareerBuilder Seventy-One Percent of Employers Say They Value Emotional Intelligence Over IQ, According to CareerBuilder Survey http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ seventy-one-percent-of-employers-say-they-value-emotional-intelligence-over-iq-according-to-careerbuilder- survey-127995518.html

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64 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

10. AERA et al. 1999.

11. Ibid.

12. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2003.

13. Holden, RB. (2010). “Face Validity.” In I.B. Weiner and W.E. Craighead (Eds), The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology (4th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. pp. 637–638.

14. Schmidt, F.L., and J.E. Hunter. 1977. “Development of a General Solution to the Problem of Validity Generalization.” Journal of Applied Psychology 62: 529–540.

15. AERA et al. 1999.

16. U.S. Department of Labor and O*NET. 2000.

17. AERA et al. 1999.

18. Ibid.

19. Sackett, P.R., and S.L. Wilk. 1994. “Within-Group Norming and Other Forms of Score Adjustment in Pre-employment Testing.” American Psychologist 49: 929–954.

20. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2003.

21. Gottfredson, L.S. 1994. “The Science and Politics of Race-Norming.” American Psychologist 49: 955–963.

22. Sackett and Wilk. 1994.

23. AERA et al. 1999.

24. Celani, A., S. Deutsch-Salmon, and P. Singh. 2008. “In Justice We Trust: A Model of the Role of Trust in the Organization in Applicant Reactions to the Selection Process.” Human Resource Management Review 18: 63–76.

25. Saks, A.M., and J.M. McCarthy. 2006. “Effects of Discriminatory Interview Questions and Gender on Applicant Reactions.” Journal of Business and Psychology 21: 175–191.

26. Gilliland, S.W. 1993. “The Perceived Fairness of Selection Systems: An Organizational Justice Perspective.” Academy of Management Review 18: 694–734.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter presents an overview of the legal issues that affect the practice of recruitment and selection in Canada.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• discuss the major legal issues affecting recruitment and selection;

• identify how relevant human rights and employment equity legislation and poli- cies affect recruitment and selection in your organization;

• understand and describe how legal concerns affect the practice of recruitment and selection;

• discuss the key legal concepts that have had an impact on recruitment and selec- tion in Canada; and

• apply the basic concepts and principles discussed to the development of recruit- ment and selection systems that meet legal requirements.

fOundATiOns Of RECRuiTmEnT And

sELECTiOn ii: LEgAL issuEs

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL66

Many of the illustrations in this chapter focus on areas where an organization’s practices have run afoul of the applicable law. This chapter is organized into three parts. Part I describes the key legislation and legal requirements that affect recruitment and selection practices in Canada, including a review of existing legislation. Part II discusses the impor- tant legal concepts that have emerged from this existing legislation. These legal concepts require recruitment and selection programs to be nondiscriminatory with respect to hiring members of designated groups. Part III provides some practical guidance on what to do, and what not to do, in recruitment and selection to meet legal obligations. As well, the Recruitment and Selection Notebook boxes scattered throughout the chapter offer practical advice for HR practitioners with respect to these legal requirements. There are very few professionals, other than lawyers and police, who have to be as cognizant of legislation and regulations as the HR practitioner.

We have taken many of the examples presented in this chapter from Canadian federal human rights, employment equity, employment standards, privacy, or labour laws for the following reasons. First, provincial and municipal jurisdictions often draw on federal law when drafting their own legislation and programs. Examining federal laws provides a common framework for understanding what is happening in these other jurisdictions.

Every Canadian organization falls under either federal or provincial/territorial legislation that has an impact on its recruitment and selection policies and practices. HR pro- fessionals may at times find themselves at odds with a manager who has responsibility for making the final hiring decision. Managers may not always be as knowledgeable of human rights issues as HR staff ought to be. Hiring deci- sions may run afoul of the law and leave the organization open to various criminal or civil legal prosecutions. The following incident was conveyed to us by an HR practitioner and illustrates potential problems faced by women trying to balance work and family obligations.

The manager and HR professional interviewed all of the short-listed candidates for a position. A female appli- cant interviewed exceptionally well and the HR professional felt that she was the strongest candidate. The manager, although agreeing that she was the best candidate, did not want to hire her. The applicant had been previously employed by the company and was an excellent worker. When she became pregnant, she went on maternity leave; when that leave ended she resigned in order to stay home to raise her child, who is now school-aged. The manager felt that the individual had been given the chance to work for the organization once and had given up that opportunity to raise her child. He felt that the opportunity to work for the company should now be given to someone else.

The applicant clearly met all of the requirements for the position, had previous working experience in the posi- tion, interviewed well, and was the strongest candidate. A review of her previous employment record by the HR professional confirmed that the applicant was an excellent performer, had a spotless discipline record, and had indeed left the company to raise her child.

The HR professional advised the manager that not hiring this female applicant would likely violate human rights and employment equity legislation, and lead to a complaint before the provincial human rights tribunal that the company would have to defend. The HR professional provided the hiring manager with a copy of the sections of the Human Rights Act that directly affect recruitment and employment. In addition, the HR professional pointed out to the manager that even if they were successful in defending a human rights charge, the company would be severely embarrassed by refusing to rehire an excellent former employee on the grounds that she took some time off to raise her child.

The outcome of the HR professional’s intervention was that the manager changed his mind and agreed to rehire the former employee. The applicant successfully completed her training and probationary period with the company and remains a very productive employee.

nO bAbiEs ALLOwEd

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NEL 67CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

Second, the laws, policies, and practices vary across jurisdictions; for example, a human rights tribunal decision in British Columbia may have no applicability in any other province or territory, and vice versa. Although we present some illustrative cases from provincial rights tribunals, the rulings from these cases may not apply to your provincial situation unless those rulings have been upheld on appeal by federal courts such as the Supreme Court of Canada. Indeed, you may find two provincial human rights tribunals ruling in opposite ways on the same issue or interpreting Supreme Court of Canada decisions differently.

This chapter is not intended to be a text on Canadian employment law or labour law. Our intent is to show the impact of legal requirements, as formulated through significant legislation and case law, on the practice of recruitment and selection in Canada. We encourage you to become familiar with the human rights, employment equity, employ- ment standards, privacy, and labour laws that apply to your provincial, territorial, and municipal jurisdictions. Keep in mind that new legislation and decisions that are made fol- lowing the publication of this book may change the presentation we make in this chapter.

// Part I: a BasIc Background In LegaL requIrements for nondIscrImInatory recruItment and seLectIon Four legal sources affect Canadian employment practices in recruitment and selection: (1) constitutional law; (2) human rights law; (3) employment equity legislation; and (4) labour law, employment standards, and related legislation. Constitutional law is the supreme law of Canada. It has a pervasive impact on employment practices, as it does on all spheres of Canadian society. Human rights legislation across Canada prohibits discrimination in both employment and the provi- sion of goods and services (e.g., rental housing, service in restaurants). This legislation generally establishes human rights commissions or tribunals to deal with complaints, including those involving employ- ment discrimination.

Employment equity programs are administrative mechanisms set up in many Canadian organizations in response to federal employ- ment equity legislation initiatives and cover nearly 2 million working Canadians. Employment equity programs have a major impact on employment systems, including recruitment and selection. Employ- ment equity programs are intended to promote the entry and reten- tion of people from designated groups (including women, visible minorities, Aboriginal peoples, and people with disabilities).

Labour law, employment standards, and privacy legislation grant certain employment rights to both employers and employees, but also impose a wide range of employment responsibilities and obliga- tions. Privacy legislation governs the collection, use, and disclosure of personal information by employers. Some of this legislation may have a direct impact on recruitment and selection practices including background checks on applicants in the jurisdiction where it is in force. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.1 illustrates some of the differences among these four types of legislation.

Women were expected to work during World War II.

discrimination In employment, any refusal to employ or to continue to employ any person, or to adversely affect any current employee, on the basis of that individual’s membership in a protected group. All Canadian jurisdictions prohibit discrimination at least on the basis of race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical or mental disability.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL68

This chapter only hints at the complexity of the legal issues involved in recruitment and selection practices. For example, we do not discuss common law, the application of judicial precedence, or contract law, which may all have an impact on recruitment and selection decisions. As a starting point, HR professionals must understand the origins, purpose, and stakeholders of each of the fundamental legal requirements if they are to manage recruitment and selection activities in compliance with the law. They need to keep up with legislative changes on a continuing basis as the law itself is always changing. There are several newsletters and online sources that monitor significant cases or legisla- tion that has an impact on the work of HR professionals. These include the Canadian HR Reporter, Canadian Labour Law Reporter, the Human Rights Research and Education Centre at the University of Ottawa, and the Queen’s Human Rights Bulletin, among others. These can be accessed online. As well, many provincial HR associations offer workshops in conjunction with different legal firms on recent developments in laws and court deci- sions that have an effect on the HR profession.

constItutIonaL Law

The Constitution of Canada consists of a series of acts and orders passed since 1867 by the British and Canadian Parliaments.1 These separate acts and orders begin with the British North America Act of 1867 and end with the Constitution Act of 1982. Sections 1 to 34 of Part 1 of the Constitution Act of 1982 are called the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Constitution, taken as a whole, serves as the supreme law of Canada, as stated in subsection 52(1) of the Constitution Act of 1982:

52. (1) The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of Canada and any law that is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution is, to the extent of the inconsistency, of no force or effect.

All laws in Canada that come into force in a dispute between a private person and a branch of government (whether legislative, executive, or administrative) fall under the Constitution.2 The Constitution has precedence over all the other legal means discussed in this chapter.

A section of the Constitution often cited in employment law is section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which lays out the principle of equality rights:

15. (1) Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.

(2) Subsection (1) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age, or mental or physical disability.

Human rIgHts Law

Each province and territory, as well as the federal government, has established a human rights act or code that prohibits discrimination in employment and in the provision of goods and services. The federal or provincial/territorial acts apply to organizations that

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NEL 69CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.1

NoT All lEgAl REquIREMENTs ARE THE sAME

The four types of laws discussed in this chapter have varied historical roots and they address the needs of dif- ferent stakeholder groups in society. Constitutional law, which has its origins in the British North America Act of 1867, spells out the division of powers between the federal and provincial/territorial governments, as well as the rights and freedoms that Canadians enjoy under governments at all levels. All citizens are stakeholders under constitutional law, and its provisions directly or indirectly affect all of us.

Human rights legislation (federal and provincial/ter- ritorial) exists in Canada partly in response to international conventions declared by the united Nations and partly because of domestic pressure to eliminate discrimination in the workplace and in other areas such as housing and provision of services. Human rights acts prohibit discrimi- nation on protected grounds such as race or sex, and the legislation is restrictive in that its provisions have no force beyond the protected groups.

Employment equity legislation, policies, and programs have evolved in Canada as a response both to affirma- tive action programs in the united states and to pressures within our own country to increase work force diversity. Employment equity addresses the concerns of designated groups (women, visible minorities, Aboriginal peoples, and people with disabilities) and has no force or effect beyond these stakeholder groups.

labour laws in the federal and provincial/territorial jurisdictions across Canada are a response to a long history of labour union activity undertaken to improve workers’ job security, wages, hours, working conditions, and benefits. These laws provide mechanisms for collective bargaining and union certification and rules for a “fair fight” between management and unions, as well as protecting the public interest.3 of course, the stakeholders under this legislation are unionized workers covered by collective agreements and managers in unionized workplaces.

Employment standards, both federal and provincial, trace their origins back to the British North America Act and reflect societal norms about the respective rights and responsibilities of employers and their employees, whether these employees are unionized or not. Employment standards covered in legislation across Canada include

statutory school-leaving age, minimum age for employ- ment, minimum wages, vacations and leave, holidays with pay, and termination of employment. All workers in Canada, and their managers, are stakeholders in this legislation.

other related legislation, including regulation of fed- eral government workers, results from unique conditions in specific sectors and is restricted to addressing the needs of those stakeholders. As a general rule, human rights and employment equity address the problem of discrimination, whereas the remainder of the legal means (labour law, employment standards, and related legislation) provide mechanisms to resolve procedural or contractual disagree- ments between specific stakeholders named in the legisla- tion. (Examples of the latter would be promotion based on the merit principle for federal government employees under the Public service Employment Act passed by Parliament, seniority rights in collective agreements for employees of Crown corporations, and other types of contractual and legal obligations between employer and employee in either the private or public sectors.) However, even this basic dis- tinction between antidiscrimination legislation and proce- dural/contract enforcement legislation can blur in practice. For example, equal pay for men and women for work of equal value, which is a discrimination issue, comes under human rights acts in some provinces and territories and employment standards legislation in others.

Privacy legislation, in both the federal and provincial/ territorial spheres, governs the collection, use, and dissem- ination of personal information obtained from employees. The specifics of coverage of the legislation vary across the different legal jurisdictions, but have implications for selection and recruitment.

The discrimination provision in subsection (1) of the Charter resembles provisions found in human rights leg- islation across Canada. subsection (2) makes it clear that programs such as employment equity, which may favour individuals or designated groups as a means to overcome past disadvantages, are not, in themselves, discriminatory and barred by subsection (1).

As a practical matter, constitutional law does not directly affect everyday recruitment and selection activities. Constitutional law becomes an issue only when recruitment

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL70

fall under their respective jurisdictions. Normally, this means that organizations are gov- erned by the laws of the political division in which they are chartered or incorporated. For example, a company incorporated in Ontario would fall under Ontario’s human rights act, while the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), whose headquarters are in Ontario, would fall under the Canadian Human Rights Act, as it is a federally regulated organization. Federal legislation applies to all organizations in the transportation, broad- casting, and financial services sectors, as well as to any company that voluntarily chooses to register under the federal Canada Business Corporations Act. Corporations operating in more than one province/territory must register in each jurisdiction and follow the regulations that apply in that jurisdiction. HR directors must determine the legislative regime that applies to their organizations.

The Canadian Human Rights Act contains the following section4:

8. It is a discriminatory practice, directly or indirectly,

(a) to refuse to employ or continue to employ any individual, or

(b) in the course of employment, to differentiate adversely in relation to an employee, on a prohibited ground of discrimination.

The Canadian Human Rights Act applies to federal government departments, Crown corporations and agencies, and businesses under federal jurisdiction, including banks, airlines, railways, the CBC and other broadcasters, and Canada Post.5

Section 8 of the Canadian Human Rights Act refers to “a prohibited ground of discrim- ination.” Under this act, the following are grounds on which discrimination is prohibited6:

• race;

• national or ethnic origin;

• colour;

• religion;

• age;

• sex (including pregnancy and childbirth);

• marital status;

• family status;

• mental or physical disability (including previous or present drug or alcohol dependence);

• pardoned conviction; and

• sexual orientation.

or selection practices are challenged in a human rights tri- bunal or court. Nevertheless, constitutional law has a per- vasive, indirect impact on employment practices by setting limits and conditions on what federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal governments and courts can legally do to alter employment policies and practices. The interpretation of constitutional law through legislation and jurisprudence has an indirect, but substantial, influence on all aspects of

the practice of human resources—from the development of an organization’s HR policy to the conduct of an employ- ment interview. The Charter provides protection for minority and linguistic rights and prohibits discrimination against employees based on personal characteristics or prejudices, including sexual orientation. The Charter has clearly outlined the rights of citizens and provides a tool that allows citizens to ensure government respects those rights and freedoms.

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NEL 71CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

PROHibiTEd gROund JuRisdiCTiOn COmmEnTs

Race or colour All jurisdictions

Religion, creed, or reli- gious beliefs

All jurisdictions

Physical or mental disability

All jurisdictions quebec uses the phrase “handicap or use of any means to palliate a handicap”

Age* All jurisdictions • BC: 19–65 • Alberta: 18+ • saskatchewan: 18–64 • ontario: 18–65 • Newfoundland/labrador: 19–65 • quebec: Except as provided for by law

sex (includes pregnancy and childbirth)

All jurisdictions • BC includes breastfeeding • Alberta uses the term “gender” • Manitoba includes gender-determined

characteristics • ontario recognizes the protection of transgen-

dered persons and accepts complaints related to “gender identity”; ontario accepts complaints related to female genital mutilation

• In quebec, pregnancy as such is considered a ground of discrimination

gender identity Nova scotia, Alberta, New Brunswick, Manitoba, NWT, ontario

Marital status All jurisdictions quebec uses the term “civil status”

Dependence on alcohol or drugs

All except Yukon and NWT • Policy to accept complaints in BC, Alberta, sas- katchewan, Manitoba, ontario, New Brunswick, and PEI

• quebec: Included in “handicap” ground • Previous dependence only in New Brunswick and

Nova scotia

Family status or family affiliation

All except New Brunswick • saskatchewan defines as being in a parent–child relationship

• quebec uses the term civil status

sexual orientation All jurisdictions

National or ethnic origin (including linguistic background)

All except BC and Alberta • saskatchewan and NWT use the term nationality • ontario’s code includes both “ethnic origin” and

“citizenship”

TAbLE 3.1

PROHibiTEd gROunds Of EmPLOymEnT disCRiminATiOn in CAnAdiAn JuRisdiCTiOns

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL72

The prohibited grounds of discrimination vary somewhat among jurisdictions. Table 3.1 compares prohibited grounds of discrimination across federal, provincial, and territorial jurisdictions, listing 21 prohibited grounds of employment discrimination found across these jurisdictions. There are, however, only six prohibited grounds of employment discrimination on which all jurisdictions agree: race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical/mental handicap or disability.

Human rights legislation in all jurisdictions is enforced through human rights com- missions or tribunals that have the legislated power to undertake actions that may be necessary to eliminate discrimination. The Canadian Human Rights Act empowers the Canadian Human Rights Commission (CHRC) to investigate complaints, develop and

PROHibiTEd gROund JuRisdiCTiOn COmmEnTs

Ancestry or place of origin

Yukon, BC, Alberta, saskatchewan, Mani- toba, NWT, ontario, and New Brunswick

language Yukon, ontario, and quebec • ontario accepts complaints under the grounds of ancestry, ethnic origin, place of origin, and race

• New Brunswick will accept language-related complaints filed on the basis of ancestry, although not an enumerated ground

Citizenship ontario

Disfigurement Newfoundland/labrador

social condition or origin quebec, NWT, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland/labrador

source of income Alberta, BC, saskatchewan, Manitoba, quebec, Yukon, New Brunswick, PEI, and Nova scotia

• Defined as “receipt of public assistance” in saskatchewan

• quebec: Included under social condition

Based on association Yukon, Manitoba, ontario, New Bruns- wick, Nova scotia, NWT, and PEI

NWT has prohibition on basis of “political association”

Political belief Yukon, NWT, BC, Manitoba, quebec, Nova scotia, PEI, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland/labrador

Newfoundland/labrador has prohibition on basis of “political opinion”

Record of criminal conviction

BC, ontario, PEI, Yukon, and quebec Yukon’s Act reads: “Criminal charges or criminal record”

Pardoned conviction Federal, Yukon, and NWT

source: Reproduced with permission from the Canadian Human Rights Commission.

* Note: All Canadian provinces and territories, as of 2009, have legislation that prohibits employers from forcing mandatory retirement at age 65 or later. However, in some provinces, mandatory retirement is prohibited under the Act but a provision allows companies to enforce mandatory retirement under the terms or conditions of a retirement or pension plan. Also, some provinces have provisions to allow mandatory retirement for jobs where physical ability is a must, such as firefighting and police work.

TAbLE 3.1

COnTinuEd

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NEL 73CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

deliver public information programs, undertake or sponsor research programs, liaise with other human rights commissions, and review federal legislation for conformity with the Canadian Human Rights Act. The commission has a full-time, paid staff to carry out its mandate.

The Canadian Human Rights Commission spends much of its time investigating human rights complaints. Human rights protection is predicated on the idea that individ- uals who believe that they are victims of discriminatory practices bear the responsibility of filing complaints with the commission. In the case of workplace disputes, a complaint would be filed after discussions with the employer failed to resolve the matter. The com- mission’s procedure for filing and investigating discrimination complaints can be seen at http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/eng/content/i-want-complain. Applicants who believe that they have suffered discrimination in recruitment or selection can lodge a complaint with the human rights commission that has jurisdiction over the employer. We provide a list of provincial/territorial human rights commissions at the end of this chapter in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.7.

Figure 3.1 and Table 3.2 provide some data on the volume and nature of com- plaints received by the CHRC. In 2016, the commission received 2185 complaints, with 60 percent of the complaints concerning discrimination related to disabilities and 15 percent related to sex. Table 3.2 shows that 64 percent of those complaints were employment related, with 7 percent involving employment-related harassment

Disability 60%

Race 17%

National or ethnic origin 16%

Sex 15%

Family status 11%

Colour 11%

Age 9%

Religion 7%

Marital status 4%

Sexual orientation 3%

Retaliation 2%

Conviction for which a pardon has been granted or record suspended

48% of the disability complaints received by the CHRC were related to mental health issues.

This means that 29% of the complaints received by the CHRC in 2016 were related to mental health.

figuRE 3.1

PROPORTiOn Of COmPLAinTs RECEivEd in 2016 by gROund Of disCRiminATiOn*

* Note: In this graph, the total exceeds 100% because some complaints cite more than one ground.

source: People First: The Canadian Human Rights Commission’s 2016 Annual Report to Parliament. https://www.chrcreport.ca/assets/pdf/CHRC-Annual-2016-EN-web.pdf . Canadian Human Rights Commission, 2016. Reproduced with permission from the Canadian Human Rights Commission.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL74

2014 2015 2016

# % # % # %

Employment-related (sections 7, 8, 10)

1347 70 1145 65 1394 64

services-related (sections 5, 6) 376 19 391 22 553 25

Harassment—employment (section 14)

138 7 155 9 158 7%

union membership (section 9) — — — — — —

Retaliation (section 14.1) 23 1 25 1 37 2

Harassment—services (section 14) 12 1 23 1 31 1

Notices, signs, symbols (section 12) — — — — — —

Total 1.937 100 159 100 2185 100

Total number of allegations cited exceeds the total number of received complaints because some complaints dealt with more than one allegation. The percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. Rows suppressed when one or more values cannot be published for confidentiality reasons

TAbLE 3.2

COmPLAinTs RECEivEd by CHRC by TyPEs Of ALLEgATiOns CiTEd

and 7 percent involving pay equity. Each complaint triggers a formal investigation and involves considerable time and energy on the part of employees, an organization’s HR staff, and the CHRC itself.

emPLoyment equIty

Federal employment equity legislation requires all federally regulated employers with 100 or more employees, including organizations in industries such as banking, commu- nications, and international and interprovincial transportation, as well as all government departments, the RCMP, and Canadian Forces, to set up and operate employment equity programs. The Federal Contractors Program (FCP) requires any non-federally regulated organization with more than 100 employees and doing more than $1 million of busi- ness with the federal government to commit itself to employment equity. FCP requires contractors wishing to do business with the federal government to maintain a work force that is representative of the Canadian population, including the four designated groups. Contractors are required to collect work force information, complete a work force analysis, to establish short- and long-term goals, and to make reasonable progress toward attaining the established goals.

Provincial and municipal governments may also enact legislation for employers that fall under their jurisdiction. Provincial employment equity policies are mostly limited to government programs or public-sector workers; for example, Nova Scotia’s Employment Equity Policy. Quebec, however, extends employment equity policy to the private sector.

employment equity The elimination of discriminatory practices that prevent the entry or retention of members from designated groups in the workplace, and the elimination of unequal treatment in the workplace related to membership in a designated group.

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Employment equity legislation, such as the federal government’s Employment Equity Act, stands as the law of the land and generally includes mechanisms for enforcement and sanctions for violation.7

Employment equity programs involve any human resource activities introduced into an organization to ensure equality for all employees in all aspects of employment, including recruiting, hiring, compensation, and training.8 Organizations may voluntarily adopt employment equity programs in the absence of employment equity legislation. The purpose of employment equity legislation is stated in the Employment Equity Act passed by the Canadian Parliament in 1986:

2.The purpose of this Act is to achieve equality in the work place so that no person shall be denied employment opportunities or benefits for reasons unrelated to ability and, in the fulfilment of that goal, to correct the conditions of disadvantage in employment experienced by women, aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities and persons who are, because of their race or colour, in a visible minority in Canada by giving effect to the principle that employment equity means more than treating persons in the same way but also requires special measures and the accommodation of differences.

The intent of the Employment Equity Act is to address past systemic discrimination in employment systems that have disadvantaged members of the designated groups. The intent of the Act is to ensure that all selection requirements are realistic and job related. The Act provides for a review of practices that may constitute systemic barriers to the employment of members from designated groups and for establishing measures to eliminate any of the barriers. The federal Employment Equity Act of 1986 requires employers covered by the Act to implement equity, after consultation with employee representatives, by:

(a) identifying and eliminating employment practices that act as barriers to the employment of persons in designated groups; and

(b) instituting positive policies and practices and making reasonable accommo- dation to increase representation from designated groups among various positions in the organization to reflect the designated group’s representation in either the work force or in those segments of the work force (identified by qualification, eligibility or geography) from which the employer reasonably expects to hire or promote employees.

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.2 outlines the steps in implementing an employment equity plan. The latest version of the Employment Equity Act came into effect on October 24, 1996. This revised act extended coverage to all private employers that fell under federal regulation and to almost all employees of the federal government. The new act gave power to the Canadian Human Rights Commission to audit all feder- ally regulated employers’ equity progress to determine if they are complying with the legislation and to require action when they fail to do so.

Employment equity programs often require an employer to undertake an extensive overhaul of the organization’s recruitment and selection system. In comparison, a human rights commission may require an employer to take action only to remedy a specific complaint. Both human rights and employment equity legislation have the same ultimate goal: to eliminate discrimination in the workplace against disadvantaged groups and to improve their positions in employment systems. Human rights commissions are more reactive in nature in that they respond to complaints about alleged discrimination in the workplace. Employment equity programs are proactive in that they require employers

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL76

to take action to increase the number of protected group members in the workplace. A good example of this is the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities. The Act pro- vides standards for improving accessibility for persons with disabilities in a number of areas, including employment. Employers in Ontario must be cognizant of these require- ments in recruiting and selecting workers. The provisions of the Act may serve as a model for other jurisdictions. Recruitment and Selection Today 3.1 offers some advice to employers on hiring employees with disabilities.

Employment equity legislation is often a contentious issue, subject to the political process. As times change, employment equity legislation may be delivered through dif- ferent mechanisms, may be strengthened or weakened, or may even be discontinued altogether. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.3 provides “good practices” used by Canadian organizations to implement employment equity. These practices were com- piled from reports to Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC), recently renamed Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC).

LaBour Law, emPLoyment standards, and PrIvacy LegIsLatIon

Federal and provincial labour laws stipulate the rights of employees to organize trade unions and to bargain collective agreements with employers. Provincial labour relations acts and the Canada Labour Code establish labour relations boards to oversee union certifications and handle complaints about unfair labour practices. Collective agreements, which are legally binding and enforceable documents, cover unionized employees. Col- lective agreements set out the conditions under which job changes must occur and have a major impact on internal selection or internal movement of workers—for example, pro- motion, lateral transfer, and demotion.9 Because closed-shop agreements—under which only union members may work for the organization—are legal in Canada, some unions have considerable control over external recruiting, even running their own hiring halls, that tend to be in the construction trades, from which the employer must hire workers. While collective agreements do restrict the freedom of the employer, unions on the whole tend to be more cooperative than adversarial in terms of HR practices such as

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.2

DEvEloPINg AND IMPlEMENTINg AN EMPloYMENT EquITY (EE) PlAN

1. obtain support of senior management for the EE effort.

2. Conduct a survey to determine the present repre- sentation of designated groups in the organization’s internal work force.

3. set future representation targets for designated groups based on availability of qualified workers in the labour market.

4. Remove systemic employment barriers to increase representation for designated groups in the internal work force.

5. Monitor the changing composition of the internal work force over time.

6. Make necessary changes to the EE intervention to bring designated group representation up to future targets.

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NEL 77CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.1

HIRINg A WoRkER WITH A DIsABIlITY

stuart Rudner is an HR lawyer and a founding partner of Rudner MacDonald llP, a Toronto-based firm specializing in Canadian employment law. He wrote the following in a Canadian HR Reporter blog in response to the Accessibility for ontarians with Disabilities Act.

Hiring someone with a disability should not be approached as an act of charity, but as a smart business decision. Rather than “doing someone a favour,” employers should hire the best person for the job, regardless of their abilities or disabilities. Unfortunately, many employers assume a disabled worker will come with oppressive limitations, duties to accommodate and other costs that “normal” employees do not.

The reality, of course, is an individual with a disability may well be perfectly suited for a particular position, and in many cases will appreciate the opportunity far more than others—leading to a loyalty and willingness to work that exceeds the norm.

Much of my time is spent assisting employers in avoiding discrimination claims. In the hiring process, I often advise employers that “they don’t want to know anything more than they have to.”

This includes not asking or finding out about an applicant’s age, religion, background, or disability. otherwise, there is always the possibility that a rejected applicant will allege she was discriminated against based upon a protected ground. As I advise employers, it is certainly helpful to be able to honestly say they were not even aware of the protected ground. For the full discussion, see http://www.hrreporter.

com/blog/Canadian-HR-la w/archive/2012/04/03/ guidelines-for-using-social-media-when-hiring

With the advent of the Accessibility for ontarians with Disabilities Act (AoDA), this becomes more difficult for employers with workers in ontario.

Employers now have a duty to inquire about any need for accommodation in the hiring process. once they do, and an applicant reveals a need for accommodation, the employer cannot deny knowing about it.

However, one of the pieces of advice I always offer remains valid: Do not share this information with the people making the hiring decision. someone else can look after the accommodation inquires and arrangements, and efforts can be made to ensure that the ultimate decision- makers are not privy to it.

of course, this is not always feasible. It will be dif- ficult to prevent someone from seeing that an applicant is, for example, in a wheelchair. That is why I also always recommend that detailed reasons be kept supporting hiring decisions so the organization can demonstrate why an applicant was rejected for legitimate reasons.

unfortunately, some individuals will abuse legislation that exists to protect traditionally disadvantaged groups and allege discrimination when they were, simply put, not the best person for the job. Employers need to be able to defend against such accusations.

At the same time, employers should also assess their own practices and views in order to ensure they are not rejecting qualified candidates or, even worse, preventing them from applying in the first place.

Not only is this good business practice, it will also be required as AoDA comes into force in ontario.

source: Reprinted by permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Copyright Thomson Reuters Canada ltd., 3 June 2013, Toronto, ontario. 1-800-387- 5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com

selection.10 However, many, if not all, collective agreements between an employer and a union specify how vacant positions are to be posted and applicants selected, with prefer- ence given to internal applicants.

Federal and provincial/territorial employment standards laws regulate minimum age of employment, standard hours of work, minimum wages, statutory holidays, vacations, work leaves, sexual harassment, and termination of employment.11 You can explore the Federal Labour Standards at https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.3

IMPlEMENTINg gooD WoRkPlACE EquITY PRACTICEs

The following “best practices” are taken from the Employ- ment Equity Act Annual Reports. under provisions of the Act, federally regulated employers must provide a statis- tical report on diversity issues along with a narrative report on actions they have taken to improve workplace equity. The following practices are those reported by employers in compliance with the Act.

benefits of implementing Employment Equity in the workplace

• A workforce representative of Canadian culture and diversity;

• An increase in global competitiveness and productivity;

• High employee morale and decreased absenteeism;

• Amicable relationships with customers and clients;

• Enhanced corporate reputation; and

• Increased profitability and a better bottom line.

improving workplace Communications on diversity issues

• voluntary self-identification surveys that help identify the diversity present in the workplace;

• Focus groups and committees devoted to employ- ment equity and responsible for conducting workshops, presentations, and sessions with employees;

• Dialogue with managers concerning their positions on employment equity;

• Internal and external newsletters and magazines with sections and/or articles on employment equity;

• Internal bulletin boards where job openings and recent employment equity news items are posted;

• Company Internet websites including information concerning employment equity plans;

• Internal employment equity memos and pam- phlets; and

• Exit interviews.

“best Practices” derived by HRsdC from Employer Reports

• Maintain an “open-door” policy that encourages and fosters a positive environment for employer and employees.

• Advertise employment opportunities in specific national or regional publications geared toward members of designated groups.

• Celebrate specific cultural holidays such as National Aboriginal Day and International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Employers allowed flexible holiday policies so that employees could celebrate their own special days.

• Accommodate employees who needed special help, especially those with disabilities, to ease their integration into the workforce and make them comfortable in their work environment.

• Report the achievement of barrier-free workplaces through accommodation of employees. As work- places become more complex, accommodative solutions become increasingly individualized. Employers recognized that successful accom- modation involves positive encouragement from senior managers and the development of sup- portive workplace cultures. some practices that employers used to meet the needs of employees included private workspaces, visual and hearing aids, job coaches, and diversity training provided to managers and staff.

source: From Implementing good Workplace Equity Practices from Employment Equity Act: Annual Report 2013, www.labour.gc.ca/eng/standards_ equity/eq/pubs_eq/annual_reports/2013/index.shtml. Reproduced and distributed with the permission of statistics Canada.

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NEL 79CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

programs/employment-standards/federal-standards.html. As well, common law, devel- oped through judicial proceedings, may apply to individual contracts entered into by a person and an organization. These laws have little impact on recruitment and selection practices unless the law is specifically referenced, like the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, and with the exception of termination, which might be considered “deselection” of people already in the organization’s work force.

Federal and provincial/territorial governments also have specialized legislation gov- erning labour relations and setting employment standards for their own public service employees. Both the federal Public Service Employment Act and the Parliamentary Employment and Staff Relations Act illustrate the impact of this legislation on recruit- ment and selection. The Public Service Employment Act designates the Public Service Commission of Canada as the central staffing agency for the federal government. This Act gives candidates from the general public, as well as some public service employees, the right to request an investigation if they believe that their qualifications were not properly assessed as part of a hiring competition for a public service position.12 The Public Service Commission resolves complaints through mediation and conciliation or through the direct intervention of the commission or a deputy head.13 Candidates may also lodge appeals against personnel selection processes used by the Public Service Com- mission. (An important appeal involving the use of employment testing in the federal public service is summarized in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.2.) The Parliamentary Employment and Staff Relations Act provides a mechanism for collective bargaining

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.2

PsYCHologICAl TEsTINg IN THE FEDERAl govERNMENT

In 1986, an appeal board of the Public service Commission (PsC) heard the complaints of job applicants for the job of col- lections enforcement clerk with the federal taxation depart- ment.14 Four individuals who were not hired alleged that the gIT 320 (a paper-and-pencil test of cognitive ability) in use at the time for screening job applicants was (1) not properly validated; (2) had an unjustifiably high cutoff score; and (3) was gender biased. Expert witnesses, including several top personnel psychologists, testified on the technical merits of the test at the invitation of either the complainants or the commission. Based on this evidence, the appeal board con- cluded that the gIT 320 had been validated (using a method called validity generalization, which we discussed in Chapter 2). The two other allegations were dismissed because (1) the PsC had demonstrated the test cutoff score was reasonable and not excessively high under the circumstances and (2) the test was neither biased nor unfair to women. All three allega- tions about the test were dismissed and the PsC continued to use the gIT 320 in its selection work.

The Maloley decision is especially informative because it involves allegations of two distinct types: (1) the first

two allegations claimed that the gIT 320 violated proce- dural rules in the PsC selection system based on the merit principle; and (2) the third allegation claimed the test was discriminatory against women. Here we see an internal appeal board, which normally would deal with procedural and technical matters only, ruling on discrimination issues customarily the prerogative of human rights commissions. This suggests that, in at least some instances, there is a blurring of the divisions separating the four legal sources discussed in this chapter. legal issues in recruitment and selection are made even more complicated as a result.

The PsC in 2007 published a comprehensive docu- ment on Testing in the Public Service of Canada that out- lines the standards for the development and use of tests for appointment purposes. It adheres closely to the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1999) discussed in Chapter 2. It also demonstrates how validity and reli- ability apply to testing policy. The PsC also has a guide to implementing employment equity programs. Both docu- ments are available at http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/plcy-pltq/ frame-cadre/policy-politique/index-eng.htm.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL80

between the federal government as employer and the various unions certified to repre- sent federal workers. This legislation is administered by the Public Service Staff Relations Board (PSSRB), which is empowered to hear complaints under the Act and arbitrate col- lective bargaining disputes. PSSRB decisions that address promotion practices covered in collective agreements between the federal government and public-sector unions affect recruitment and selection practices in the public sector.

Federal and provincial/territorial governments have also established privacy legislation that applies to employees that come under the governments’ jurisdiction. The Canadian Privacy Act governs the collection, use, and disclosure of personal information with respect to enterprises that fall under federal jurisdiction through various employment and labour laws. The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) sets out the ground rules on how private enterprises under federal jurisdiction collect, use, or disclose personal information in the course of commercial activities across Canada. It also protects the personal information of all employees of the federal government or federally regulated businesses such as banks, transportation, and telecommunication industries. PIPEDA does not apply to organizations that are not engaged in commercial transac- tions, nor to organizations that operate wholly within a province or territory that has its own legislation that is deemed similar to PIPEDA. All provinces and territories have privacy legislation with Alberta, British Columbia, and Quebec applying that legislation to private companies. Ontario, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland and Labrador have privacy legislation related to health and medical information. In cases where a province or territory has passed privacy legislation that has not been deemed similar to PIPEDA, PIPEDA is still operative. The privacy legislation that applies to any workplace depends on the jurisdiction under which it falls. Privacy legislation, while important in all aspects of employee relations, is most at issue during background checks when an employer seeks to check references, credentials, criminal records, medical, or credit history. The relevant privacy legislation may specify how this information may be obtained, the nature of the information that may be collected, and how it may be used. HR professionals must be aware of the legislation that applies to the organization in which they work.

Computers and the Internet are a fixture in most workplaces. In most organizations the employer provides the workplace computers and Internet connection, and almost all employees use these work computers for personal business, or simply to surf the Internet. A recent Supreme Court of Canada ruling (R v Cole, 2012 SCC 53) confirmed that under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, employees should have a reasonable expectation of privacy in connection with personal information stored on workplace computers. The Court noted that the HR policies in place in an organization could both sup- port or diminish an employee’s reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, policies that expressly permitted incidental personal use of the workplace computer, that email remained private when accessed on the computer, that allowing access to the Internet for personal use, and that storage of personal information on a workplace computer supported the reasonable expectation of privacy on the part of an employee. On the other hand, policy statements that all data generated on a workplace computer belonged to the organization, and that employees should not expect privacy in connection with personal information stored on the workplace computer diminish the employee’s rea- sonable expectation of privacy. The Court ruled that these and other factors had to be considered to determine whether there was a reasonable expectation of privacy. HR should develop clear and unambiguous policies on computer and Internet use. These policies should address the right, or lack thereof, to use the organization’s technology for personal business, and the expectation of privacy that should be associated with the use of the workplace computers for personal business.

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NEL 81CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

// Part II: key LegaL concePts In recruItment and seLectIon Recruitment and Selection Today 3.3 presents landmark Supreme Court of Canada decisions that have had a profound impact on how employers recruit and select employees. Recruitment and Selec- tion Today 3.4 presents some legal terms and concepts that follow from these decisions and other legislation that apply to selection and recruitment. We will review these cases, terms, and concepts in greater detail in this section.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.3

lANDMARk CANADIAN suPREME CouRT CAsEs RElATED To sElECTIoN

(continued )

1. The Ontario Human Rights Commission and bruce dunlop and Harold E. Hall and vincent gray v. The borough of Etobicoke [1982]

This case is also known as Etobicoke. Harold Hall and vincent gray were firefighters in the Borough of Etobicoke, near Toronto. They were required to retire at age 60 by the collective agreement in place between their union and the Borough. They brought a complaint of age discrimina- tion to the ontario Human Rights Commission. Etobicoke defended the practice on the grounds that the retirement

rule was a bona fide occupational requirement (BFoR) that was required to maintain an acceptable standard of firefighting performance. The case eventually came before the supreme Court, where Justice McIntyre, writing on behalf of a unanimous court, ruled that the policy con- stituted age discrimination. He said that an employee or union cannot waive rights protected under human rights legislation through a collective agreement. He also speci- fied that a BFoR must be an objective one that is sup- ported by concrete evidence.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/2434/index.do

2. Ontario Human Rights Commission and O’malley v. simpsons-sears Ltd. [1985]

Theresa o’Malley was a seventh Day Adventist whose religion forbid her to work from sundown on Friday to sun- down on saturday. she requested that simpsons-sears, a retailer, assign her to other shifts. simpsons-sears said no other full-time shifts were available and terminated her employment. simpsons-sears said the requirement that all employees work on Fridays and saturdays was a neutral rule that was not intended to discriminate against Ms. o’Malley. Justice McIntyre, on behalf of a unanimous court, defined direct discrimination as

Direct discrimination occurs in this connection where an employer adopts a practice or rule, which

on its face discriminates on a prohibited ground. For example, ‘No Catholics or no women or no blacks employed here.’ There is, of course, no dis- agreement in the case at bar that direct discrimi- nation of that nature would contravene the Act.”

The Court also decreed that discrimination by acci- dent, “adverse discrimination,” was just as wrong as direct discrimination, and that where adverse effect discrimina- tion exists, the employer must take steps to accommodate an employee who has been affected short of undue hard- ship to the business. The Court ruled that simpsons-sears had discriminated against Ms. o’Malley and that it did not try to make any changes in its work schedule that would accommodate her religious requirements. It could have shuffled her work schedule without causing a problem.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/101/index.do

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL82

(continued )

3. Canadian national Railway Co. v. Canada (Human Rights Comm.) and bhinder [1985]

k.s. Bhinder was a member of the sikh religion, which required him to wear a turban and no other head covering. He was employed for four years by CN Rail and worked night shift as an electrician doing yard maintenance. CN established a safety policy that all yard employees had to

wear hard hats. He refused to wear the hard hat and was fired. Mr. Bhinder argued that his religious freedom had been violated. In a split decision the supreme Court ruled that CN’s hard hat rule was a genuine bona fide occupa- tional requirement (BFoR) and that there was no direct or adverse effect discrimination. The requirements of the job prevailed over the requirement of the employee.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/102/index.do

4. Canadian national Railway Co. v. Canada (Human Rights Comm.) and Action travail des femmes [1987]

Women made up only 0.7 percent of CN Rail’s unskilled work force at a time when women comprised 41 percent of the Canadian labour force. Action travail des femmes, a public interest lobby group, filed a complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission that CN Rail violated the Canadian Human Rights Act by engaging in systemic

discrimination. The Human Rights Tribunal that heard the complaint found that CN Rail had made no real effort to hire women and that it had engaged in several practices, for example, the use of specific selection tools, that discouraged women from applying for blue-collar jobs. It ordered CN to start an employment equity program. CN Rail appealed the decision to the supreme Court, which upheld the Tribunal’s findings. The supreme Court ruled that the Tribunal had the authority to impose an employment equity program on CN Rail to break the cycle of systemic discrimination.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/6280/index.do

5. Alberta dairy Pool v. Alberta (Human Rights Commission) [1990]

Jim Christie, an employee of the Alberta Dairy Pool, joined the Worldwide Church of god, which required him to take a number of days off work each week. His employer accom- modated his requests until he asked to have Mondays off. His employer refused on the grounds of business neces- sity, that Monday was the busiest day of the week. Mr. Christie did not come to work on Monday and was fired. He alleged religious discrimination. The Dairy Pool argued that

working on Monday was a bona fide occupational require- ment and that it had accommodated Mr. Christie’s reli- gious beliefs to the point of undue hardship. The supreme Court found that there had not been direct discrimination but that there was no BFoR for working on a Monday and, thus, the Dairy Pool was guilty of adverse effect discrimi- nation. The Court expanded on the concept of undue hard- ship first noted in the o’Malley v. simpsons-sears case, and provided a list of factors that had to be considered in claiming that accommodation imposed undue hardship.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/641/index.do

6. Central Okanagan school district no. 23 v. Renaud [1992]

larry Renaud was a janitor working at the Central okanagan school District. He was a seventh Day Adventist who was required to work Friday evenings under a col- lective agreement that was in place. He proposed that he work sunday through Thursday to accommodate his reli- gious beliefs. The school Board refused his requests for

accommodation and terminated Mr. Renaud. Mr. Renaud then filed a complaint of discrimination based on religion under the British Columbia Human Rights Act. Justice sopinka, on behalf of the unanimous court, held that there was discrimination and that the employer had an obliga- tion to accommodate Mr. Renaud to the point of undue hardship despite the existence of a collective agree- ment or any private contract that might be in place. This

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NEL 83CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

dIrect dIscrImInatIon

In O’Malley v. Simpsons-Sears,15 Justice McIntyre defined direct discrimination as occur- ring where an employer adopts a practice or rule that on its face discriminates on a prohibited ground. The application of this definition to HR practice is quite simple. If direct discrimination occurs, then the burden is on the employer to show that the rule is valid in application to all the members of the affected group. An employer who is hiring steelworkers for foundry work involving heavy lifting in a dirty environment may believe that this job is unsuited to women and specifies that no women will be hired. This is a clear instance of direct discrimination. If a female applicant were to complain about

decision was important in raising the issue that contracts could not pose an impediment to accommodation and that

a trade union could be held liable for discrimination in the workplace.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/910/index.do

7. british Columbia (Public service Employee Relations Commission) v. british Columbia government service Employees’ union [1999]

This unanimous decision is also known as the Meiorin case. The background of this important case is presented in Recruitment and selection Today 3.7 later in this chapter. Why is this case significant for recruitment and selection? In it, the supreme Court created a unified test of discrimi- nation and did away with the distinction between direct

and adverse effect discrimination. The Court ruled that while fitness tests had a valid purpose of ensuring safety, the research on which they were based must be more than impressionistic and also take into account differences between men and women when establishing performance standards. The Court articulated a new provision for estab- lishing a bona fide occupational requirement and further specified conditions that had to be explored before claiming that accommodation would cause undue hardship.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1724/index.do

8. british Columbia (superintendent of motor vehicles) v. british Columbia (Council of Human Rights) [1999]

This unanimous decision is also known as the grismer case. Terry grismer was a truck driver who incurred a visual disability after suffering a stroke. The superintendent of Motor vehicles cancelled his driver’s licence on the grounds his disability prevented him from meeting the minimum visual standards for maintaining a licence. Mr. grismer alleged discrimination and filed a complaint with the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal. The Tribunal found direct discrimination on the part of the superintendent and ordered a re-examination. The deci- sion was appealed and went to the supreme Court of

Canada. The issue was whether a complete prohibition from driving with grismer’s visual disability was a reason- able standard under the requirements established in the Meiorin case. The Court upheld the Tribunal’s finding of discrimination and stated that its requirement for a bona fide occupational requirement applied not only in employ- ment situations but also in circumstances of discrimina- tion where accommodation was available. The prohibition on driving was not reasonably necessary to accomplish the goal of protecting the public. The superintendent failed to show that no person with the impairment could drive safely. The superintendent was obliged to give Mr. grismer a chance to prove he could drive safely rather than relying on an absolute standard. The cost of accommodation by individual testing did not constitute undue hardship.

source: Judgments of the supreme Court of Canada. http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1761/index.do

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL84

the blatant nature of this discrimination, the employer would have to prove to a human rights investigator that all women lack the ability to do the work—that is, that no women could perform the work successfully. If even one woman can do the job, the employer’s use of the “no women allowed” rule will be struck down by a human rights tribunal or court. In all but rare circumstances, it is impossible to justify direct discrimination.

As part of recruitment and selection, no statement may be made in advertising a job that would prohibit or restrict members of a protected group from seeking that job. A statement, for example, in any job advertisement or posting that the employer is seeking “single males” constitutes direct discrimination and is illegal. During the selection process itself, application forms and interviews are potential sources of direct discrimination. As a

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.4

lEgAl TERMs AND CoNCEPTs THAT APPlY To RECRuITMENTAzND sElECTIoN

discrimination In employment, discrimination refers to any refusal to employ or to continue to employ any person, or to adversely affect any current employee, on the basis of that individual’s membership in a protected group. All Canadian jurisdictions prohibit discrimination at least on the basis of race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical or mental disability.

direct discrimination occurs where an employer adopts a practice or rule that, on its face, discriminates on a pro- hibited ground.

indirect discrimination occurs when an employer, in good faith, adopts a policy or practice for sound economic or busi- ness reasons, but when it is applied to all employees it has an unintended negative impact on members of a protected group

Protected groups Those who have attributes that are defined as “prohibited grounds” for discrimination under the human rights act that applies to the employing organization.

designated groups The Employment Equity Act defines designated groups as women, visible minorities, Aboriginal peoples, and persons with disabilities.

Employment equity Refers to the elimination of dis- criminatory practices that prevent the entry or retention of members from designated groups in the workplace, and to the elimination of unequal treatment in the workplace related to membership in a designated group.

Adverse impact occurs when the selection rate for a protected group is lower than that for the relevant comparison group. u.s. courts consider adverse impact to occur when the number of members selected from a protected group is less than 80 percent of the number of majority-group members selected.

bona fide occupational requirement (bfOR) Bona fide occupational requirements are those that a person must possess to perform the essential components of a job in a safe, efficient, and reliable manner. To defend employment practice or policy on the grounds that the policy or practice may be perceived as discriminatory, the employer must show that the practice or policy was adopted in an honest and good-faith belief that it was reasonably necessary to ensure the efficient and economical performance of the job without endangering employees or the general public. BFoRs are sometimes referred to as bona fide occupa- tional qualifications (BFoqs).

Accommodation Refers to the duty of an employer to put in place modifications to discriminatory employment prac- tices or procedures to meet the needs of members of a protected group being affected by the employment practice or procedure. As part of a BFoR defence, an employer must demonstrate that such accommodation is impossible to achieve without incurring undue hardship in terms of the organization’s expense or operations.

sufficient risk As part of a BFoR defence, an employer may argue that an occupational requirement that discrimi- nates against a protected group is reasonably necessary to ensure that work will be performed successfully and in a manner that will not pose harm or danger to employees or the public.

undue hardship The limit beyond which employers and service providers are not expected to accommodate a member of a protected group. undue hardship usually occurs when an employer cannot bear the costs of the accommodation.

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NEL 85CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

subJECT AvOid AsKing PREfERREd COmmEnTs

Name • About name change; whether it was changed by court order, marriage, or other reason

• For maiden name

Ask after selection if needed to check on previously held jobs or educational credentials

Address For addresses outside Canada Ask place and duration of current or recent address

Age For birth certificates, baptismal records, or about age in general

Ask applicants if they are eligible to work under Canadian laws regarding age restrictions

If precise age is required for benefit plans or other legitimate purposes, it can be determined after selection

sex • Males or females to fill in dif- ferent applications

• About pregnancy, child- bearing plans, or child-care arrangements

Can ask applicant if the atten- dance requirements can be met

During the interview or after selection, the applicant, for pur- poses of courtesy, may be asked which of Dr., Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Ms is preferred

Marital status • Whether applicant is single, married, divorced, engaged, separated, widowed, or living common-law

• Whether the applicant’s spouse may be transferred

• About the spouse’s employment

• If transfer or travel is part of the job, the applicant can be asked whether he or she can meet these requirements

• Ask whether there are any circumstances that might pre- vent completion of a minimum service commitment

Information on dependants can be determined after selection if necessary

Family status • Number of children or dependants

• About child-care arrangements

Ask if the applicant would be able to work the required hours and, where applicable, overtime

Contacts for emergencies and/ or details on dependants can be determined after selection

National or ethnic origin

• About birthplace, nationality of ancestors, spouse, or other relatives

• Whether born in Canada • For proof of citizenship

since those who are entitled to work in Canada must be citizens, permanent residents, or holders of valid work permits, applicants can be asked if they are legally entitled to work in Canada

Documentation of eligibility to work (papers, visas, etc.) can be requested after selection

Military service • About military service in other countries

Can ask about Canadian military service where employment pref- erence is given to veterans by law

language • Mother tongue • Where language skills

obtained

Ask if applicant understands, reads, writes, or speaks lan- guages required for the job

Testing or scoring applicants for language proficiency is not per- mitted unless job-related

TAbLE 3.3

guidELinEs TO sCREEning And sELECTiOn in EmPLOymEnT

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL86

subJECT AvOid AsKing PREfERREd COmmEnTs

Race or colour • Any question about race or colour, including colour of eyes, skin, or hair

Photographs For photo to be attached to application or sent to interviewer before interview

Photos for security passes or company files can be taken after selection

Religion • Whether applicant will work a specific religious holiday

• About religious affiliation, church membership, fre- quency of church attendance

• For references from clergy or religious leader

Explain the required work shift, asking if such a schedule poses problems for the applicant

Reasonable accommodation of an employee’s religious beliefs is the employer’s duty

Height and weight

No inquiry unless there is evi- dence they are genuine occupa- tional requirements

Disability • For listing of all disabilities, limitations, or health problems

• Whether the applicant drinks or uses drugs

• Whether applicant has ever received psychiatric care or been hospitalized for emo- tional problems

• Whether the applicant has received Workers’ Compensation

The employer should: • disclose any information on

medically related requirements or standards early in the application process

• Then ask whether the applicant has any condition that could affect his or her ability to do the job, preferably during a pre-employment medical examination

A disability is relevant to job ability only if it: • threatens the safety or

property of others • prevents the applicant

from safe and adequate job performance, even when reasonable efforts are made to accommodate the disability

Medical information

• Whether the applicant is currently under a physician’s care

• Name of family doctor • Whether the applicant is

receiving counselling or therapy

• Medical exams should be conducted after selection and only if an employee’s condi- tion is related to job duties

• offers of employment can be made conditional on successful completion of a medical exam

TAbLE 3.3

COnTinuEd

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NEL 87CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

subJECT AvOid AsKing PREfERREd COmmEnTs

Pardoned conviction

• Whether the applicant has ever been convicted

• Whether the applicant has ever been arrested

• Whether the applicant has a criminal record

If bonding is a job requirement, ask if applicant is eligible

Inquiries about criminal record or convictions are discouraged unless related to job duties

sexual orientation

About the applicant’s sexual orientation

Contacts for emergencies and/ or details on dependants can be determined after selection

References The same restrictions that apply to questions asked of applicants apply when asking for employment references

source: A Guide to Screening and Selection in Employment, https://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/eng/content/guide-screening-and-selection-employment Canadian Human Rights Commission, March, 2011. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and government services Canada, 2012. Reproduced with permission from the Canadian Human Rights Commission.

result, some human rights commissions have published guidelines for questions asked by employers on employment application forms and at employment interviews. An excerpt from these guidelines published by the Canadian Human Rights Commission is given in Table 3.3. These guidelines provide practical and detailed advice on how to avoid direct discrimination in many common selection situations and should be carefully heeded by employers. The complete guide is available on the Canadian Human Rights Commis- sion’s website at http://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/sites/default/files/screen_1.pdf.

Direct discrimination is much less frequent in Canadian workplaces than it once was. Discriminatory job advertising in major daily newspapers is now quite rare, as the media may also be held accountable for running such types of ads. Direct discrimination, how- ever, does exist to some extent in selection practices, so continued vigilance is necessary. These instances generally occur in those occupations where gender-based stereotyping persists. Despite many efforts, people still think of certain occupations as being either “female” or “male”—for example, only women make good nurses, and only men make good construction workers. Direct discrimination occurs when this stereotyping carries over into the workplace and influences recruiting and selection practices. It is hoped that such gender-based stereotyping will occur much less often in the future than in the past.

adverse effect dIscrImInatIon

In Chapter 2 we outlined a commonly used selection model: A job analysis is used to identify the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that are related to job performance. A situation may arise where basing selection practices on a legiti- mately determined KSAO has an unintended, negative impact on members of a protected group. This impact would constitute indirect discrimination and fall outside the law unless

TAbLE 3.3

COnTinuEd

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL88

it could be shown that the selection practice was necessary to assure the efficient and economical performance of the job without endangering employees or the general public.

In the O’Malley v. Simpsons-Sears decision, Justice McIntyre also defined adverse effect discrimination—or indirect discrimination. Adverse effect discrimination occurs in recruitment and selection when an employer, in good faith, adopts a policy or prac- tice for sound economic or business reasons that is applied to all employees but has an unintended, negative impact on members of a protected group. In recruiting, for example, employers often ask current employees for the names of friends or relatives who might be suitable for a position. An HR manager might solicit shop-floor employees for names of potential candidates to fill a welder’s apprentice position. After receiving all the names, the HR manager chooses the best candidate according to a set of objective criteria. How does this recruiting strategy lead to adverse effect discrimination? If the shop-floor employees were all white males, almost all of the candidates put forward by the current employees would be white males. This recruitment practice will likely lead to the outcome of hiring a white male, to the exclusion of women or visible minorities.

The HR manager may have believed that the strategy was a sound and effective busi- ness practice for identifying suitable candidates for the position (and as we will see in Chapter 6 on Recruitment, referrals from family or friends constitute a very popular means of recruitment). The manager did not intend to exclude members of any protected group from consideration and asked all the existing employees to nominate potential job candi- dates. Nevertheless, this recruitment strategy results in adverse effect discrimination by imposing penalties or restrictive conditions on women, visible minorities, and Aboriginal people that are not imposed on white males: women, visible minorities, and Aboriginal people are less likely to be nominated for the job, and less likely to be hired regardless of their qualifications. Women, visible minorities, and Aboriginal people, groups protected under human rights legislation, may be negatively affected by the supposedly neutral recruiting practice. This is an example to illustrate a potential problem and it does not mean that all recruiting by referrals from family or friends represents indirect discrimination.

In selection, adverse effect discrimination often involves the use of a practice or use of an employment test. Suppose the HR manager, in the above example, corrected the flawed recruiting practice and subsequently obtained an applicant pool that included a proportion of women, visible minorities, and Aboriginal people consistent with their representation in the general population. The HR manager decides to use a mechanical comprehension test to select applicants as a welder’s apprentice. Performance on the mechanical comprehension test predicts success as a welder’s apprentice and will identify those applicants who are most likely to contribute to the company’s overall productivity.

Could this selection strategy lead to adverse effect discrimination? Women tend to score lower, on average, on mechanical comprehension tests than do men. If the same test cutoff score were used for men and women or if applicants were offered jobs in order of their test scores (from highest to lowest), proportionately fewer women than men would be hired for the job. The use of the mechanical comprehension test would impose on women, as a group protected under human rights legislation, a penalty not imposed on men. Even though the test is applied equally to women and men, the test affects women, in a negative sense, to a greater extent than men. Even though the test predicts performance for welders’ apprentices and there was no intention to discriminate against women, a human rights complaint may be launched against the employer on the grounds that use of the test had an adverse effect on women as a group and, thus, discriminated against them on that basis. The use of a selection tool that had adverse effect on women was one of the issues in the Canadian National Railway Co. v. Canada (Human Rights

adverse effect discrimination Refers to a situation where an employer, in good faith, adopts a policy or practice that has an unintended, negative impact on members of a protected group.

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NEL 89CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

Comm.) and Action travail des femmes decision. Any employment rule, practice, or policy that has a negative effect on a group protected under human rights legislation, no matter how well intentioned by the employer, constitutes adverse effect discrimination.

adverse ImPact

The concept of adverse impact is closely related to adverse effect discrimination. At times, adverse impact and adverse effect are used synonymously.16 In terms of recruitment and selection, the concept of adverse impact has a narrower, more technical, definition. Adverse impact occurs when the selection rate for a protected group is lower than that for the relevant comparison group (which has the higher selection rate). In our example of adverse effect discrimination, the mechanical comprehension test also had an adverse impact on women in that proportionately fewer women than men would be selected for the job (see Table 3.4).

Adverse impact is based on statistical evidence showing that proportionately fewer of the protected group are selected using a selection device (such as an employment test or interview) or that fewer members of the protected group pass through the selection system taken as a whole. Establishing adverse impact in selection can be very complex.17 One rough-and-ready rule that is frequently used to establish adverse impact in selec- tion is the four-fifths rule. According to this rule, adverse impact is established where the selection rate for the protected group is less than four-fifths that of the comparison group. Table 3.4 demonstrates a situation in which a mechanical comprehension test had an adverse impact on women according to the four-fifths rule. Despite its widespread adoption in Canada, the four-fifths rule has serious limitations on both rational and statistical grounds.

Nonetheless, the four-fifths rule may be an important index of discrimination. In studies with 555 Canadian police constable applicants18 and 398 Canadian bus operator candidates,19 Hausdorf and Risavy found that there were no mean differences between protected groups on personality scores that were used as part of a selection process; however, the method used to make selection decisions could lead to adverse impact on women and minorities. Their results suggest that it is not sufficient to just show that there are no mean differences between protected groups on employment test scores to discount adverse impact. The method used to make selection decisions is important and

adverse impact Occurs when the selec- tion rate for a protected group is lower than that for the relevant com- parison group.

TOTAL APPLiCAnT POOL (A)

numbER Of PEOPLE mAdE JOb OffERs (b)

sELECTiOn RATE (RATiO Of b/A)

Women 10 1 0.10

Men 100 15 0.15

Minimum selection rate of women according to the four-fifths rule must be 4/5 0.15 0.123 5 . Because the selection rate of women (0.10) is less than the minimum selection rate under the four-fifths rule (0.12), we conclude that the mechanical comprehension test had adverse impact.

TAbLE 3.4

ExAmPLE Of THE fOuR-fifTHs RuLE in dETERmining AdvERsE imPACT On wOmEn: sELECTiOn bAsEd On mECHAniCAL COmPREHEnsiOn TEsT

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL90

may have an impact on the hiring rates of different groups. The method used to make selection decisions should be reviewed with respect to the possible adverse impact it may have on members of protected groups. We will discuss the different methods used to make selection decisions in Chapter 10.

workPLace dIscrImInatIon In tHe unIted states

In the United States, the primary federal legislation governing workplace discrimination is the Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Act of 1964, as amended in 1991. Along with the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the Age Discrimination Act of 1967, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the EEO legislation and regulations made under it provide U.S. citizens with most of the protection against workplace discrimination afforded Canadians through the four legal sources we have discussed. In addition, significant rul- ings by U.S. courts have also had an impact on personnel selection standards, practices, and procedures as illustrated in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.5. Recruitment and Selection Today 3.6 provides a summary of the four most important U.S. Supreme Court cases that have had an impact on selection in the United States. While these cases do not hold any force in Canada, they do have influence in that they are used as part of legal briefs made to Canadian courts. The cases presented in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.6 have played a role in shaping the development of human rights and jurispru- dence in Canada. For example, the four-fifths rule presented in Table 3.4 was fashioned in a U.S. court decision. The Uniform Guidelines and Principles of Validation that were influential in the Albemarle Paper case, and which will be discussed in Chapter 4, have evolved to reflect U.S. court decisions and laws. Canadian courts often use these stan- dards in examining Canadian selection practices. These standards have also influenced professional practice in Canada.

One of the most significant differences between Canadian and U.S. legislation is the incorporation of section 15(2) into the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Section 15(2) states that programs designed to ameliorate discrimination by favouring

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.5

CulTuRAl BIAs IN sElECTIoN TEsTINg

Much of the legislation and policy discussed in this chapter draws heavily on examples from other countries, espe- cially the united states. Nowhere is this truer than for human rights and employment equity, which are called equal employment opportunity and affirmative action in the united states. In fact, many Canadian tribunals and courts cite American cases as precedents when making their human rights decisions. In addition, many of the same issues and concerns about recruitment and selection in this country are mirrored in the united states. For example, an article in the u.s. News & World Report20 described the political upheaval in Chicago over results of a promotional

examination for city police officers. Despite a cost of over $5 million paid to consultants to develop a bias-free pro- motional system, the multiple-choice tests used in the pro- motion competition still had adverse impact against African Americans and Hispanics. As a result, fewer members of these groups than whites were promoted, and city politi- cians were quick to line up on both sides of the controversy.

Chicago is a microcosm reflecting wider societal con- cerns in the united states and Canada over employment testing. The debate over adverse impact and cultural bias in selection testing continues to rage intensely on both sides of the border and is likely to do so for years to come.

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NEL 91CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.6

lANDMARk u.s. suPREME CouRT CAsEs RElATED To sElECTIoN

griggs v. duke Power (1971)

Thirteen black employees of Duke Power challenged the use of new selection requirements that included a high school diploma, a mechanical aptitude test, and a gen- eral intelligence test on the grounds that they screened out a much higher proportion of black applicants than whites. Duke Power had no evidence to show that these requirements were job related. The supreme Court ruled any employment practice is prohibited if it discriminates against a minority group and it cannot be shown to be valid, that is, related to job performance.

Albemarle Paper Co. v. moody (1975)

The u.s. government established uniform guidelines on Employee selection Procedures for use in evaluating the validity of personnel selection programs. Black employees of the Albemarle Paper Company in North Carolina claimed that the use of a seniority system, requirement for a high school diploma, and application of two tests of general cog- nitive ability as part of a promotion process discriminated against blacks who were employed mostly in unskilled positions and who historically had limited access to skilled jobs in the paper mill. The Court ruled that the research done to establish the validity of the tests did not meet the standards on validity set by the uniform guidelines. The Court ordered that the class of black workers were to be compensated for their discrimination, establishing the precedent for multimillion-dollar awards in subsequent cases of workplace discrimination.

watson v. fort worth bank & Trust (1988)

In reviewing candidates for promotion, Fort Worth Bank & Trust asked its supervisors to provide an assessment of

each candidate in the context of the position’s require- ments. Clara Watson, who had been denied a promo- tion, challenged the system. The bank had argued that it did not have to establish that subjective evaluations such as those provided by the supervisors met the validity requirements established in previous case law for objective measures such as cognitive ability tests. The Court’s ruling established that companies using subjec- tive evaluations based on the judgment of supervisors or raters (including those based on interviews) must show that those subjective evaluations are valid, using the same standards that the Court set for more objective assessments.

wards Cove Packing v. Antonio (1988)

unskilled, low-paying jobs in a salmon cannery were filled mostly by members of minority groups, while skilled and nonpacking jobs were filled mostly by whites. The minority workers filed a class action suit alleging discrimination based on the racial imbalance between the two types of jobs. The Court ruled against the cannery workers. It held that the appropriate comparison for determining adverse impact was between qualified job applicants from the two different racial groups or between the proportions of those selected in different groups from the qualified pool of appli- cants. It further ruled that any racial imbalance must be attributable to an employment practice and not a result of statistical imbalances in the work force. The Court added that where an employment practice led to adverse impact, any alternative that led to less or no adverse impact must also be as effective as the practice it was replacing in meeting the organization’s legitimate business purposes. The Court’s ruling made it more difficult to establish an adverse impact case.

disadvantaged groups are not, themselves, discriminatory. In the United States, courts have often overturned programs on the grounds of “reverse discrimination.” A second major difference is that there is no comparable ruling in Canada to the Wards Cove Packing decision. In fact, the Meiorin decision (discussed in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.7 and elsewhere) has set a higher standard for employers to meet before allowing discriminatory work-related practices.

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dIrect dIscrImInatIon and adverse effect dIscrImInatIon

Many people have had difficulty in differentiating direct discrimination from adverse effect discrimination since the outcomes in both cases are the same: members of a protected group are subject to discrimination, although in one case the discrimination is unintentional. In a Supreme Court of Canada decision—British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Comm.) v. BCGSEU21 (the “Meiorin decision”)—Justice McLachlin argued that while one could differentiate between the two forms of discrimi-

nation, the distinction had little importance since the principal con- cern of the Court in human rights cases was the effect of an impugned law. According to Justice McLachlin, maintaining the distinction “ill serves the purpose of contemporary human rights legislation.”22

The Meiorin decision is a landmark ruling that has had a substan- tial impact on recruitment and selection policies and practices. The case originated as a complaint to the British Columbia Human Rights Commission but wound its way through the appeal process to the Supreme Court of Canada, which took up the case under the Charter of Rights. Background on the case is presented in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.7.

The Meiorin decision undermines use of the four-fifths rule as a defence to discrimination. Justice McLachlin wrote that leaving a “neutral” practice in place, even if its adverse effects were felt by only a small number of people, was questionable. The policy or practice is itself discriminatory because it treats some individuals differently from others on the basis of a prohibited ground; the size of the “affected group” is irrelevant. This suggests that the Court would not approve a selection practice that met the four-fifths rule.

In contrast to the Wards Cove Packing v. Antonio U.S. Supreme Court decision, the Canadian Supreme Court placed a higher onus on Canadian organizations to put in place nondiscriminatory selection procedures. The ruling laid out a unified approach for establishing whether performance standards for a job are discriminatory and rein- forced the concept of individual accommodation in the workplace. Like the Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody decision in the United States,

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.7

THE MEIoRIN CAsE

Ms Meiorin was employed for three years by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests as a member of a three- person Initial Attack Forest Firefighting Crew in the golden Forest District. The crew’s job was to attack and suppress forest fires while they were small and could be con- tained. Ms. Meiorin’s supervisors found her work to be satisfactory.

Ms. Meiorin was not asked to take a physical fit- ness test until 1994, when she was required to pass the government’s “Bona Fide occupational Fitness Tests and standards for B.C. Forest service Wildland Firefighters” (the “Tests”). The Tests required that the forest firefighters weigh less than 200 lbs. (with their equipment) and com- plete a shuttle run, an upright rowing exercise, and a

(continued )

Female firefighters undergoing training.

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pump carrying/hose dragging exercise within stipulated times. The running test was designed to test the forest firefighters’ aerobic fitness and was based on the view that forest firefighters must have a minimum “vo2 max” of 50 ml.kg-1.min-1 (the “aerobic standard”). “vo2 max” measures “maximal oxygen uptake,” or the rate at which the body can take in oxygen, transport it to the muscles, and use it to produce energy.

The Tests were developed in response to a 1991 Coro- ner’s Inquest Report that recommended that only physically fit employees be assigned as front-line forest firefighters for safety reasons. The government commissioned a team of researchers from the university of victoria to undertake a review of its existing fitness standards with a view to protecting the safety of firefighters while meeting human rights norms. The researchers developed the Tests by iden- tifying the essential components of forest firefighting, mea- suring the physiological demands of those components, selecting fitness tests to measure those demands and, finally, assessing the validity of those tests.

The researchers studied various sample groups. The specific tasks performed by forest firefighters were identified by reviewing amalgamated data collected by the British Columbia Forest service. The physiological demands of those tasks were then measured by observing test subjects as they performed them in the field. one simulation involved 18 firefighters, another involved 10 firefighters, but it is unclear from the researchers’ report whether the subjects at this stage were male or female. The researchers asked a pilot group of 10 university stu- dent volunteers (6 females and 4 males) to perform a series of proposed fitness tests and field exercises. After refining the preferred tests, the researchers observed them being performed by a larger sample group composed of 31 forest firefighter trainees and 15 university student vol- unteers (31 males and 15 females), and correlated their results with the group’s performance in the field. Having concluded that the preferred tests were accurate predic- tors of actual forest firefighting performance—including the running test designed to gauge whether the subject met the aerobic standard—the researchers presented their report to the government in 1992.

A follow-up study in 1994 of 77 male forest fire- fighters and 2 female forest firefighters used the same methodology. However, the researchers this time recom- mended that the government initiate another study to

examine the impact of the Tests on women. There is no evidence before us that the government responded to this recommendation.

Two aspects of the researchers’ methodology are critical to this case. First, it was primarily descriptive or “impressionistic,” based on measuring the average per- formance levels of the test subjects and converting this data into minimum performance standards. second, it did not seem to distinguish between the male and female test subjects.

After four attempts, Ms. Meiorin failed to meet the aerobic standard, running the distance in 11 minutes and 49.4 seconds instead of the required 11 minutes. As a result, she was laid off. Her union subsequently brought a grievance on her behalf. The arbitrator designated to hear the grievance was required to determine whether she had been improperly dismissed.

Evidence accepted by the arbitrator demonstrated that, owing to physiological differences, most women have lower aerobic capacity than most men. Even with training, most women cannot increase their aerobic capacity to the level required by the aerobic standard, although training can allow most men to meet it. The arbitrator also heard evidence that 65 percent to 70 percent of male applicants pass the Tests on their initial attempts, while only 35 per- cent of female applicants have similar success. of the 800 to 900 Initial Attack Crew members employed by the gov- ernment in 1995, only 100 to 150 were female.

There was no credible evidence showing that the prescribed aerobic capacity was necessary for either men or women to perform the work of a forest firefighter sat- isfactorily. on the contrary, Ms. Meiorin had in the past performed her work well, without apparent risk to herself, her colleagues or the public.

The Court overturned Ms. Meiorin’s dismissal and in the process set new legal standards for the use of employ- ment tests that continue to influence hiring standards. The decision also articulated a unified concept of discrimination, a new requirement for establishing bona fide occupational requirements, the need for individual accommodation, and the need to consider reasonable alternatives for practices that may be discriminatory. These aspects of the Meiorin decision will be discussed throughout this chapter. The complete Meiorin decision may be found at https://scc- csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1724/index.do? r=AAAAAqAqbWvpb3JpbiBkzWNpc2lvbgE

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this decision established new guidelines for research used in validating selection systems. These issues are addressed in greater detail in the following sections.

Bona fIde occuPatIonaL requIrement

Most human rights acts in Canada allow an employer to defend a discriminatory policy or practice as a bona fide occupational requirement (BFOR) if there is a good reason for it based on the employer’s need to “engage and retain efficient employees”23 The Canadian Human Rights Act24 states that it is not a discriminatory practice if any refusal, exclusion, suspension, limitation, specification, or preference in relation to any employ- ment is established by an employer to be based on a bona fide occupational requirement. A BFOR is sometimes referred to as a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ); however, the term used in jurisprudence is BFOR.

The Supreme Court of Canada’s Etobicoke decision25 specified that a legitimate BFOR was imposed by an employer

honestly, in good faith, and in the sincerely held belief that it is imposed in the interests of adequate performance of the work involved with reasonable dispatch, safety and economy and not for ulterior or extraneous reasons that could defeat the Code’s purpose. The qualification must be objectively related to the employment con- cerned, ensuring its efficient and economical performance without endangering the employee, his fellow employees and the general public.

Statistical and medical evidence was to be given more weight than the impressions or persons with respect to the need for the BFOR.

This definition of a BFOR guided selection policies and human resource practices until the Meiorin decision, where Justice McLachlin set out a new “unified approach” to defining a BFOR for cases of both direct and adverse effect discrimination:

Having considered the various alternatives, I propose the following three-step test for determining whether a prima facie discriminatory standard is a BFOR. An employer may justify the impugned standard by establishing on the balance of probabilities:

(1) that the employer adopted the standard for a purpose rationally connected to the performance of the job;

(2) that the employer adopted the particular standard in an honest and good faith belief that it was necessary to the fulfilment of that legitimate work-related pur- pose; and

(3) that the standard is reasonably necessary to the accomplishment of that legitimate work-related purpose. To show that the standard is reasonably necessary, it must be demonstrated that it is impossible to accommodate individual employees sharing the characteristics of the claimant without imposing undue hardship upon the employer.

The “standard” referred to in this decision is the BC government’s use of aerobics tests to assess forest firefighters against a minimum test score set for the “maximal oxygen uptake.” This standard was believed to be necessary for firefighters to meet the physical demands required in fighting forest fires. All candidates had to meet the same minimum

Bona fide occupational requirement (Bfor) A procedure used to defend a discriminatory employment practice or policy on the grounds that the policy or practice was adopted in an honest and good- faith belief that it was reasonably necessary to assure the efficient and economical performance of the job without endangering employees or the general public. BFORs are sometimes referred to as bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs).

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test score. The Supreme Court found that the standard had a prima facie discriminatory effect on women. Women have, on average, a lower aerobic capacity than men and had difficulty achieving the minimum test score that had been set for the test. Fewer women, therefore, would be hired under the standard.

The Court held that the BC government had met the first two steps of the unified approach by adopting the standard in an honest and good-faith belief that the standard was job-related and was linked to successful job performance. It failed, however, to dem- onstrate to the Court’s satisfaction that the minimum performance standard set on the aerobics tests was reasonably necessary to the accomplishment of the legitimate work- related purpose for which it had been adopted. The employer had not demonstrated that women required the same minimum level of aerobic capacity as men to perform the job safely and efficiently; nor had the employer shown that it was impossible to accom- modate women candidates without imposing undue hardship upon itself. The employer failed to demonstrate that the aerobics standard was a BFOR under the new “unified” definition and so could not successfully defend the use of the test for assessing the fitness of forest firefighters.

It is the duty of an employer to put in place modifications to discriminatory employ- ment practices or procedures to meet the needs of members of a protected group being affected by the employment practice or procedure. As part of a BFOR defence, an employer must demonstrate that such accommodation is impossible to achieve without incurring undue hardship in terms of the organization’s expense or operations.

reasonaBLe accommodatIon

The concept of reasonable accommodation is incorporated into the concept of a bona fide occupational requirement. Where discrimination has occurred, the employer is under a duty to accommodate the complainant, short of undue hardship. For example, an employer who administers a standardized employment test in selection may have to dem- onstrate that test instructions were appropriately modified to allow persons with mental or physical disabilities a fair chance to demonstrate their ability. For example, persons with attention deficit disorders may require additional time to complete a standardized test than other job applicants. The Supreme Court of Canada in O’Malley placed the employer under a burden to take reasonable steps to accommodate the complainant, with hardship occurring at the point where a policy or practice (such as modifying a selection procedure) causes undue interference in the operation of the business or unsupportable expense to the employer. In the Central Alberta Dairy Pool decision, the Court noted some factors that are relevant to assessing whether an employer has reasonably accommo- dated an individual or group protected under human rights legislation. Included among these factors that place the employer under a greater or lesser burden of accommodation are the following:

1. the financial cost to the employer as a result of making the accommodation;

2. disruption of an existing collective agreement;

3. the impact of lowered morale on other employees;

4. flexibility of work force and facilities;

5. the size of the employer’s operation; and

6. the magnitude of risk for workers and the general public when safety is compromised.

accommodation The three-part Meiorin test is now the standard under which all workplace practices, including selection testing, constitute bona fide occupational requirements. It is the test that courts, tribunals, and arbitrators use in determining whether a workplace practice can be considered to be a BFOR when considering whether those practices constitute either adverse or direct discrimination against individuals or groups.

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Later, in Renaud,26 the Court held that while disruption of a collective agreement that seriously infringed on the protected rights of employees could constitute undue hardship under certain conditions, both the employer and the union had a duty to accommodate Mr. Renaud, and could not use the excuse that changing the collective agreement to accommodate him would infringe the collective rights of other employees. The Renaud decision is important as it established that a union could be found to have discriminated against employees and also that it had an obligation to support an employer’s reasonable attempts to accommodate an employee.

IndIvIduaL accommodatIon

The concept of individual accommodation follows that of reasonable accommodation. The standard for individual accommodation has evolved over three important Supreme Court of Canada cases. In the Bhinder decision, the Court by majority found that once an employment policy or practice has been established as a BFOR, there was no need for the employer to accommodate the special circumstances of the individual. For example, suppose that an individual with arthritis has asked for reasonable accommodation to this disability and wants to complete a realistic work sample in place of the usual standard- ized manual dexterity test required of job applicants. Under the Bhinder decision, the employer would not be under a burden to grant the applicant’s request. The minority, however, argued that finding a rule to be a BFOR did not excuse an employer from accommodating an employee to the point of undue hardship.

Five years later, the Central Alberta Dairy Pool decision reversed, in part, the Bhinder decision. The majority on the Court ruled that workplace practices that had an adverse impact on individuals were discriminatory unless the employer accommodated the indi- vidual to the point of undue hardship. It upheld Bhinder in stating that a workplace practice that was a BFOR and had a direct effect on individuals was not discriminatory, with no obligation on the employer to accommodate the individual. The minority on the Court argued that there was a need for accommodation whether the practice had a direct or adverse impact on individuals. In the aftermath of the Dairy Pool decision, an employer might show that a workplace practice such as hiring only workers with excellent manual dexterity was a BFOR. If a manual dexterity test then had an adverse impact on applicants who had arthritis in their hands, the employer would have to accommodate the arthritic job candidate, even if that person was the only candidate with that disability applying for the job. The employer might accommodate such a candidate by using a realistic work sample or job tryout in place of the standardized test. On the other hand, if the employer could show that not hiring people with arthritis was a BFOR, then the employer could state that it would not hire anyone with that condition, and that would not constitute discrimination.

Finally, in 1999, the Court’s Meiorin decision adopted the reasoning of the minority in the Dairy Pool case and stipulated that adverse and direct discrimination were discrimi- nation and that employment practices, even if they were BFORs, which resulted in either type had to be accommodated. In our example, the employer could not state that based on a BFOR it would not hire anyone with arthritis; furthermore, the employer would have to modify the testing procedures to allow for individual accommodation for any applicant with arthritis who requested accommodation. All persons with arthritis could not be treated as a group. Their unique talents needed to be assessed through a testing procedure that accommodated their disability. Recruitment and Selection Today 3.8 describes the changing need to accommodate caregiving responsibilities in the workplace

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based on some recent human rights cases involving accommodation based on family status. While the Federal Court of Appeal has taken a position, these cases will most likely go to the Supreme Court for a final decision. Stay tuned.

Clearly, employers can no longer apply a BFOR as a general practice or policy and by so doing disproportionately exclude members of a protected group, especially in the case of mental or physical disability. To establish a BFOR, the employer must successfully

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 3.8

ACCoMMoDATIoN oF CAREgIvINg REsPoNsIBIlITIEs: A kEY EMPloYMENT IssuE

A jurisprudential logjam seems to be breaking up on the issue of the caregiving responsibilities of workers. In two recent decisions, Canadian National Railway Co. v. seeley (CHRR Doc. 13-3041) and Canada (Attorney general) v. Johnstone (CHRR Doc. 13-3006), the Federal Court ruled in favour of women whose family childcare responsibilities conflicted with work rules.

The women were both working for employers with rotating or unpredictable schedules. When Denise seeley, a freight train conductor whose home depot was Jasper, Alberta, did not report to vancouver to cover a shortage because she could not arrange adequate childcare, she was fired by Canadian National. When Fiona Johnstone, a border services agent, requested a static shift so that she could make stable childcare arrangements instead of working 56-day rotating shifts, the Canadian Border ser- vices Agency offered her only part-time hours.

For women workers the conflict between work requirements and childcare responsibilities has always been a key equality issue, and women have been penal- ized as workers because they are the primary caregivers for children and other family members. They have found it necessary to leave paid work, cut back hours, step aside from promotions, or avoid assignments that require travel in order to care for their family members.

Today about 60 percent of women work for pay in Canada with about two thirds of these women workers having children under the age of 6 years. some of them are also responsible for older parents—members of the “sandwich generation.” Women (and some men too) are increasingly in conflict with employers who want them as workers, but also want them to function as though they do not have family responsibilities.

In the cases on family status discrimination, federal employers—sometimes represented by the Attorney gen- eral of Canada—have made a series of arguments: the ground “family status” does not include parental childcare obligations, since it only protects a “status,” not obliga- tions integral to it; figuring out how to balance the obliga- tions of family life and work belongs in the home, not in the workplace; parents make choices about how to care for their children, and those personal choices are not pro- tected by human rights legislation. In short, these federal employers take the position that families have nothing to do with them, and they do not have a duty to accommodate a worker’s need to provide adequate childcare.

The B.C. Court of Appeal encouraged this resistance in its 2004 decision in Health sciences Assn. of British Columbia v. Campbell River and North Island Transition society (50 C.H.R.R. D/140). That Court ruled that to estab- lish “family status” discrimination a complainant had to show that an employer changed a term or condition of work and the change caused a “serious interference” with a family obligation. Application of this test would defeat most family status discrimination claims.

Fortunately, there is now a line of cases that reject these arguments, including Whyte v. Canadian National Railway Co. (71 C.H.R.R. D/316), seeley, and Johnstone. The ground “family status” includes childcare obligations, according to the Federal Court, and there is no reason to make the threshold for proving family status discrimination more onerous than it is for any other ground.

There is a new opportunity to address the conflicts between work rules and family obligations, and a new opening for research, study and consultation on how these conflicts affect women and men in their families and at work.

source: Canadian Human Rights Reporter, “Accommodation of Caregiving Responsibilities: A key Employment Issue,” oct. 31, 2013. http://www.cdn- hr-reporter.ca/content/accommodation-caregiving-responsibilities-key-employment-issue.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL98

argue that accommodating the needs of the adversely affected individual would produce undue economic or administrative hardship for the organization. Justice McLachlin raised the requirements for establishing a BFOR in Meiorin by specifying the three-part BFOR test. Employers must now demonstrate that it is impossible to accommodate individual employees who are members of the protected group without imposing undue hardship on the employer. As stated by Justice McLachlin:

Employers designing workplace standards owe an obligation to be aware of both the differences between individuals, and differences that characterize groups of individuals. They must build conceptions of equality into workplace standards. By enacting human rights statutes and providing that they are applicable to the work- place, the legislatures have determined that the standards governing the performance of work should be designed to reflect all members of society, in so far as this is reason- ably possible. Courts and tribunals must bear this in mind when confronted with a claim of employment-related discrimination. To the extent that a standard unneces- sarily fails to reflect the differences among individuals, it runs afoul of the prohibitions contained in the various human rights statutes and must be replaced. The standard itself is required to provide for individual accommodation, if reasonably possible. A standard that allows for such accommodation may be only slightly different from the existing standard but it is a different standard nonetheless.

reasonaBLe aLternatIve

The concept of reasonable alternative is also closely related to the BFOR. Under the burden of reasonable alternative, the employer must show that no reasonable or prac- tical substitute exists for the discriminatory practice. For example, where the employer uses a cognitive ability test that has adverse impact on members of visible minorities, a tribunal may require that employer to show that no other valid selection predictor (e.g., a different employment test or a structured interview) is available that has less adverse impact. The concept of reasonable alternative can involve important elements of individual accommodation as well. As stated in the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal decision of Andrews v. Treasury Board and Department of Transport (1994), as part of a BFOR defence, an employer must usually explain why it was not possible to assess indi- vidually the risk presented by an employee. For example, an employer who administers a manual dexterity test to all job applicants may have to show a tribunal why it was not possible to provide a practical work sample test as a reasonable alternative to assess the ability of one particular disabled applicant to do the job. Indeed, the Meiorin decision placed more stringent obligations on employers to search for reasonable alternatives (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.4).

accommodatIng PHysIcaL and mentaL dIsaBILIty

The Supreme Court explicitly applied the Meiorin ruling to disability cases, such as Grismer v. British Columbia (A.G).27 The Court emphasized that individualized, rather than standardized, testing must be used to accommodate individuals with disabilities. This case did not involve the workplace but nonetheless has serious implications with respect to the accommodation of workplace disability. The Grismer case revolved around the Superintendent of Motor Vehicles’ refusal to issue a driver’s licence on the basis of a visual disability. The Supreme Court ruled that the defendants in human rights cases, here the

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Superintendent of Motor Vehicles, have the burden of demonstrating that the standard they have adopted “incorporates every possible accommodation to the point of undue hardship, whether that hardship takes the form of impossibility, serious risk or excessive cost.” The Grismer case suggests that an employer must accept some moderate risk in accommodating individuals with disabilities while maintaining reasonable safety standards.

In a subsequent ruling (Québec [Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse] v. Montréal [City]),29 the Court broadened the definition of disability and directed employers to take into account the social context of the impairment. The Court ruled that a person with a disability must be assessed in terms of that person’s own unique abilities; the person’s disability must not be viewed through any prejudice or bias, stigma, or misunderstanding on the part of the employer about the disability.

suffIcIent rIsk

The notion of risk is important to the concepts of BFOR, reasonable and individual accommodation, and reasonable alternative. That is, the employer is obliged to accom- modate workers, including job applicants, and provide reasonable alternatives up to, but not beyond, a certain level of risk. But what constitutes sufficient risk? Tribunals and courts have restricted the application of the risk criterion to those situations in which workplace safety is at issue. After the Grismer decision, each case will be judged on its own unique merits with respect to the degree of risk imposed by the disability. For example, an airline company may set a visual acuity standard for pilots, requiring that all candidates have uncorrected 20/20 full-colour vision, and defend this standard on the

sufficient risk As part of a BFOR defence, an employer may argue that an occupational require- ment that discriminates against a protected group is reasonably necessary to ensure that work will be per- formed successfully and in a manner that will not pose harm or danger to employees or the public.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.4

sEARCH FoR REAsoNABlE AlTERNATIvEs

The Meiorin decision requires an employer to address the following questions as part of establishing a defence that there were no reasonable alternatives to a practice that discriminated against individual workers. These questions are taken verbatim from the supreme Court decision28:

(a) Has the employer investigated alternative approaches that do not have a discriminatory effect, such as individual testing against a more individually sensitive standard?

(b) If alternative standards were investigated and found to be capable of fulfilling the employ- er’s purpose, why were they not implemented?

(c) Is it necessary to have all employees meet the single standard for the employer to accom- plish its legitimate purpose or could standards

reflective of group or individual differences and capabilities be established?

(d) Is there a way to do the job that is less dis- criminatory while still accomplishing the employ- er’s legitimate purpose?

(e) Is the standard properly designed to ensure that the desired qualification is met without placing an undue burden on those to whom the standard applies?

(f) Have other parties who are obliged to assist in the search for possible accommodation ful- filled their roles? As Sopinka noted in Renaud, supra, at pp. 992–96, the task of determining how to accommodate individual differences may also place burdens on the employee and, if there is a collective agreement, a union.

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grounds that public safety would be compromised without it; however, a delivery com- pany might not be able to defend not hiring a driver who was legally blind in one eye.

The Supreme Court addressed the issue of sufficient risk in the Grismer case. While the magnitude of the risk and those who might be affected by it must be assessed, the risk must be considered in the context of human rights issues. The aim is not to lower safety standards but to find options that meet the safety standards and at the same time respect human rights. In Grismer case, the Court confirmed that risk had a limited role in determining a BFOR and that sufficient risk alone could not justify a discriminatory standard. Risk can still be considered under an assessment of undue hardship but not as a justification for a discriminatory action. The critical issue is whether the safety standard was reasonably necessary to ensure safety.

One area where direct discrimination might still happen with some regularity is in the area of physical or mental disability. For example, a hospital employer might screen out from the hiring process all people with HIV or with AIDS. The concern of the employer would probably centre on the safety of patients during use of invasive tech- niques (such as injections by syringe). If the hospital did intentionally exclude all persons with HIV/AIDS during selection, then the employer would have to establish a BFOR and show through the use of objective data that (1) people with HIV/AIDS are a sufficient safety risk; (2) all persons with HIV/AIDS present a safety risk; (3) individual testing of applicants with HIV/AIDS is impossible or impractical; and (4) that these individuals cannot be accommodated without imposing undue hardship on the employer.

The sufficient risk criterion means that the risk must be well above a minimal or nominal risk. A minimal or nominal risk criterion would, for example, suggest that a person with muscular dystrophy should not be hired because that person might be injured in a fall (an organizational policy that many human rights authorities would argue reinforces a ste- reotype about the physically disabled, rather than being supportable by fact). On the other hand, a severe vision disability in an airline pilot would be well above minimal or nominal risk, because a plane crash caused or contributed to by that disability could kill hundreds of people. In that instance, risk resulting from the disability might well be sufficient to justify the otherwise discriminatory action of refusing to offer the disabled person a job.

In Québec v. Montréal (City) the Supreme Court was quite clear in stating that the limitations imposed by a disability must be considered individually within a particular context and that some risk is acceptable. Decisions about hiring someone with a dis- ability cannot be made on the basis of prejudice or stereotypes held about the limitations imposed by the disability.

LegaL concePts aPPLIed to recruItment and seLectIon

Two human rights decisions illustrate the application of the above principles to employers’ recruitment or selection systems. In both decisions, each employer’s system was found wanting and the court or tribunal awarded damages or remedies to the complainant. Both decisions continue to have a significant impact on recruitment and selection in Canada.

The first decision is that of Action travail des femmes v. Canadian National (1984). Here a women’s group in Quebec lodged a complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission aimed at CN’s recruitment and selection practices in the St. Lawrence region. Action travail des femmes alleged that CN’s practices disproportionately excluded women from nontraditional jobs, including those of trade apprentice, brakeman, and coach cleaner, all of which were male dominated. Furthermore, the group alleged that the employment practices in question were not bona fide occupational requirements.

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One selection predictor that came under scrutiny by the tribunal was the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, which was used to select people for entry-level posi- tions. The Bennett is known to have adverse impact against women, and, in addition, CN had not validated it for the jobs in question. As a result, the tribunal ordered CN to stop using the test. In addition, the tribunal ordered CN to cease a number of other discriminatory recruitment and selection practices. The tribunal also ordered CN to begin a special hiring program with the goal of increasing the representation of women in nontraditional jobs in the company. This decision was widely noted at the time and has since influenced recruitment and hiring practices in Canada.

The second decision is that of Andrews v. Treasury Board and Department of Trans- port (1994). In that decision, a Canadian Human Rights tribunal criticized a practical hearing test developed to assess a hearing-impaired applicant to the Canadian Coast Guard College. The test, which was administered in place of a maximum hearing loss standard for Canadian Coast Guard officers, was designed at a cost of over $100 000 and consisted of 14 different subtests administered to the applicant on the bridge of an operating Coast Guard ship. The subtest scenarios were administered by Coast Guard staff, who in turn supervised crew members of the ship serving as role players. The applicant’s responses to the subtest scenarios were recorded and then compared against predetermined test standards.

Andrews subsequently failed the test, was declined admission to the college, and filed a complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission. When testifying about the test during the tribunal hearings, expert witnesses criticized it on various grounds, including incomplete technical development, lack of reliability and validity, administration under insufficiently standardized conditions, and absence of norm data against which to compare and interpret the applicant’s scores. The tribunal concluded that the practical hearing test was discriminatory and granted monetary compensation to the complainant Andrews.

In the Andrews v. Treasury Board and Department of Transport decision, the tribunal cited the legal principles previously discussed in this chapter. The complainant, Andrews, lodged his complaint against the Coast Guard on the grounds of physical disability (hearing impairment) and also alleged both direct discrimination and adverse effect dis- crimination. The application of the hearing loss standard had the effect of producing adverse impact against hearing-disabled persons.

The tribunal found that the Coast Guard had discriminated against Andrews by refusing him entry to the Coast Guard College and then considered whether the Coast Guard had successfully argued a BFOR defence. The tribunal accepted the subjective ele- ment of the BFOR (that the Coast Guard had set the limitation honestly, in good faith, and in sincerity that the limitation was necessary), but rejected the Coast Guard argument that it had established the objective element of the BFOR. Importantly, the tribunal found that the Coast Guard had not established the practical hearing test as a BFOR because of the numerous technical problems associated with it; that is, the Coast Guard had failed to validate the practical hearing test according to the accepted professional standards dis- cussed in Chapter 2. What is more, the tribunal found that Andrews could have been rea- sonably and individually accommodated by use of a less expensive and simpler test, which would have been a reasonable alternative to the practical hearing test. Finally, the nature of Andrews’s disability did not pose sufficient risk to the safe performance of a Coast Guard navigational officer to justify denying him entry to the college to train for the job.

A comparison between these two decisions, which were made 10 years apart, illus- trates that at least four important legal concepts:

1. reasonable accommodation,

2. individual accommodation,

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL102

3. reasonable alternative, and

4. sufficient risk,

assumed greater importance in the 1990s than in the 1980s, as they do today. In 1999 the Meiorin and Grismer decisions placed an even greater emphasis on these four legal con- cepts. Because of the rapidly evolving character of legal issues in Canadian HRM, practi- tioners and HR specialists must continually upgrade their knowledge and skills in this area.

// Part III: some PractIcaL guIdeLInes In nondIscrImInatory recruItment and seLectIon The first two parts of this chapter provided a historical and conceptual backdrop for legal issues in recruitment and selection in Canada. They reviewed important court and tribunal decisions that have affected the practice of recruitment and selection in Canada. This third part presents some practical guidelines for developing nondiscriminatory recruitment and selection practices and for reviewing and improving those practices already in place.

The guidelines presented here are exactly that—guidelines; they are not meant to be applied in a mechanical fashion. The guidelines point to the right direction and help to identify typical problem areas in recruitment and selection systems. The guidelines should stimulate critical discussion and appraisal of those systems with an eye to improvement. There are no easy answers to many of the problems discussed in this chapter; the issues are simply too complex. HR managers may need to draw on the expert help of legal and professional consultants in dealing with many of these complex issues, particularly when there is insufficient time or expertise to deal with them in-house.

key PractIcaL consIderatIons In nondIscrImInatory recruItment

Recruitment is a complex HR activity. This can make it difficult to develop nondis- criminatory recruitment practices for protected group members (in the case of human rights legislation) or designated group members (in the case of employment equity). The

scope of practices that must be considered is more manage- able if the success or failure of recruitment is traced back to two main causes: (1) the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the organization in contacting and communicating with target group members and (2) the positive or negative perceptions that target group members hold about the organization. (It is irrelevant whether those perceptions existed before the target group members were recruited or whether they developed during the recruiting process.)

People will not apply for a job if they are unaware that the job or organization exists or that the organization is recruiting. Getting the word out is not enough—job seekers must have a positive perception of the organization, as well as of their chances of getting the job, before they will apply. That perception is formed in at least two ways: (1) at the time Hiring workers with disabilities.

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NEL 103CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

the organization makes the initial contact through its outreach recruiting; or (2) through knowledge gained about the organization and its practices via third parties (e.g., friends, family, or news media). An organization must make a determined and persistent effort to make potential job applicants, including designated group members, aware of available positions within the employing organization.

Several Canadian companies have developed outreach programs to attract members of protected groups. The Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) uses three programs to attract qualified persons with disabilities. The RBC’s Pursue Your Potential program helps per- sons with disabilities and Aboriginal people to become aware of career opportunities that may be available to them, and to understand the recruitment and selection process. The RBC’s Job Search Assistance program helps persons with disabilities search for a job and prepares them for interviews. Most successfully, it developed the Ability Edge Internships with RBC, where university, college, and high school students with disabilities receive paid internships with RBC. IBM also provides scholarship and internship programs for university students with disabilities who are pursuing careers in computer science, soft- ware engineering, or other areas related to information technology.30

Recruitment and Selection Notebooks 3.5 and 3.6 present a summary of effective and ineffective recruiting practices. They provide some practical guidance on what to do and what not to do when setting up and running recruitment programs that will meet legal requirements. In addition, Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.7 presents a list of tribunals, commissions, and resources.

outreach recruiting A recruitment practice where the employing organization makes a determined and per- sistent effort to make potential job applicants, including designated group members, aware of available positions within the employing organization.

Effective Practices

• In employment offices, post in a conspicuous spot complete, objective, and specific information on all available jobs.

• Advertise job openings in media that are read, viewed, or listened to by protected or designated group members.

• Train employment clerical staff and recruitment officers in outreach recruiting.

• use opportunities to visually present protected or designated group members in positive employment roles (e.g., in brochures and posters in employ- ment office waiting areas, postings on company websites, and profiles of board members).

• Establish networks with community groups from which protected or designated group members are drawn.

• set and advertise objectively determined selection criteria for the job.

• Base selection criteria on bona fide occupational requirements.

ineffective Practices

• Permit receptionists and recruiters in employment offices to “pre-screen” applicants on the basis of informal criteria (e.g., appearance, dress).

• Rely on word-of-mouth advertising.

• Post job advertisements only in-house.

• Rely solely on seniority when promoting employees without regard for meeting the qualifications need for the position.

• Allow each recruiter to use and communicate idiosyncratic criteria for selecting among job applicants.

• Categorize and stream job applicants based on stereotyped assumptions about protected or des- ignated group membership (e.g., that women are not physically strong enough for certain work).

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.5

PRACTICEs FoR NoNDIsCRIMINAToRY RECRuITINg

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL104

• Include in the job advertising role models from protected or designated groups, as well as equal opportunity statements.

• Implement management practices and policies that recognize and deal with special challenges or difficulties faced by protected or designated groups (e.g., wheelchair ramps for people with physical disabilities).

• Communicate and demonstrate the commitment of senior management to outreach recruiting.

• Actively challenge negative myths and stereotypes about protected or designated group members (e.g., through training programs).

• Bring organizational policies and procedures into line with human rights and employment equity legislation.

• Reward supervisors and managers through the pay and promotion system for success in advancing human rights and employment equity goals.

• Build outreach recruiting into departmental and organizational business plans.

• set specific and measurable recruiting targets against which managers can work.

• Present protected and designated group members in positive roles within organization newspapers and magazines.

• offer training and development programs to pro- tected and designated group members to address their specific needs in adapting and progressing within the organization.

• Modify working conditions as needed to accommodate protected and designated group members.

Practices That Promote negative Recruiting Perceptions

• Permit sexual, racial, or other forms of harassment in the organization.

• show lack of interest by senior management in improving recruitment practices.

• Allow negative myths and stereotypes to persist regarding the capabilities of protected and desig- nated group members.

• leave outreach recruiting unrewarded by the pay and promotion system.

• leave outreach recruiting out of departmental and organizational business plans.

• Tell managers to “do your best” in recruiting protected and designated group members rather than providing them with specific numerical targets.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.6

PRACTICEs THAT PRoMoTE PosITIvE RECRuITINg PERCEPTIoNs

The Canadian Human Rights Commission website will pro- vide you with access to a list of recent reports, guides, and other materials that you can read directly from the site, print, or download. You can obtain a copy of the guide to screening and selection in Employment on Canadian Human Rights Commission website. HR managers and others who engage in recruitment and selection should

make a habit of reviewing recent information, including new decisions.

Human Rights Commissions

• Canadian Human Rights Commission

• Alberta Human Rights Commission

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 3.7

HuMAN RIgHTs CoMMIssIoNs AND REsouRCEs

(continued )

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NEL 105CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues

LegaL requIrements and Hr PractIce

An underlying assumption of recruitment and selection practices is that these practices are supported by empirical evidence, that they are reliable and valid procedures. Recruit- ment and selection practices that have an impact on careers or entry to occupations must be defensible with respect to legal requirements. That is, we expect practitioners to apply solutions that have a solid “scientific” grounding. Regrettably, HR practice too often runs ahead of research and leads to the adoption of interventions that do not have empirical support, or do not have support for the specific purposes for which they are used. Claims by a practitioner that a practice is “valid” because the practitioner “knows” it works or “it makes good business sense” will not meet legal scrutiny against the standards laid out in this chapter. Only those selection procedures that can be supported through empirical evidence will find acceptance with courts and human rights tribunals.

Adopting valid recruitment and selection practices is only part of the solution. Prac- titioners must ensure the proper implementation of the system and monitor it over time for any changes. It is not acceptable, for example, to show that a certain level of cogni- tive ability is a job requirement and then use an invalid test to measure it. Neither is it acceptable for the practitioner to use a valid test in an inappropriate manner or to lack the qualifications to use and interpret data from a valid test.

There is a need for better linkages between research and practice in HR. Practitio- ners must understand the need to base recruitment and selection practices on empirical evidence. These linkages have become ever more important as the field of HR moves to establish itself as an independent profession. Regulatory and credentialing systems exist to ensure the protection of the welfare of the public and clients of the practitioner and to guarantee that the practitioner operates in accordance with accepted standards of professional ethics and practice guidelines.

Practitioners are expected to use procedures and practices that not only “do no harm” but also provide benefits to the client. This is particularly important when invalid selec- tion procedures bring the HR practitioner’s organization in front of a court or tribunal and result in large-scale payouts to rectify wrongs done to employees and applicants. There are some questions that practitioners can ask to determine if the recruitment and selection procedures they are using will meet with legal acceptance:

• British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal

• Manitoba Human Rights Commission

• New Brunswick Human Rights Commission

• N e w f o u n d l a n d / l a b r a d o r H u m a n R i g h t s Commission

• Northwest Territories Human Rights Commission

• Nova scotia Human Rights Commission

• ontario Human Rights Commission

• Prince Edward Island Human Rights Commission

• quebec Human Rights Commission

• saskatchewan Human Rights Commission

• Yukon Human Rights Commission

valuable Human Rights Resources

• Canadian Human Rights Reporter (CHRR)

• Human Rights Research and Education Centre (ottawa)

• Human Rights Information and Documentation systems

• Queen’s Human Rights Bulletin

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL106

1. Do the procedures I am using result in direct or indirect discrimination?

2. If a selection procedure I am using results in direct or indirect discrimination, can I establish that it is a BFOR by showing that:

• I am adopting the selection procedure in good faith?

• the selection procedure cannot be replaced by one that is valid and has less or little adverse impact?

• the selection procedure is related to job performance or safety?

• all of those people in the class excluded by the selection procedure are inca- pable of performing the job or present a sufficient safety risk?

• individual testing of class members affected by the rule is impossible or impractical?

• there are no reasonable alternatives to that testing?

• every attempt has been made to accommodate the unique capabilities and inherent worth and dignity of every individual, up to the point of undue hardship?

3. Is the selection procedure a valid predictor of job performance?

Finally, one last thing that the HR staff may need to do is to educate management about the legal requirements that must be met in recruitment and selection. More and more Canadian organizations understand the benefits of adapting their procedures to meet legislative requirements. The intent of human rights legislation is clear: Everyone should have the opportunity to compete for the jobs available on an equal footing and on the basis of objective qualifications, regardless of group membership or employer ste- reotyping about what members of particular groups can and can’t do. If this message has not gotten through, then HR professionals have the primary responsibility for providing the necessary education within their organizations.

Selection systems must be as legally defensible as possible. HR specialists must have the knowledge and time to collect and interpret the technical data that are essential to establishing the legal defensibility of a selection system. The best defence is a system that meets the validity and reliability requirements outlined in Chapter 2; selection based on “gut feeling,” intuition, or unproven techniques will lead to embarrassment before a legal tribunal. Managers and HR staff should question and challenge each other’s assumptions about what constitutes a legally defensible selection system. Even then, the legal issues are complex enough that managers and HR staff may hold differing opinions about whether a selection system is legally defensible. In those cases, legal consultation should be obtained. Nevertheless, the discussion of practical selection problems should lead to more defensible selection systems over the long run.

// summary The Canadian work force has always been ethnically heterogeneous, and now it is becoming increasingly diverse with regard to race, gender, and disabilities. Given that recruitment and selection are crucially important HR activities for achieving diversity, human rights and employment equity are here to stay. As well, a large segment of the

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107CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues NEL

Canadian work force is unionized, which means that labour codes and related legislation will affect recruitment and selection practices in many Canadian organizations. Increas- ingly, employers must deal with issues of employee privacy issues in the workplace.

Legal issues in recruitment and selection are complex and take a great deal of time, study, and experience to master. What is more, the legal scene changes constantly and rapidly as new legislation, legislative amendments, human rights policies, and tribunal or court decisions are introduced. This requires practitioners in recruitment and selection to regularly update their knowledge and skills in legal issues. The legal scene will continue to grow and develop in the future as members of protected groups seek fuller participation in the Canadian labour market and as employers and employees (unionized and non- unionized) renegotiate their relationships through labour law and employment standards.

In this chapter we have presented an overview of the legal requirements that apply to recruitment and selection in Canada. We identified four main legal sources that influ- ence the practice of HR in Canada: (1) constitutional law; (2) human rights legislation; (3) employment equity legislation and employment equity policies; and (4) labour law, employment standards, and privacy legislation.

The impact of these laws and policies mandates recruitment and selection practices that do not discriminate on the basis of specific characteristics. While there are differences across Canada, all human rights acts prohibit discrimination in employment with respect to race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical/mental handicap or disability. Employment equity requires proactive recruitment and selection policies to increase the number of women, visible minorities, Aboriginal peoples, and people with disabilities in the workplace by removing barriers to hiring them.

The chapter presents the most significant cases that have had a major impact on recruitment and selection. Over the past 25 years, a series of decisions by the Supreme Court of Canada and the Canadian Human Rights Commission have dealt with direct and indirect discrimination. These decisions have placed increasing restrictions on an organization’s ability to use a BFOR defence against charges of discrimination, with the Meiorin decision dramatically changing the definition of a BFOR. Now, an organiza- tion must show that it is impossible to accommodate an individual employee or job applicant with respect to selection procedures without undue hardship to the company. This requirement is more stringent than similar requirements in the United States. The chapter also presents the obligations placed on an employer to accommodate employees and job applicants with respect to selection procedures and factors such as risk that may mitigate that obligation.

The chapter concludes with a presentation of some practical guidelines that will assist HR practitioners in developing recruitment and selection procedures that will meet with legal acceptance, should they have to address a human rights complaint. In closing, we also emphasize the need for HR practitioners to educate management about the legal require- ments that recruitment and selection systems must meet and that the best way of staying out of legal trouble is to use reliable and valid selection systems, as presented in Chapter 2.

key terms

Accommodation, p. 95 Adverse effect discrimination, p. 88 Adverse impact, p. 89 Bona fide occupational requirement (BFOR), p. 94 Discrimination, p. 67

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108 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

Employment equity, p. 74 Outreach recruiting, p. 103 Sufficient risk, p. 99

dIscussIon questIons

1. Would the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms prohibit an employer from putting in place a selection system that favoured women over men in the hiring process? Could such discrimination ever be justified under the Charter?

2. What are the prohibited grounds of employment discrimination in your province or territory’s jurisdiction?

3. On what grounds could a Canadian employer justify the adverse impact of a selec- tion procedure, test, or other measure?

4. What does it mean to accommodate someone to the point of undue hardship?

5. When can an apparently discriminatory selection practice be justified on the grounds of “sufficient risk”?

6. Why is basing hiring practices on a “gut feeling” risky business?

7. An employee in your province/territory requests a leave for medical purposes. You wish to verify this request with the employee’s physician. What information may you request?

eXercIses

1. We started this chapter with a real-life case where a manager and an HR professional disagree on whom to hire, with the HR professional arguing that the manager’s reasons for not hiring a female applicant would constitute a human rights violation and providing the manager with the relevant section of their province’s or territory’s human rights act. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.7 lists provincial and ter- ritorial human rights agencies. Download, or view online, a copy of your province or territory’s human rights act. (Note: The Nunavut government’s Human Resources page provides policies in relation to a number of HR issues, http://www.nhrt.ca/ splash.html.)

a. In the context of your provincial or territorial legislation, discuss whether the HR professional was correct in arguing that not hiring the female applicant would constitute a violation of your human rights act. If so, what is the basis of the alleged violation?

b. Review the cases and annual reports available on your provincial or territorial human rights agency’s website to locate a case that may be similar to the one described at the beginning of this chapter. What was the ruling in that case? Would the ruling in that case be applicable to the situation described in our example?

c. Would the manager ever be justified in not hiring the female applicant? If so, what would those circumstances be?

2. In the British Columbia (Public Service Employees Relations Commission) v. BCGSEU case, a lower appeals court had suggested that accommodating

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109CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues NEL

women by permitting them to meet a lower aerobic standard than men would constitute “reverse discrimination.” The Supreme Court of Canada disagreed and stated that “the essence of equality is to be treated according to one’s own merit, capabilities and circumstances. True equality requires that differences be accommodated. … A different aerobic standard capable of identifying women who could perform the job safely and efficiently therefore does not necessarily imply discrimination against men. ‘Reverse discrimination’ would result only if, for example, an aerobic standard representing a minimum threshold for all forest firefighters was held to be inapplicable to men simply because they were men.” What are your views on reverse discrimination? Do you agree with the views expressed by the appeals court or the Supreme Court? Why or why not? Have you ever observed or been subjected to reverse discrimination? If so, what was the situation?

3. There is considerable evidence showing that smokers are less productive than non- smokers. Costs to organizations, besides those related to medical care, health, and life insurance, include absenteeism and loss of on-the-job time. Estimates place time loss per day due to smoking at 35 minutes a day, or 18.2 lost days per year per employee who smokes. In addition, smokers are absent, on average, three more days per year than other employees. Estimates place the cost of smoking to an employer at around $4500 per smoker per year.31 These data suggest that it is in an employer’s best interests to hire only nonsmokers or to fire smokers who cannot overcome their addiction. Would such policies, of hiring only nonsmokers and firing smokers, be acceptable under human rights legislation in your province or territory? Are smokers a “protected” group under human rights legislation? How would you defend these policies to an investigator from a human rights commission?

4. You may recall hearing about females being fired from U.S. television news anchor positions because they were too old. Clearly, this practice would be contrary to all human rights codes in Canada. However, one area of discrimination that is less clear is “lookism,” in which a person is chosen for a job on the basis of his or her looks rather than his or her other qualifications. Individuals, particularly females who are overweight, tend to receive fewer job offers than others, even in cases where their appearance has no possible bearing on their work performance or where they are not involved in dealing with clients or customers. Can an employer in Canada, or in your jurisdiction, choose not to hire someone on the basis of their looks or for being overweight? Do job applicants so denied have protection under your province or territory’s human rights provisions?

5. In the Wards Cove Packing v. Antonio decision, the U.S. Supreme Court stated that where an employment practice led to adverse impact, any alternative that led to less or no adverse impact must also be as effective as the practice it was replacing in meeting the organization’s legitimate business purposes. The Court’s ruling made it more difficult to establish an adverse impact case. In the Meiorin decision, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled that a policy or practice is itself discriminatory if it treats some individuals differently from others on the basis of a prohibited ground and that the size of the affected group was irrelevant. It also stated that an organi- zation must accommodate individual employees to the point of imposing undue hardship upon the employer, unless it was impossible to do so. Discuss these two approaches to addressing selection practices that lead to adverse impact. Which approach do you support? Why?

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110 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

CAsE sTudy viCTim Of disCRiminATiOn?

Marita Smith works as a data entry clerk in a government department that is under- going downsizing. Smith, who is severely hearing-impaired, has been a productive employee in her department for the last five years. Her performance has always been above average.

Smith has received notice that her position is being eliminated as part of the downsizing. Under her union’s contract, she must be given preference for any gov- ernment job for which she is qualified. She must be given the job at the expense of other workers, even those already in the position, who may have less seniority. This practice is known as “bumping.” Smith has been invited to apply for a term position in another government department, which is converting archival data from paper to an electronic database. To qualify for the position, Smith will have to pass an interview, a timed typing test, an accuracy test that involves accuracy in transcribing information from a computer screen, and another accuracy test that involves fol- lowing written instructions to enter written records into the computer database. These are the same tests that all candidates for the position have had to pass to become eligible for the job.

Smith was interviewed one week prior to being administered the three skill tests. The interview protocol followed a standardized form used by all government depart- ments. The three skill tests were administered to groups of nine applicants each. The applicants were seated at desks with computers, which were arranged in three rows of three desks each. The instructions for the tests were given verbally by the test administrator. Smith was provided with the services of a sign language interpreter during the testing and interview sessions.

Smith passed the interview but failed the skill tests. Her scores are presented in Table 3.5, along with the minimum scores that had to be obtained on each test to receive a job offer. Based on her performance on the tests, Smith did not receive an offer for the job and was laid off when her current job ended. Smith now believes that she was the victim of discrimination based on her physical disability; she claims that during the interview many references were made to her disability and that the inter- viewer always addressed questions to the sign language interpreter and never made eye contact with her. She feels that she was at a disadvantage in taking the skills tests.

sTAndARds smiTH

Interview 30 out of 50 points 36

Typing Test 50 words per minute with 5 errors or fewer

36 wpm 5 errors

Accuracy—Following Instructions

7 out of 10 5.5

Accuracy—Transcribing 7 out of 10 5

TAbLE 3.5

smiTH’s sCOREs RELATivE TO sTAndARds nEEdEd TO PAss EACH TEsT

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111CHAPTER 3 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues NEL

Her prospective employer claims that had she passed the tests she would have been hired and her disability would have been accommodated. The employer argues that the testing standards were reasonably necessary for the efficient performance of the work. The standards in Table 3.5 are being justified as bona fide occupational requirements (BFORs). Smith has now filed a complaint with her provincial human rights commission.

questIons

1. Should Smith have received a job offer? Why or why not? (In answering this and the following questions, base your arguments on the court cases presented in this chapter.)

2. Was Smith the victim of discrimination because of her disability?

3. Did she receive appropriate accommodation?

4. Are the employer’s standards defensible as a BFOR?

5. Based on the material presented in this chapter, do you think the human rights commission will support her claim of discrimination?

6. If you were the employer’s legal counsel, how would you defend the employer at a human rights tribunal that is called to hear Smith’s complaint? What would you advise your client to do with respect to the charge?

// endnotes 1. Simon, P.L.S. 1988. Employment Law: The New Basics. Don Mills, ON:

CCH Canadian.

2. Ibid.

3. Carter, D.D., G. England, D. Etherington, and G. Trudeau. 2002. Labour Law in Canada, 5th ed. Markham, ON: Butterworths.

4. Canadian Human Rights Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. H-6). Retrieved from http:// laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/h-6/

5. Canadian Human Rights Commission. 2014. “What Do I Need to Know Before Filing a Discrimination Complaint?” Retrieved August 5, 2016, from http://www. chrc-ccdp.ca/eng/content/what-do-i-need-know-filing-discrimination-complaint

6. Ibid.

7. Employment Equity Policy in Canada: An Interprovincial Comparison. Status of Women in Canada. ISBN 0-662-28160-8, Cat. No. SW21-46/1999E.

8. Weiner, N. 1993. Employment Equity: Making It Work. Toronto: Butterworths.

9. Belcourt, M., and K.J. McBey. 2010. Strategic Human Resources Planning, 4th ed. Toronto: Nelson.

10. Jackson, S.E., and R.S. Schuler. 1995. “Understanding Human Resource Management in the Context of Organizations and Their Environments.” Annual Review of Psychology 46: 237–264.

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112 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

11. Federal Labour Standards. Retrieved July 17, 2017 from http://www.labour .gc.ca/eng/standards_equity/st/index.shtml

12. Public Service Commission of Canada. Undated. “Investigations: An Overview.” Ottawa: Public Service Commission of Canada. Retrieved December 29, 2011, from http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/inv-enq/index-eng.htm

13. Public Service Commission of Canada. 2009–10. Annual Report. Ottawa. Retrieved December 29, 2011, from http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/arp-rpa/2010/ index-eng.htm

14. Maloley et al. v. Department of National Revenue. February 1986 PSC Appeals Board. Ottawa.

15. Ontario Human Rights Commission and O’Malley v. Simpsons-Sears Ltd., [1985] 2 S.C.R. 536.

16. Weiner. 1993.

17. Vining, A.R., D.C. McPhillips, and A.E. Boardman. 1986. “Use of Statistical Evidence in Employment Discrimination Litigation.” The Canadian Bar Review 64: 660–702.

18. Hausdorf, P.A., and S.D. Risavy. 2010. “Decision Making Using Personality Assessment: Implications for Adverse Impact and Hiring Rates.” Applied H.R.M. Research 12: 100–120.

19. Risavy, S.D., and P.A. Hausdorf. 2011. “Personality Testing in Personnel Selection: Adverse Impact and Differential Hiring Rates.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 19: 18–30.

20. Glastris, P. 1994. “The Thin White Line: City Agencies Struggle to Mix Standardized Testing and Racial Balance.” U.S. News & World Report (August 15): 53–54.

21. British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v. British Columbia Government and Service Employees’ Union (BCGSEU), [1999] 3 S.C.R. 3.

22. Ibid.

23. Canadian Human Rights Commission. 2007. Bona Fide Occupational Requirements and Bona Fide Justifications under the Canadian Human Rights Act: The Implications of Meiorin and Grismer. Ottawa: Canadian Human Rights Commission.

24. Canadian Human Rights Commission. 2014.

25. Ontario Human Rights Commission et al. v. Etobicoke, [1982] 1 S.C.R. 202.

26. Central Okanagan School Dist. No. 23 v. Renaud (1992), 2 S.C.R. 970.

27. British Columbia (Superintendent of Motor Vehicles) v. British Columbia (Council of Human Rights) and Grismer (Estate), [1999] 3 S.C.R. 868.

28. Supreme Court of Canada. British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v. BCGSEU, [1999] 3 S.C.R. 3.

29. Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Montréal (City), 2000, 1 S.C.R. 665.

30. Equity and Diversity Directorate, Policy Branch, Public Service Commission of Canada. 2011. “Recruitment of Persons with Disabilities: A Literature Review.” Retrieved 2014 from http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/plcy-pltq/eead-eeed/ rprt/pwd-ph/index-eng.htm

31. Belcourt and McBey. 2010.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter is divided into two parts. Part I begins with a discussion of job and work analysis and its relevance to HR development and continues with a discussion of several job analysis techniques. Part II concludes the chapter with a presentation on competency models as an alternative procedure to job analysis.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the importance of job analysis and the role it plays in recruitment and selection;

• describe guidelines for conducting analyses employing a variety of job analysis techniques;

• use standard tools and techniques to conduct a job analysis;

• discuss the processes for identifying job specifications to be used in recruitment and selection of human resources;

• describe competencies and their role in recruitment and selection;

• know how to identify competencies;

• recognize the need to validate competency-based systems;

• identify competency-based HR models from those based on job analysis; and

• recognize best practices in competency modelling.

JOb AnALysis And COmPETEnCy mOdELs

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL114

// Part I: Work and Job analysIs What Is Work and Job analysIs?

Recently researchers working in the area of personnel selection have broadened the classic definition of job analysis to reflect more contemporary approaches to this topic, although

both terms can be used interchangeably. Work analysis, in its broadest sense, refers to any systematic gathering, docu- menting, and analyzing of information about the content of work performed by people in organizations; the worker attributes related to work performance; or the context, both psychological and physical, in which the work is performed.1 The change in terminology has been made to reflect recent and important innovations2 such as the Occupational Infor- mation Network that we will discuss later in this chapter.

Job analysis refers to the process of collecting informa- tion about jobs.3 In its simplest terms, a job analysis is a systematic process for gathering, documenting, and analyzing data about the work required for a job. Job analysis data

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You are the HR person for a small business enterprise and are in charge of hiring as part of an expansion. You want to be sure that you hire the right people for the new positions. The first question that comes to mind is how to identify exactly whom you are looking for. A job analysis will help get you the necessary information. Job analysis procedures can be very elaborate; however, a job analysis is nothing more than finding answers to a series of questions about the job. Ask yourself a series of questions that will help you find the right person.

1. What do you wish your new hires to accomplish on a daily, weekly, monthly, or annual basis?

2. What are the tasks and responsibilities that you want the new employees to do as part of their jobs?

• What equipment will the new employees use?

• Will they supervise other employees?

• Will they do different things on different days?

3. What knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attri- butes or competencies (KSAOs) should the new

employees have to perform successfully for the tasks required for the position?

• What knowledge should new employees bring with them to the job?

• What skills must new employees have or be capable of developing?

• What abilities should they have?

• If the position requires the new employees to work as part of a team, what interpersonal skills should they have?

4. What do people who hold similar jobs (subject- matter experts [SMEs]) think about the tasks, requirements, and KSAOs needed for the new positions?

5. Will there be any differences between the job now and in the future?

Once you have answered these questions you will have the information needed to develop a solid job description that will be used as part of the recruiting process. The job description and its associated KSAOs will assist you in sorting through the résumés you receive to identify those applicants with the KSAOs that will lead to success on the job.

HiRing THE RigHT PERsOn

Identifying the KSAOs as part of a job specification.

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NEL 115CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

include a description of the context and principal duties of the job, including job respon- sibilities and working conditions, and information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes (KSAOs) required in its performance. In short, it is a method that provides a description of the job and profiles the characteristics or competencies people need to have in order to be successful in the job. It is widely accepted as the foundation of many HR activities and functions.4 For the most part, the distinction between the definitions of work and job analysis is minor from an applied view. In this chapter we will use job analysis to refer to both and talk about work analysis only when it makes a differ- ence in our understanding. There are three key points to remember about job analysis:

1. A job analysis does not refer to a single methodology but rather to a range of techniques.

2. A job analysis is a formal, structured process carried out under a set of guide- lines established in advance.

3. A job analysis breaks down a job into its constituent parts, rather than looking at the job as a whole.

Figure 4.1 presents an overview of the job analysis process and outcomes; it shows that job analysis data support several HR activities and can be used toward several ends (e.g., recruitment and selection; training and development; performance management; and, as we’ve seen, job evaluation, among several others).5 Many activities in an orga- nization that focus on identifying a match between a person and a job rely on accurate information produced by job analysis. Job analysis helps to ensure that decisions made with respect to HR processes are good decisions (i.e., fair and accurate), and that those

figuRE 4.1

OvERviEw Of JOb AnALysis PROCEss And OuTCOmEs

Data Sources Supervisors Employees Job analyst O*NET NOC

Types of Data Tasks Duties Responsibilities Standards Knowledge Skills Abilities Other characteristics People Things Information

JA Methods Interviews Questionnaires Observation PAQ FJA FJAS Critical incidents Other methods

Job Description Tasks Duties Responsibilities

Job Specification Knowledge Skills Abilities Other characteristics Physical demands Work environment

Human Resource Functions Recruitment Selection Training and development Performance appraisal Health and safety Compensation

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL116

employee-related decisions can be defended in courts and tribunals, if necessary. All of these HR activities are concerned with matching people to jobs within a specific organizational context. Job analysis is a procedure to assess the goodness of this fit between people and jobs. It provides information about both the job requirements and the KSAOs needed to do the job.

Since job analysis data have the potential for many uses, it is important to know how the information will be used before deciding on an approach or method to use in collecting the data. As we will see after we review several different job analysis methods, each has its strengths and weaknesses, and the data from a particular method may be better suited to only one or some of the above uses. It is very unlikely that one method will produce information that can be used in all of the applications where we would want to use it.

Therefore, HR must develop a strategic plan like the one presented in Chapter 1. As part of that exercise, HR may wish to undertake an organizational analysis that can be used to anchor job analysis in the context of the organization’s mission, goals, and strategy. When designing and implementing recruitment and selection programs to fill jobs within their organization, HR specialists must be aware of the overall organizational mission and strategic goals. Losing sight of the organization level can result in less-than- optimal recruitment and selection policies and practices that are used to fill positions at the job level. Although there are many ways to conduct an organization analysis, most methods share the common goals of describing and understanding the design and struc- ture, functions and processes, and strategies and missions of organizations, issues that we discussed in Chapter 1. Data obtained from an organization analysis can highlight areas of strengths and weakness useful to HR planning, such as:

• identifying expected changes in the external environment;

• aligning staffing and development plans to ensure appropriate succession planning;

• identifying expected structural changes in the organization; and

• understanding how expected changes will affect recruitment and selection practices.

HR should undertake this planning process prior to conducting a job analysis to determine the type of personnel they will be seeking and the factors that may influence their success in staffing positions. Once HR has gone through a strategic planning pro- cess including an organizational analysis, it should be able to determine the type of job analysis procedure that will produce the best information for the intended purpose of the job analysis. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 1.1 presented the elements of a recruitment and selection action plan. As part of that plan, HR must develop or review the job description for positions they are seeking to fill. A job analysis should be used to specify the requirements of the job and knowledge, skills, and abilities of the people who will be selected to fill the positions.

After completion of the planning process, job analysis is the next step in identifying job tasks and duties as well as the KSAOs needed to carry out those duties. These are the two basic products of a job analysis. The first is formally referred to as a job description, a written description of what the persons in the job are required to do, how they are sup- posed to do the job, and the rationale for any required job procedures. A job description contains a summary of job analysis data. Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1 presents a job description for a Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN) to work in an assisted living facility.

Job description A written description of what job occupants are required to do, how they are supposed to do it, and the rationale for any required job procedures.

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NEL 117CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

The second product is a job specification, which states the KSAOs that are required to perform the job successfully. These may include the compensable factors that are used in performing a job evaluation, such as analytical abilities, physical exertion, account- ability for budgets, and unpleasant working environments. A job description like that in Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1 is typically used to recruit employees and is based on an actual job analysis. The job description does not present all of the information gathered as part of a job analysis, only a summary of the important aspects. As we go through this chapter we will use examples based on this job analysis to demonstrate how the information was collected.

Job Versus PosItIon

In understanding the key concepts in this chapter, keep in mind the difference between a job and a position. A job consists of a group of tasks; a job may be held by one or more people. Many individuals perform the same job in an organization: for example, secretary, architect, or electrician. A position, on the other hand, consists of the group of tasks performed by one person in an organization at a given time. Each person in the organization is assigned a position. For example, one secretary may be assigned to the position of secretary to the HR director, while another is assigned to the position of secretary to the vice president of finance. Both secretaries would perform the same set of general tasks, although each may be responsible for a small set of tasks that are unique to each secretary’s position.

Another way of distinguishing between jobs and positions is to consider a job as a collection of positions that are similar in their significant duties and a position as a col- lection of duties assigned to an individual in an organization at a given time.6 When the two sets of position-relevant tasks begin to diverge considerably from the common set of job tasks or they begin to outweigh the common job tasks, the two positions might then be considered to be different, but related, jobs. Job family is a term used to refer to a set of different, but related, jobs that rely on the same set of KSAOs. Jobs and positions are among the basic building blocks of any organization, and selection of individuals to fill these positions has a significant impact on the success of the organization.

Job specification The knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attri- butes or competencies that are needed by a job incumbent to per- form well on the job.

Job A collection of positions that are similar in their significant duties.

Job family A set of different, but related, jobs that rely on the same set of KSAOs.

Position A collection of duties assigned to individuals in an organization at a given time.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 4.1

JOb DESCRIpTION FOR A LICENSED pRACTICAL NuRSE AT AN ASSISTED LIvINg FACILITY

Title: Licensed Practical nurse (LPn)

Category: Allied Health Professional

Key Accountabilities/Activities

Reporting to the head of Nursing, the LpN ensures the well- being of residents through the delivery of high quality services consistent with the LpN scope of practice and in accordance

with our policies, procedures, and philosophy. The LpN pro- vides basic assessments and treatment, personal care, med- ication administration, and delegated health services to the residents; and communicates with, and provides support, to residents and their family members. The LpN works inde- pendently and as part of a team. The LpN creates a positive experience for residents by understanding and meeting their needs quickly, professionally, and accurately.

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL118

major Activities include:

1. performing resident checks and rounds, including assessing vitals, breathing, sanitary status, safety issues, and, charting.

2. Administering medication in accordance with doctor’s orders.

3. providing personal care to residents including feeding/ assistance, bowel care, dressing, wound care, blood work.

4. Addressing questions and concerns of residents and family members.

5. undertaking general duties including mail, laundry, paper work, ordering supplies, and assigning duties to housekeeping staff.

protecting client privacy

Requirements:

Attributes and competencies • Knowledge of medications, safety procedures and

palliative care

• Strong interpersonal skills

• Leadership skills

• problem-solving ability

• Ability and willingness to follow policies and procedures

• Demonstrates caring, honesty, empathy, and friendliness

• Client Focus—builds positive relations with resi- dents and their family

• Communication—adapts communication to others.

• Conflict Management—anticipates and addresses sources of potential conflict.

• Teamwork

Experience • Recent clinical experience, including medication

administration and leadership duties is desirable.

• previous experience in gerontological nursing is an asset.

special Conditions

• Must be a graduate of an accredited LpN program with pharmaceutical training. Must be registered and in good standing with the provincial LpN licensing authority.

• Must hold a valid driver’s license. We have several residential facilities and the LpN may be required to work at any one location.

Hours: 37.5 hrs. per week; the LpN will be assigned to one of three daily shifts throughout a seven-day period with two consecutive days off. May be called upon to work overtime.

We are an equal opportunity employer. It is our policy to recruit and select applicants for employment solely on the basis of their qualifications, with emphasis on selecting the best-qualified person for the job. We do not discrimi- nate against applicants based on race, colour, religion, sex, national origin, or disability, or any other status or condi- tion protected by applicable federal, provincial/territorial, or local law.

subJect-Matter exPerts

Job analysis data are collected from the people most knowledgeable about a job and how it is currently performed. In practice, this means that data are collected from job incum- bents (those employees currently holding the position in question) and their immediate supervisors. Using these sources as subject-matter experts (SMEs) will generally result in the most accurate, and richest, information about the job. However, anyone with detailed knowledge about the job can serve as an SME. A good rule of thumb in choosing SMEs is that the closer the SME is to the job, the better the resultant information will be. However, Dierdorff and Wilson7 report data suggesting that trained professional job analysts provide more accurate information than job incumbents when using self-report

subject-matter experts (sMes) People who are most knowledgeable about a job and how it is currently performed; generally job incumbents and their supervisors.

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NEL 119CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

and survey instruments. Dierdorff and Wilson speculate that the trained professionals may be more objective in their assessment of what constitutes the job.

One question that must be answered is how many SMEs a particular job analysis method requires. This requirement will generally be stated in the procedures that have been established for each method. The lack of the requisite number of SMEs may argue against using a specific method. To ensure the defensibility of the job analysis results, SMEs should be representative of the target population for the job with respect to age, sex, ethnic background, and seniority in the position. Information from a diverse group of SMEs will produce job information that is likely to be more accurate, reliable, and valid.

Recall that one of the failures of the job analysis in the Meiorin case was lack of job information from female firefighters. If the job analysis is challenged in court, the analyst must be able to defend the procedure. A charge of unfair discrimination will be hard to defend if the analyst cannot demonstrate that the job analysis results were obtained from a sample representative of those who actually do the work.8 Job information from a diverse group of SMEs is likely to produce a better picture of what the job is all about.

Job analysIs and eMPloyMent laW—a rePrIse

Although there are no laws that specifically require a job analysis prior to implementing recruitment and selection programs, employment decisions must be based on job-related information.9 Job analysis is a legally acceptable way of determining job-relatedness. In 1975, the U.S. Supreme Court made a precedent-setting decision when it criticized the Albemarle Paper Company for its failure to use a job analysis to demonstrate the job- relatedness of its selection procedures (refer to Recruitment and Selection Today 3.6). According to Harvey, “Albemarle established job analysis as something that virtually must be done to defend challenged employment practices.”10

We also saw in Chapter 3 the long list of precedent-setting cases in Canada that have established the need to determine that any job requirements with the potential to discriminate against members of protected groups must meet the standards set in the Meiorin decision (British Columbia [Public Service Employee Relations Commission] v. BCGSEU) for being bona fide occupational requirements. In the Meiorin case, the Supreme Court of Canada found that new job requirements were not based on job-related information, and that the job analysis in that case was seriously flawed. Conducting a job analysis, then, is also the first line of defence in protecting the organization if its selection procedures are challenged in court.11,12 The Ontario Human Right Commission states this position directly13:

Having a clearly defined job description and an understanding of the essential requirements of the job provides a solid basis for designing rules and standards, pro- viding accommodation, assessing the performance of applicants and employees, and making decisions on hiring, promotions, discipline and termination. Organizations that have not defined the essential duties of a position, provided required accom- modation and individually assessed ability to perform the essential duties will have difficulty defending themselves if a human rights complaint is filed.

A good job analysis ensures that accurate information on skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions is specified, reducing the likelihood of impediments to equitable employment access for all Canadians. A job analysis provides objective evidence of the skills and abilities required for effective performance in the job, which can then be used to provide evidence of the relevance of the selection procedures measuring those abilities.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL120

In Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody, the U.S. Supreme Court relied heavily on the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection14 in reaching its decision. The Uniform Guidelines represent a joint agreement between several U.S. government departments and agencies (the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Civil Service Com- mission, Department of Labor, and Department of Justice), outlining professional stan- dards for employee selection procedures. Even though they are not law, the U.S. courts have granted them significant status in guiding administrative interpretations of the job- analysis—job-relatedness link.15,16

Canadian human rights commissions and courts also recognize the Uniform Guide- lines on Employee Selection as professional standards, unless it is established that Cana- dian legal precedent and professional practice deviate substantially from those set out in the Guidelines.17 Furthermore, the Canadian Society for Industrial & Organizational Psychology has adopted the principles outlined in the Guidelines for developing equi- table selection systems for use in Canada.18 Latham explains that:

Countries such as Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom have been strongly influenced by Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act in the U.S. In each of these countries it is now illegal to make employment decisions regarding the hiring, firing, promoting, demoting, transferring or admitting someone into a training pro- gram on the basis of the person’s age, sex, race, religion, colour, national origin, sexual orientation, or physical handicap.19

In practice, if not in law, the starting point for a defensible selection system is a job analysis. We next describe several job analysis methods.

Job analysIs Methods

Harvey20 proposes three criteria that should be considered in choosing a method: First, the goal of job analysis should always be the description of observable work behaviours and analysis of their products. Second, the results of a job analysis should describe the work behaviour “independent of the personal characteristics or attributes of the employees who perform the job.”21 Positions in an organization exist independently of the incumbents who fill those positions; in job analysis, it is the job (i.e., the collec- tion of positions) that is being analyzed, not the performance of the individual incum- bents. Worker specifications (i.e., the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes—or KSAOs) necessary to perform successfully on the job are inferred in a separate process using the results of a job analysis. We must note that not everyone agrees with Harvey’s second criteria; several worker-oriented methods we discuss below focus directly on iden- tifying worker attributes or characteristics and not work behaviours, as do the competency models that we present in Part II of this chapter.

Finally, any job analysis must produce outcomes that are verifiable and replicable. That is, the organization must be able to produce evidence of both the validity and the reliability of each step in the job analysis process. Reliability and validity data for the job analysis method used are essential to determining the quality of the information produced by the analysis.22 In many situations, assessing the validity of the method is redundant and an assumption is made that if reliability is acceptable, then the method is valid.23 The basic data for job analyses are task and KSAO statements developed by a group of SMEs. One method of assuring validity of the results is to have a second group of SMEs, when appropriate, independently confirm the results of the first group.

Although the various existing job analysis techniques differ in the assumptions they make about work, they follow the same logical process when applied to the recruitment

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NEL 121CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

and selection of human resources. First, work activities are described in terms of the work processes or worker behaviours that characterize the job. Next, machines, tools, equip- ment, and work aids are defined in relation to the materials produced, services rendered, and worker knowledge applied to those ends. The job context is characterized in terms of physical working conditions, work schedules, social context and organizational culture, and financial and nonfinancial incentives for performance. Finally, job specifications are inferred by linking the job requirements identified in the analysis with the education, experience, skills, and personal attributes required for successful job performance.24

GettInG started: GatherInG Job-related InforMatIon

In preparing for a job analysis, the first step should be to collect existing information describing the target job. The analyst mines information from organizational charts, legal requirements (e.g., the job Licensed Practical Nurse is governed through legal statutes at the provincial level), job descriptions, union regulations, and previous data from related jobs. In addition, job-related information can be found in the National Occupational Classification (NOC) system.25 The NOC systematically describes occupations in the Canadian labour market based on extensive occupational research and is available at the Employment and Social Development Canada website. In developing the job descrip- tion for the LPN position presented in Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1, the job analysts first had an initial consultation with senior staff at the assisted living organization about the goals of the project. Next they reviewed any existing archival information on the position, including previous job descriptions and job postings. The analysts also reviewed material from the professional regulatory body for LPN’s and the listing of LPN on the NOC and also O*NET websites. The information gathered from these sources was then used to prepare material for subsequent focus groups and surveys.

Recruitment and Selection Today 4.2 presents the NOC descrip- tion for a LPN. The NOC profile presents both a description and specification of the job or occupation. Each occupation or job is given a four-digit code that will provide the analyst with a more extensive description related to the KSAOs associated with the job. Planning the job analysis process.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 4.2

NOC DESCRIpTION FOR LICENSED pRACTICAL NuRSE (CODE 3233)

Licensed practical nurses provide nursing care usually under the direction of medical practitioners, registered nurses or other health team members. They are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, extended care facilities, reha- bilitation centres, doctors’ offices, clinics, companies, private homes, and community health centres. Operating room technicians are included in this unit group.

Examples of Titles Classified in This group

• graduate nursing assistant

• licensed practical nurse (LpN)

• operating room technician

• registered nursing assistant (RNA)

(continued )

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NEL122 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

main duties

Licensed practical nurses perform some or all of the fol- lowing duties:

• provide nursing services, within defined scope of practice, to patients based on patient assessment and care planning procedures.

• perform nursing interventions such as taking vital signs, applying aseptic techniques including sterile dressing, ensuring infection control, moni- toring nutritional intake, and conducting specimen collection.

• Administer medication and observe and document therapeutic effects.

• provide pre- and post-operative personal and comfort care.

• Monitor established respiratory therapy and intra- venous therapy.

• Monitor patients’ progress, evaluate effectiveness of nursing interventions, and consult with appro- priate members of healthcare team.

• provide safety and health education to individuals and their families.

Operating room technicians perform some or all of the following duties:

• prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and sterilizing the patients’operative areas.

• Assist in surgery by laying out instruments, setting up equipment, assisting surgical teams with gowns and gloves, and passing instruments to surgeons.

• Clean and sterilize the operating room and instruments.

Employment Requirements

• Completion of a vocational, college, or other approved program for licensed practical nurses is required.

• Registration with a regulatory body is required in all provinces and territories.

• Completion of the Canadian practical Nurse Regis- tration Examination is required in all provinces and territories except Quebec.

• Operating room technicians require either addi- tional academic training in operating room tech- niques or on-the-job training.

Source: http://noc.esdc.gc.ca/English/noc/QuickSearch.aspx?ver=16&val65=3233 Reproduced and distributed with the permission of Statistics Canada.

Figure 4.2 presents a synopsis of the descriptors used in the NOC system, along with scales used to rate each job. For example, a rating of 3 on the “Vision” subscale in the Physical Activities section means that the job in question requires both near and far vision for successful completion. Full descriptions of all the scales can be found in the Career Handbook that is available on the NOC website. Such information, when gathered and studied in advance, will prove invaluable for organizing and conducting the ensuing analysis. With respect to the position of LPN, the NOC summarizes the descriptor profile26:

Occupations in this group are characterized by the following aptitudes, interests, and worker functions as they relate to main duties:

• General learning ability to provide nursing services, within defined scope of practice, to patients based on patient assessment and care planning procedures.

• Methodical interest in compiling information by monitoring patients’ progress and monitoring established respiratory and intravenous therapy; in evaluating effectiveness of nursing interventions; and in administering medication and observing and documenting therapeutic effects.

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NEL 123CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

figuRE 4.2

A synOPsis Of dEsCRiPTORs And LAbELs

One of �ve levels assigned for each factor, with levels representing normal curve distribution of the labour force:

Three of �ve descriptive factors, assigned in order of predominance and lower case rating indicating weaker representation:

G General Learning Ability

APTITUDES

DATA/INFORMATION, PEOPLE, THINGS

D—Data/Information

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

EMPLOYMENT REQUIREMENTS

P—People T—Things

0 Synthesizing 1 Coordinating 2 Analyzing 3 Compiling 4 Computing

1 Close visual acuity 2 Near vision 3 Near and far vision 4 Total visual �eld

1 Sitting 2 Standing and/or walking 3 Sitting, standing, walking 4 Other body positions

1 Limited 2 Verbal interaction 3 Other sound discrimination

0 Not relevant 1 Upper limb coordination 2 Multiple limb coordination

5 Copying 6 Comparing

8 Not signi�cant

One of several levels assigned for each factor:

Vision

L1 Regulated inside climate L2 Unregulated inside climate L3 Outside L4 In a vehicle or cab

1 No formal education or training requirements 2 Some high school education and/or on-the-job training or experience 3 Completion of high school 4 Completion of course work, training, workshops and/or experience related to the occupation

5 Apprenticeship, specialized training, vocational school training

Indicating an additional requirement beyond education/training (e.g., extensive experience, demonstrated or creative ability, appointments, etc.)

Regulated requirements exist for this group

6 College, technical school (certi�cate, diploma)

7 Undergraduate degree 8 Postgraduate or professional degree

Education/Training Indicators

D1 Noise D2 Vibration D3 Odours D4 Non-toxic dusts D5 Wetness

Discomforts H1 Dangerous chemical substances H2 Biological agents H3 Equipment, machinery, tools H4 Electricity H5 Radiation H6 Flying particles, falling objects H7 Fire, steam, hot surfaces H8 Dangerous locations

HazardsLocation

0 Not relevant 1 Relevant

Colour Discrimination

Hearing

Body Position 1 Limited 2 Light 3 Medium 4 Heavy

Strength

Limb Coordination

0 Mentoring 1 Negotiating 2 Instructing—Consulting 3 Supervising 4 Diverting

6 Speaking—Signalling

8 Not signi�cant 7 —

5 Persuading

7 Serving—Assisting

0 Setting up 1 Precision working 2 Controlling 3 Driving—Operating 4 Operating—Manipulating

6 Feeding—Offbearing

8 Not signi�cant

5 Tending

7 Handling

INTERESTS

V Verbal Ability N Numerical Ability S Spatial Perception P Form Perception

Q Clerical Perception D Directive I Innovative M Methodical O Objective S Social

K Motor Coordination F Finger Dexterity M Manual Dexterity

Source: From Career Handbook, Second Edition, http://www.5hrsdc.gc.ca/NOC/English/CH/2001/SynopsisDescriptorsLabels.aspx. Reproduced and distributed with the permission of Statistics Canada.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL124

• Social interest in instructing patients and their families by providing safety and health education; in providing pre- and post-operative personal and comfort care; and in consulting with members of the healthcare team.

• Objective interest in operating medical equipment to perform nursing inter- ventions such as taking vital signs, applying aseptic techniques including sterile dressing, ensuring infection control, monitoring nutritional intake, and con- ducting specimen collection.

As well, the summary states that LPNs must have near and colour vision, and good sound discrimination; they must use different body positions as part of work duties, have good upper limb coordination, and have a medium level of strength to lift up to 20 kg. They work in a regulated inside climate but may experience biological hazards and odours on the job.

Alternative sources to the NOC have until recently included the Canadian Classifi- cation Dictionary of Occupations (CCDO)27 and the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT).28 The CCDO, designed in 1971 by Employment and Immigration Canada, was widely used by HR professionals in Canada. Although some found the CCDO easier to use than the NOC29 (which replaced it), the CCDO was abandoned in 1992 because its design was no longer able to accurately reflect the contemporary Canadian labour market.

Similarly, the DOT has been replaced by the O*NET system of gathering and dis- seminating job analysis data in the United States. O*NET, the Occupational Information Network, is an electronic database developed by the U.S. Department of Labor to replace the DOT. The occupational/skill descriptors “serve as a solid, but flexible foundation for vendors and others to develop sophisticated occupational and career information systems.”30 O*NET was first released for public use in the fall of 1998 and is available online at http://www.onetonline.org. The database grows as information becomes avail- able on more occupations, and the U.S. Department of Labor encourages organizations to use the new database in place of the DOT, which was last updated in 1991. O*NET has also established an O*NET Resource Center at http://www.onetcenter.org that provides information on how to use the O*NET system as well as career tools and publications for HR professionals and access to the O*NET databases.

Figure 4.3 presents the conceptual foundation of the O*NET model and “provides a framework that identifies the most important types of information about work and inte- grates them into a theoretically and empirically sound system.”31 Peterson et al.32 present an excellent introduction to the O*NET model and the implications for researchers and practitioners.

In addition to occupational databases, attention should be given to determining which techniques will be employed for gathering job information. Gael33 notes that, depending on the objective of the job analysis, some techniques are better suited than others for providing job information. Analyses typically involve a series of steps, often beginning with interviews or observations that provide the information to construct a task inventory or to complete a structured questionnaire. Ideally, the job analyst employs a combination of strategies to arrive at a comprehensive and accurate description of the job in question,34,35 although analysts operating within the very real constraints of time and funding often use a single method. Each analysis method contributes slightly dif- ferent information and, by using a combination of methods, potential gaps in the results are minimized. The next section on work and worker-oriented job analysis methods illustrates the different types of information that may be obtained from job analysis procedures.

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NEL 125CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

Abilities Occupational Interests

Work Values Work Styles

Generalized Work Activities Detailed Work Activities Organizational Context

Work Context Labour Market Information Occupational Outlook

Tasks Tools and Technology

Experience and Training Skills–Entry Requirement

Licensing

Skills Knowledge Education

Worker Characteristics

Occupational Requirements

Workforce Characteristics

Occupation- Speci�c

Information

Worker Requirements

Worker-Oriented

Job-Oriented

Experience Requirements

Occupation- Specific

Cross Occupation

•

o*net

figuRE 4.3

THE O*nET® COnTEnT mOdEL

Source: The O*NET® Content Model. http://www.onetcenter.org/content.html. u.S. Department of Labor

Work and Worker-orIented Job analysIs

There are several ways of classifying job analysis methods. One of the most complete classification schemes36 is to categorize a job analysis technique as either work oriented or worker oriented.37,38,39,40 Job analyses falling into either of these two categories are legally defensible. With one or two exceptions, all job analysis methods, including all of those presented here, fall into either of these two categories. In work-oriented job analysis, the emphasis is on work outcomes and description of the various tasks performed to accomplish those outcomes.

These methods produce “descriptions of job content that have a dominant associa- tion with, and typically characterize, the technological aspects of jobs and commonly reflect what is achieved by the worker.”41 The descriptions of tasks or job duties generated via work-oriented methods are typically characterized by their frequency of occurrence or the amount of time spent on them, the importance to the job outcome, and the difficulty inherent in executing them.42,43 Because task inventories generated via work-oriented

Work-oriented job analysis Job analysis techniques that emphasize work outcomes and descriptions of the various tasks performed to accomplish those outcomes.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL126

techniques are developed for specific jobs or occupational areas, the results are highly specific and may have little or no relationship to the content of jobs in other fields.44

Alternatively, worker-oriented job analysis methods focus on general aspects of jobs, describing perceptual, interpersonal, sensory, cognitive, and physical activities. Worker-oriented methods generate descriptions “that tend more to characterize the gen- eralized human behaviours involved; if not directly, then by strong inference.”45 These techniques are not limited to describing specific jobs; they are generic in nature and the results can be applied to a wide spectrum of task-dissimilar jobs.46,47,48,49

surVey of Work-orIented Job analysIs Methods

structured Job analysIs InterVIeWs

The interview is perhaps the most commonly used technique for gathering job facts and establishing the tasks and behaviours that define a job. It may be used as a stand-alone job analysis method or in conjunction with other approaches. This method involves questioning individuals or small groups of employees and supervisors about the work that gets done. The interview may be structured or unstructured, although for job analysis purposes, a structured format is recommended. The results of a structured job analysis interview may stand on their own, as in a formal integrated report, when there are few incumbents working within a small geographical area. Or they may provide the necessary information for completing a task inventory, structured questionnaire, or other analytic technique.50,51

The structured interview method is designed so that all interviewees are asked the same job-related questions. Interobserver reliability—that is, the agreement between the persons serving as interviewers—increases when interviews are structured because the individual biases of different interviewers are minimized. Whetzel et al.52 demonstrated that a written, structured interview is a flexible and cost-effective alternative to a tradi- tional oral structured interview and may produce very reliable job analysis information. Because it is such an important step in most job analyses, the interview should be well planned and carefully conducted. McCormick53 and others54,55,56,57 offer many valuable guidelines for conducting interviews. These are summarized in Recruitment and Selec- tion Notebook 4.1.

The job analyst should record the job incumbent’s or supervisor’s responses by taking notes or by tape-recording the interview. Trying to remember what was said fol- lowing the interview is difficult at best and likely to produce inaccurate information. Recall that the purpose of the interview is to obtain information about the work that the employee does; thus, questions should elicit information describing important job tasks, physical activities involved in the job, environmental conditions (physical and social) under which the work occurs, and typical work incidents. Recruitment and Selec- tion Notebook 4.2 provides a protocol for a structured job analysis interview that covers the essential questions needed to obtain the required information on these topics. This protocol should be considered as a guide; different positions may require modification of the protocol. For the LPNs working in the assisted living facility, the job analysts used the procedures specified in Recruitment and Selection Notebooks 4.1 and 4.2 to develop interview questions and to conduct interviews with subject-matter experts, that is, the LPNs and their supervisors.

An interview protocol such as that in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.2 prompts the interviewer to ask important questions about the job. Based on responses

Worker-oriented job analysis Job analysis techniques that emphasize gen- eral aspects of jobs, describing perceptual, interpersonal, sensory, cognitive, and physical activities.

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NEL 127CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

to the structured questions, and on the interviewer’s previous knowledge of the job, the interviewer probes for more detail.58,59 The tasks that make up each job area are identi- fied, and the result of the interview should be a clear description of critical job domains and their related elements. Interview protocols can vary from presenting a few informal prompts to very structured questions as shown here. In general, the more specific and structured the interview protocol, the more reliable will be the obtained information.

While there are no hard-and-fast rules concerning how many people should be interviewed, those who are interviewed should be representative of the employees whose job the analysis reflects. For example, when conducting a job analysis for meeting plan- ning consultants employed in a large travel company, the analyst may obtain a stratified

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.1

guIDELINES FOR A JOb ANALYSIS INTERvIEW

1. Announce the job analysis well ahead of the inter- view date. The impending job analysis and its pur- pose should be well known among employees and management. The job analysis process should be positioned as a collaborative effort, with all job incum- bents and their supervisors holding valid information about the job and invited to contribute to the process.

2. Participation in interviews should be voluntary, and job incumbents should be interviewed only with the permission of their supervisors. The job analyst avoids creating friction within the organization and is sensitive to the use of coercion in obtaining information. In general, when analysis interviews are free from organizational politics, they can be com- pleted in a timely manner with valid, uncontaminated results.

3. interviews should be conducted in a private loca- tion free from the trappings of status. It would be unwise, for example, to conduct interviews with hourly workers in the company president’s office. The job analyst is a nonpartisan party whose primary objective is to accurately describe the content of jobs; interviewees should feel comfortable and able to provide truthful information about their work and the conditions under which it is done.

4. Open the interview by establishing rapport with the employee and explaining the purpose of the interview. Interviews are often associated with anxiety-provoking events such as job and promo- tion applications and even disciplinary action. The

experienced interviewer takes time at the outset to create a nonthreatening environment and to alleviate any fears that interviewees might have.

5. Ask open-ended questions, using language that is easy to understand, and allow ample time for the employee’s responses. Most people, given the opportunity, will talk in great detail about the work they do. The good analyst avoids rushing or intimidating people, does not talk down to them, and takes a genuine interest in the interviewee’s responses.

6. guide the session without being authoritative or overbearing. Keep the interview on topic and avoid discussions concerning worker-management rela- tions and other unrelated topics. When discussions become tangential, the analyst can bring them back on track by summarizing relevant details and referring to the interview outline.

7. Explain to the employees that records of the inter- views will identify them only by confidential codes. The names of interviewees and other personal infor- mation should be protected. When confidentiality is ensured, more accurate information will be obtained. The limits of confidentiality should be explained to all interviewees before they agree to participate. For example, data on age, sex, and ethnic background may have to be recorded and be made public in order to demonstrate in any subsequent court challenges that the data are based on a representative sample of the work force.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL128

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.2

JOb ANALYSIS INTERvIEW QuESTIONS

1. interview information

• Name of Employee:

• Job Title:

• Department:

• Date:

2. Education and Experience

• What is your highest level of education? Is this the level required for your job?

• Is any specialized training required for your job? How long will it take?

• Do you have to have a certificate or licence to per- form your job?

• What level of experience do you need to do your job? Can it be learned on the job?

3. Job Purpose

• What is the primary purpose of your job?

• What is a secondary purpose?

4. Job duties

• Are you familiar with the description for your job? Does it cover all of the duties you are currently doing? If not, which ones does it not cover? Are you performing duties not currently included in your job description?

• What are the main duties and responsibilities of your position? Do you perform these duties daily or at irregular intervals?

• How long does it take to perform each duty?

• Have any standards been set for these duties? Who evaluates your work to see if these standards are met?

5. data, People, Things

• List the names of the principal tools or equipment you use in performing your job duties. Do you need special training to use any of these?

• Are any manual skills needed to operate these tools or equipment?

• Are you required to work with data or information as part of your job? If so please describe what you do. Describe any mathematical ability or skills required.

• What level of reasoning or problem solving is required to do your job?

• Does your job involve working with people? Describe the types of interpersonal actions that take place on your job and with whom. What inter- personal skills and abilities does your job require?

• Does your job involve supervising other people? In what way? Are you considered management?

• Does your job require you to handle confiden- tial information, or material such as money? If so, describe what is involved. Do you have to be bonded to carry out these duties?

• Do you prepare records or reports as part of your job? What type? For whom?

6. Physical Activities

• Describe the types of physical activities needed to carry out your job. These might include visual acuity, colour discrimination, hearing, sitting, standing, walking, upper or lower limb coordina- tion, required strength.

7. Environmental Conditions

• Describe the location of your job: inside work or outside? In a car, van, or truck?

• Does your work involve working with hazardous chemical or biological materials? Electricity? Radiation? Fire or hot surfaces? Flying particles?

• Does your job involve working in an uncomfortable environment involving things such as noise, vibration, odours, dust, or moisture? If yes, how often?

8. Health and safety

• Are there any safety regulations related to your position?

• Is your job stressful? please explain.

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NEL 129CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

sample that reflects the proportion of males and females in the position. Other demo- graphic variables such as race and ethnicity, age, physical disabilities and abilities, and native language would also be considered in a representative sample of interviewees. Supervisors should always be included in the pool of interview respondents, as they have a unique perspective on how jobs are performed and the standards for acceptable performance.

Structured interview protocols should also allow interviewees to contribute infor- mation that may not be covered in the protocol. There are certain disadvantages to job analysis interviews. First, they can be expensive and time consuming, and may be impractical for jobs with a large number of incumbents. Interviews take a great deal of time to conduct and may require a substantial number of interviewees to be truly repre- sentative of the job incumbent pool. However, the benefits of individual interviews can outweigh their relative costs. Individual employees, free from immediate social controls, are likely to respond with greater openness than when interviewed in a group. Thus, the information obtained from the individual interview may be more accurate than that obtained from interviewing the same people as part of a group. A second disadvantage of interviews is that workers may distort the information they provide about their jobs, particularly if they believe that the results will influence their pay.60 This distortion can be overcome to some extent by making the purpose of the interview clear and by inter- viewing multiple incumbents and supervisors.

dIrect obserVatIon

Martinko makes the case that “the most effective way to determine what effective job incumbents do is to observe their behaviour.”61 In direct observation, the job analyst watches employees as they carry out their job activities. This procedure is sometimes called “job shadowing.” This method allows the analyst to come into direct contact with the job; thus, the data are obtained firsthand, as contrasted with the “more remote types of information generated by questionnaires and surveys.”62

Direct observation is most useful when the job analysis involves easily observable activities.63 Analyzing the job of “poet” through direct observation would likely produce little of value, whereas the job of “landscaper” lends itself more readily to direct observa- tion. Before conducting direct observations, the analyst will already have learned about the job by studying existing documents. Next, the job analyst determines the nature of the job by asking: “Does the job involve easily observable activities?” and “Is the work environment one in which unobtrusive observations can be made?” If the answer to both questions is “yes,” then direct observation may be a viable analysis method. In

9. supervision

• Who is your immediate supervisor?

• How closely are you supervised?

• How much independence or authority do you have to do your job?

• When must you consult your supervisor?

10. Compensation

• Do you believe you are fairly compensated for the work you do? If not, why and in what ways?

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL130

the case of the LPN job analysis, direct observation was not possible as the job was very complex and observation would have been intrusive on relationships with the clients of the assisted living facility and anyone who may have been visiting them. Ethically, the analysts would need to obtain their permission as the observation could violate their privacy rights.

In direct observation, systematic observations of employee activities can be recorded either in narrative format or by using a customized checklist or worksheet.64,65 Different jobs and environments will require different observation methods. Prior to the observa- tion the analysts should review the archival material to determine how best to record the information.

In preparing for observations, the analyst might ask: “How many observations are enough?” or “How long should observations be?” These questions are addressed in plan- ning the job analysis; once again, there is no rule book one can turn to for the answers. As with job analysis interviews, a representative sample of workers is needed. If the organization or department is small (e.g., Modern Builders, with only three employees in the job “electrician”), samples from all workers should be obtained. If, however, the organization or department is large (e.g., New World Residential Centres, with 10 homes employing over 120 residential counsellors), the analyst should observe a sample of workers consisting of at least 10 to 15 of the staff.66

Observation times should be stratified so that all shifts are covered and all work conditions are observed, ensuring that important patterns in worker activities are evident and extraneous information is eliminated. When observing at New World Residential Centres, for example, an analyst would want to observe morning, afternoon, and eve- ning shifts during weekdays and weekends, as activities during these periods can change substantially. Similarly, when observing shift workers in a manufacturing plant, activities may change during peak and down times, and shift and day considerations will influence the observation schedule.

A variety of technological aids are available to the observer. Audio and video recording, for example, can facilitate the observation process. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Digital audio recordings can augment observer notes with the important verbal behaviour of the worker, but they are rarely useful observation tools on their own. Important information may be lost because of poor recording quality and background noise, or because many of the behaviours of interest may be nonverbal.67

Video recording provides a permanent product of the verbal and nonverbal com- ponents of the observation session, which the analyst can review in private for later data collection. When the work area is small and a camera can be placed unobtrusively, videotaping is an option to consider. But, while it may be easier to make unobtrusive observations in some settings using a video recorder, the camera cannot follow workers around in large work areas without someone at the controls. As technology shrinks video recorders to increasingly smaller sizes, this becomes less of a disadvantage. Another disadvantage, reactivity to observation, may be greater during videotaped sessions than during observation sessions employing live observers.

Analysts conducting direct observation sessions should be aware that regardless of the observation technique employed, their presence may change the behaviour of the employees. Imagine yourself at work, and an unfamiliar individual with a clipboard begins to write down everything you do. Knowing you are being watched, you may respond by doing your work according to what you think the observer is looking for rather than doing it as you would in the normal day-to-day routine. This effect can be minimized when the analyst blends into the surroundings (e.g., by choosing an

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NEL 131CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

unobtrusive observation position) and when the employees have been informed of the purpose of the observations and are observed only with their explicit permission. Again, newer technologies may be helpful. Closed circuit television or web cams allow the analyst to observe from remote locations, which may reduce reactivity to the process. Ethically, the workers would still need to be advised that they were under observations as part of the job analysis study.

In addition to direct observation, the job analyst may ask incumbents to monitor their own work behaviour.68,69 The workers may be asked to keep a diary of their daily activities. Martinko70 describes several advantages that self-monitoring may have over other observation procedures. First, it is less time consuming and less expen- sive because the job incumbents observe and record their own behaviour. Second, self-monitoring can be used when the conditions of work do not easily facilitate direct observation by another person, as in potentially dangerous or sensitive work. Finally, self-monitoring can provide information on otherwise unobservable cognitive and intellectual processes involved in the job. The potential shortcomings of self- monitoring are that incumbents may not be reliable observers of their own behaviour, they may not accurately record or recall their activities, the self-monitoring task is an additional duty to be completed in addition to the normal workload, and some amount of training may be required in order to generate valid and reliable results from self-generated data.

analyzInG structured InterVIeW and dIrect obserVatIon data

After collecting the interview, observational, or self-monitoring data, the analyst uses the resulting notes and tally sheets to identify critical task statements, which are used to generate employee specifications. The analyst uses the task statement to describe the critical components of the job through a standard format. A task statement is a discrete sentence containing one action verb that concisely describes a single observable activity performed by a job incumbent. Task statements are based on data collected from a variety of sources including archival information, structured interviews, questionnaires, and direct observation. Each task statement includes:

1. Action verb—describes the actions performed;

2. Object of the verb—person, data, or things affected by the action;

3. Rationale or observable work product—the intended outcome or product of the action;

4. Materials, tools, procedures, or equipment used to carry out the action;

5. The directions or guidelines under which the action is taken.

The following task statement for a Licensed Practical Nurse reflects the five parts of a task statement noted above:

(1) Administers (2) medications (3) to residents of the assisted living facility (4) using approved dosages (5) in accordance with physician’s instructions.

The number of task statements needed to describe a job will vary with the com- plexity of the job, ranging from a few to a hundred or more. The goal is to describe all of the essential functions of the job to give a clear understanding of its nature and level of complexity.

task statement A discrete sentence containing one action verb that concisely describes a single observable activity performed by a job incumbent.

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NEL132 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

Once the task statements are identified, the job analyst must identify the KSAOs needed to perform each task successfully. Gatewood, Feild, and Barrick71 proposed the following definitions of knowledge, skills, and abilities:

Knowledge: A body of information, usually of a factual or procedural nature, that makes for successful performance of a task. Skill: An individual’s level of proficiency or competency in performing a specific task. Level of competency is typically expressed in numerical terms. Ability: A more general, enduring trait, or capability an individual possesses at the time he first begins to perform a task.

The “O” in KSAO stands for “other attributes” and includes personality traits and other individual characteristics that are integral to job performance. For example, some jobs may require people to work in teams and specify “cooperativeness” as a necessary characteristic, to hold a valid driver’s licence, or to be fluently bilingual. Sometimes, a job description will specify physical requirements or other attributes that may be related to a person’s age, sex, or race, which may bring about a legal challenge on the basis of discrimination. The job analyst must ensure that any characteristics of this type will pass legal scrutiny should they be challenged.

KSAO statements describe specific characteristics needed to carry out a task. They are not simply task statements with “knowledge of ” or “ability to” tacked on at the front end. There is no formal procedure that is used to identify KSAOs. They are inferred through the knowledge and experience of the job analyst. In the case of formal job analysis pro- cedures such as the Position Analysis Questionnaire, the vendor will have established an extensive data bank of KSAOs related to different types of tasks. KSAO statements should convey the context or effect that is expected and the level of proficiency that is required. In the case of the task statement for the LPN, here are KSAO examples:

Knowledge of medications/drugs administered to residents. Skill in using computers to access resident medical histories. Ability to resolve conflicts between residents. Other: Caring—Demonstrates compassion and kindness to residents.

There are as many KSAOs for each task statement as the job analyst can identify.

ratInG task stateMents and ksaos

It is good practice to have the incumbents or other SMEs rate the importance of the identified task statements and the KSAOs associated with each task after the final inven- tory is generated. All tasks are not equal: Some are performed more frequently than others, some are more important, and some require a degree of difficulty to perform. A task may be performed frequently but have little importance and not require a great deal of skill, while another may be performed rarely but have extreme importance attached to it. Table 4.1 presents an example of one task statement for the job of an LPN working in the assisted living facility. The SMEs would rate this task, and all of the others, with respect to frequency, importance, and difficulty. Evaluation of the ratings obtained from all the SMEs helps the job analyst to fully understand what goes on in the job.

The KSAOs, as well, must be rated, as these will ultimately be sampled by the selec- tion measures used in choosing new employees or assigning current employees to new positions. Each of the KSAOs must be rated by the SMEs with respect to at least its importance in performing the specific task and its proficiency (i.e., whether it is required

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NEL 133CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

TAsK sTATEmEnT fREquEnCy imPORTAnCE diffiCuLTy

Administers medications to residents of the assisted living facility using approved dosages in accordance with physician’s instructions

0 – Never 1 – A few times a year 2 – Once a month 3 – Once a week 4 – Once a day 5 – Several times a day

0 – Never 1 – Little importance 2 – Some importance 3 – Moderate important 4 – very important 5 – Extremely important

0 – Never perform 1 – very easy 2 – Easy 3 – Average difficulty 4 – very difficult 5 – Extremely difficult

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

imPORTAnCE PROfiCiEnCy

0 – None 1 – Little importance 2 – Some importance 3 – Moderate importance 4 – very important 5 – Extremely important

0 – Not needed 1 – Needed upon entry

to job 2 – Essential for job

TAbLE 4.1

TAsK sTATEmEnT And AssOCiATEd KsAOs wiTH RATing sCALEs

KnOwLEdgE K1. Knowledge of medical services provided to residents by the

assisted living facility. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

K2. Knowledge of policies and procedures of the assisted living facility regarding use of medication.

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

K3. Knowledge of medications/drugs administered to residents. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

K4. Knowledge of gerontology-related diseases such as Alzeimer’s 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

sKiLLs S1. Skill in keeping medical charts. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

S2. Skill in dealing with residents and their families. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

S3. Skill in using computers to access resident medical histories. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

AbiLiTiEs A1. Ability to listen to concerns of residents about their health. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

A2. Ability to organize work assignments to ensure all medications are completed on schedule.

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

A3. Ability to deal with several residents at the same time. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

A4. Ability to resolve conflicts between residents. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

OTHER O1. Caring—Demonstrates compassion and kindness to residents. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

O2. Sensitivity—expresses empathy to residents and family 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

O3. Honesty—does not steal residents’ money. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL134

upon entry to the job). Table 4.1 presents KSAOs for the sample task statement for the LPN. Keep in mind that the SME would perform the ratings for all the KSAOs identified for each task statement. Reviewing the proficiency information helps to set the selection standards for entry into the job. They are also useful in establishing training standards for the new hires to show what the person must be capable of doing after a period of learning either through courses or on-the-job training.

The job analyst finally integrates the information by compiling a Task × KSAO matrix,72 as illustrated in Table 4.2. Several tasks may require the same KSAOs. It is impossible to assess all of the KSAOs when hiring someone so the strategy is to base selection on the most important KSAOs as determined by the job analysis. To accom- plish this, the job analyst develops a table similar to the one shown in Table 4.2. We’ve omitted the first steps in which the analyst would produce two tables, one with the actual importance ratings for the KSAOs, and the second with the proficiency ratings. With our 0 to 5 point scale, we might take the position that only those KSAOs with an average score of 3.0 or higher are important for a given task. Next we would review the proficiency data. In developing the selection system, we want to identify those KSAOs applicants should have upon their hiring. Based on our scale, we want KSAOs with a rating of 1.0 or higher on proficiency. In Table 4.2 the rows represent task statements and the columns KSAOs that the job analysis has identified for the target job. Each cell in the matrix states whether the KSAO applies to the specific task; that is, if the KSAO met both the importance and proficiency cutoffs for the task statement, we entered a “Y” for Yes in the matrix. In Table 4.2, K3 (Knowledge of medications/drugs administered to residents) applies to all eight tasks that have been identified for the LPN, while S2 (Skill in dealing with residents and their families) applies to five of the eight tasks, A1 (Ability to listen to concerns of residents about their health.) applies to all eight, and O2 (Sensitivity) applies to four of the eight tasks. In developing selection instruments, the HR staff might wish to concentrate on the KSAOs that apply to the most tasks in the matrix. In the case of Table 4.2, these would be K2, K3, S2, A1, A4, and O2, which are bolded in the table. The

KnOwLEdgE sKiLLs AbiLiTy OTHER

K1 K2 K3 K4 s1 s2 s3 A1 A2 A3 A4 O1 O2 O3

TA sK

s TA

TE m

En T

T1 Y N Y N Y Y N Y N N Y Y N N

T2 N N Y N N Y N Y N Y Y N Y N

T3 Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y Y N N Y N

T4 N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y N Y Y

T5 Y Y Y N Y N N Y N N Y N Y N

T6 N Y Y N N N Y Y Y N Y Y N N

T7 N Y Y Y N Y N Y N N Y N N N

T8 N N Y Y N N N Y N N Y N N N

TAbLE 4.2

TAsK sTATEmEnT by KsAO mATRix

“Y” in a cell means that the KSAO in the column applies to the task statement listed in the row. “N” means that the KSAO does not apply to the specified task.

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NEL 135CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

Task × KSAO matrix provides a linkage between the KSAOs that are needed to perform tasks effectively; it also provides the basis for developing a defensible selection system.

The rating methods illustrated in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 do not apply only to data col- lected through interviews, observation, and self-report techniques. They can be used with any procedure that generates task statements that are used to derive KSAOs. A limitation of this approach is that it may be very time consuming when there are large numbers of task statements and KSAOs.

structured Job analysIs QuestIonnaIres and InVentorIes

Structured job analysis questionnaires and inventories require workers and other SMEs to respond to written questions about their jobs. Respondents are asked to make judg- ments about activities and tasks, tools, and equipment and working conditions involved in the job. These can be off-the-shelf questionnaires and inventories that can be used for a variety of jobs, such as the worker-oriented Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ),73 or they can be developed by the analyst for the specific job and organization in question using the critical incident technique,74 functional job analysis,75,76 focus groups, or other inventory methods. As well, the interview protocol shown in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.2 can easily be turned into a written questionnaire administered to a larger number of SMEs. A customized interview protocol was developed for the LPN job anal- ysis that took into account the specific job and organization in which the LPN worked.

task InVentorIes

Task inventories are structured work-oriented surveys that break down jobs into their component tasks and ask job incumbents and supervisors to make judgments about activities and tasks, tools and equipment, and working conditions involved in the job. A well-constructed survey permits workers to define their jobs in relation to a subset of tasks appearing on the inventory.77 Drauden78 indicates that certain task inventory methods were developed in response to the Uniform Guidelines criteria for job analysis. According to these criteria, job analysis should assess (1) the duties performed, (2) the level of difficulty of job duties, (3) the job context, and (4) the criticality of duties to the job. An inventory comprises task statements that are objectively based descriptions of what gets done on a job. Tasks are worker activities that result in an outcome that serves some specified purpose.79,80 The task inventory is next used to identify a list of relevant KSAOs as outlined above. These inventories are typically developed for specific jobs or occupations. Task inventories are advantageous in that they are efficient to use with large numbers of employees and are easily translated into quantifiable measurements. On the other hand, they can be time consuming to develop and thus can be expensive. Motivating incumbents to participate in the rating process may also be a problem with long inventories. When the task inventory procedure and analysis are well planned, the results can be extremely valuable in developing HR selection programs. Task inventories are unique to a specific job in contrast to worker-oriented methods that permit applica- tion of survey instruments to a wide variety of unrelated jobs.

Table 4.3 presents a sample of the task inventory that was used as part of the LPN job analysis. The items in the task inventory were gathered by reviewing archival sources such as the NOC, O*NET, requirements for registration as a LPN, and the organiza- tion’s documents. Tasks on which these sources agreed were included in the survey that SMEs then rated.

task inventories Work-oriented surveys that break down jobs into their component tasks.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL136

TAbLE 4.3

sAmPLE Of A TAsK invEnTORy usEd in THE LPn JOb AnALysis

please read each of the task descriptions. Rate the task using the following scale to assess the task in order to do the job of an LpN: • Essential tasks are those that without which the job cannot be done. • important tasks are required but in some cases the job could still be done. • Relevant tasks are useful and their presence helps to do the job. • Tasks that are not important but may be helpful to doing the job. • Tasks that are not Essential have no usefulness to doing their job.

5 Essential5 4 Important5 3 Relevant5 2 Not Important5 1 Not Essential5

TAsK dEsCRiPTiOns 1 2 3 4 5

Measure and record patients’ vital signs, such as height, weight, temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration.

Collect samples, such as blood, urine, or sputum from patients, and perform routine laboratory tests on samples.

prepare patients for examinations, tests, or treatments and explain procedures.

Observe patients, charting and reporting changes in patients’ conditions, such as adverse reactions to medication or treatment, and taking any necessary action.

provide basic patient care or treatments, such as taking temperatures or blood pressures, dressing wounds, treating bedsores, giving enemas or douches, rubbing with alcohol, massaging, or performing catheterizations.

Sterilize equipment and supplies, using germicides, sterilizer, or autoclave.

Assemble and use equipment, such as catheters, tracheotomy tubes, or oxygen suppliers.

Set up equipment and prepare medical treatment rooms.

functIonal Job analysIs (fJa) FJA is conducted by an experienced job analyst who has attended FJA training workshops and who has been certified as an FJA ana- lyst. The analyst convenes a focus group of approximately six job incumbents who have a broad range of experience in the position. The focus of the workshop is on obtaining two types of information, specifically what a worker does and how a task is performed. Under the guidance of the analyst, the focus group collects informa- tion on (1) the outputs of the job for which they are paid, (2) the KSAOs required to perform their job, and (3) the tasks that they need to do to perform their job. After identifying the job outputs and KSAOs, much of the time is spent writing task statements that clearly define what needs to be done to get the work performed.

The task statement is the basic unit of analysis. Task statements follow the same format we presented earlier in this chapter. The focus group writes as many task state- ments as possible. Generally, 20 to 30 task statements are sufficient to describe the essen- tial job components, although with complex jobs the number needed may go as high as 100. This bank of task statements should cover at least 95 percent of the work that the job entails. The task bank is then edited by the analyst to ensure clarity and conformity to the format and then sent to the focus group participants for their feedback and evaluation.

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NEL 137CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

Next, the task bank is distributed to a sample of job incumbents and other experts, who are asked to rate each task on seven scales that assess the complexity of the task. The Data scale assesses worker involvement with ideas, information, facts, and statistics; the Things scale assesses the employee’s use of equipment and tools; and the Person scale assesses the worker’s interaction with other humans. Table 4.4 presents the descriptors that serve as a guide in making these three ratings. These scales are those used in the Dic- tionary of Occupational Titles, the Canadian Classification Dictionary of Occupations, and the National Occupational Classification (refer to Figure 4.2).

The remaining four scales assess Worker Instructions, the amount of discretion a worker has over the specific methods of task performance, and three General Educa- tional Development scales: Reasoning Development, which assesses problem-solving and decision-making demands of a task; Mathematical Development, which assesses the math operations required by a task; and Language Development, which assesses the oral and written materials related to the task. The results of these four scales are used to develop the KSAOs related to the tasks.

An optional last step in the FJA is to ask workers to rate the frequency, importance, and difficulty of each task (refer to Table 4.1). Fine81 notes that the usefulness of the latter three ratings is dubious because the critical issue is whether the task needs to be performed to get the work done, in which case it is important and critical, and frequency does not matter. A worker in a nuclear power facility may, for example, be required to enter and conduct rescues in radiologically contaminated confined spaces. While such a rescue operation is rarely, if ever, necessary in the life of a job, it is essential that certain workers be able to perform to stringent standards at any given time, so this is a critical component in employee selection.82,83

The mean employee ratings from the seven scales are used to summarize each task in the task bank. The mean ratings are used to develop the job requirement and specifica- tions. There is no agreed-upon formula for how to do this. However, Gatewood, Feild,

dATA PEOPLE THings

HigH COmPLExiTy Synthesizing Mentoring Setting up

Coordinating Negotiating precision working

Analyzing Instructing Operating/controlling

Compiling Supervising Manipulating

Computing Diverting Tending

Copying persuading Feeding/offbearing

Comparing Speaking/signalling Handling

Serving

Taking instructions/helping

LOw COmPLExiTy

TAbLE 4.4

THE dATA, PEOPLE, THings sCALEs usEd in funCTiOnAL JOb AnALysis

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL138

and Barrick84 suggest that at least 75 percent of the employees must perform the task and their mean ratings on a scale are above the mean and have a relatively low standard deviation (i.e., more agreement among the raters). For example, on a 5-point scale, the task should have a mean rating of greater than 3 and a standard deviation of less than 1. Tasks whose ratings reflected these values would be used in listing the job requirements and specifications. This is similar to the strategy we used in developing the Task × KSAO matrix in Table 4.2. The resultant tasks and their KSAOs form the basis for the subse- quent selection measurements.

crItIcal IncIdent technIQue (cIt) Critical incidents are examples of effective and ineffective work behaviours that are related to superior or inferior performance. The critical incident technique generates behaviourally focused descriptions of work activities. It was originally developed as a training needs assessment and perfor- mance appraisal tool.85 The critical incident technique provides important, con- textually rich examples of job behaviours that are particularly useful in developing behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS; see Chapter 5) and behavioural inter- views (see Chapter 9), as well as being the basis for situational judgment tests and assessment centre exercises such as role-plays and in-basket tests (see Chapter 8).86

The first step in this method is to assemble a panel of job experts, usually consisting of people with several years’ experience who have had the opportunity to observe both poor and exemplary workers on the job. The job of the panel is to gather critical inci- dents. Flanagan87 defined an incident as an observable human activity that is sufficiently complete to facilitate inferences and predictions about the person performing the act. Panel members describe incidents, including the antecedents to the activity, a complete description of the behaviour, the results of the behaviour, and whether the results were within the control of the worker. All of the incidents are then rated by the panel in terms of whether they represent effective or ineffective behaviour on the part of the employee. Figure 4.4 presents an example of a form used to collect critical incidents.

After the incidents are gathered, they are edited and reviewed by a panel of SMEs who sort the incidents into themes or dimensions that they believe characterize the complete set of incidents. These dimensions may have been predetermined or they may be inferred from the incidents. At least 60 percent of the SMEs must agree that an item belongs in a dimension; if this criterion is not met, the item is dropped. Catano and Harvey88 used this technique to develop a new measure to evaluate teaching based on competencies. From close to 500 critical incidents they identified nine competencies (dimensions) that formed the new scale: communication, availability, creativity, indi- vidual consideration, social awareness, feedback, professionalism, conscientiousness, and problem solving. Examples of ineffective and effective incidents for four of the compe- tencies are presented in Table 4.5.

The dimensions or competencies, rather than tasks, are used to describe the job. The performance dimensions and the rated incidents are used to derive KSAOs and to identify appropriate selection methods. If we were hiring teachers we might consider selecting them on the basis of their communication skills and the personality factors of openness and conscientiousness, as suggested by Table 4.5. The rated incidents within each dimension can be used to develop the anchors for the BARS instruments, situational judgment tests, and structured interviews that are discussed in later chapters.

The critical incident technique has the advantages of being flexible and collecting data from employees in their own words. It identifies rare events that may help to define the work situation. It is relatively inexpensive compared to other methods, and provides

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NEL 139CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

1. What was the situation leading up to the event? (Describe the context)

2. What did the person do? Describe the actions taken.

3. What was the outcome or result of the action?

Circle the number below that best reflects the level of performance that this event exemplifies.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Highly ineffective Highly Effective

figuRE 4.4

CRiTiCAL inCidEnT REPORT fORm

rich behavioural data that can be used in selection interviews and performance evalu- ations. On the other hand, the focus on critical incidents may miss important routine tasks. The critical incidents rely on memory and often only recent events are recalled. It may take a while to collect enough critical incidents to describe a job. CIT develops rich qualitative data that provide great insights but are relatively labour-intensive to develop.89

Worker-orIented Job analysIs Methods

PosItIon analysIs QuestIonnaIre (PaQ) The PAQ is a structured job analysis questionnaire that focuses on the general behaviours that make up a job. It assumes that all jobs can be characterized in terms of a limited number of human abilities. The PAQ includes 195 items, called job elements, organized into 32 job division dimensions that may be further organized into six dimensions—information input, mental processes, work output, relation- ships, job context, and other job characteristics—and 13 overall dimensions.90 Figure 4.5 presents a sample of the PAQ items used in assessing information input from visual sources.

The PAQ can be used for many jobs. Figure 4.6 shows the scores on the PAQ job dimensions provided by job analysts to four very different occupations. The scores are percentiles and represent comparisons for the dimension with normative data from the PAQ database of over 300 000 job analyses. For example, ratings for homemakers on demanding situations were equal to or greater than ratings on this dimension for 85 per- cent of jobs in the PAQ database. Figure 4.6 illustrates how comparisons may be made across a number of jobs.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL140

The PAQ can be completed by trained job analysts, HR practitioners, or job incum- bents and supervisors; trained job analysts produce the most accurate and reliable results in the least amount of time.91 The PAQ ratings can be combined in several different ways to provide excellent information for selection, job descriptions, job evaluations, and com- pensation. The PAQ has good reliability and is available “off-the-shelf ” for immediate use. It can be used with a small number of SMEs. PAQ Services provides computerized scoring and uses the thousands of jobs in its database as benchmarks. The PAQ provides straightforward information for developing selection procedures. Finally, the PAQ has been rated as one of the most cost-efficient job analysis methods.92

There are drawbacks, however, including serious questions about the readability of the statements in the inventory (refer to Figure 4.5) with the suggestion that a job

AvAiLAbiLiTy

The teacher is a part-time instructor and is rarely seen on campus. The teacher was never available during office hours. The teacher did not provide an email or other means of contact. There was no support for the students who required extra assis- tance or supplementary information to understand the material and assignments.

The course material in the class was very difficult, and students were concerned that the lectures were not helping them to understand the material. The professor took time out of his schedule and offered tutorial sessions. The students greatly appreciated this and felt that they received higher marks in the class because of it.

COmmuniCATiOn

The professor was new at teaching and was very nervous. The professor’s style was to read off the powerpoint slides and he or she was so uncomfortable when he or she spoke that it was difficult to understand what he or she was saying. The result was that the students felt they did not learn as much as they could.

The student told the professor that the professor could not be heard properly from the back of the room. The professor thanked the student and proceeded to conduct the lecture in a louder voice. The student was able to fully hear the professor and to take better notes.

COnsCiEnTiOusnEss

The professor arrived early for class and listed on the blackboard the concepts that would be covered that day. beside the concepts were small but effective descriptions for each concept. The class was extremely organized, and was taught suc- cinctly. The student understood what the professor was talking about, and was able to generate extremely efficient notes.

The professor did not give out a syllabus explaining what would be covered during the semester and when it would be covered. The student was not sure what to read for class or what would be covered during the class. This made it very difficult to keep up with the readings.

individuAL COnsidERATiOn

A student approached the teacher to discuss some concerns about the class. The teacher was very cold and uninterested. The student felt very uncomfortable, and did not receive any support from the teacher. The student never returned to discuss issues regarding the class.

because of the death of a family member, a student had to leave for an extended period of time during the semester. The teacher kept the student updated in order to prevent the student from falling too far behind. As a consequence, the student was accommodated and obtained a good grade for the course.

TAbLE 4.5

ExAmPLEs Of EffECTivE And inEffECTivE CRiTiCAL inCidEnTs sORTEd by dimEnsiOn

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NEL 141CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

analyst complete the inventory after interviewing job incumbents and supervisors. The PAQ requires a college/university-level reading ability. Having the job analyst complete the inventory increases the time and cost of administering the PAQ. The content of the PAQ makes it more suitable for blue-collar jobs. It does not quantify what work actually gets done on a job. Because of its focus on behaviours rather than tasks and on de-emphasizing job context, important differences between jobs may not be picked up.

Recently, the PAQ has been updated to include items that meet a wider variety of human resource needs, including those related to disabilities. It has also produced a sepa- rate version of the PAQ that is designed for use with occupations involving professional and managerial work. The PAQ offers free services, materials, and sample scoring reports to classes in HR and I/O psychology.

More information on the Position Analysis Questionnaire is available on the PAQ website (http://www.paq.com).

Worker traIts InVentorIes

Worker traits inventories do not provide information on the job as a whole or any tasks associated with it, but only certain requirements needed to carry out the job. For this reason some researchers argue that worker traits inventories are not legitimate job

Worker traits inventories Methods used to infer employee specifications from job analysis data.

A. infORmATiOn inPuT

A1. visuAL sOuRCEs Of JOb infORmATiOn

using the response scale at the left, rate each of the following items on the basis of the extent to which it is used by the worker as a source of information in performing the job.

Extent of use 0 Does not apply 1 Nominal/very infrequent 2 Occasional 3 Moderate 4 Considerable 5 very substantial

1. written materials for example, books, reports, office notes, articles, job instructions, or signs

2. quantitative materials Materials that deal with quantities or amounts, for example, graphs, accounts, specifications, or tables of numbers

3. Pictorial materials pictures or picture-like materials used as sources of information, for example, drawings, blueprints, diagrams, maps, tracings, photographic films, X-ray films, or Tv pictures

4. Patterns or related devices for example, templates, stencils, or patterns used as sources of information when observed during use (Do not include materials described in item 3.)

5. visual displays for example, dials, gauges, signal lights, radarscopes, speedometers, or clocks

6. measuring devices for example, rules, calipers, tire pressure gauges, scales, thickness gauges, pipettes, thermometers, or protractors used to obtain visual information about physical measurements (Do not include devices described in item 5.)

7. mechanical devices for example, tools, equipment, or machinery that are sources of information when observed during use or operation

Source: Courtesy of pAQ Services, Inc.

figuRE 4.5

sAmPLE Of PAq iTEms

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL142

JOb

PAq dimEnsiOn COunTER CLERK

HOmE- mAKER

sECRETARy fOOd sERvER

1. Decision/Communication/Social responsibility 16 69 25 21 2. Skilled activities 22 34 21 11 3. physical activity/Environment conditions 65 87 33 59 4. Equipment/vehicle operation 44 65 31 62 5. Information processing 67 28 79 65 6. visual input from devices 24 46 33 16 7. perceptual interpretation 45 29 35 33 8. Information from people 54 73 39 85 9. visual input from distal sources 30 31 58 52 10. physical information evaluation 64 63 40 38 11. Environmental awareness 86 98 38 57 12. Aware of body movement 18 27 40 35 13. Decision making 10 52 14 11 14. Information processing 36 26 85 63 15. Machine/process control 56 26 85 40 16. Manual control activities 42 52 25 32 17. Control/Equipment operation 28 69 33 22 18. general body activity 30 70 34 56 19. Handling/Manipulating 93 79 61 85 20. Finger dexterity/physical activity 48 16 74 40 21. Skilled/Technical activities 25 50 36 32 22. Communication decisions/judgments 16 67 37 20 23. Job information exchange 81 46 16 80 24. Staff-related activities 27 77 64 15 25. Superior/Subordinate relations 81 18 33 51 26. public-related contact 90 64 16 81 27. unpleasant/Hazardous environment 29 45 23 30 28. Demanding situations 35 85 42 47 29. businesslike situations 48 17 72 63 30. Attentive/Discriminating 09 32 06 09 31. Structured work 78 17 60 64 32. Regular work schedule 13 05 62 10

Note: Entries are percentile ranks for each job on the relevant pAQ dimension; dimensions 1–5 are the overall pAQ factors, whereas dimensions 6–32 are division dimensions.

Source: butler, S.K. and Harvey, R.J. 1988. “A comparison of Holistic versus Decomposed Ratings of position Analysis Questionnaire Work Dimen- sions” Journal of Applied Psychology, 41: 761–771. American psychological Association.

figuRE 4.6

PAq dimEnsiOn sCOREs fOR fOuR OCCuPATiOns

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NEL 143CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

analysis methods.93 However, these methods are widely used to infer employee specifica- tions from work or job analysis data and are useful for selection and training purposes. These methods are commonly included in the job analysis literature and accepted by most practitioners as legitimate work or job analysis methods. Worker traits inventories are designed to identify the traits or KSAOs that predict job success. The identification of these KSAOs is made by SMEs who are most familiar with the job or occupation. In many ways, worker traits inventories are similar to procedures used to identify worker competencies that we discuss in Part II of this chapter.

O*NET provides a list of KSAOs that many job analyses have associated with particular jobs or occupation. These lists can be used to develop a trait inventory that is then evaluated by the SMEs for the job in question. In addition, the list of attributes may be obtained through focus groups where the SMEs are asked to identify the attri- butes that make for successful performance of day-to-day duties. Table 4.6 presents a

please read each of the attributes described below. Rate the attribute using the following scale to assess the need for each attribute in order to do the job of an LpN: • Essential attributes are those that without which the job of the LpN cannot be done. • important attributes are required but in some cases the job could be done if the LpN

lacked that attribute. • Relevant attributes are useful and their presence aids the LpN in doing their job. • Attributes that are not important may be helpful to the LpN. • Attributes that are not Essential have no usefulness to the LpN doing their job.

5 Essential5 4 Important5

3 Relevant5 1 Not Essential5 2 Not Important5

ATTRibuTE 1 2 3 4 5

Knowledge of the information and techniques needed to diagnose and treat human injuries, diseases, and deformities. This includes symptoms, treatment alternatives, drug properties and interactions, and preventive health-care measures.

Knowledge of principles, methods, and procedures for diagnosis, treatment, and rehabili- tation of physical and mental dysfunctions, and for career counselling and guidance.

giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times.

Talking to others to convey information effectively.

being aware of others’ reactions and understanding why they react as they do.

The ability to shift back and forth between two or more activities or sources of information (such as speech, sounds, touch, or other sources).

The ability to see details at close range (within a few feet of the observer).

being sensitive to others’ needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job.

Maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behaviour, even in very difficult situations

TAbLE 4.6

sAmPLE Of TRAiT invEnTORy usEd As PART Of LPn JOb AnALysis

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NEL144 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

sample of the trait inventory that SMEs rated as part of the LPN job analyses. If you go to O*NET and review the listing for a LPN you will see the full list of traits associ- ated with the LPN occupation. This is a starting point; however, the job analyst must determine which of these attributes apply to the job in question. Thus, there is a need to rate the attributes and to determine if the list is complete by giving the SMEs an opportunity to add traits.

fleIshMan Job analysIs surVey (f-Jas) The Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)94 is a system for identifying which and to what degree an array of empirically derived ability constructs are critical to perform a specific job effectively. It assumes that job tasks differ with respect to the abilities required to perform them successfully and that jobs can be classified according to the abilities required to perform them. Fleishman and his col- leagues abilities required to perform them. Fleishman and his colleagues,95,96 using factor analysis methods, identified 52 human ability categories, such as “oral comprehension” and “multi-limb coordination” and “night vision.” In the F-JAS booklet (F-JAS-1) these abilities are grouped into four clusters: cognitive, psychomotor, physical, and sensory/per- ception. The methodology employs a minimum of 10 raters familiar with the job to assess the job with behaviourally anchored rating scales ranging from a high of 7 to a low of 1 on that ability requirement level. The average of these 10 rater scores is obtained to provide a statistically significant value for the degree of expertise that job requires of that ability. These 52 abilities are now used by O*NET in describing the level of abilities required by jobs in its database. Caughron, Mumford, and Fleishman97 and Wilson, Bennett, Gibson, and Alliger98 provide additional information on the development and uses of the F-JAS.

Figure 4.7 provides the rating scale used for the ability “Oral Comprehension.” Unlike many other rating systems, this scale and those shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9 include definitions of the ability and how it differs from others. The scale is anchored with behaviours that help the rater to determine the level of the ability needed for the job.

More recently, Fleishman and his colleagues extended this work to the development of F-JAS-2, which provides 21 job-related social and interpersonal abilities. A number of these abilities, such as dependability and assertiveness, reflect the current research on the role of personality variables in selection and job performance. Administration of the F-JAS-2 requires that same sample of subject-matter experts, the job incumbents, supervisors, and others, be presented with the job description and assess it against the component social and interpersonal abilities. The methodology offers job analysts the flexibility to rate the extent that each ability is required at the job as a whole level or at more specific levels of inquiry such as task statements or dimensions of the job.

Figure 4.8 provides an example of the rating scale for “Dependability.” In addition to F-JAS-1 (ability requirements) and F-JAS-2 (social requirements),

Fleishman, Costanza, and Marshall-Mies99 have developed an additional F-JAS-3 com- ponent to cover the 49 major knowledge and skill requirements of jobs, using the same rating scale formats as the F-JAS.

Figure 4.9 provides an example of the rating scale for “Personnel/HR Knowledge.” Fleishman and Reilly100 have produced a companion handbook that provides a

compilation of commercially available assessment instruments designed to measure each of the specific abilities required of job incumbents.

More information on the F-JAS can be found at http://www.managementresearch institute.com.

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NEL 145CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

This is the ability to listen and understand spoken words and sentences.

1. Oral Comprehension

vs.

Oral Comprehension: Involves listening to and understanding words and sentences spoken by others.

Understand a lecture on metaphysics.

Understand instructions for a sport.

Understand a television commercial.

Requires understanding complex or detailed information that is presented orally, contains unusual words and phrases, and involves �ne distinctions in meaning among words.

Oral Expression and Written Expression: Involve speaking or writing words and sentences so others will understand.

Written Comprehension: Involves reading and understanding written words and sentences.

Requires understanding short or simple spoken information that contains common words and phrases.

How Oral Comprehension Is Different From Other Abilities

figuRE 4.7

THE f-JAs AbiLiTy sCALE fOR ORAL COmPREHEnsiOn

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NEL146 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

figuRE 4.8

THE f-JAs AbiLiTy sCALE fOR dEPEndAbiLiTy

Requires a minimal degree of reliable and responsible work behaviour in order to ful�ll the obligations of work and others.

Remain alert on guard duty near enemy territory.

Make overnight deliveries promptly and safely.

Return a telephone call.

This is the ability to be reliable and responsible to others. This ability involves being disciplined, conscientious, and trustworthy in ful�lling obligations and tasks expected by others.

4. Dependability

Requires consistently reliable and responsible work behaviour in order to ful�ll the obligations of work and others.

other Job analysIs Methods

Because there are so many other job analysis methods that are available for general or specific purposes, it is impossible to cover all of these. Recruitment and Selection Note- book 4.3 presents brief information on some of the more popular of these methods.

best PractIce In choosInG Job analysIs Methods

Throughout this chapter we have discussed several different job analysis methods. Recruit- ment and Selection Notebook 4.4 presents the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods. So, which method is best? Which one should we choose for use? There

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NEL 147CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

Requires knowledge of basic personnel topics such as claim forms, basic reports, and job applications

Fill out a medical claim form

Process employee insurance claims

Design a new employee selection procedure

Knowledge of bene�ts, hiring, labour relations, negotiation, and EEOC regulations.

Personnel/HR

Requires knowledge of a broad range of employment and personnel practices such as EEOC regulations, legal precedents, and labour negotiations

figuRE 4.9

THE f-JAs AbiLiTy sCALE fOR PERsOnnEL/HR KnOwLEdgE

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.3

OTHER JOb ANALYSIS METHODS

Common-metric questionnaire (Cmq)101

The CMQ is a structured, off-the-shelf job analysis ques- tionnaire that captures information about the job’s back- ground, contacts with people, decision making, physical and mechanical activities, and work setting, based on

observable behaviour rather than subjective ratings sys- tems. The reading level is appropriate for lower-level jobs and the content appears to be appropriate for both lower- and higher-level jobs. More information on the CMQ can be found at http://commonmetric.com.

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL148

work Profiling system (wPs)

The WpS is a computer-administered structured question- naire that can be completed and scored online or in the workplace. It measures ability and personality attributes, including hearing skills, sight, taste, smell, touch, body coordination, verbal skills, number skills, complex manage- ment skills, personality, and team role.102 WpS defines the KSAOs required for effective performance and generates employment specifications based on the highest-ranking survey items across respondents. The results of the anal- ysis can be used for a variety of employment purposes including employee selection, performance appraisal, job evaluation, and restructuring. It produces an accurate and efficient system for HR management.

Threshold Traits Analysis system

The Threshold Traits Analysis System103 is designed to identify worker traits that are relevant to the target job. Supervisors, incumbents, and other SMEs rate the job according to the relevancy and level of 33 worker traits (e.g., stamina, perception, oral expression, adaptability to

pressure, and tolerance) they believe are necessary to per- form the job and the need to have the traits upon hiring. More information on the Threshold Traits Analysis System can be found at http://www.flopez-associates.com/ser- vices.html.

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA)

CTA refers to a class of methods that are similar in their approach to understanding the cognitive processes used by experts to complete tasks. CTA is generally used fol- lowing a behavioural-based task analysis with the intent of identifying mental processes used by experts in performing those tasks.104 because there are numerous CTA method- ologies, the purpose of the task, the nature of the task, and the available resources must be considered before deciding on an approach. CTA is relatively new and must be used with caution even as a secondary analytic procedure. CTA methods suffer from a lack of detailed procedural informa- tion, complexity and difficulty in using the procedures, and lack of sufficient data on their reliability and validity. CTA is also time consuming, labour intensive, and expensive. CTA is more suitable for training applications rather than selection.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.4

AdvAnTAgEs And disAdvAnTAgEs Of COmmOnLy usEd JOb AnALysis mETHOds

mETHOd AdvAnTAgEs disAdvAnTAgEs

Existing Documentation O*NET NOC Job descriptions Job specifications Training manuals

• Easy to use • Existing data • O*NET and NOC provide rich, detailed

information • May be used to suggest information

that is needed • useful for several purposes

• May not cover job of interest • Information may not be up to date or

relevant • Job may have changed

Structured interview • Job incumbents describe work • Information obtained from persons

most familiar with the job • May provide unexpected information

• Requires experienced interviewer • Requires well-designed questions and

probes • provides qualitative data that may be

difficult to combine and analyze • Time consuming • Interviewees may distort information

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NEL 149CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

mETHOd AdvAnTAgEs disAdvAnTAgEs

Direct observation • Analyst sees firsthand what the job involves

• useful for blue-collar work • Simple to use • May verify data from other sources

• Observations may not cover all time periods in which job is performed

• Time consuming • Not useful for jobs involving cognitive

tasks • Observation may bias performance • validity and reliability may be

problematic

Structured questionnaires • Job incumbents describe work • Information obtained from persons

most familiar with the job • Access information from large number

of workers • Relatively inexpensive

• Only a portion of workers may respond • Respondents may not answer honestly • Questions are fixed and do not allow

flexibility • May not capture points that the worker

believes are important

Functional job analysis • provides task bank of standardized task statements

• Identifies the level of involvement with people, data, and things

• used to develop job descriptions • Helps to identify KSAOs related to task

statements • produces reliable and valid data, if

data collected by trained analyst

• Only trained analysts may use the method

• very costly for analyst training • very time consuming, laborious, and

costly to collect task statements

Critical incident technique • Analysis based on observable behaviour

• Work described in workers’ own words • Relatively easy to collect data • perceived as relevant and practical • Has good reliability and validity • good cost-benefit ratios • provides rich behavioural data • best used for selection

• Does not require training for the analyst

• May not capture all the dimensions critical for job performance

• Relies on memory of recent events • Reliability and validity may be lower

than off-the-shelf inventories

position Analysis Questionnaire

• Allows standardized comparisons between jobs in pAQ data bank

• Information is not task specific • Information includes KSAOs related to

selection • Mostly suited to blue-collar jobs • Relatively inexpensive • Has very good reliability • Requires only a small number of SMEs

• Requires an experienced job analyst • Statements are lengthy and detailed • Requires an above-average reading

level on the part of the person com- pleting the inventory

(continued )

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NEL150 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

is no real answer to these questions. It depends on the purpose for which you are doing the job analysis: selection, job evaluation, compensation, pay equity, and so on. Some methods are better suited to one purpose than another. Levine and his colleagues105 identified 11 criteria that could be used in assessing job analysis methods. These are presented in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.5.

An important issue that must be addressed as part of selecting a job analysis method is the reliability or accuracy of the information that the method will provide. Dierdorff and Wilson106 used a meta-analysis of 299 reliability estimates that were from different job analyses involving a variety of occupations. They concluded that methods that gath- ered specific task data (e.g., “replaces ink cartridges in desktop printers”) did so with greater accuracy than methods that assessed generalized work activity (e.g., “supervises work of office staff ”). They also reported that professional job analysts made more accu- rate assessments than did job incumbents who made self-reports or surveys. Finally, their analysis showed that SMEs made the most reliable estimates when using “importance” and “frequency” scales rather than other types of measurements.

This information should be of value to practitioners in designing job analysis proj- ects: “For instance, when only a certain amount of financial resources are procurable to conduct a job analysis, one could use the information presented herein to provide an estimate of how much reliability could be expected from using 25 incumbents versus five trained analysts rating tasks as opposed to [generalized work activity] (p. 107).”107 Dier- dorff and Wilson’s findings do not imply that only task-oriented job analysis methods should be used. The value of a job analysis lies in how the information from the analysis will be used. For some uses, such as training and development, task data may be neces- sary, while for some other uses, such as designing a performance management system, a more holistic method may be acceptable. The practitioner must take the intended use into consideration when choosing a method.

Recently, job analysis proponents have debated the best way to assess the reliability and validity of different job analysis methods. Sanchez and Levine108 have taken the position that traditional methods of assessing reliability are inappropriate for assessing job analysis data in that they are of little practical value. Sanchez and Levine propose that job

mETHOd AdvAnTAgEs disAdvAnTAgEs

Fleishman Job Analysis Survey

• Easy to administer • Can be used with task statements or

the whole job • Cost efficient • Does not require trained analyst to col-

lect data • Ratings are behaviourally anchored • provides rich data for writing worker

specification • useful for both blue- and white-collar

jobs • Has good reliability

• Needs at least 10 SMEs • Does not provide task statement or

information on the job duties • Task information needs to be obtained

through another process

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NEL 151CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

analysis data be evaluated in terms of their consequences: “Thus, the evaluation of [job analysis] data should focus on (1) the inferences derived from such data; and (2) the rules governing the making of such inferences (p. 814).” They note that Levine et al.109 showed that four very different job analysis methods, which likely had very different degrees of accuracy, led HR professionals to develop very similar selection strategies.

Morgeson and Campion110 echo these arguments by endorsing an inferential approach to validation, similar to our presentation in Chapter 2 (refer to Recruitment and Selection Notebook 2.2). In their model at the conceptual or construct level, the analyst identifies job performance and job-related psychological constructs. SMEs pro- duce a job description outlining tasks and duties that is made by inference from the job performance construct. Similarly, job specifications, in terms of KSAOs, are inferred from the job-related psychological constructs. An operational linkage is assumed to tie the KSAOs to the tasks and duties. Validation rests on verifying the different inferences.

Harvey and Wilson111 take issue with these approaches; they maintain the position that a procedure that focuses only on job specifications or the consequences of those specifications is not a true job analysis procedure. They argue that holistic ratings, or direct inferences of KSAOs from psychological constructs rather than from job tasks, will always produce inferior data. However, the position of Harvey and Wilson runs directly counter to the procedures used to develop competency-based models that we discuss in Part II of this chapter. There is little empirical evidence at this time on which to judge the merits of these two competing positions to provide guidance to an HR practitioner. The

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.5

CRITERIA FOR CHOOSINg A JOb ANALYSIS METHOD

The following criteria were developed by Levine and his colleagues to evaluate seven job analysis techniques. They remain a useful set of questions for any HR practitioner to use in deciding among various procedures.

• Operational status: Has the method been tested and refined sufficiently?

• Availability: Is it available off the shelf?

• Occupational versatility: Is it suitable for ana- lyzing a variety of jobs?

• standardization: Is it possible to compare your results with others that have been found elsewhere?

• user acceptability: Is the method acceptable to the client and the employees who will have to pro- vide the information?

• Training requirements: How much training is needed and available to use the method; must one receive special certification in the procedure to use it? Can it be done “in-house”?

• sample size: From how many employees must data be collected for the method to provide reli- able results?

• Reliability: Will the method give results that are replicable?

• Cost: What are the costs of the method in mate- rials, consultant fees, training, and person-hours?

• quality of outcome: Will the method yield high quality results (e.g., legally defensible)?

• Time to completion: How many calendar days will the data collection and analysis take?

Source: E.L. Levine, R.A. Ash, H. Hall, and F. Sistrunk. 1983. “Evaluation of Job Analysis Methods by Experienced Job Analysts.” Academy of Manage- ment Journal, 26: 339–48. Copyright © 1983 Academy of Management, NY. Reproduced with permission of ACADEMY OF MANAgEMENT via Copy- right Clearance Center.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL152

best advice that we can give is to be aware of these two differing views toward assessing reliability and validity of job analysis systems and the implications for legal defensibility.

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.6 presents guidelines developed by Thompson and Thompson112 to determine whether a job analysis procedure would meet legal standards. The guidelines are based on U.S. court decisions but represent what HR professionals could expect from Canadian courts and tribunals when they evaluate the information produced by a job analysis. Although the guidelines are a bit dated, they are still relevant, but they may change with the adoption of new laws or standards or what is considered to be acceptable professional practice.

No guarantee exists that any job analysis method will find acceptance before the courts. The best that can be said is that having done a formal job analysis, regardless of method, is better than not having done one, and having carried it out properly will increase the probability that the courts will accept its results. Given the limitations of different methods and their suitability to different HR management functions, it is not unusual for an organization to use several job analysis techniques. Often, such multi- method approaches are needed to understand the complexity of today’s jobs where the dividing lines between job, worker, and job-related behaviours become blurred.

Using a variety of approaches is a form of “triangulation” and provides different perspectives on the job that when synthesized produce the best information for matching people to jobs. Ultimately, what the HR practitioner must decide is (1) Which job analysis method best serves the intended purpose of the job analysis (i.e., will the data be used for selection, performance appraisal, job evaluation, etc.)? (2) Can the job analysis be carried out reliably given the number of positions to be assessed, the availability of SMEs,

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.6

ASSESSINg THE LEgAL DEFENSIbILITY OF A JOb ANALYSIS

based on u.S. court and tribunal decisions, Thompson and Thompson identified the following factors that influence the defensibility of job analysis data used as evidence in legal proceedings:

• A job analysis must be performed according to a set of formal procedures. It is not acceptable to rely on what “everyone” knows about a job since that knowledge may be based on inaccurate ste- reotyped notions of the job demands.

• The job analysis must be well documented; it is not enough to simply carry around job information in the analyst’s head.

• The job analysis should collect data from several up-to-date sources. This suggests using several different methods of job analysis.

• The sample of people interviewed should be suf- ficient in number to capture accurately the job information. The sample should also represent the full diversity of job incumbents (e.g., ethnic and gender groups, people with and without formal qualifications) to ensure the validity of the data.

• The job analysts should be properly trained in the different techniques to ensure that they collect objective information and are as free from bias as possible.

• The job analysis should determine the most impor- tant and critical aspects of the job, and it is on these that the key attributes and selection and evaluation for the job should be based.

Source: D.E. Thompson and T.A. Thompson. 1982. “Court Standards for Job Analysis in Test validation,” Personnel Psychology, 35: 872–73. Repro- duced with permission of blackwell publishing, Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.

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NEL 153CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

the time allowed to complete the project, and the cooperation of job incumbents? (3) Which job analysis method has the best track record with respect to technical adequacy and legal defensibility?23

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.7 summarizes the job analysis information in this part of the chapter, and presents guidelines on conducting a job analysis. These are guidelines as the specific nature of how the analysis is carried out may depend on many issues. We present a procedure that we believe will meet the requirements of legal defensibility while producing important, job-relevant information.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.7

guIDELINES FOR CONDuCTINg A JOb ANALYSIS

1. determine the purpose of the job analysis. Is the job analysis to be used for selection, job evaluation, com- pensation, or other purposes? Different job analysis methods are more suited to some of these purposes than others.

2. determine the resources that are available and those needed for the job analysis.

a. What is the budget for the job analysis?

b. How many job incumbents are there in each job position of interest?

c. Are subject-matter experts available to assist?

d. Will consultants be involved?

e. Where is the job analysis worksite: one or several locations?

f. What is the deadline for completing the process?

3. Review available documentation/information for the position or job in question. This may include job or position descriptions, recruitment information, past job analyses, and website information, e.g., O*Net, NOC.

4. determine the job analysis method to be used. The choice of a job analysis depends on answers to points 1 and 2. Review these points in the context of the criteria for choosing a job analysis method in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.5. Does the job analysis method require special training on the part of the analyst?

5. identify subject-matter experts (smEs) and incumbents who will participate in the job analysis. SMEs used in the job analysis process should include

first-level supervisors or hiring managers. Addition- ally, previous employees or trainers may be appro- priate. A good SME has direct knowledge of the job and knows what is required to succeed in the job. The number and role of incumbents depends on the job analysis method; in most cases, they should be top performers who know the job.

6. Conduct the job analysis to obtain task and/or KSAO statements. The type of statement will depend on the job analysis method. Some methods, for example, will not produce task statements.

7. Confirm the task and KsAO statements. Have a second SME panel review the output of the job analysis. Such a review increases the accuracy of the statements and adds validity to the job analysis pro- cess. The task and KSAO statements should include important aspects of the job.

8. Compile the task and KsAO statements into a job analysis questionnaire (JAQ). Administer the JAQ to SMEs and job incumbents to obtain individual ratings for the tasks and KSAOs. For each task, rate (1) the importance of the task to successful job performance, (2) the frequency of the task performance, and (3) the difficulty or criticality of the task in job performance. Similarly rate each KSAO in terms of (1) how impor- tant the KSAO is to successful job performance, and (2) whether the KSAO is essential and required on the first day of the job.

9. Establish cutoff criteria to determine the critical tasks and KSAOs necessary to successfully perform the job. In addition, identify the tasks and KSAOs with ratings that did not meet the cutoff criteria. These

(continued )

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL154

statements may be useful for other purposes other than selection (e.g., training needs analyses).

10. develop a Task × KsAO matrix to link tasks to KSAOs and to identify those KSAOs that relate directly to performing the job. Organize the critical tasks and KSAO statements into logical content areas, performance domains, or competencies such as oral and written communication, machine opera- tion program management, leadership, decision making, safety, and so on. This becomes the basis for the choice of selection instruments related to critical job functions.

11. select employment selection method(s) that are the most effective way to measure the KSAOs that are essential to job performance. In some cases more than one instrument may be chosen to measure a KSAO.

12. document the job analysis through a report that summarizes the specific methodology used to gather all relevant information about the job, how the job content was analyzed, and how appropriate selection modalities were identified to assess job candidates in terms of KSAOs relevant to successful job perfor- mance. In an appendix present all of the data from the job analysis.

// Part II: the role of coMPetencIes In recruItMent and selectIon Today’s workplace is in the midst of unprecedented change as it struggles to adapt to increasing global competition, rapid advances in information technology, multitasking, and changing work force demographics. Emerging from this turbulence are worker requirements unlike any we have seen in the past. With many of the routine aspects of work now done by machines, jobs have been redefined, with greater emphasis given to the management of technology.

In this post-industrial information era, workers are required to apply a wider range of skills to an ever-changing series of tasks. Individuals just entering the work force will face at least three to four career changes in their lifetime. Workers will be expected to possess the skills and knowledge of two or three traditional employees.114 On the fac- tory floor, jobs change rapidly, and workers constantly rotate among positions, acquiring multiple and generic skills. Today’s workplace poses special challenges when trying to match people to jobs.

For many workers, these changes mean that the tasks performed today may be radically different from those required a few months from today. Skill requirements for employees may be increased or decreased, depending on the type of technology employed.115 Task and job instability create a growing need for hiring people with an already-learned set of skills and the ability to make decisions and adapt to changing organizational demands. The results of a job analysis may hold for only as long as the job remains configured as it was at the time of the job analysis.116 For example, today there is a greater emphasis on the strategic role played by HR professionals than in the past. Singh117 argues that with decreasing specialization and shifting of shared work assignments typical of today’s work, traditional methods of job analysis may not be appropriate as they do not present a strategic approach to defining work. That is, they are simply inconsistent with the new management practices of cross-training assign- ments, self-managed teams, and increased responsibility at all organizational levels. A job analysis should be linked to an organization’s strategic focus.

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NEL 155CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

The evolution toward rapidly changing jobs and organizations that demand flex- ibility of their workers has led some HR practitioners to search for alternatives to tradi- tional job analysis techniques. In order to recruit, select, and promote flexible workers who are able to make their own rules and adjust to the changing demands of work, HR specialists are faced with the ever-increasing need to adjust their methods to ensure that people are hired based on the needs of the organization, while remaining within legal boundaries. One approach that HR practitioners are using in a rapidly changing environ- ment is to select employees through work-related competencies that are thought to be related to successful job performance. A growing number of U.S. and Canadian orga- nizations have implemented competency-based management strategies. Stone, Webster, and Schoonover118 surveyed 48 HR and I/O practitioners in 2011 and found that 69 percent of their organizations had used competency modelling for five or more years; this represented an increase from 33 percent in a similar survey conducted in 2000. The practitioners noted several concerns over the use of competencies:

1. Some organizations that adopt competency models do not know how to implement them;

2. There are challenges in linking or integrating different applications when dif- ferent competency models are developed for different HR functions;

3. Competencies may be too broad and cannot be measured, while some are too detailed for use and acceptance by employees;

4. Changes in top organizational leadership may lead to changes in the compe- tencies and instability in their application to HR functions; and

5. Organizations often fail to validate their competency model in predicting job performance, particularly when adopting an off-the-shelf competency dictionary.

What Is a “coMPetency”?

Boyatzis119 popularized the term “competency” in The Competent Manager and defined it as a combination of a motive, trait, skill, aspect of one’s self-image or social role, or a body of relevant knowledge. This definition left much room for debate and has been followed since by a plethora of definitions that tend to reflect either individual or specific organizational concerns. Stevens120 presents a comparison of some of these various defi- nitions of what constitutes a competency. Definitions generally contain three elements. First, most suggest that competencies are the KSAOs or behaviours that underlie effective and successful job performance; second, the KSAOs or behaviours must be observable or measurable; and third, the KSAOs or behaviours must distinguish between superior and other performers.121 Competencies, then, are measurable attributes or behaviours that distinguish outstanding performers from others in a defined job context. In practice, com- petencies at times have been based on “average” performance; nonetheless, we will base our discussion on the original intent: to distinguish competencies that identify superior performance, while recognizing that organizations may have to modify the definition of a competency to meet their own needs.

Competencies are used to identify the KSAOs that distinguish superior performers from others. All of these definitions require the identification of KSAOs from behaviours displayed by superior employees. In one case, the KSAOs are labelled “competencies,” and in the other, the term is applied to the behaviours. In both cases, we are concerned

competencies Groups of related behaviours or attri- butes that are needed for successful job performance in an organization.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL156

with identifying and measuring the KSAOs that underlie what the organization considers to be successful job performance, whether that performance is recognized as average or superior.

Competency-based selection systems take the view that employees must be capable of moving between jobs and carrying out the associated tasks for different positions.122 In the competency-based approach, the HR specialist attempts to identify those KSAOs that distinguish superior performers from others and that will allow an organization to achieve its strategic goals. By selecting people who possess KSAOs that lead to superior performance, organizations are attempting to establish a closer connection between orga- nizational success and individual performance. Recall that worker traits systems identify or describe KSAOs for specific jobs; competency-based approaches initially sought to identify KSAOs valued by the organization regardless of job. However, this has changed and many competency-based systems now identify job-level KSAOs as well as those that apply at the organizational level.

coMPetency fraMeWork or “archItecture”

Many of the early competency models identified a single, target job in the organiza- tion to describe the key job requirements and KSAOs. The information obtained from this approach could not be applied to other jobs in the organization. In other cases, a common set of competencies was identified for a broad range of jobs and became the basis for recruitment and selection.123 This common set of competencies did not describe any one job because it had to be sufficiently generic to describe a broad range of jobs. In effect, the KSAOs for a specific job are de-emphasized. Both of these approaches had limited value in selection and led to criticism of competency models. Would you want to fly in an airplane where an airline selected both pilots and flight attendants using only the competencies of leadership, motivation, trust, problem solving, interpersonal skills, and communication and ignored the specific skills required for either position?

More recently, organizations that use competency models have recognized that they must include the competencies required at the specific job level. Today, organizations that use competency models mostly develop a three-tiered competency framework or architecture. They identify competencies that apply across all jobs in the organization (core competencies), those that apply to a group of similar jobs (functional competen- cies), and those that apply to a single class of jobs (job-specific competencies).

coMPetency cateGorIes

Core competencies are those characteristics that apply to every member of the organiza- tion regardless of position, function, or level of responsibility within the organization. Core competencies support the organization’s mission, vision, and values. They are orga- nizational KSAOs and behaviours that are required for organizational success.124 Core competencies are what an organization or individual does or should do best; they are key strengths that organizations and individuals possess and demonstrate.125 An airline could require that all employees from the chief executive officer down to pilots and flight atten- dants and on to the lowest-level employee exhibit the common core competencies of leadership, motivation, trust, problem solving, interpersonal skills, and communication.

Functional competencies are characteristics shared by different positions within an organization that belong to a common job group or occupational family or by employees

functional competencies Characteristics shared by different positions within an organization (i.e., a group of related or similar jobs). Only those members of an organization in these positions are expected to possess these competencies.

core competencies Characteristics that every member of an organization, regardless of position, function, job, or level of responsibility within the organization, is expected to possess.

competency model A collection of compe- tencies that are relevant to performance in a particular job, job family, or functional area.

competency framework A broad framework for integrating, organizing, and aligning various competency models that are based on an organization’s strategy and vision.

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NEL 157CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

performing a common function. They are the common characteristics shared by different positions within the job group. They describe the KSAOs that are required for any job within the job group or job family. For example, pilots and navigators may share the same KSAOs of map reading and developing flight plans, while flight attendants and ticket agents must both exhibit courtesy and a service orientation.

Job-specific competencies are characteristics that apply only to specific positions within the organization. These are competencies that are associated with a position in addition to core and functional competencies. A pilot needs a wide range of skills to fly a plane; a navigator does not have to have those skills even though the jobs may be part of the same occupational family. Similarly, a ticket agent needs to operate the computer- ized reservation system; the flight attendant does not need those skills. Employees need to know the competencies that are required for them to do their own jobs successfully.

Core, functional, and job-specific competencies comprise the architecture of a com- pany’s competency model. Core competencies are the foundation on which to build functional competencies, which in turn serve as the base for job-specific competencies (see Figure 4.10). In practice, the architecture may vary across organizations, with some companies increasing or decreasing the number of layers. As well, organizations may choose to use different names for the layers in the competency model; for example, referring to “organizational” competencies in place of “core” competencies, “group” or “role” in place of “functional,” and “task” in place of “job-specific.”

Job-specific competencies Characteristics that apply only to specific positions within the organization. Only those people in the position are expected to possess these competencies.

Job specific competencies

Basic Competency Architecture

LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES

CORE/COMMON COMPETENCIES

VISION AND VALUES

JOB FAMILY

Job #1

Job #2

Job #1

Job #2

Job #1 Job

#1 Job …#6

Job #2

Job #3

Job #4

JOB FAMILY

Job family competencies

Core competencies

figuRE 4.10

A COmmOn ARCHiTECTuRE fOR COmPETEnCy mOdELs

Source: From HRSg, 2016. “Defining a competency architecture and all of its components” July 5, http://resources. hrsg.ca/blog/defining-a-competency-architecture-and-all-of-its-components. Reprinted by permission of HRSg.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL158

As part of the LPN job analysis project described in this chapter, the assisted living facility also wished to identify competencies that were applied to LPNs. The organization had developed a two-tiered architecture and had identified five core competencies that applied to all employees. The facility had also developed a competency dictionary that it believed applied to all employees. As part of the project the facility wished to identify the job-specific competencies that applied to LPNs. The job analysts conducted focus groups with LPNs. The LPNs were asked to rate whether the 20 competencies that the facility had identified were relevant to their job, and the level at which each had to be per- formed. The LPNs also wrote critical incidents for each competency that were examples of excellent and poor behaviours with respect to the competency. Based on all the focus group data, the analysts identified five job-specific competencies, which along with the core competencies and their definitions are presented in Table 4.7.

TAbLE 4.7

CORE And JOb-sPECifiC COmPETEnCiEs fOR LPns wORKing in An AssisTEd Living fACiLiTy

CORE COmPETEnCiEs dEfiniTiOns

Client Focus The willingness and ability to give priority to clients, delivering high quality care and services that meet their needs; identifying and responding to current and future client needs; providing service excellence to internal and external clients; supporting a cultur- ally diverse service delivery model.

Communication Listening to others and communicating in an effective manner that fosters open communication.

Conflict Management preventing, managing, and/or resolving conflicts while understanding the influence of values and beliefs and their effect on attitudes and actions.

Self and Community Awareness understanding your own emotions, strengths, and limitations and how they impact on your own behaviour and/or the behaviour of others.

Teamwork Working co-operatively, across cultures and organizational boundaries to achieve shared goals.

JOb-sPECifiC COmPETEnCiEs dEfiniTiOns

Adaptability/Flexibility understanding and appreciating different and opposing perspectives on an issue, adapting one’s approach as the requirements of a situation change, and changing or easily accepting changes in one’s own work environment or job requirements.

Continuous Learning Expanding your ability to learn by regularly upgrading your skills, and increasing your knowledge to enhance personal and organizational performance

Decision Making Making decisions and solving problems involving various levels of complexity, ambiguity, and risk

Initiative Doing more than required/expected, identifying and dealing with issues proactively, and acting on new opportunities to enhance results.

Stress Management Maintaining effectiveness in the face of stress.

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NEL 159CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

coMPetency dIctIonarIes

A competency dictionary lists all of the competencies that are required by an organization to achieve its mandate. It includes the core and all functional and job-specific competencies identified throughout the organization and defines each competency in terms of the behav- iours and KSAOs related to it. As part of developing a competency framework, an organiza- tion must develop a competency dictionary. The HR specialist and SMEs, using an accepted procedure, identify the competencies they believe are most relevant to the organization’s success. The critical incident technique described in Part I is often used in developing the competency dictionary; however, there is no agreed-upon methodology for doing this.

In some cases, the HR specialist will start with a generic list of competencies that has not been tailored to any particular company or position and then adapt those generic com- petencies to its own needs. This shortcut procedure saves time and money but may not be as valid as initially identifying competencies specific to the organization. Simply selecting competencies from a generic competency dictionary may fail to capture those competen- cies that are not in the generic dictionary but are critical for successful job performance.

A competency dictionary also includes information on the proficiency level needed to successfully perform each competency for each position in the organization. All orga- nization members are expected to exhibit all of the core competencies; however, they are not expected to do so to the same degree. Similarly, individuals may need the same func- tional and job-specific competencies, but each competency may require a different level of proficiency, depending on the organizational level of the individual.126 As employees take on more responsibility in an organization, they may be required to become more proficient with respect to any competency if they are to perform effectively.

For example, risk management might be identified as a core com- petency; however, the behavioural expectations for risk management may vary across positions in the organization. Figure 4.11 provides an example from the competency dictionary developed by the Police Sector Council for use by police forces across Canada. The structure of a dictionary listing includes a definition of the competency, the proficiency level and expected performance, and behavioural indica- tors of the competency. As shown in the figure, the level of profi- ciency increases with organizational level. A senior constable would be expected to have a greater proficiency in risk management than a rookie police officer. Those at the higher levels are expected to be capable of expressing the behavioural demands at all of the lower levels before moving on to a higher-ranking position. That is, the levels are cumula- tive. Organizations using a competency model identify the proficiency levels on the required competencies for each position in the organiza- tion. The organization assesses each employee or potential employee with respect to the required proficiency levels and then uses these for selection, development and training, and promotion purposes. The competency dictionary for an organization includes definitions for each core, functional and job-specific compe- tency, structured as the one shown in Figure 4.11, for every position in the organization.

Proficiency scales, like that represented in Figure 4.11, are included in the com- petency dictionary. The proficiency scale is independent of any position. The levels in a proficiency scale reflect real, observable differences from one organizational level to another. The proficiency scale is not a tool to assess employees; rather, it presents a series of behaviours that are expected at specific levels of a competency. Figure 4.11 presents a competency dictionary entry for a “Risk Management” competency, along with its

competency dictionary A listing of all of the competencies required by an organization to achieve its mandate, along with the profi- ciency level required to perform successfully in different functional groups or positions.

Proficiency level The level at which competency must be performed to ensure success in a given functional group or position.

Proficiency scales A series of behavioural indicators expected at specific levels of a competency.

Competency Dictionary used by the RCMP as part of its HR functions.

Re pr

od uc

ed w

ith th

e pe

rm is

si on

o f t

he R

C M

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL160

• Develops broad strategies that re�ect in-depth understanding and assessment of operational, environmental and social realities and risks.

Adapts strategies to take into account evolving trends, best practices, and stakeholders

• Analyzes implications of proposed course of action to mitigate risk to self and others

• Participates in the implementation of contingency plans in low- complexity situations where errors have a low level of consequence

• Makes decisions in the absence of information

• Implements emergency contingency plans in low- complexity situations where errors have a low level of consequence

RISK MANAGEMENT Manages situations and calls to mitigate risk and maintain a safe environment for self and others.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5

• Fully assesses the risks involved in a full range of situations and calls

• Implements courses of actions and plans in situations of medium complexity where errors have a medium level of consequence

• Conducts risk assessment when identifying or recommending strategic and tactical options

• Develops and implements contingency plans in highly complex and sensitive situations where errors have a high level of consequences

Participates in the management

of situations and calls

Manages a limited range of situations

and calls with minimal guidance

Manages a full range of situations

and calls

Manages highly sensitive and

complex situations and calls

Develops best practices,

strategies and procedures to

manage situations and calls

Competency name & definition

Proficiency level & expected performance

Behavioural indicator

figuRE 4.11

ExAmPLE Of A COmPETEnCy And PROfiCiEnCy LEvELs fROm A COmPETEnCy diCTiOnARy

Source: police Sector Council. 2013. A guide to Competency-based Management in police Services. http://www.policecouncil.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/ Competency-based-Management-guide.pdf

associated proficiency scale. The behavioural indicators are there simply to illustrate the concept. An actual scale might have considerably more indicators at each proficiency level as well as having more rating levels. The proficiency scale would be developed to meet the needs of the organization; normally, proficiency scales are based on four- or five-point rating scales.127,128

coMPetency ProfIles

A competency profile is a set of core, functional and job-specific competencies related to a function, job, or employee expressed in terms of the expected level of the proficiency. Since core competencies apply to all functions and jobs, they are included as part of func- tional and job-specific profiles. The proficiency level required on the core competencies,

competency profile A set of proficiency ratings related to a func- tion, job, or employee.

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NEL 161CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

however, would vary across functions and positions. A functional competency profile would include the proficiency levels for all of the core and functional competencies related to the occupational family that form the functional group. A job-specific pro- file adds the proficiency levels required for a specific position within the functional group. Figure 4.12 presents a competency profile developed by Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (now ESDC) for its citizen service agents.129 The number in parentheses following each competency represents the proficiency level required for that competency for successful job performance.

An employee profile represents the proficiency level demonstrated by an employee on each competency that is included in the competency dictionary. A match between an employee profile and a job-specific or functional profile suggests that the employee is suit- able for holding the specific position or a position in the functional group. Once they know their own profile, employees can match it to other jobs in the organization and determine the positions or functional areas for which they meet the minimum proficiency level on the required competencies. In cases where they are deficient, comparing their profile to that of a position of interest suggests where they need to undertake developmental activities.

An organization that decides to use competency models must have the capability to identify the required competencies and then to assess accurately the competency level of each employee with respect to the competency. It must also have in place an information management system that is capable of storing all of the required competency information for each position and for each employee. It must also allow accessibility to managers and employees to track the competency profiles for positions and for themselves.

Group Competencies (Primary) Applying Principles and Procedures (4) Diagnostic Information Gathering (4) Veri�cation and Accuracy (4) Interpersonal Awareness (4)

Task Competencies Knowledge of Service Canada Programs and Services (3)

Core Competencies Communication (4) Thinking Skills (4) Using Technology (3) Changing and Learning (3) Client Focus (4) Initiative (3) Positive Attitude (4) Working with Others (3) Knowing Our Business (3)

Citizen Service Agent (PM–01)

C o m

p e te

n c y P

ro fi

figuRE 4.12

A COmPETEnCy PROfiLE fOR An HRsdC CiTizEn sERviCE AgEnT

Source: Arieh bonder. 2008. A blueprint for the Future: Competency-based Management in Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC). unpublished presentation, HRSDC.

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NEL162 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

leGal defensIbIlIty of coMPetency Models

Competency modelling can be defended. Most likely courts will use past precedents for judging the acceptability of any particular model. Courts and tribunals in both Canada and the United States have ruled that HR systems must be supported by empirical evi- dence that there is a link between selection measures and the essential duties of a job (refer to Chapter 3). There is no agreed-upon methodology for developing competency models. Whether a competency-based system is deemed to meet legal standards may well depend on the methodology chosen to develop the competency dictionary, the resultant competency profiles, and their links to jobs. More rigorous competency methodologies that incorporate job analysis procedures are more likely to withstand legal scrutiny.130,131 Competency models that fail to establish, and to document, the necessary link to work per- formance may not survive a legal challenge. An additional concern is the lack of reliability and validity data for most competency-based inferences; professional standards and guide- lines have an expectation that selection systems have reasonable psychometric properties.

Stevens132 makes the cogent point that legal defensibility of a competency model depends on its intended use. A company using it to align training and organizational development with strategic objectives may not require a great deal of rigour or valida- tion.133 On the other hand, using the model to select and hire job applicants or for internal selection (promotion) will require rigorous methods that meet psychometric standards. In a highly litigious environment, it may be better to use a traditional job analysis method, or to include some type of work analysis into the competency model.134

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.8 presents a methodology that should meet those standards. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.9 presents a set of best practices regarding competency modelling that are based on experiences and lessons learned over time from academic, applied, and professional perspectives.135 Campion and colleagues provide detailed examples on each of the 20 practices listed in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.9. Following these best practices in developing a competency framework also helps to ensure legal defensibility against challenges to decisions based on the framework.

assessInG eMPloyee coMPetencIes

Developing reliable and valid ways of measuring employee competencies is crucial to the success of the competency model and to its legal defensibility. At some point, an HR

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.8

STEpS IN DEvELOpINg A COMpETENCY-bASED MANAgEMENT FRAMEWORK

1. Obtain executive-level support, including sufficient human and financial resources, to develop a com- petency model.

2. Review the organization’s mission, vision, and values statements.

3. Adopt a competency definition that meets the needs of the organization (e.g., average versus superior per- formance issue; KSAOs versus behaviour).

4. Determine the HR functions for which competencies will be used (e.g., selection, training, compensation).

5. Determine the architecture of the competency model (core, functional, job-specific layers?) that best meets the intended functions for which it will be used.

6. Develop the competency dictionary.

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NEL 163CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

7. Define the profiling methodology.

a. Conduct advance planning and preparation.

• Review jobs and data collection techniques most appropriate for use.

b. Consult key stakeholders in the organization.

c. Identify SMEs for each level in the competency model.

• Specify the competencies and proficiency levels.

d. validate the draft competency profiles.

• use focus groups or surveys to ensure that pro- files accurately reflect the critical competen- cies required for the function and/or job.

e. Confirm compatibility of draft competency profile and HRM information system.

f. Revise and finalize competency profiles based on feedback from key stakeholders.

8. Identify reliable and valid assessment strategies to determine employee competency profiles.

9. Document all steps in the development and imple- mentation of the system and the rationale for key decisions, in case these are needed as evidence before tribunals or courts.

10. Evaluate the system on an ongoing basis to ensure that the competency profiles continue to predict suc- cessful job performance.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.9

bEST pRACTICES IN COMpETENCY MODELLINg

Analyzing Competency information (identifying Competencies)

1. Considering organizational context

2. Linking competency models to organizational goals and objectives

3. Starting at the top

4. using rigorous job analysis methods to develop competencies

5. Considering future-oriented job requirements

6. using additional unique methods

Organizing and Presenting Competency information

7. Defining the anatomy of a competency (the language of competencies)

8. Defining levels of proficiency on competencies

9. using organizational language

10. Including both fundamental (cross-job) and technical (job-specific) competencies

11. using competency libraries

12. Achieving the proper level of granularity (number of competencies and amount of detail)

13. using diagrams, pictures, and heuristics to communi- cate competency models to employees

using Competency information

14. using organizational development techniques to ensure competency modelling acceptance and use

15. using competencies to develop HR systems (hiring, appraisal, promotion, compensation)

16. using competencies to align the HR systems 17. using competencies to develop a practical “theory” of

effective job performance tailored to the organization 18. using information technology to enhance the usability

of competency models 19. Maintaining the currency of competencies over time 20. using competency modelling for legal defensibility

(e.g., test validation)

Source: Table 2 in Michael A. Campion. 2011. “Doing competencies well: best practices in competency modelling,” Personnel Psychology, 64: 225–262. Reproduced with permission of blackwell publishing, Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL164

manager must determine whether a job applicant possesses the required competencies or whether an internal candidate is qualified to hold or be promoted into a position. An organization must adopt an assessment strategy for assessing employee proficiency levels. A variety of assessment methods may be used to assess employee competencies. The choice of method depends on how the results will be used. For example, assessment of competencies for selection and promotion decisions must be carried out with methods that are fair, reliable, and valid. Chapters 7–9 examine the different techniques that have been developed over the years to make assessments that meet these criteria. The behav- ioural statements associated with a proficiency level for a given position should be used by SMEs to identify the relevant KSAOs that are used in the selection process. This is identical to identifying KSAOs from behavioural statements identified through a critical incident technique. The behavioural statements can also serve as the basis of structured interview questions discussed in Chapter 9. Table 4.8 presents structured interview ques- tions that the job analysts developed for the job-specific competencies of the LPNs working in the assisted living facility.

ValIdatInG coMPetency-based selectIon systeMs

Since 1973, when David McClelland first introduced the concept of competency model- ling, nearly 2000 professional and business articles have been written on competency- based models136; however, most of these articles offer only theoretical or anecdotal descriptions of competencies. These articles are short on details describing the process used to establish the competencies or how they were assessed as part of a selection

JOb sPECifiC COmPETEnCiEs sTRuCTuREd inTERviEw quEsTiOns*

Adaptability/Flexibility Describe a time when you felt it was necessary to modify or change your actions in order to accommodate the needs of others. What were the circumstances? What did you do? What was the outcome?

Continuous Learning Describe a time when a superior provided you with constructive feedback on your job performance. What was the situation? How did you react? What did you do in response to the feedback?

Decision Making Tell me about a time when you had to make a decision based on incomplete information, or information you thought was inaccurate. Describe the situation. What was the nature of the decision you had to make? What did you do? What was your decision?

Initiative Tell me about a time when you were not satisfied with the level of performance in your unit or team. What was the situation? What did you do to improve performance? What was the reaction of others? What was the outcome?

Stress Management Describe a time where you managed multiple tasks and competing priorities. What did you do? What was the outcome?

*A scoring guide must be developed for each question. please see the section on behavioural Interviews in Chapter 9.

TAbLE 4.8

sAmPLE bEHAviOuRAL inTERviEw quEsTiOns fOR LPn APPLiCAnTs AT An AssisTEd Living fACiLiTy

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NEL 165CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

process. Rarely do any of these articles present data showing the impact of competency- based selection on job or organizational performance.

Only 68 articles looked at the current practices in competency modelling from a sci- entific or applied perspective. The reliability and validity of competency models used in selection must be established. Both Rodriguez et al.137 and Catano et al.138 provide similar procedures that can be used to build in reliability and validity to a competency model. Both studies showed how ratings of frequency and criticality by supervisors and incumbents could be built into a competency model followed by validation against supervisor measures of performance and assessment of inter-rater reliability. As well, Bonder and his colleagues139 describe how Service Canada developed a competency-based framework that incorporated into the competency model information obtained through job analysis, particularly informa- tion on KSAOs. Keep in mind the criticisms of Harvey140,141 that without knowing some- thing about the tasks associated with a position, the inferences of competencies, or KSAOs, in a holistic fashion will produce less reliable data. More research, however, is needed on defining the psychometric properties of competency models particularly in the use of selec- tion and promotion. More consideration must be given to the role that training of raters plays in enhancing reliability and validity as well as the nature of the competencies that are rated. Is the reliability and validity of inferences based on narrow, behaviourally based com- petencies better than that for broad strategic ones? These questions remain to be answered.

coMPetency ModellInG Versus Job analysIs

Concern over the increasing use of competency models led the Professional Practice Committee and the Scientific Affairs Committee of the Society for Industrial and Orga- nizational Psychology to form the Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force. The task force, which was composed of advocates of both traditional job analysis and competency-based procedures, identified 10 technical criteria on which it evaluated both approaches. Job analysis was judged superior on 9 of the 10 criteria. The only criterion where competency modelling was seen to have an edge was with respect to a more trans- parent linkage between business goals or strategies and the information provided by the competency-based approach. In all other instances, both proponents of job analysis and competency modelling rated the traditional job analysis methods as more rigorous, particularly in providing more reliable information.142

The task force also identified other, less technical criteria and concluded that com- petency approaches were more likely to focus on generic personal characteristics that are common across a broad range of jobs. It viewed competency approaches as being closely aligned with worker-oriented job analyses. The emphasis on these types of characteristics gave competency modelling higher levels of “face validity” with organizational decision makers. Executives typically commented that competencies provided them with a common language. As organizations continue to “de-complicate” business processes, the increased face validity of competency modelling procedures and their focus on core competencies holds wide appeal. However, these factors have resulted in decreased quality of the tech- nical information needed for legal defensibility purposes.143 More recently, Sanchez and Levine144 compared traditional job analyses and competency models along six dimensions, which are shown in Table 4.9. These comparisons help to differentiate the two methodolo- gies. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses. They should be viewed as being comple- mentary to one another, with each providing unique information about jobs. Bonder145 and his colleagues make the point that even though competencies may seem to be the primary focus of many organizations, job analysis is still important because it provides an objective

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL166

picture of the job, not the person performing the job, and provides fundamental informa- tion to support HR functions such as recruitment and selection, among others.

leadershIP coMPetency Models

Leadership competencies are one of the fastest growing areas in competency modelling. Lead- ership competencies contribute to superior performance on the part of those leading organizations in both the private and public sectors. The Canadian government as well as provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia have all developed competency models for their senior executives. IBM, PepsiCo, and 3M have developed their own customized leadership competency models, as have many other private com- panies. The leadership competency model is based on the company’s strategic vision and business goals. The competency model identifies the relevant competencies along with a definition of each. The number of leadership competencies ranges from as few as four to as many as 67. The norm seems to be 8 to 10 competencies.

It is impossible to list all the competencies that have been identified as leadership competencies. To give you an idea of what leadership competencies are we reviewed different sets of leadership competencies. The following appear to be common among the different government and private organizational leadership competency models. In

dimEnsiOn JOb AnALysis COmPETEnCy mOdELLing

primary purpose

To better understand work assignments.

To influence how work assignments align with an organization’s strategy.

view of job The essential elements of a job do not change from one job incumbent to another.

A job is a role to be interpreted and then enacted by each job incumbent.

Focus The focus of job analysis is solely on the job.

Competency modelling cuts across jobs and places value on common behavioural themes.

Time orientation

Job analysis provides a descriptive, objective account of work activities and associated job requirements.

Competency models prescribe the manner in which work activities should be carried out in alignment with an organization’s strategy.

performance level

Job analysis is based on typical job performance described in a job description as performed by an average worker.

Competency models are based on maximal performance as reflected in a strategic interpretation of the job that identifies behaviours related to strategic themes.

Measurement approach

Job analysis captures sound, unitary constructs that define job performance and lend themselves to quantitative measurement.

Competency models capture “fuzzy,” multiple constructs that are best suited to global, clinical judgments.

TAbLE 4.9

A COmPARisOn Of JOb AnALysis And COmPETEnCy mOdELLing

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NEL 167CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models

some models components of the competencies are cited as separate competencies. We have integrated them to what we believe are the essential eight leadership competencies; however, we recognize that there will be differences of opinion on this.

1. Integrity and Ethics—Serving with respect; being honest; ensures integrity in personal and organizational practices. Builds a respectful workplace. This is the basis for other leadership competencies.

2. Strategic Thinking—Visioning the future and building plans and making decisions to get there. Aligns program policy with the strategic direction of the organization.

3. Engagement—Showing passion for the job. Engages people, organizations, and partners in developing goals, executing plans, and delivering results. Follows and leads across boundaries to engage broad-based stakeholders, partners, and constituencies in a shared agenda and strategy.

4. Innovation—Thinks creatively; is open to new ideas and technologies. Cham- pions organizational change. Is flexible and adaptable in meeting changing demands of clients, stakeholders, and public.

5. Accountability—Accepts and creates a culture of accountability; fosters personal growth; takes personal ownership and inspires others to do the same. Is self- aware and demonstrates a commitment to ongoing learning and development.

6. Building the Organizational Team—Recognizes that the leader alone cannot get the job done; surrounds self with excellent talent. Builds successful relation- ships with individuals, staff stakeholders, and partners.

7. Effective Communication—Fosters open communication, listens to others, speaks effectively, and prepares written communication so that messages are clearly understood.

8. Results Focus—Action-oriented. Maximizes organizational effectiveness and sustainability. Aligns people, work, and systems with the business strategy to harmonize what they do and how they work to meet organizational objec- tives. Responsible for human and financial resources.

The primary benefit of leadership competencies is that they communicate a view of leadership to the public in terms that can be easily understood. They provide a

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 4.10

JOb ANALYSIS ON THE INTERNET

These resources help students and professionals learn about and conduct job analyses. The websites provide information on job analysis methods and their uses, along with links to other relevant sites. The most comprehensive site, HR-guide.com, also provides links for users to research legal issues, tips for conducting job analyses, and FAQs, along with up-to-date descriptions of commonly used inter- view, observation, and structured questionnaire methods. Official websites for the NOC, DOT, and O*NET are sources of standard occupational dictionaries and employment

specifications. The NOC site, for example, contains a search engine enabling the user to retrieve information by searching job titles, aptitudes, interests, and other work characteristics. Sites for specific job analysis tools enable users to review the tools and learn about their applications, scoring, and commercially available services. Other useful sites are Harvey’s job analysis and personality research site, HR Zone, and sites for different job analysis tools: pAQ, F-JAS, CMQ, WpS, and Job-Analysis.Net. You can find these sites by typing in the name into your favourite browser.

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NEL168 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

unifying mechanism for leadership at all levels of the organization. As is the case with any competency, profiles are developed that identify the behaviours needed at different leadership levels. Leadership competencies, to be useful and defensible, must meet the same standards we have discussed that apply to any competency model.

// suMMary This chapter began with a discussion of job analysis and its relevance to employee recruit- ment and selection, continued with a discussion of several job analysis methodologies, and ended with an introduction to competency-based models as alternatives to job analysis. As the workplace rapidly changes with the introduction of new technologies and global competition, HR practitioners will need to combine organizational and job analysis techniques to develop employee selection programs that lead to the selection and hiring of the best job candidates. At the organizational level, objectives for success are defined relative to delivery of products or services to paying customers. At the job level, the analyst describes collections of positions that are similar in their significant duties, which when taken together contribute to process outputs. Job analysts must link job requirements to organization functioning to optimize recruitment and selection systems.

Job analysis is a process of collecting information about jobs and encompasses many methods, which fall into two broad categories: work-oriented and worker-oriented methods. Work-oriented methods result in specific descriptions of work outcomes and tasks performed to accomplish them. Worker-oriented methods produce descriptions of worker traits and characteristics necessary for successful performance. There is no one right way of conducting a job analysis; all methods follow a logical process for defining employment or worker specifications (KSAOs). While job analysis is not a legal require- ment for determining KSAOs and selecting employees, the employer must demonstrate job-relatedness of selection criteria if challenged in court.

Regardless of the method used, a good job analysis begins with collection of back- ground information. Gathering job descriptions defined in the NOC or O*NET is a recommended first step. It is also good practice for the analyst to employ a combination of methods, typically beginning with interviews or observations of employees on the job. The resulting information can then be used to construct a task inventory or provide a backdrop for completing structured questionnaires. Employment specifications are gener- ated by identifying the most frequently occurring activities or requirements in interviews and observations or by identifying those items in an inventory or questionnaire receiving the highest ratings of criticality.

A wide variety of techniques are available for analyzing jobs. While some focus primarily on the work that gets done, others focus on generic human behaviours that are relevant to all work. Deciding which of these techniques to use is based on the goal of the analysis, the resources available to the analyst, and the needs of the organization. No one method will be completely acceptable for all selection needs in an organization. Job analysts must themselves be adaptable in the methods they apply. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 4.10 presents a list of job analysis resources available on the Internet.

Organizations that compete in a global environment that is often unpredictable and unstable have to change quickly in order to survive. To meet these demands, some organizations are placing more emphasis on the competencies of individual workers

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169CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models NEL

rather than on the specific tasks that those workers will perform. These organizations expect all employees to possess core competencies that are related to the organization’s mission or goals, as well as functional and job-specific competencies, which are related to successful performance in a position or job. This emphasis on competencies has taken place in the absence of an agreed-upon definition of what constitutes a “competency” and of an agreed-upon methodology for identifying competencies. In several respects, competency-based systems are similar to worker-trait job analysis methods in providing information about the KSAOs and behaviours needed for successful job performance, but without identifying the tasks that workers are required to do in their jobs.

Competency-based systems must provide information that is valid and meets legal requirements, just as more traditional job analysis methods must. The chapter provides sev- eral guidelines that should help in choosing job analysis or competency-based methods to identify KSAOs. In deciding between the two approaches, competency-based models may “speak the language of business” but they may provide technically inferior information. HR practitioners must decide which of these factors is most relevant to their situation.

key terMs

Competencies, p. 155 Competency dictionary, p. 159 Competency framework, p. 156 Competency model, p. 156 Competency profile, p. 160 Core competencies, p. 156 Functional competencies, p. 156 Job, p. 117 Job description, p. 116 Job family, p. 117 Job specification, p. 117 Job-specific competencies, p. 157 Position, p. 117 Proficiency level, p. 159 Proficiency scales, p. 159 Subject-matter experts (SMEs), p. 118 Task inventories, p. 135 Task statement, p. 131 Worker-oriented job analysis, p. 126 Worker traits inventories, p. 141 Work-oriented job analysis, p. 125

dIscussIon QuestIons

1. Why is a job analysis essential to the defence of any selection process or selection system?

2. What is the difference between a job analysis and a job evaluation? Can different jobs be equated? Are the “compensable” factors the best way of equating jobs?

3. What is the relationship of a “position” to a “job” and a “job” to a “job family”?

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170 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

4. Why do some researchers argue that worker traits inventories are not job analysis techniques?

5. What are the major differences between a competency-based selection system and one developed through job analysis?

6. What is a competency? Defend your answer.

7. Discuss why you might not wish to fly in an airplane if the pilot were selected on the basis of only core competencies.

8. What is the difference or similarity between a proficiency level and a skill?

exercIses

1. Identify a position you will analyze before using the Position Description Ques- tionnaire Program. Develop a questionnaire using the online Position Description Questionnaire Program located at http://www.job-analysis.net/G908.htm. This is easy to use and will develop questions based on your selection of items. Use the questionnaire you developed through the program to interview a job incumbent or supervisor. You may choose to interview a parent or sibling about his or her work, a coworker or supervisor from your workplace, or a classmate. Make careful notes during the interview in the spaces provided. Submit your completed questionnaire for review.

2. Use the interview protocol in this chapter to conduct a job analysis. Select a job for which you can find three or more incumbents willing to provide job analysis data. These may be jobs held by family, friends, or classmates. Conduct the analysis and provide a summary report that includes a list of task statements and describes the requisite abilities for your chosen job.

3. Catano and Harvey identified nine competencies related to teaching through use of the critical incident technique. Either as a class as a whole or in groups of five, generate as many critical incidents as you can about teaching performance. Keep in mind that you are focusing on teaching only, and not other aspects of a professor’s or instructor’s duties, such as research or administration activities. Sort your critical incidents into categories or competencies. Compare the competencies your class or group has identified with those identified by Catano and Harvey. (Note: This exercise can be carried out for any occupation, but teaching is used since it is an occupation with which all students will have some familiarity. Other occupations, such as doctor or dentist, may be substituted.)

a. If several groups have completed the exercise, compare the labels each has assigned to their competencies. Are the groups using different labels for the same set of behaviours? Are they different from those used by Catano and Harvey?

b. Specify the KSAOs that are critical to successful teaching performance.

c. Develop a competency profile for a superior teacher.

4. Job analysis is useful for describing many job types, even those that you know well and can describe objectively.

a. Identify a job that you are familiar with and list the tasks associated with it. Now, using the O*NET website, search the job title and compare the task inventory listed there to the one that you wrote down.

b. How does O*NET function as an SME?

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171CHAPTER 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models NEL

c. What are the benefits to using the O*NET database as opposed to conducting a full-scale job analysis? What are the costs?

5. Please obtain a copy of David Bartram’s 2005 paper: “The Great Eight Competen- cies: A Criterion Centric Approach,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1185–1203. Can you place the leadership competencies described in the text into the competen- cies identified by Bartram? Which ones, if any, don’t fit Bartram’s model?

CAsE sTudy

THE nEEd fOR JOb AnALysis

Root of the Problem Landscaping is a small yard-maintenance company that got its start in 2006. The company specializes in small-scale operations, including installing and maintaining flower beds, ponds, hedges, and lawns. The company employs five site supervisors and approximately 30 groundskeepers. The owner, Daniel Black, is himself involved in the work performed at most sites and is the sole negotiator of terms with clients.

Originally serving only Halifax, Nova Scotia, the company has grown to accom- modate clients as far away as the Moncton, New Brunswick area. Now in its third season of operation, however, Black has noticed a decline in his company’s rate of growth because the gains associated with opportunities afforded by new clients have been offset by the loss of older ones and also because he is having difficulty maintaining lasting employer–employee relationships.

You have been hired on a consulting contract by Root of the Problem Land- scaping to investigate why business growth has stalled. You begin by interviewing Black and his site supervisors to establish what, if any, customer feedback they have received, to find out what qualifications both Black and the supervisors have, and to investigate the state of employment satisfaction.

Some negative customer feedback is associated with lack of knowledge and skills on the part of both the supervisors and the groundskeepers. Clients have noted that there have been instances where flowers have been removed that should not have been and weeds have gone unnoticed. In addition, there have been some instances where trees and shrubs were not properly planted and cared for. There has been a lack of attention paid to sun/shade and/or depth considerations, so some plants did not survive the winter. Most negative feedback that has resulted in a lack of repeat business is associated with job sites where Black had little or no involvement in the actual landscaping.

You notice a tendency for Black to attribute customer dissatisfaction to the cus- tomers’ own personality flaws as opposed to anything his company may be doing wrong. The supervisors can provide little or no additional information because, as instructed by Black, they rarely communicate with clients.

Your interview with Black has revealed that he has extensive knowledge and skills associated with landscaping as a result of a lifetime of hands-on experience. He is also passionate about his work. You also notice that he doesn’t know where his knowledge came from and sometimes thinks specialized knowledge that he has should be common sense to others.

Black’s employees have limited knowledge of landscaping compared to Black’s knowledge, and what they have seems to have been gained by learning on the job with Root of the Problem Landscaping. You have noticed that many of the employees seem to be dissatisfied with their workplace environment, and some

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172 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

// endnotes 1. Pearlman, K., and J.I. Sanchez. 2010. “Work Analysis.” In J.L. Farr and

N.T. Tippins, eds., Handbook of Employee Selection (pp. 73–98). New York: Routledge.

2. Morgeson, F.P., and E.C. Dierdorff. 2010. “Work Analysis: From Technique to Theory.” In S. Zedeck, ed., APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2: Selecting and Developing Members for the Organization (pp. 3–41). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

3. Wilson, M.A., W. Bennett, Jr., S.G. Gibson, and G.M. Alliger. 2012. The Handbook of Work Analysis: Methods, Systems, Applications and Science of Work Measurement in Organizations. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

report that they find Black to be unprofessional and inconsiderate as an employer. Jobs are often interrupted or delayed because of a lack of proper inventory proce- dures, resulting in frequent trips to hardware stores, etc.

You notice some employees having difficulty with lifting tasks and the operating of machinery. Some employees are working with two gloves and others with only one or none. Some employees seem to be suffering from aches and pains, and you can see bad sunburns on their bodies because of a lack of sunscreen use. Some older and less agile employees seem to be attempting physically demanding tasks while the younger, fitter employees are engaged in less strenuous activity.

You have been observing Root of the Problem Landscaping both when Black is there and when he is not. When Black is present, the job seems to get done, but you notice he often has to go back and work on tasks that were not completed properly by his employees. When fixing a problem, he tends to complain to the employees but does not instruct them on how to do it properly in the future. You observe instances where Black is unduly harsh in his criticisms of the employees and seems to lack some people skills. There is evidence that the employees do not have respect for Black and his business when you observe them “cutting corners” on the job when he is absent. As a result, there is ongoing turnover.

QuestIons

1. If Black had conducted a job analysis prior to employee selection, how might his company have benefited? Include considerations of employer, employees, and clients.

2. Using the O*NET website, if you type “landscaper” into the space pro- vided for the occupational quick search, a list of job titles appears. Select the “first-line supervisors/managers of landscaping” job title and review the knowledge, skills, and abilities listed. Which of these does Black cur- rently possess? Which of these is he lacking? What about the employees?

3. How would you improve the situation? What would you do in hiring new employees? What would you do with Mr. Black?

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4. Sackett, P.R., and R.M. Laczo. 2003. “Job and Work Analysis.” In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, and R.J. Klimoski, eds., Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 12 (pp. 21–38). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

5. Levine, E.L., R.A. Ash, and N. Bennett. 1980. “Exploratory Comparative Study of Four Job Analysis Methods.” Journal of Applied Psychology 65: 524–535.

6. Harvey, R.J. 1991. “Job Analysis.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. I (pp. 71–163). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

7. Dierdorff, E.C., and M.A. Wilson. 2003. “A Meta-Analysis of Job Analysis Reliability.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88: 635–646.

8. Thompson, D.E., and T.A. Thompson. 1982. “Court Standards for Job Analysis in Test Validation.” Personnel Psychology 35: 872–873.

9. Sparks, C.P. 1988. “Legal Basis for Job Analysis.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 37–47). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

10. Harvey. 1991.

11. Ash. 1988.

12. Levine, E.L., J.N. Thomas, and F. Sistrunk. 1988. “Selecting a Job Analysis Approach.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 339–352). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

13. Ontario Human Rights Commission. Human Rights at Work 2008, 3rd ed. Retrieved July 7, 2017, from http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/iv-human-rights-issues- all-stages-employment/5-interviewing-and-making-hiring-decisions

14. Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. 1978. Federal Register 43: 38290–39315.

15. Levine, E.L. 1983. Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Job Analysis. Tampa, FL: Mariner Publishing Company.

16. Sparks. 1988.

17. Cronshaw, S.F. 1988. “Future Directions for Industrial Psychology in Canada.” Canadian Psychology 29: 30–43.

18. Latham, G.P., and C. Sue-Chan. 1988. “Selecting Employees in the 21st Century: Predicting the Contribution of I-O Psychology to Canada.” Canadian Psychology 39: 14–22.

19. Latham, G.P. 2001. “Minimizing Legal Challenges to Hiring and Promotion Decisions.” http://www.hr.com/en/communities/human_resources_manage- ment/minimizing-legal-challenges-to-hiring-and-promotio_eacukgay.html. © Copyright 2014 HR.COM Limited. All rights reserved.

20. Harvey. 1991.

21. Ibid.

22. Peterson, N.G., and P.R. Jeanneret. 2007. “Job Analysis: An Overview and Description of Deductive Methods.” In D.L. Whetzel and G.R. Wheaton, eds., Applied Measurement: Industrial Psychology in Human Resources Management (pp. 13–56). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

23. Peterson and Jeanneret. 2007.

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174 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

24. McCormick, E.J. 1979. Job Analysis: Methods and Applications. New York: AMACOM.

25. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. “About the NOC.” Retrieved July 20, 2017, from http://noc.esdc.gc.ca/English/NOC/ AboutNOC.aspx?ver=16

26. LPN Descriptor in NOC. Retrieved July 20, 2017, from http://cnp.edsc.gc.ca/ English/CH/ProfileFromStructure.aspx?val65=6&ver=06&ch=03&v=3233.1& wbdisable=true

27. Employment and Immigration Canada. 1989. Canadian Classification and Dictionary of Occupations Guide. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing.

28. Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. http://www.occupationalinfo.org

29. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. “About the NOC.” Retrieved July 20, 2017, from http://noc.esdc.gc.ca/English/NOC/ AboutNOC.aspx?ver=16

30. DOL Office of Policy and Research. 2000. “O*NET Project.” http://www .doleta.gov/programs/ONet

31. O*NET Resource Centre. “The O*NET Content Model.” Retrieved July 20, 2017, from http://www.onetcenter.org/content.html

32. Peterson, N.G., M.D. Mumford, W.C. Borman, et al. “Understanding Work Using the Occupational Information Network (O*NET): Implications for Practice and Research.” Personnel Psychology 54: 451-491.

33. Gael, S. 1988. “Interviews, Questionnaires, and Checklists.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 391–418). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

34. Cascio, W.F. 1998. Applied Psychology in Human Resources Management. 5th ed. Toronto: Prentice Hall Canada.

35. Harvey. 1991.

36. Peterson, N.G., and P.R. Jeanneret. 2007. “Job Analysis: An Overview and Description of Deductive Methods.” In D.L. Whetzel and G.R. Wheaton, eds., Applied Measurement: Industrial Psychology in Human Resources Management (pp. 13–56). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

37. Harvey. 1991.

38. McCormick, E.J. 1979. Job Analysis: Methods and Applications. New York: AMACOM.

39. McCormick, E.J., P.R. Jeanneret, and R.C. Mecham. 1972. “A Study of Job Characteristics and Job Dimensions as Based on the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).” Journal of Applied Psychology 56: 347–367.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Gael, S. 1983. Job Analysis: A Guide to Assessing Work Activities. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

43. Ghorpade, J.V. 1988. Job Analysis: A Handbook for the Human Resource Director. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

44. McCormick, E.J., and P.R. Jeanneret. 1991. “Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (pp. 825–842). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

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45. McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham. 1972.

46. Harvey. 1991.

47. McCormick. 1979.

48. McCormick and Jeanneret. 1991.

49. McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham. 1972.

50. Gael. 1983.

51. Gael. 1988.

52. Whetzel, D.L. et al. 2003. “A Written Structured Interview by Any Other Name Is Still a Selection Instrument.” Applied HRM. Research 8: 1–16.

53. McCormick. 1979.

54. Fine, S.A., and S.F. Cronshaw. 1999. Functional Job Analysis: A Foundation for Human Resources Management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.

55. Gael. 1988.

56. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2008. Human Resources Selection. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western.

57. Levine. 1983.

58. Gael. 1988.

59. Ghorpade. 1988.

60. Cascio. 1998.

61. Martinko, M.J. 1988. “Observing the Work.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 419–31). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

62. Martinko. 1988.

63. Cascio. 1998.

64. Ibid.

65. Martinko. 1988.

66. McPhail, S.M., P.R. Jeanneret, E.J. McCormick, and R.C. Mecham. 1991. Position Analysis Questionnaire: Job Analysis Manual. Rev. ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

67. Martinko. 1988.

68. Harvey. 1991.

69. Martinko. 1988.

70. Ibid.

71. Gatewood, Feild, and Barrick. 2008.

72. Tenopyr, M.L. 1977. “Content-Construct Confusion.” Personnel Psychology 30: 47–54.

73. McCormick E.J., P.R. Jeanneret, and R.C. Mecham. 1989. Position Analysis Questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

74. Harvey, J.L., L.E. Anderson, L.E Baranowski, and R. Morath. 2007. “Job Analysis: Gathering Job-Specific Information.” In D.L. Whetzel and G.R. Wheaton, eds., Applied Measurement: Industrial Psychology in Human Resources Management (pp. 57–96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

75. Fine and Cronshaw. 1999.

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176 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

76. Ibid.

77. Christal, R.E., and J.J. Weissmuller. 1988. “Job-Task Inventory Analysis.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (pp. 1036–1050). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

78. Drauden, G.M. 1988. “Task Inventory Analysis in Industry and the Public Sector.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (pp. 1051–1071). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

79. Levine, E.L., R.A. Ash, H. Hall, and F. Sistrunk. 1983. “Evaluation of Job Analysis Methods by Experienced Job Analysts.” Academy of Management Journal 26: 339–348.

80. McCormick and Jeanneret. 1991.

81. Fine, S.A. 1988. “Functional Job Analysis.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (pp. 1019–1035). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

82. Fine and Cronshaw. 1999.

83. Fine, S.A., and M. Getkate. 1995. Benchmark Tasks for Job Analysis: A Guide for Functional Job Analysis (FJOB ANALYSIS) Scales. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

84. Gatewood Feild, and Barrick. 2008.

85. Bownas, D.A., and H.J. Bernardin. 1988. “Critical Incident Technique.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (pp. 1120–137). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

86. Harvey, Anderson, Baranowski, and Morath. 2007.

87. Flanagan, J.C. 1954. “The Critical Incident Technique.” Psychological Bulletin 51: 327–358.

88. Catano, V.M., and S. Harvey. 2011. “Student Perception of Teaching Effectiveness: Development and Validation of the Evaluation of Teaching Competencies Scale (ETCS).” Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 36: 701–717. doi:10.1080/02602938.2010.484879

89. Pearlman and Sanchez. 2010.

90. McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham. 1989.

91. McPhail, Jeanneret, McCormick, and Mecham. 1991.

92. Levine, Ash, and Bennett. 1980.

93. Harvey. 1991.

94. Fleishman, E.A., and M.E. Reilly. 1992. Handbook of Human Abilities: Definitions, Measurements, and Job Task Requirements. Potomac, MD: Management Research Institute.

95. Fleishman, E.A., and M.D. Mumford. 1988. “Ability Requirement Scales.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 917–935). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

96. Fleishman, E.A., and M.K. Quaintance. 1984. Taxonomies of Human Performance: The Description of Human Tasks. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

97 . Caughron, J.J., M.D. Mumford, and E.A. Fleishman. 2012. “The Fleishman Job Analysis Survey: Development, Validation, and Applications.” In M.A. Wilson, W.J. Bennett, S.G. Gibson, and G.M. Alliger, eds., The Handbook of

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Work Analysis: Methods, Systems, Applications and Science of Work Measurement in Organizations (pp. 231–246). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

98. Wilson, Bennett, Gibson, and Alliger. 2012.

99. Costanza, D.P., E.A. Fleishman, and J.C. Marshall-Mies. 1999. “Knowledges.” In N.G. Peterson, M.D. Mumford, W.C. Borman, P.R. Jeanneret, and E.A. Fleishman, eds., An Occupational Information System for the 21st Century: The Development of O*NET. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

100. Fleishman and Reilly. 1992.

101. Personnel Systems and Technologies Corporation. 2000. “The Common- Metric System.” http://commonmetric.com

102. SHL Group. SHL Group. http://www.shl.com/SHL/americas/Products/ Access_Competencies/Competency_Questionnaires/Competency_ Questionnaires_List/WorkProfilingSystem.hm

103. Lopez, F.M. 1988. “Threshold Traits Analysis System.” In S. Gael, ed., The Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. I (pp. 880–901). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

104. Schraagen, J. M., S.F. Chipman, and V.L. Shalin. 2000. Cognitive Task Analysis. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

105. Levine, Ash, Hall, and Sistrunk. 1983.

106. Dierdorff and Wilson. 2003.

107. Ibid.

108. Sanchez, J.I., and Levine, E.L. 2000. “Accuracy or Consequential Validity: Which is the Better Standard for Job Analysis Data?” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21: 809–818.

109. Levine, Ash, and Bennett. 1980.

110. Morgeson, F.P., and M.A. Campion. 2003. “Work Design.” In W.C. Borman, C. Walter, D.R. Ilgen, and R.J. Klimoski, eds., Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 12 (pp. 423–452). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

111. Harvey and Wilson. 2000.

112. Thompson and Thompson. 1982.

113. Peterson and Jeanneret. 2007.

114. Greenbaum, P.J. 1996. “Canada’s Hiring Trends: Where Will Canadian Jobs Come From in the Next Millennium?” HR Today (July). Ottawa: Canadian Institute of Professional Management.

115. Methot, L.L., and K. Phillips-Grant. 1998. “Technological Advances in the Canadian Workplace: An I-O Perspective.” Canadian Psychology 39: 133–41.

116. Cascio 1998.

117. Singh, P. 2008. “Job Analysis for a Changing Workplace.” Human Resource Management 18: 87–99.

118. Stone, T.H., B.D. Webster, and S. Schoonover. 2013. “What Do We Know About Competency Modeling?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 21: 334–338.

119. Boyatzis, R.E. 1982. The Competent Manager: A Model of Effective Performance. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

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120. Stevens, G. 2012. “A Critical Review of the Science and Practice of Competency Modeling.” Human Resource Development Review 12: 86–107.

121. Catano, V.M. 2002. “Competency-based Selection and Performance Systems: Are They Defensible?” Summary. Canadian Psychology 43(2a): 145.

122. Reitsma, S.J. 1993. The Canadian Corporate Response to Globalization. Report No. 10693. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada.

123. Mansfield, R.S. 1996. “Building Competency Models.” Human Resource Management 35: 7–18.

124. Prahalad, C., and G. Hamel. 1990. “The Core Competence of the Corporation.” Harvard Business Review (May-June): 79–91.

125. Lahti, R.K. 1999. “Identifying and Integrating Individual Level and Organizational Level Core Competencies.” Journal of Business and Psychology 14: 59–75.

126. Trainor, N.L. 1997. “Five Levels of Competency.” Canadian HR Reporter 10: 12–13.

127 . Bonder, A., C.-D. Bouchard, and G. Bellemare. 2011. “Competency-based Management—An Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management in the Canadian Public Sector.” Public Personnel Management 40: 11–24.

128. Campion, M.A., et al. 2011. “Doing Competencies Well: Best Practices in Competency Modelling.” Personnel Psychology 64: 225–262.

129. Bonder, A. 2003. A Blueprint for the Future: Competency-Based Management in HRDC. Unpublished presentation, HRDC Canada.

130. Bonder et al. 2011.

131. Campion et al. 2011.

132. Stevens 2012.

133. Sanchez, J.I., and E.L. Levine. 2009. “What Is (Or Should Be) the Difference between Competency Modeling and Traditional Job Analysis?” Human Resource Management Review 19: 53–63.

134. Stevens 2012.

135. Campion et al. 2011.

136. Stevens 2012.

137. Rodriguez, D., Patel, R., Bright, A., Gregory, D., and Gowing, M.K. 2002. “Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices.” Human Resource Management 41: 309–324.

138. Catano, V.M., W. Darr, and C.A. Campbell. 2007. “Performance Appraisal of Behavior-based Competencies: A Reliable and Valid Procedure.” Personnel Psychology 60: 201–230.

139. Bonder et al. 2011.

140. Harvey 1991.

141. Harvey and Wilson. 2000.

142. Shippmann, J.S. et al. 2000. “The Practice of Competency Modeling.” Personnel Psychology 53: 703–740.

143. Shippmann et al. 2000.

144. Sanchez and Levine 2009.

145. Bonder et al. 2011.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter examines job-related performance as an integral part of the recruitment and selection process. Job performance is presented as a multidimensional construct that is composed of task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours. Each of these job-related behaviours is linked to factors that should be considered during recruitment and selection.

Measures of job performance that may be used as criteria in validating selection sys- tems are also discussed. Criteria related to task, adaptive, and contextual performance are used to “select in” job applicants while criteria related to counterproductive work behav- iours are used to “select out” job applicants. Valid performance measures play an essential role in developing a defensible selection system. This chapter does not cover material on performance appraisal as that material is covered extensively in other HR courses; however, we present a brief overview of several types of performance appraisal systems.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the important role played by job performance in selection and assessment;

• define the differences among task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours;

• identify the different types of counterproductive work behaviours;

• describe the importance of developing and using scientifically sound measures of job performance in selection and assessment;

• recognize what constitutes acceptable criteria that may be used to assess performance;

• explain the relationship among individual performance measures, criteria, and performance dimensions related to a job; and

• discuss the technical aspects of measuring job performance.

JOb PERfORmAnCE

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NEL180 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

Organizations are increasingly using Facebook and other social networking websites (Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.) when recruiting and hiring employees. Over 90 percent of employers say they use some form of social networking when recruiting applicants, with nearly half to two-thirds of employers using Facebook during the recruiting pro- cess. And according to CareerBuilder, close to 40 percent of companies search applicants’ Facebook or other social media profiles during the recruiting process. Employers use this information for a variety of reasons: to see if a candidate is qualified for the job, fits the company culture, and/or to look for possible reasons not to hire a candidate. The use of Facebook or other social networking websites in the recruiting process is now pervasive, yet a key question remains: is this an effective way of recruiting candidates and can it predict whether an applicant will be successful on the job?

Recent research suggests that the answer to this question is a clear and resounding NO. A study in the Journal of Management found that recruiter ratings of candidate Facebook profiles were not related to that candi- date’s actual performance on the job, nor to the candidate’s turnover intentions—both of which are key outcomes gen- erally tracked by recruiters. These researchers looked at a sample of undergraduate students who were on the job market and then had recruiters and HR managers assess each of the student’s Facebook profiles along three dimen- sions: employability, intelligence, and job-related skills. One year later, the researchers followed up with the stu- dents and asked them to report their current employment status and whether they planned to stay at that job. At the same time, the researchers also contacted the employed students’ current supervisor to get a rating of their per- formance on the job. Results revealed that none of the ratings of the Facebook profiles predicted supervisor-rated performance on the job, nor actual turnover, nor employee- reported turnover intentions.

The recruiter ratings of applicants; Facebook profiles were not only ineffective at predicting job performance, but they also suggested possible bias in using such ratings. Specifically, the researchers found that ratings of white applicants were significantly higher than ratings of African- Americans and Hispanics, and that ratings of women were significantly higher than ratings of men. The ethnicity and gender differences suggest the possibility of legal problems

for employers that use Facebook to recruit candidates. A bias could be particularly damaging for recruiters, as organizations are responsible for demonstrating the validity of recruitment policies in situations in which adverse impact exists. And the results from the study suggest that establishing the validity of these practices could be difficult.

If using Facebook to recruit candidates isn’t a valid way to predict performance on the job, are there other uses of this method in the recruitment process? One possibility is that employers use Facebook profiles to assess the personality of job candidates. Research from a sample of undergraduate students in the United States and Germany suggests that ratings of an individual’s Facebook profile are accurate predictors of that individual’s personality. The pro- files, in other words, were not being used to project a glori- fied image of one’s ideal self (i.e., an attempt to be a more socially desirable person). Facebook profile ratings were especially predictive of an individual’s extraversion (e.g., sociability, gregariousness, assertiveness) and openness to experience (e.g., creativity, imagination, willingness to try new things). This suggests that Facebook profiles could be used in jobs in which these personality traits might be particularly relevant. Say, for a sales job where sociability is important (extraversion), or for jobs involving innovation or creativity (openness to experience).

In general, the results suggest that recruiters should be very hesitant to use Facebook and other social networking websites in the recruiting process. And while using Face- book profiles may provide a window into understanding an applicant’s personality, given the potential privacy and legal ramifications, recruiters looking to assess personality should instead use validated personality inventories such as the Big 5 or the host of personality inventories used by consultants. As a first step, recruiters need to test and vali- date methods for using Facebook in the recruiting process to show that such methods can actually predict important outcomes such as job performance and turnover. At the very least, as the researchers of the Journal of Manage- ment study suggest, recruiters who use Facebook need to develop clear policies and methods for doing so.

As for potential job applicants, given the prominent use of Facebook by recruiters, you may want to block access to your Facebook profile (although most users don’t), as a recruiter may find something unrelated to per- formance on the job that prevents you from getting hired.

using fACEbOOk TO mAkE HiRing dECisiOns

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NEL 181CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

// Job Performance As the opening story shows, recruitment, selection, and job performance are inextricably linked. We will have much more to say about the use of social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn as part of the recruiting process in the next chapter. Recruiters must be attuned to job-related KSAOs and not act on “intuition” concerning which characteristics are important to job performance, or to select candidates for an interview based on their beliefs based on the candidates’ Facebook or LinkedIn profiles. The KSAOs must be reli- able and valid and identified through the procedures outlined in the previous chapters; they must be capable of predicting actual job performance. We started out this book by presenting an overview of an HR system in Figure 1.1. We presented recruitment and selection as influenced by several variables including the mission, vision, and values of the organization that influenced the strategic goals of the organization in recruiting and selecting new employees. Recruitment and selection carried out properly, in conjunction with other organizational factors, lead to personnel who are competent, committed, and effective. We presented performance management as a feedback loop that allowed the organization to monitor the quality of employees who were being recruited and selected.

We continued this discussion in Chapter 2 by showing the necessity of evaluating performance as part of validating a selection system and the specific KSAOs that will be used to select employees. Understanding job performance is essential to developing a solid recruitment and selection system (see Figure 2.1). Measuring job performance is part of establishing criteria that are used to validate selection. In Chapter 4, we examined different job analysis systems and competency models that could be used to identify those KSAOs and job-related aspects of performance. All HR staff personnel must have an understanding of the role that job performance plays in developing valid recruitment and selection strate- gies, unless they are unconcerned about a total systems failure. Job performance, perfor- mance assessment, and performance management are complex topics in and of themselves. Our goal in this chapter is to introduce the current thinking on performance measurement so that those working in HR may appreciate the need to measure performance as part of a recruitment and selection system. Selection is not simply interviewing and testing employees. The HR person must know that the selection tools being used are related to job performance, and that they are appropriate and valid measure of job performance.

To manage performance, organizations and companies must take job performance seriously. Performance measurement is a means to emphasize and reinforce an organiza- tion’s core values in addition to identifying performance differences between employees. Performance measurement is used to transform companies into results-oriented orga- nizations. It provides a means of identifying employees who need improvement and development.1 Measuring performance is easier said than done. The organization, or its HR manager, must decide what performance to measure and the level of performance needed to attain organizational excellence.

Job performance is behaviour—the observable things people do—that is relevant to accomplishing the goals of an organization. As we saw in Chapter 4, rarely if ever do jobs involve the performance of only one specific behaviour. Also, individuals may perform at different levels of proficiency across job-related tasks or competencies (see Chapter 4). Measures of job performance that attempt to capture these differences are called criteria.2 They are the performance standards for judging success or failure on the job. Criteria also provide guidance on the standards that must be met by someone placed into a job. A lack of standards may lead to the selection of inappropriate job candidates.

Choosing a criterion or performance measure may be rather complex. Suppose you are a personnel selection officer in the Canadian Forces and are placed in charge of

Job performance Behaviour (the observable things people do) that is relevant to accomplishing the goals of an organization.

criteria Measures of job performance that attempt to capture individual differences among employees with respect to job-related behaviours.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL182

selecting military engineering officers. You are responsible for recruiting and selecting men and women who will perform successfully in places such as Afghanistan, Rwanda, Bosnia, and Somalia. Do you recruit and select people on the basis of their job-related technical skills, or do you also consider core competencies such as leadership, courage, loyalty, selflessness, and self-discipline? What, then, constitutes successful performance by a military engineer? What if someone is judged to be a success as a leader but a failure in the technical aspects of engineering, or vice versa? Are any of the competencies on which we select people more important than others? And what about self-discipline—how does that enter into the equation?

Job performance is a complex, multidimensional construct.3,4 We can break job behaviour into four subcategories: task performance, contextual performance, adaptive performance,5 and counterproductive work behaviours.6 Previously adaptive behaviour was included as part of contextual performance; however, recent empirical evidence shows it to have different predictors than task or contextual behaviour.7 Task perfor- mance includes the direct production of goods and services and direct contribution to the efficient functioning of the organization and is, perhaps, closest to traditional definitions of “job performance.”8 Task performance behaviours contribute to the core activities of an organization and include producing goods, selling merchandise, acquiring inventory, and managing and administering the enterprise.9 Contextual performance is closely related to the notion of organizational citizenship behaviour.10 Generally, contextual performance has included both interpersonal job performance and job dedication.11,12 Contextual performance contributes to the culture and climate of the organization; it is the context in which the organization’s core activities take place.13 Employees who are proficient in job-related task and contextual behaviours lead to productive organizations.

contextual performance The activities or behav- iours that are not part of a worker’s formal job description but that remain important for organizational effectiveness.

Task performance Duties related to the direct production of goods and services and to the direct contribution to the efficient functioning of the organization that form part of a job. These duties are part of the worker’s formal job description.

Iron workers taking a break from their job.

et tm

an n/

C O

RB IS

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NEL 183CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Adaptive performance encompasses an employee’s reaction to changes in the work environment and their role in the organization. It is the extent to which a worker is capable of adapting to changes in the workplace. It includes being capable of solving prob- lems creatively, dealing with unpredictable work situations, learning new technologies and procedures, and adapting to other individuals, cultures, or physical surroundings.14 Due to changing and dynamic work environments, the need for adaptive employees is extremely important.15 Adaptive performance exists across many different types of jobs, although various names may be used to describe this dimension of job performance.

Counterproductive behaviour is in some sense the opposite of organizational citi- zenship, although the two are clearly distinct constructs.16,17 Counterproductive work behaviours include both deviance and aggression.18 Counterproductive behaviours on the part of/among employees lead to decreased performance and less productive organizations. The fundamental issue that an organization must address when it develops an integrated recruitment and selection system is which aspect or aspects of performance should drive recruitment and selection. How an organization answers this question determines whom the organization will recruit and hire. Obviously, organizations wish to be productive and to select into the organization those job applicants who possess job-related task and contextual behaviours and not to select those with counterproductive work behaviours.

Figure 5.1 presents these four types of job performance along with behavioural indi- cators for each dimension. We will consider each of these types with respect to how they

counterproductive work behaviours Voluntary behaviours that violate significant organizational norms and in so doing threaten the well-being of an organization, its members, or both.

adaptive performance A worker’s behavioural reactions to changes in a work system or work role.

Job Task Behaviours Contextual Behaviours

Individual Performance

Adaptive Behaviours

Learning new technologies Dealing with uncertain work situations

Handling work stress Dealing with crises

Absenteeism Presenteeism

Theft Bullying

Counterproductive Work Behaviours

Job-speci�c tasks Communication

Organizing Planning

Administration

Extra effort Volunteering

Helping coworkers Following rules

Supporting organizational objectives

figuRE 5.1

COmPOnEnTs Of individuAL WORk PERfORmAnCE

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL184

influence recruitment and selection, and discuss the types of KSAOs that, based on the behavioural indicators, may predict each type of performance.

Job Performance as a mulTidimensional concePT

In the early part of the 20th century, job performance meant the performance of a set of tasks that were specifically related to a job. Job performance was synonymous with task performance. Over the past 30 years, definitions of job performance have broadened to include all activities or behaviours that may affect, positively or negatively, organizational effectiveness.19,20 We should consider not only individual outputs for a specific set of job tasks, but also the contributions of those outputs to meeting the goals of the organiza- tion. Job performance depends on the specific job requirements as they relate to the goals of the organization and the value that the organization places on contextual factors such as teamwork and cooperation.21,22

Recently, a number of job performance models have argued for a multidimensional conceptualization of job performance that includes nontask behaviours that may be important to job success. Figure 5.2 presents an example of a possible job performance domain for an airplane pilot that is composed of task, contextual, adaptive, and coun- terproductive work behaviours. Job performance is behaviour (i.e., the observable things people do) that is related to accomplishing the goals of the organization, or the unit, in which a person works. The goals pursued by an organization are value judgments on the part of those empowered to make them. Goals are defined for employees who hold specific positions within the organization. Individual performance must contribute to achieving the organizational goals. The activities or behaviours needed to accom- plish goals may vary considerably from job to job, or across levels in organizations. It becomes a matter of expert judgment whether particular actions or behaviours are relevant for particular goals. Performance is not the consequence or result of action; it is the action itself.23

Performance Domain—Air Pilot

Ta ke

-o ff

a n d

L a n d

in g

N a vi

g a ti o

M a n a g

in g

A ir C

re w

M e n to

rs Ju

n io

r P

ilo ts

P ro

m o

te s

S a fe

ty P

ro c e d

u re

S e lf-

D is

c ip

lin e

N e w

C o

m p

u te

r F

lig h t

S ys

te m

Job Task Behaviours Contextual Behaviours

Adaptive Behaviours

Counter- productive Behaviours

figuRE 5.2

A JOb PERfORmAnCE dOmAin fOR An AiRPLAnE PiLOT

Job performance domain The set of job performance dimensions (i.e., behaviours) that is relevant to the goals of the organization, or the unit, in which a person works.

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NEL 185CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Performance dimensions

Job behaviours can be grouped into categories, called performance dimensions. Perfor- mance dimensions are sets of related behaviours that are derived from an organization’s goals and linked to successful job performance. In Figure 5.2, a pilot must be capable of performing many job task behaviours. Some of these behaviours are related to taking off and landing an aircraft, another set of task behaviours might be related to navigating the plane from one location to another, while a third set of task behaviours are needed to manage and direct the flight crew under the pilot’s command. The pilot performs all of these task behaviours within a specific organizational context that emphasizes senior pilots serving as mentors for their juniors and promoting safety rules and regulations. All of the pilot’s behaviours directed at these last two dimensions may not be strictly necessary to flying an airplane, but they are valued job behaviours. Consider the very real situation where the pilot’s company has recently changed the planes it flies. The new models have an increased level of computer technology that controls more of the piloting functions. Pilots must adapt to the new technology and their role in flying the aircraft. The performance domain also contains negative, counterproductive work behaviours that interfere with job performance. Successful employees are expected not to exhibit counterproductive work behaviours. The pilot is expected to maintain self-discipline by showing up for work on time and not drinking alcohol while on flight duty.

a mulTidimensional model of Job Performance

One of the most significant developments has been the attempt by John Campbell and his associates to specify a theory of work performance.24 Campbell proposes that the behaviours people are expected to exhibit as part of their job appear to fall into eight job performance dimensions, which together specify the job performance domain. These eight performance dimensions, as identified by Campbell,25 are as follows:

1. Job-specific task proficiency reflects the degree to which an individual can perform technical tasks that make up the content of the job. A petroleum engineer and an accountant must perform different behaviours as part of their specific jobs. Within jobs, individuals may vary in their level of competence. One engineer may be more technically proficient than another, just as one accountant may be more technically proficient than some other accountants.

2. Non-job-specific task proficiency reflects the degree to which individuals can perform tasks or behaviours that are not specific to any one job. Both the engineer and accountant may have to have a good understanding of the busi- ness environment in which their company operates.

3. Written and oral communication task proficiency is the degree to which an individual can write or speak, independent of the correctness of the subject matter. Both the engineer and accountant make oral reports to people they deal with on the job; both also make written reports on the work they perform.

4. Demonstrating effort reflects the degree to which individuals are committed to performing all job tasks, to working at a high level of intensity, and to working under adverse conditions. How willing are the engineer or accountant to work overtime to complete a project? Do they begin their workdays earlier than expected? Can they be relied on to give the same level of effort day in and day out? Do they show initiative?

Performance dimensions Sets of related behaviours that are derived from an organization’s goals and linked to successful job performance.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL186

5. Maintaining personal discipline characterizes the extent to which negative behaviours are avoided. Do either the engineer or the accountant drink on the job? Do they follow the appropriate laws, regulations, or codes that govern their professions? Do they show up for scheduled assignments?

6. Facilitating peer and team performance is the degree to which an individual supports coworkers, helps them with job problems, and keeps them working as a team to achieve their goals. Is the engineer or accountant available to give the others a helping hand? Do either or both offer new trainees the benefit of their experience? Do they keep their colleagues focused on completing the work team’s goals?

7. Supervision/leadership includes behaviours that are directed at influencing the performance of subordinates through interpersonal means. Does the engineer, accountant, or both set goals and performance standards for people they direct? Do they use whatever influence is at their disposal, including the authority to reward and punish, to shape the behaviour of subordinates?

8. Management/administration includes all other performance behaviours involved in management that are distinct from supervision. Do the engineer and accountant contact clients and arrange appointments? Do they schedule work in the most efficient manner? Do they complete all the paperwork related to a project?

Job-specific task proficiency, demonstrating effort, and maintaining personal disci- pline are major performance components of every job26; however, not all eight dimen- sions have to be present in every job. Few, if any, management skills are required by a Licensed Practical Nurse (see Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1); however, the LPNs’ supervisor would be expected to have management skills. The pattern of differences in these eight dimensions can be used to classify jobs and is consistent with the job classification schemes used by the Canadian Classification Dictionary of Occupations, the Canadian National Occupational Classification system, and the U.S. Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

There are other models of job performance dimensions27; however, Campbell’s is the most complete and overlaps with dimensions proposed in other models, except for adaptive performance. In Table 5.1 we map Campbell’s eight job dimensions onto the four types of job behaviour we have presented here. Note that the three components Campbell states are present in each job—job task proficiency, demonstrating effort, and maintaining discipline (the lack of it)—correspond respectively to task, contextual, and counterproductive behaviours. Arguably, each of these three types of job behaviours is present in every job. We believe that facilitating team and peer performance requires an individual to display adaptability in dealing with other workers. It remains for each employer to determine which of the four job behaviours is most important in terms of recruitment and selection and other organizational outcomes.

What determines individual differences on these eight job performance components? That is, why does one pilot perform more efficiently than another? Campbell and his associates28 showed that the eight job dimensions are influenced by three factors: declara- tive knowledge, procedural knowledge and skill, and motivation. Declarative knowledge is knowledge about facts and things including knowledge of rules, regulations, and goals. It is technical knowledge necessary to do a job properly. Procedural knowledge and skill are attained when declarative knowledge, knowing what to do, is combined with knowing how to do it. One pilot knows all about landing procedures but lacks the appropriate skills

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NEL 187CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

to perform a smooth landing every time. Procedural knowledge and skill include cogni- tive, psychomotor, physical, perceptual, interpersonal, and self-management skills. Moti- vation is defined in terms of choice to perform, level of effort, and persistence of effort.

Job performance is some combination of these three factors; performance cannot occur unless there is both a choice to perform at some level and at least a minimal amount of knowledge and skill. In later chapters on selection we will see how different selection tools are related to the most important dimensions in an effort to predict those job applicants who will be the most effective job performers.

Task Performance

In Chapter 4, we saw that the identification of job tasks was one of the functions of job analysis. Employees who have the requisite KSAOs must successfully complete the tasks that comprise a job. Task performance, as previously discussed, is fundamental to job performance in every job performance model.29

conTexTual Performance

Campbell’s job dimensions specify what people do as part of their jobs. Borman and Motowidlo30 make the point that work performance extends beyond performing tasks that are related to the job. Employees are called on to perform activities that are not part of their formal job duties; the activities are, however, part of the context in which those job tasks are performed. Contextual performance involves activities or behaviours that are not part of a worker’s formal job description but that remain important for organi- zational effectiveness.

JOb TAsk bEHAviOuRs

Job-Specific Behaviours Non-Job-Specific Behaviours Leadership/Supervision Management/Administration

COnTExTuAL bEHAviOuRs

Communication Proficiency Demonstrating Effort

AdAPTivE WORk bEHAviOuRs

Facilitating Peer and Team Performance

COunTERPROduCTivE WORk bEHAviOuRs

Maintaining Personal Discipline

TAbLE 5.1

THE RELATiOnsHiP Of CAmPbELL’s EigHT JOb dimEnsiOns TO TAsk, COnTExTuAL, AdAPTivE, And COunTERPROduCTivE bEHAviOuRs

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While job performance is closely related to underlying knowledge, skills, and abili- ties, contextual performance supports the organizational, social, and psychological envi- ronment in which the job is performed. Contextual activities are not related to a specific job or role but extend to all jobs in an organization. Contextual performance often reflects organizational values. For example, many Canadian companies actively support worthwhile causes as part of their desire to be good corporate citizens and may expect their employees to contribute time or money to these projects. The United Way campaign is one fundraising activity that enjoys strong corporate support. Volunteer fundraising activities on the part of employees are not related to specific jobs but may advance the goals of the organization.

Contextual performance appears to fall into five major categories31:

1. Persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort as necessary to complete one’s own task activities successfully.

2. Volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of one’s own job.

3. Helping and cooperating with others.

4. Following organizational rules and procedures.

5. Endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives.

Contextual performance is closely related to organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB).32,33 OCB is individual behaviour that is discretionary, that is not directly recog- nized by a formal reward system, and that, overall, promotes the effective functioning of the organization. The difference between contextual performance and OCB is that OCB is considered to be beyond the role requirements of a job and, thus, not rewarded. Contextual performance, on the other hand, is not required to perform specific job tasks, but it is behaviour, much like core competencies, that an organization wishes all of its employees to exhibit. Contextual performance is regarded as part of an employee’s role in an organization and is often rewarded through pay increases or promotion.34

In many ways, the contextual performance dimensions appear to be extensions of the eight job performance dimensions included in Campbell’s model.35 As we show in Table 5.1, several of Campbell’s job dimensions can be deemed to be aspects of con- textual performance. For example, “persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort” appears to be related to “demonstrating effort”; “volunteering to carry out tasks not part of one’s job” to “facilitating peer and team performance”; “following organizational rules and procedures” to “maintaining personal discipline”; and “endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives” to “supervision/leadership.” We would catego- rize “helping and cooperating with others” as adaptive performance; however, keep in mind that some researchers would argue that adaptive behaviour is a form of contextual performance.

Campbell’s job dimensions relate to specific jobs, while contextual performance may relate to broader organizational roles taken on by an employee without reference to specific job-related tasks. However, this distinction is becoming increasingly blurred. Hoffman and his colleagues36 did an extensive review of the relationship of organiza- tional citizenship behaviour in relation to job task behaviour. They concluded that the various components of OCB could be mapped onto a single dimension that was distinct from, but strongly related to, task performance. They also concluded that because the OCB factor correlated with several job attitudes such as job satisfaction and commitment, OCBs should be considered when assessing job performance.

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NEL 189CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Contextual performance activities may represent important criteria for jobs in many organizations because of their relationship to organizational effectiveness. Contextual performance dimensions may not all have the same degree of relevance or importance across organizations. Organizations are likely to emphasize those that are most com- patible with their values and goals. Contextual performance is not a substitute for job task performance; it represents additional factors that may be considered in developing personnel selection criteria.

Contextual performance by itself does not get the job done; in evaluating staff, managers place more emphasis on task performance than on contextual performance.37 In fact, Rotundo and Sackett38 found that managers placed the least weight on contextual or citizenship behaviours. Managers from 15 different organizations that were geographi- cally dispersed across the United States fell into one of three categories when asked to rate the three types of job behaviour. The first group rated task performance the highest over the other two, the second group felt that counterproductive work behaviours were the most important, and the third group of managers rated task and counterproductive work behaviours higher than citizenship (contextual) behaviours. The managers were a diverse group that came from five different occupational groups. An increasing number of North American companies, such as Apple Computer, GE, Honeywell, and 3M, assess how well employees fit the organization in addition to how well they can do the job.39 Organizational fit between an employee, the organizational culture, and the desired environment predicts an employee’s contextual performance.40 In Chapter 6, we will review person–organization fit in the context of recruitment.

adaPTive Work Performance

Campbell’s taxonomy of job performance did not explicitly include adaptive perfor- mance as job behaviour. Pulakos41 and her colleagues showed that an important behav- iour among employees was their ability to adapt to ongoing changes in the workplace. Other researchers noted the relevance of this characteristic to job performance, but used a variety of names, such as role flexibility, in describing it. Based on nearly 9500 critical incidents collected across 21 jobs and 11 organizations, Pulakos et al. defined adaptive performance as comprising eight dimensions:

1. Handling emergencies or crisis situations

2. Handling work stress

3. Solving problems creatively

4. Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations

5. Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures

6. Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability

7. Demonstrating cultural adaptability

8. Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

Table 5.2 presents the definitions for these eight dimensions of adaptability. Similar to Campbell’s dimensions, not all eight aspects of adaptability are required on every job, and where required the level of the aspect needed may vary across jobs. In the O*NET system, these adaptability dimensions are included under work context and work styles factors. Pulakos and her colleagues recognized that different predictors might be needed

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL190

dimEnsiOn TiTLE

dimEnsiOn dEfiniTiOn

Handling emergencies or crisis situations

Reacting with appropriate and proper urgency in life threatening, dangerous, or emergency situations; quickly analyzing options for dealing with danger or crises and their implications; making split-second decisions based on clear and focused thinking; maintaining emotional control and objectivity while keeping focused on the situation at hand; stepping up to take action and handle danger or emergencies as neces- sary and appropriate.

Handling work stress

Remaining composed and cool when faced with difficult circumstances or a highly demanding workload or schedule; not overreacting to unexpected news or situations; managing frustration well by directing effort to constructive solutions rather than blaming others; demonstrating resilience and the highest levels of profession- alism in stressful circumstances; acting as a calming and settling influence to whom others look for guidance.

Solving prob- lems creatively

Employing unique types of analyses and generating new, innovative ideas in complex areas; turning prob- lems upside-down and inside-out to find fresh, new approaches; integrating seemingly unrelated informa- tion and developing creative solutions; entertaining wide-ranging possibilities others may miss, thinking outside the given parameters to see if there is a more effective approach; developing innovative methods of obtaining or using resources when insufficient resources are available to do the job.

Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations

Taking effective action when necessary without having to know the total picture or have all the facts at hand; readily and easily changing gears in response to unpredictable or unexpected events and circum- stances; effectively adjusting plans, goals, actions, or priorities to deal with changing situations; imposing structure for self and others that provide as much focus as possible in dynamic situations; not needing things to be black and white; refusing to be paralyzed by uncertainty or ambiguity.

Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures

Demonstrating enthusiasm for learning new approaches and technologies for conducting work; doing what is necessary to keep knowledge and skills current; quickly and proficiently learning new methods or how to perform previously unlearned tasks; adjusting to new work processes and procedures; anticipating changing work demands and searching for and participating in assignments or training that will prepare self for these changes; taking action to improve work performance deficiencies.

Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability

Being flexible and open-minded when dealing with others; listening to and considering others’ viewpoints and opinions and altering own opinions when it is appropriate to do so; being open and accepting of nega- tive or developmental feedback regarding work; working well and developing effective relationships with highly diverse personalities; demonstrating keen insight of others’ behaviour and tailoring own behaviour to persuade, influence, or work more effectively with them.

Demonstrating cultural adaptability

Taking action to learn about and understand the climate, orientation, needs, and values of other groups, organizations, or cultures; integrating well into and being comfortable with different values, customs, and cultures; willingly adjusting behaviour or appearance as necessary to comply with or show respect for others’ values and customs; understanding the implications of one’s actions and adjusting approach to maintain positive relationships with other groups, organizations, or cultures.

Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

Adjusting to challenging environmental states such as extreme heat, humidity, cold, or dirtiness; frequently pushing self physically to complete strenuous or demanding tasks; adjusting weight and muscular strength or becoming proficient in performing physical tasks as necessary for the job.

Source: Table 1 in Pulakos, E. D., Arad, S., Donovan, M. A. and Plamondon, K. E. (2000) “Adaptability in the Workplace: Development of a Taxonomy of Adaptive Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 612–624. Published by American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

TAbLE 5.2

dEfiniTiOns Of THE EigHT dimEnsiOns Of AdAPTivE PERfORmAnCE

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NEL 191CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

for these adaptability aspects when used as part of a selection program. For example, cognitive ability might be used to predict problem solving while the personality factor of emotional stability might predict handling work stress.

counTerProducTive Work behaviours

Productivity is the end result of a complex interaction of task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours. For example, in highly technical and complex occupations (e.g., air traffic controller) the role of contextual performance to the organi- zational effectiveness may be less critical than task performance,42 but counterproductive work behaviours on the part of the controller could have devastating consequences. In most cases, contextual and adaptive behaviours should lead to increases in productivity that are primarily influenced by task behaviour, while counterproductive work behaviours detract from it. How individuals differ in terms of knowledge, skill, motivation, and other factors such as personality may determine how they ultimately perform in the workplace. Counterproductive work behaviours are intentional acts by employees intended to harm their organization or the people in it. Counterproductive work behaviours include acts of both physical and psychological violence.43 Counterproductive work behaviours lead, ultimately, to decreases in productivity through loss of efficiency and effectiveness.

A complete conception of the performance domain must also include an under- standing of behaviours that have negative impacts on organizational effectiveness. Robinson and Bennett define counterproductive work behaviours as “voluntary behaviours that violate significant organizational norms and in so doing threaten the well-being of an organization, its members or both” (p. 44).44 Examples of these behaviours include lying, theft, property damage, violence, engaging in risky behavi ours, harassment of coworkers, and sabotage, among others.45 Perhaps the most negative work behaviour is withdrawal from the job. We will take a closer look at these different types of counterproductive work behaviours (CWBs) in the next section and then follow up with a discussion of whether we can predict counterproductive work behaviours in Chapter 8.

// TyPes of counTerProducTive Work behaviours Table 5.3 presents definitions of the most common types of CWBs. The following sections discuss these different CWBs in greater detail.

WiThdraWal behaviours

Tardiness and absence

Counterproductive work behaviours include withdrawal behaviours such as tardiness, that is, being late for work; absence, that is, not showing up for scheduled work46; and voluntary turnover, that is, quitting the job permanently. Withdrawal also includes psy- chological withdrawal where employees show up for work on time, don’t miss a day of work and have no intention of quitting, but withhold effort and do not perform to their fullest capabilities. Psychological withdrawal may also take the form of drug and alcohol use in the workplace during working hours.

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TARdinEss

Being late for work

AbsEnCE

Not showing up for scheduled work

PREsEnTEEism

A measure of lost productivity that occurs when employees show up for work but are not fully engaged in their jobs because of personal health and life issues

WORkPLACE dEviAnCE

The voluntary violation of significant organizational norms in a way that threatens the well- being of the organization, coworkers, or both

PROduCTiOn dEviAnCE

Primarily passive acts of an employee directed against the organization

PsyCHOLOgiCAL WiTHdRAWAL

Where employees withhold effort and do not perform to their fullest capabilities

EmPLOyEE THEfT

A form of workplace property deviance where the goal is not to destroy property but to steal the organization’s property, including money, for oneself

WORkPLACE AggREssiOn And viOLEnCE

Behaviours directed toward other employees that are intended to cause either physical or psychological harm

buLLying

Offensive, intimidating, malicious, or insulting behaviour directed at another; an abuse or misuse of power through means intended to undermine, humiliate, denigrate, or injure an intended victim

TAbLE 5.3

COmmOn TyPEs Of COunTERPROduCTivE WORk bEHAviOuRs

Tardiness and absenteeism lead to loss of productivity and cost organizations money. Tardiness is more prevalent than previously thought. In a 2013 report to the Confer- ence Board of Canada, Stewart47 placed the direct cost of absenteeism in Canada at $16.6 billion annually. This cost does not include the impact of absence on replacement workers, administration related to absenteeism, team performance and coworker morale, reduction in productivity, and customer satisfaction. On average, each full-time Cana- dian worker was absent 9.3 days; this rate was fairly constant over the past decade. The highest rates were among health care and social assistance workers at 14.0 percent, with the lowest among professional, technical, and scientific workers at 5.8 percent. The drivers of absenteeism were societal influences, personal characteristics, and organizational influ- ences. These drivers lead to stress, health issues, disengagement, and entitlement, and

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NEL 193CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

ultimately either voluntary or non-voluntary absence. Stewart summarizes these factors in the model presented in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 shows that there are many reasons for being absent from work; some of these involve legitimate reasons related to health and family issues where the absence is taken with the employer’s knowledge, if not approval, and are of a long-term nature.

Drivers and Predictors

Causes

Societal Influences

Access to resources Information Health care Prejudices Community

support

Personal Characteristics

Education Income Family

Age Gender

Stress Health issues

Disengagement Entitlement

Organizational Influences

Work conditions Work environment Workplace culture

Unionization Absence policy

Absenteeism Non-voluntary

Voluntary

Results

figuRE 5.3

dRivERs, PREdiCTORs, And CAusEs Of AbsEnTEEism

Source: Conference Board of Canada, 2013. “Missing in Action: Absenteeism Trends in Canadian Organizations” by Nicole Stewart. Reprinted by permission of The Conference Board of Canada.

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These types of absence are believed not to be under the control of the employee. The forms of absenteeism that fall under counterproductive work behaviours are those of a very short-term nature of one to three days where the employee does not show up for work when scheduled and calls in with some excuse, including being ill.

PresenTeeism

Presenteeism is a relatively new concept. It is defined as a measure of lost productivity that occurs when employees show up for work but are not fully engaged in their jobs because of personal health and life issues. The employees show up for work out of fear of losing their income or their jobs and may be prone to making catastrophic mistakes as well as transmitting illness among other employees.48 In cases where the employee believes that

the organization is less tolerant of absenteeism, the employee will show up for work but engage in a minimum of work. Being “present” is used as a screen for poor performance. Presenteeism may pose more of a problem than absenteeism. Robertson Cooper49 reports that 25 per- cent of 39 000 workers in the United Kingdom reported going to work while sick. The study argued that presenteeism could have damaging and costly effects on the economy. In a Canadian study, Johns found that workers reported an average of 3.0 days of presenteeism compared to 1.8 days of absenteeism.50 In a study carried out in Quebec, Brun estimated presenteeism days at 9.9 compared to 7.1 days of absen- teeism.51 Looking at both studies it appears that the ratio is two days of productivity loss due to presenteeism to one day lost to absenteeism.

volunTary Turnover

Voluntary turnover is the most extreme form of employee withdrawal behaviour. The employee withdraws completely from the organization. In some cases, the employee’s withdrawal may be welcomed by the organization; however, turnover, whether voluntary or involuntary, carries with it considerable costs. The departing employee needs to be replaced, incurring recruiting, selection, and training costs for the replacement. During this period other employees may be asked to work overtime to pick up work that was to be performed by the departing employee. The departure may also lead to withdrawal on the part of the remaining employees, resulting in a drop in productivity. There is also likely to be a dropoff in productivity while the replacement is brought up to speed.52 Voluntary turnover may have positive effects for the organization if poor or dysfunc- tional employees choose to leave and if they can be easily replaced. On the other hand, if the best performers are leaving and there is difficulty in finding replacements, then productivity will suffer. A good performance management system will help organizations to identify the good and poor performers and to take action to retain the former and to let the latter go, either voluntarily or involuntarily.

WorkPlace deviance

Workplace deviance generally involves the voluntary violation of significant organiza- tional norms in a way that threatens the well-being of the organization, coworkers, or both.53 Robinson and Bennett produced a typology of deviant workplace behaviours

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NEL 195CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

that classified those behaviours according to whether they were directed against the organization or people, and the severity of the action. Their typology included psycho- logical withdrawal, production deviance, workplace property deviance, and interpersonal workplace deviance.

Psychological withdrawal occurs where employees withhold effort and do not perform to their fullest capabilities. Presenteeism is a good example of psychological withdrawal. Psychological withdrawal also includes the employee leaving early, taking excessive breaks, and wasting resources. These examples are a form of production devi- ance in that they are primarily passive acts directed against the organization and not other employees. They are qualitatively different from the more serious workplace property deviance behaviours such as actively sabotaging equipment or production or stealing from the company. Interpersonal workplace deviance generally involves aggression against other people, such as bullying.

WorkPlace ProPerTy deviance

emPloyee ThefT Employee theft is a form of workplace property deviance where the goal is not to destroy property but to steal the organization’s property, including money, for oneself. The nature of the theft may range from small supply items such as a pack of printer paper to theft of petty cash to embezzlement of corporate or client funds. These losses are sometimes called “inventory shrinkage.” In a 2012 retail security survey, PricewaterhouseCoopers54 placed the cost of shrinkage at $10.8 million per shopping day; this figure included losses due to theft by customers and organized crime, inventory and accounting errors, as well as employee theft, which was not separated out in the survey. In response to this problem, many retailers have established “loss prevention” departments; they have emphasized employee training and workplace improvements as well as installing procedures for control- ling inventory. Many organizations have also initiated programs designed to select people who not only are capable of doing the job but also are honest, reliable, or of high integrity. We will discuss selection procedures designed to assess honesty or integrity in Chapter 8.

inTerPersonal WorkPlace deviance

Acts of interpersonal workplace deviance are directed against people rather than the orga- nization and generally involve coworkers, supervisors, or clients. We will briefly examine the more serious forms of interpersonal workplace deviance.

WorkPlace aggression and violence Acts that fall into these categories involve aggres- sion or abuse against others. These behaviours are intended to cause either physical or psychological harm. The aggression may range from shouting obscenities to actual physical assaults. Behaviours that do not involve any type of physical contact are clas- sified as psychological aggression. Physical assaults of any type are examples of physical violence. “Workplace aggression” is a broader term than “workplace violence” as not all forms of aggression involve violence. Schat, Frone, and Kelloway55 report data on work- place deviance taken from a random, national telephone survey of over 2500 employed adults in the United States. They assessed the frequency of exposure to psychological

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL196

aggression and to physical violence. Over 41 percent of those surveyed reported experiencing psychological aggression at least once in the last 12-month period, with 13 percent experiencing it on a weekly basis. Those figures translate into 15 million workers experiencing some form of psychological aggression on a weekly basis. The aggres- sive behaviours reported by Schat et al. included being shouted at in anger, being the target of obscenities, being insulted or called names, or being threatened with violence.

Moreover, when survey participants were asked if they had expe- rienced some form of physical violence in the workplace during the past year, 6 percent said they had, with 0.7 percent (785 586 of all U.S. workers) reporting that they were actually attacked with a knife, gun, or another weapon. The Schat et al. data are consistent with Statistics Canada data, which found in 2004 that 17 percent, or 365 000, of all violent incidents involving sexual assault, robbery, and physical assault occurred at the respondent’s place of work. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that workplace homicides accounted for 475 deaths in 2012.56 Statistics Canada reported that on average 356 000 incidents of workplace violence occur each year in the work force. The annual cost of workplace violence in Canada is around $7.6 billion.

Regrettably, violence in the workplace has given rise to the term “going postal” after an incident where a U.S. Postal Service worker opened fire on his coworkers, killing one person and himself. Of course, these workplace incidents are not limited to the postal ser-

vice or to the United States. A number of workplace violence incidents have occurred in Canada, including one at OC Transpo in Ottawa. Eight provinces have legislation that addresses workplace violence. Bill 168 amended the Ontario Occupational Health and Safety Act to require any employer with more than five employees to provide protection to workers from violence and harassment.57 The new protections require employers to:

• develop and maintain an unambiguous program to implement workplace vio- lence and harassment policies;

• designate a person as a workplace coordinator with respect to work- place violence and workplace harassment, and set out the duties of the coordinator;

• take every reasonable precaution in the circumstances to ensure the protec- tion of a worker should the employer become aware, or ought reasonably to be aware, that domestic violence that would expose a worker to physical injury may occur in the workplace;

• provide information and instructions to the employees on the contents of the policy and program with respect to workplace violence and harassment; and

• set out a fair and transparent process for investigating complaints.

bullying and cyberbullying aT Work Bullying can be defined as offensive, intimi- dating, malicious, or insulting behaviour, which is an abuse or misuse of power through means intended to undermine, humiliate, denigrate, or injure the intended victim of

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NEL 197CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

the bullying behaviour. Bullying does not have to take place face-to-face. Cyberbullying involves the use of communication technologies such as the Internet, social networking sites, websites, email, texting, and instant messaging to repeatedly intimidate or harass others. Bullying can often be hard to recognize—it may not be obvious to others, and may be insidious. The victim may think “perhaps this is normal behaviour in this orga- nization.” She may be anxious that others will consider her weak, or not up to the job, if she finds the actions of others intimidating. She may be accused of overreacting, and worry that she won’t be believed if she does report incidents. People being bullied may appear to overreact to something that seems relatively trivial but may be the “last straw” following a series of incidents. There is often fear of retribution if they do make a complaint. Colleagues may be reluctant to come forward as witnesses, as they too may fear the consequences for themselves, or may be so relieved not to be the subject of the bully themselves that they collude with the bully as a way of avoiding attention.58

Workplace bullying occurs in most organizations. In the United Kingdom and Australia, 10 percent to 20 percent of employees label themselves as being bullied.59 In the United States, there is a slightly higher incidence, while Sweden has about half the rate found in the United Kingdom.60 In part, the lower Swedish rate may be due to the Swedish National Board of Occupational Safety and Health passing ordinances on the actions that employers must take to prevent workplace bullying. Depending on the country, 50 percent to 80 percent of bullying is done by someone in authority over the victim, often their boss.61 In the remainder of the cases, bullying is carried out by a coworker. Rarely is a person in authority bullied by a subordinate.62 Few Canadian jurisdictions have anti-bullying legislation specific to workplaces, although many address bullying in schools. All jurisdictions, except New Brunswick and the three Territories, have workplace violence and/or harassment legislation as part of their occupational health and safety legislation. Where the legislation does not specifically address bullying, the occupational health and safety legislation establishes the duty of employers to protect employees from risks at work, including harm from threats to both physical and mental health. As well, human rights legislation precludes harass- ment of individuals with respect to characteristics that are covered by the legislation (see Table 3.1).63

Recruitment and Selection Today 5.1 presents two cases of harassment and threats of violence. In the first, the matter arose out of the RCMP Act and in the second, Bill 168. Both decisions have consequences for employers in dealing with harassment and bullying in the workplace.

Psychological harassmenT Bullying behaviour can be thought of as one type of psychological harassment. In 2004, Quebec became the first jurisdiction in North America to prohibit psychological harassment in the workplace through the Quebec Labour Standards Act. The act defined psychological harassment as “any vexatious behaviour in the form of repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal com- ments, actions or gestures, that affects an employee’s dignity or psychological or physical integrity and that results in a harmful work environment for the employee. A single serious incidence of such behaviour that has a lasting harmful effect on an employee may also constitute psychological harassment.”64 The Act also guaranteed every employee the right to “a work environment free from psychological harass- ment. Employers must take reasonable action to prevent psychological harassment and, whenever they become aware of such behaviour, to put a stop to it.”65 The Quebec Act has national importance. It squarely places the onus on the employer

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL198

to prevent or stop psychological harassment from occurring in the employer’s work- place. It is legislation that sets the standard for the rest of Canada. Increasingly, the act will be used by human rights tribunals and labour arbitrators as the standard against which employers are judged and the type of workplace behaviour that is acceptable.

PredicTing Task, conTexTual, adaPTive, and counTerProducTive Job Performances

Individuals differ considerably in their job performance. One worker may be several times more productive than a coworker. Can we predict who will be the most produc- tive employee? Should we be concerned about predicting each type of job behaviour? Productivity may be the end result of an interaction among all four types of job behav- iours. In highly technical and complex occupations (e.g., air traffic controller), the role of contextual performance to the organization’s effectiveness may be less critical than task performance; however, adaptive behaviour may be essential in dealing with stressful situations. Counterproductive work behaviours on the part of the air traffic controller could have devastating consequences. Figure 5.1 presented several behav- ioural indicators for each type of job performance. We can use these indicators to suggest predictors for each.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 5.1

THE COST OF HARASSMENT AND BULLyING

sulz v. Attorney general of Canada

The Supreme Court of British Columbia awarded Nancy Sulz damages of nearly $1 million as compensation for the workplace harassment she experienced. Ms. Sulz was an RCMP officer with 12 years’ experience. She experienced an ongoing pattern of vulgar, aggressive, and demeaning comments by her superiors that left her clinically depressed to the point where in the future she would only be able to work in part-time positions in stress-free environments. The Court ruled, based on medical evidence, that the harass- ment and bullying had a negative impact on Ms. Sulz’s mental health, affecting not only her ability to work, but also her ability to enjoy her life and to function as a member of her family and community. The Crown appealed the deci- sion but the Appeal Court refused to hear the appeal.

The complete Court decision is available at http:// www.courts.gov.bc.ca/jdb-txt/sc/06/00/2006bcsc0099.htm

under bill 168

Two days after attending an anger management workshop, a long-term employee of the City of Kingston, Ontario,

attended a meeting to discuss a back-to-work plan with her manager, an occupational health nurse, and the president of her union local. The meeting was to discuss how to accommodate restrictions that had been placed on the employee. During the discussions the employee threatened the union president’s life. The employee also became verbally abusive to the other participants in the meeting. After an investigation of the incident, the City moved to terminate the employee. The case went to arbi- tration, where the arbitrator held that the Employer had an obligation under Bill 168 amendments to the Occupational Health and Safety Act to react to an allegation of a threat, and not to trivialize the incident. The arbitrator found that the Employer acted in accordance with Bill 168, but that nothing in the bill mandated automatic termination. It is ultimately up to the Employer following an investigation to consider various options for dealing with the employee. Because of the employee’s long history of harassment in the workplace, the arbitrator decided that the Employer’s action of termination was justified.

The complete arbitration decision is available at http://www.canlii.org/t/fmq99

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NEL 199CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Task Performance

Cognitive ability appears to be the best predictor of task performance across all job situ- ations,66,67 although it may carry with it some adverse impact on protected groups.68 When used by itself as a predictor cognitive ability has a validity of around 0.50. This relationship appears to be culturally invariant in Western countries, as it occurs in North America, the United Kingdom, and European countries. The validity increases with job complexity. Cognitive ability also predicts training on job tasks. Figure 2.6 shows a correlation of =r 0.56 between cognitive ability and training criteria. Hausdorf and Risavy69 found that cognitive ability predicted whether transit operator applicants in a Canadian city passed their training course. We will examine measures of cognitive ability in Chapter 8.

Knowledge is related to task performance. Campbell et al.70 proposed that declara- tive and procedural knowledge, two aspects of job knowledge, were determinants of job performance. There is a strong positive correlation between job content knowledge tests (declarative knowledge) and job performance ratings of 0.48.71 Measures of procedural knowledge have a slightly lower correlation with job performance of 0.34.72 Job experi- ence knowledge has an even lower correlation with task performance, 0.21.73

conTexTual Performance

Contextual performance appears to be linked to different aspects of personality and motivation. When opportunities for advancement within an organization are limited, employees may perform contextual acts because they are conscientious; however, when there are opportunities for advancement, employees may engage in contextual acts because they are ambitious.74

Personality measurement improves the ability to predict contextual performance among sales and service representatives.75 The increasing emphasis on organizational citi- zenship behaviour and contextual performance as performance dimensions may require the addition of personality measures as part of the selection process. We will return to the use of personality in selection in Chapter 8.

adaPTive Performance

Few studies have examined predictors of adaptive performance. Pulakos et al.76 found that aspects of personality such as openness to experience, achievement motivation, and emotional stability were related to adaptive performance.

counTerProducTive Work behaviours

CWBs appear to be caused by work stress and triggered by negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, anxiety, and lack of self-control; other researchers propose that dif- ferences in personality may be linked to counterproductive work behaviours.77 Different aspects of personality appear to predict violence and aggression and drug and alcohol use as well as predicting an individual’s honesty or integrity.78 In Chapter 8, we will review integrity and honesty tests along with other procedures that have been developed to predict whether a job applicant or employee is likely to engage in specific types of

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counterproductive behaviour, with the intent to screen out job applicants or employees with those behaviours. Testing that selects out, including testing for honesty or integrity, is a very controversial procedure.

// measuring Performance The usefulness of selection measures is assessed by how well they predict performance. Typically, a supervisor’s rating of the employee’s performance is used for this purpose. Hard measures of performance, such as dollar sales, units produced, and absenteeism data, are less frequently available. Performance measures need to capture the contribu- tions workers make as they move from one assignment to another, and from team to team. Frequently, performance measurements will have to come from multiple sources (e.g., peers, customers, supervisors).

In validating selection measures, we will need to decide whether we wish to predict one or more performance dimensions or types of performance, or some overall composite measure of performance. Are we interested in task, contextual, adaptive, or counterpro- ductive work behaviours? If we assess several competency or performance dimensions, then we need to determine which aspects of performance contribute most to the success of the organization and what weights should be given to the different dimensions.79,80 If we want an overall measure of performance, then we must find a method for combining the performance data that we obtain from different sources.

Most efforts directed at improving selection systems have focused on the measure- ment of job-related KSAOs or competencies. Until recently, relatively less thought has been given to improving the measurement of job performance. Most organizations rely on criterion-related validity studies to defend the appropriateness of their selection sys- tems before human rights and other tribunals. No matter how accurately the organization measures KSAOs or competencies, the criterion-related validity will still be low without improvement in performance measurement. There remains a need to use valid criterion measures and to develop a better understanding of what constitutes job performance.81 Fortunately, more companies and HR managers are beginning to appreciate the linkage between selection and performance measurement.82 Performance measures, however, are still too often chosen because the pressure of getting things done leads to choosing the most convenient measure at hand and hoping it will turn out all right.

The performance measurement or criterion problem is really one of defining what is meant by performance and choosing a measure or set of measures that best capture the essence of that complex job-related performance. Without a clear understanding of what constitutes job performance in a specific organizational position (i.e., task, contextual, adaptive, or counterproductive behaviours), the best measurement systems will never be able to effectively measure performance at work. We need first to define job performance before we can attempt to assess it.83 One implication of a multidimensional conception of job performance is that any performance management system should include measures of task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours.

Performance measurement plays an important role in developing strategies for effec- tive recruitment and selection. Rather than simply choosing a measure and hoping it works, the first step is to specify job performance in terms of measurable behaviours; the next step is to find valid measures of those behaviours. The criterion or performance measure must be a valid indicator of job performance as determined by job analysis. There is an important difference in contemporary approaches to establishing criteria.

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NEL 201CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Desired job-related behaviours and outcomes are those that secure organizational goals. Increasingly, companies are looking for a fit between the person and the organization; this search for a person–organization fit often drives the company’s recruitment process. (We will discuss the person–organizational fit in more detail in Chapter 6.)

We discussed the need to validate selection measures to establish that they are meeting legal requirements. We also need to establish validity to assure ourselves that the people we are hiring will be the “best” or “most productive.” Improvements in selec- tion procedures can lead to substantial increases in productivity. For example, in sales occupations replacement of invalid selection procedures with valid procedures produces an average increase in sales of $60 000 per employee for each year that the employee stays on the job.84 To evaluate the effectiveness of selection systems, we must find a way to measure those task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours we identify as important for job success. Criterion measurement plays an essential part in recruitment and selection. Measuring performance is easier said than done; criterion measurement is a complex and technical process.

effecTive Performance measures

Once job analysis has identified the major performance dimensions, the next step is to measure employee performance on those dimensions. How will we measure job task pro- ficiency, supervision, or helping and cooperating with others? We can think of these job dimensions as labels that are constructed to describe different aspects of job performance. Before we can measure any job dimension, we have to define that dimension in terms of specific, measurable activities or behaviours. For example, supervision includes giving orders to subordinates, accomplishing organizational goals, and teaching employees the proper way to do a job, among many other things. One person may be better at “giving orders to subordinates” than “teaching subordinates”; our view on that person’s supervi- sory performance will depend on which of these behaviours we include in our measure of supervisory performance. Smith85 established general guidelines to help identify effective and appropriate performance measures, based on relevancy, reliability, and practicality.

relevancy

Relevancy requires that a criterion must be not only relevant, but also not deficient or contaminated. Criterion relevance is the degree to which a criterion captures behaviours or competencies that constitute job performance. A criterion must be a valid measure of the performance dimension in question. Suppose we develop a measure of a sales associate’s performance based on an overall rating assigned by a supervisor. This measure might be relevant to sales performance in that it captures behaviours related to service orientation, communication, and interpersonal relations. However, the measure may be deficient in not measuring competencies such as achievement, business orientation, self-discipline, and organizing, which may also be related to success in sales. Criterion deficiency refers to those job performance behaviours or competencies that are not mea- sured by the criterion. Additionally, the criterion may be influenced by problem solving, learning, and management competencies that are not critical for success in this particular job, resulting in criterion contamination—the degree to which the criterion is influenced by, or measures, behaviours or competencies that are not part of job performance. As a

criterion relevance The degree to which the criterion measure captures behaviours or competencies that constitute job performance.

criterion deficiency Those job performance behaviours or competencies that are not measured by the criterion.

criterion contamination The degree to which the criterion measure is influenced by, or measures, behaviours or competencies that are not part of job performance.

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criterion measure, a supervisor’s rating may be contaminated in that it is measuring things other than the sales associate’s performance. These three aspects of criterion measurement are illustrated in Table 5.4.

reliabiliTy

Reliability involves agreement between different evaluations, at different periods of time, and with different, although apparently similar, measures; that is, the measurements that are produced by the criterion measure must meet scientific and professional standards of reliability. Reliability is the degree to which observed scores are free from random measurement errors (i.e., the dependability or stability of the measure). Criterion or per- formance measurements are subject to the same errors as any other kind of measurement. There is no such thing as error-free criterion measurement; some criteria, however, are more reliable than others. Reliable criterion measures will tend to produce similar scores when the same behaviour is measured on more than one occasion. The reliability of any criterion measure must be established, as part of its use in a personnel selection system, through the procedures discussed in Chapter 2.

PracTicaliTy

Practicality means that the criterion measure must be available, plausible, and acceptable to organizational decision makers. The supervisor’s rating of the sales associate’s perfor- mance must mean something to those responsible for evaluating the sales associate. It must also be a number that can be readily obtained from the supervisor with little cost in time or money. It should also be a plausible indicator of individual performance. That is, the criterion measure must have meaning and credibility for those who will use the measurements in making decisions.

Practicality The degree to which a criterion measure is available, plausible, and acceptable to organizational decision makers.

unmEAsuREd COmPETEnCiEs

RELEvAnT TO sALEs PERfORmAnCE

Criterion Deficiency Business Orientation Self-Management Organizing

RELEvAnT TO sALEs PERfORmAnCE

Criterion Relevance Service Orientation Communication Interpersonal RelationsmEAsuREd

COmPETEnCiEs

nOT RELEvAnT TO sALEs PERfORmAnCE

Criterion Contamination Problem Solving Learning Management

TAbLE 5.4

iLLusTRATiOn Of CRiTERiOn RELEvAnCy fOR PERfORmAnCE in A sALEs AssOCiATE POsiTiOn

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NEL 203CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

There is a danger of being seduced by practicality and choosing criteria that, while readily available, do not meet standards of validity and reliability. These two requirements cannot be traded off in favour of practicality. For example, the supervisor may be tempted to use the number of units sold in a month to evaluate the sales associate’s performance. This is a very practical measure; however, it may be neither reliable nor valid. The sales volume may be affected by a number of factors outside the sales associate’s control, such as the state of the economy, sales campaigns by the competition, and so forth. As well, the records of the number of sales attributed to the associate may not be accurate or entered consistently into a database. That is, while the monthly sales volume may be an easy-to- use, practical measure, it may not meet acceptable standards for reliability and validity. Criteria must be practical as well as being reliable and valid measures of job performance.

idenTifying criTerion measures

Several issues must be considered as part of the process of identifying a criterion or a set of criterion measures for use in a selection system. Criteria are “dynamic, multidimen- sional, situation-specific, and serve multiple functions” (p. 862).86 Although progress has been made on these issues, there are still gaps between research and practice when it comes to designing a selection system.87 The resolution of these issues influences which measures are selected as criteria and when measurements are made.

mulTiPle, global, or comPosiTe criTeria

The ulTimaTe criTerion

The first issue is one that has generated a great deal of controversy over the years—namely, how criteria should be measured. In large part this controversy arises through misunder- standing of the job performance domain. At one time, criterion research was dominated by a concern to find the ultimate criterion for a given job. The ultimate criterion is the concept of a single criterion measure that could reflect overall job success. The idea of an ultimate criterion implies that job performance is a unitary concept, that one measure could be found that assessed a person’s overall job performance.

Even Thorndike,88 who developed the idea, recognized that an ultimate criterion would rarely, if ever, be found in practice (p. 121): “A really complete ultimate criterion is multiple and complex in almost every case. Such a criterion is ultimate in the sense that we cannot look beyond it for any higher or further standard in terms of which to judge the outcomes of a particular personnel program.” Unfortunately, many who followed Thorndike did not heed his advice and wasted considerable time trying to find ultimate measures of job performance. It is unlikely that you will ever find one measure that will tell you everything about performance in a specific job, considering the complexity of measuring task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours.

global versus mulTiPle criTeria

Job analysis procedures used by most organizations are inductive: the job analyst infers the dimensions that make up the overall job performance domain from specific empirical data. Other approaches deduce performance dimensions from organizational goals with or without the help of job analysis data.89 As we saw in Chapter 4, many organizations

ultimate criterion The concept that a single criterion measure reflects overall job success.

TAbLE 5.4

iLLusTRATiOn Of CRiTERiOn RELEvAnCy fOR PERfORmAnCE in A sALEs AssOCiATE POsiTiOn

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are turning directly to deriving competencies without going through a traditional job analysis procedure and building competency profiles. If there is a need, then, to compare the relative performance of employees in the same occupational group, is it appropriate to combine the scores on each dimension into an overall composite score, or should a new criterion be developed to measure overall performance?

Many practitioners, heavily influenced by the controversy surrounding the search for the ultimate criterion, would answer “No.” They would emphasize that the multidimen- sionality of job performance requires the use of multiple, independent criteria to measure performance. They would say that independent criteria, reflecting independent performance dimensions, should not be combined into an overall composite measure of job perfor- mance. Combining navigational skills, managing air crew, and self-discipline to understand a pilot’s performance would be, to use Smith’s90 analogy, like adding toothpicks to olives to understand a martini. Furthermore, these practitioners would not believe it was appropriate to obtain a separate, overall measure of performance because such a global criterion measure would lose the rich information contained in the multiple performance dimensions.

Our discussion of task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive job perfor- mances supports this position. Nonetheless, there is still support for use of a global crite- rion measure, particularly if there is a need to make a global, overall assessment (p. 205): “If you need to solve a very specific problem (e.g., too many customer complaints about product quality), then a more specific criterion is needed. If there is more than one spe- cific problem, then more than one specific criterion is called for. But in most situations, a global measure will serve quite well.”91

The difficulty is in identifying those situations where the global measure is best suited. In practice, the best strategy will be to collect multiple criteria data to measure important, diverse dimensions. In Chapter 10, we will review different methods of deci- sion making; that is, how to make use of the data we collect from our personnel selection system. As part of decision making we can require that job candidates meet minimum requirements on each of the multiple criteria that we used in the selection process. Multiple data can always be combined into a composite score.

comPosiTe versus mulTiPle criTeria

We have emphasized the multidimensionality of job performance and the requirement of assessing those different dimensions through multiple criterion measures. Nonetheless, there may be times when a single, all-inclusive criterion measure is needed in making employment decisions and no global criterion measure is available. Not everyone agrees that it is inappropriate to combine individual criterion measures into a single com- posite.92 There seems to be general agreement on how to proceed. Since performance measurements will be used for a variety of purposes, it makes sense to collect scores from each criterion separately. That information can be combined to compute a composite score as needed for different administrative decisions.

The weights assigned to the separate performance scores in creating a composite measurement should reflect the priority of the different performance dimensions as set by the organization’s goals. Implicit in this position is a recognition that the priority of organizational goals may change over time. If separate performance scores have been maintained, it is a relatively straightforward exercise to recompute the composite to reflect the new organizational, and economic, realities. Caution should be taken; creating a composite averages performance across all the performance dimensions. Performance on one dimension may be so critical that deficiencies cannot be made up by excellent performance on other dimensions. In this case, a composite criterion is inappropriate.

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NEL 205CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

consisTency of Job Performance

In discussing reliability as a requirement for criterion measurement, we assumed that the employee’s behaviour was more or less consistent at the time the observations were made. Of course, people’s job performance may change over time. This is a substantially dif- ferent issue from the random, daily fluctuations in performance. Changing performance levels may affect criterion measurements.

Training versus Job Proficiency criTeria

Do you obtain the same criterion results if you measure performance very soon after a person is placed in a job as opposed to several months or years later? Generally, early performance in a job involves informal learning or systematic training. Workers are con- tinually evaluated during training or probationary periods. Performance measures taken during early training will be very different from those taken later when workers are more proficient. Criterion measurements taken during training periods may produce validity coefficients that overestimate the selection system’s ability to predict later job profi- ciency.93 Nonetheless, the convenience of short-term performance measures, rather than their relevance to long-term performance, dictates their use in many situations as criteria. Training criteria remain very popular performance measures.

TyPical versus maximum Job Performance

Maximum performance occurs in situations where individuals are aware that they are being observed or evaluated, or where they are under instructions to do their best. Their performance is measured over a short time period when their attention remains focused on performing at their highest level. Typical performance is the opposite of maximum performance, in which individuals are not aware that their performance is being observed and evaluated, in which they are not consciously attempting to perform to the best of their ability, and in which performance is monitored over an extended period of time.

There is very little relationship between performance under typical and maximum performance situations, for either inexperienced or experienced workers. Performance measurements taken during training assess maximum performance and may be inap- propriate if a selection system is to predict long-term typical performance. Moti- vational factors play a larger role in typical, everyday performance. In maximum performance, motivation is probably at high levels for everyone; in typical perfor- mance situations in the actual work setting, motivation is likely to differ among individuals.94,95

The use of typical or maximal criteria has important implications for selection deci- sions. First, each of these types of criteria seemed to have different relationships with predictors. Marcus and colleagues,96 using supervisory ratings as data for typical perfor- mance and assessment centre evaluations for maximal data, found that cognitive abilities were more strongly correlated with maximal performance than with typical performance, while personality variables were more closely related to typical performance. The obvious implication is that predictors based on cognitive ability will have a greater degree of validity when used with maximal criteria, while personality measures may be more useful in predicting typical criteria.

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dynamic versus sTable criTeria

Employee performance appears to decrease over time regardless of the employee’s experi- ence or ability. These changes may reflect the effects of many personal, situational, and temporal factors. Early job performance may be limited only by ability and experience since every new employee is motivated to do well, while later job performance may be influenced more by motivation.97,98

idenTifying criTerion measures: summary

Early job performance, which may occur under more rigorous scrutiny than later per- formance, is ability driven and is a better estimate of what individuals can maximally achieve rather than how they will typically perform on the job. Performance will decrease over time, generally reflecting changes in motivation. Training criteria are acceptable per- formance measures for estimating maximum performance, but will overestimate typical performance. To be safe, several performance measures should be taken at different times when validating selection systems.

Job Performance criTeria and Performance aPPraisal

It is very unlikely that any two workers doing the same job will perform at exactly the same level. Factors such as knowledge, skill, and motivation are likely to cause variation in job performance within and between workers. As we saw in our discussion of com- petencies in Chapter 4, the essence of a competency profile is the specification of the proficiency level required on each competency to successfully perform a job and then being able to assess those employee proficiencies in a reliable and valid manner. Two employees doing exactly the same job, although they meet the minimum proficiency required for a job, may not perform at the same level. Most likely, any two pilots would not perform exactly at the same level on all critical job dimensions; nor is it likely that any one engineer would perform at the same level on all dimensions that applied to the engineer’s work. Every employee has strengths and weaknesses.

How do we actually measure these differences in performance between employees on the relevant job dimensions? How do we determine that they meet the performance requirements for a position? How do we determine areas in which an employee needs training and development? What do we actually use as the criterion data necessary for validating selection systems? Performance appraisals or evaluations often provide the answers to the above questions.

obJecTive Performance aPPraisal measures

Because of the importance of performance appraisals to organizational productivity, this topic is covered in stand-alone courses in many HR programs. We will not review that material here except to note, briefly, some common criteria that are used as part of appraisal systems. There are two broad categories that are used to measure job perfor- mance. The first, objective performance measures, involves using production, sales, and personnel data to assess individual performance. The second, subjective performance measures, involve the use of rating scales. Recruitment and Selection Today 5.2 lists some of the more common examples of objective performance measures.

subjective performance measures Ratings or rankings made by supervisors, peers, or others that are used in assessing individual job performance.

objective performance measures Production, sales, and personnel data used in assessing individual job performance.

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NEL 207CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 5.2

ExAMPLES OF OBJECTIvE MEASURES OF JOB PERFORMANCE*

Production of sales measures

QuAnTiTy

• Number of items produced

• volume of sales

• Time to completion

• Number of calls processed each day

• Average size of sales orders

• Words typed per minute

• Speed of production

QuALiTy

• Number of errors

• Dollar cost of errors

• Number of customer complaints

• Number of spelling and grammatical mistakes

• Degree of deviation from a standard

• Number of cancelled contracts

TRAinAbiLiTy

• Time to reach standard

• Rate of increase in production

• Rate of sales growth

Personnel data

AbsEnTEEism

• Number of sick days used

• Number of unscheduled days off work

• Number of times late for work

TEnuRE

• Length of time in job

• voluntary turnover rate

• Involuntary turnover rate

RATE Of AdvAnCEmEnT

• Number of promotions

• Percentage increase in salary

• Length of time to first promotion

ACCidEnTs

• Number of accidents

• Cost of accidents

• Number of days lost to accidents

• Number of safety violations

*These are measures that have been used over time; inclusion in this list does not necessarily mean that these are the best objective measurements of individual or group performance.

All of these measures are prone to contamination and deficiency when used as criteria. For example, insurance companies use the total dollar value of insurance sold in a month to measure an agent’s performance. One agent may sell more insurance in a month than another because one’s territory includes a compact city district populated by upper-income professionals, while the other’s includes a sparsely populated rural county of low-income farm workers. Both the opportunity to make sales and the amount of insurance sold may have more to do with the sales territory than the sales ability of either of the agents. The total dollar value of insurance sold may not measure how safely the agents drove to their territories, the oral communication skills needed to explain the complex insurance policies, or how accurately they completed the necessary paperwork to initiate the policy and to bill for its premiums. Recruitment and Selection Today 5.3

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lists potential constraints on individual performance that may affect the more objective measures of job performance.

subJecTive Performance aPPraisal

As a person’s job becomes removed from actual production or sales work, it becomes more difficult to associate objective measures to the employee’s performance. Upper-level jobs in an organization may involve more administration, leadership, team building, and decision making—dimensions that are not easily measured in objective terms. The issues of criterion relevance, deficiency, and contamination become even more serious. How should an organization evaluate the performance of an accountant’s supervisor? Most likely, the supervisor’s own manager, peers, and perhaps even subordinates will be asked to rate, or judge, the supervisor’s performance on relevant job dimensions. Without a doubt, subjective performance ratings or measurement systems are the most frequently used criteria.

Subjective performance ratings are open to error. Leniency, central tendency, and severity errors are types of errors made by supervisors or other raters who restrict their ratings to only one part of the rating scale. Some raters may assign only extreme ratings; some may give only very positive ratings (leniency) while others give only very negative ones (severity), others may judge all performance to be average and not assign extreme ratings in either direction (central tendency). Most students can identify teachers who have a reputation for giving mostly As or Fs, extreme ratings, or those who pass everyone with a C. Halo errors occur when a judge’s ratings over several job dimensions are influenced by the rating the supervisor first assigned to a particularly important dimension. After assigning a very high rating on “leadership,” the supervisor may believe that the same score is warranted for “effort,” particularly since the supervisor may have little experience with the employee on this dimension. Halo errors are often the result of the following type of thinking, “If I rated her excellent on Leadership, she must be excellent on Effort,

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 5.3

SOME POTENTIAL CONSTRAINTS ON INDIvIDUAL PERFORMANCE

• Lack of supplies/materials

• Lack of needed staff

• Absenteeism of critical personnel

• Failure to receive material/assemblies from other units

• Poor working conditions

• Inadequate physical facilities

• Poor leadership

• Excessive bureaucracy

• Unpredictable workloads

• Overextended staff

• High stress levels in workplace

• Change in policies, procedures, and/or regulations

• Peer pressure to limit production

• Poor communication of goals and objectives

• Lack of necessary equipment

• Inadequate training of new hires

• Too many inexperienced staff in unit

• Lack of support staff

• Budget restrictions/cost-saving measures

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NEL 209CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

as well. Besides, if I give her a low rating on Effort, or say I have no basis for judging her effort, my boss who will review this assessment may think I’m not doing my job. So, I know she’s excellent on Leadership; she’s probably excellent on Effort. I’ll give her an Excellent rating on Effort.” These types of rating errors introduce the personal biases of the raters into the measurement process and reduce the likelihood that the assigned ratings are appropriate measures of the performance under review. Over the years many different aspects of both raters and rating systems have been examined in an attempt to reduce rating errors. While rating errors can never be eliminated, they can be reduced by adopting a well-constructed rating system.

subJecTive raTing sysTems

There are two classes of subjective performance measures. The first are those relative rating systems that compare the overall performance of an employee with that of others to establish a rank order of employee performance. Relative rating systems are also known as comparative rating systems for obvious reasons. There are several different types of relative rating systems.

rank order

In rank ordering, the rater arranges the employees in order of their perceived overall performance level. For a group of 10 workers, the best performer would be assigned rank 1 and the worst, rank 10.

Paired comParisons

In paired comparisons, the rater compares the overall performance of each worker with that of every other worker who must be evaluated. In rating four employees, their super- visor compares every possible pair of workers: Employee 1 versus Employee 2, Employee 1 versus Employee 3, and so on. The workers are then ranked on the basis of the number of times they were selected as the top-rated performer over all of the comparisons.

forced disTribuTion

Rather than rank workers from top to bottom, the system sets up a limited number of cat- egories that are tied to performance standards. For example, the rater may be given a scale with the categories excellent, above average, average, below average, and poor to evaluate each worker overall or on specific job dimensions. The rater is forced to place a predeter- mined number or percentage of workers into each of the rating categories on the basis of a normal frequency distribution. That is, only a specified percentage of workers may be called excellent or above average and another percentage must be called poor or below average.

relaTive PercenTile meThod

The relative percentile method (RPM)99,100 overcomes one of the major shortcomings of other comparative rating systems by allowing raters to compare individuals on job performance dimensions that have been derived through job analytic procedures. The

relative rating system A subjective measurement system that compares the overall performance of one employee to that of others to establish a rank order of employee performance.

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RPM requires raters to use a 101-point scale (0 to 100), with a score of 50 representing average performance. For each performance dimension, or for the global comparison, a rater uses the 101-point scale to assess each ratee relative to one another. The rating scale anchors each rater’s comparisons to an absolute standard and, thus, allows meaningful comparisons among ratings obtained from different raters.

absoluTe raTing sysTems

Absolute rating systems compare the performance of one worker with an absolute standard of performance. These methods provide either an overall assessment of performance or assessments on specific job dimensions. A rating scale is developed for each dimension that is to be evaluated. Over the years, a variety of formats have been developed to assess perfor- mance in absolute terms. While these rating scales may have important qualitative differ- ences, they usually lead to the same administrative decisions. One rating system may provide more effective feedback, while supervisors are more likely to favour another and support its use. The ratings assigned to employees by either rating system are likely to be highly cor- related, once measurement errors are taken into account. The particular ratings scale format may not make much difference in the relative order of scores derived for each employee. However, different rating formats may not have the same degree of validity or meet relevant legal requirements.101 We present three examples of commonly used absolute rating scales.

graPhic raTing scales

Graphic rating scales can be produced to assess an employee on any job dimension. The scale usually consists of the name of the job component or dimension, a brief definition of the dimension, a scale with equal intervals between the numbers placed on the scale, verbal labels or anchors attached to the numerical scale, and instructions for making a response. Figure 5.4 presents samples of graphic rating scales that have been designed to rate effort. The presence or absence of elements such as a definition, instructions on how to make a response, and the subjectivity of labels attached to different numerical values on the scale help to distinguish between the relative goodness of the scales. The poor rating scale presented in Figure 5.4(a) does not provide the rater with a definition of effort. Each rater may define this term in a different way or have a different understanding of the characteristic, leaving open the possibility that different raters are not assessing the same thing. The better example in Figure 5.4(b) provides a definition of the performance dimension and instructions on how to make a response.

behaviourally anchored raTing scales

Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS) use the critical incident technique discussed in Chapter 4 to empirically derive job behaviours that are rated and then used to anchor the values placed on a rating scale. Although this procedure sounds simple, it is actually quite complex and time consuming. Figure 5.5 shows a behaviourally anchored rating scale developed for the competency of communication. In Figure 5.5, statements such as “Makes interesting and informative presentations,” “Uses email effectively and replies in a timely fashion,” and “Explains complicated points in different ways to ensure under- standing” would have been assigned similarly high ratings by SMEs. A rating scale like

absolute rating systems Compare the performance of one worker with an absolute standard of performance; can be used to assess performance on one dimension or to provide an overall assessment.

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NEL 211CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

this could then be used to evaluate an employee’s level of proficiency with respect to communication.102

behaviour observaTion scales

Behaviour observation scales (BOS) are very similar to BARS in that the starting point is an analysis of critical job incidents by those knowledgeable about the job to establish perfor- mance dimensions.103 Once the list of behaviours that represent different job dimensions is constructed, supervisors are asked to monitor the frequency with which employees exhibit each behaviour over a standardized time period. Next, the frequency data are reviewed through an item analysis, where the response to each item is correlated to a performance score for a dimension. This performance score is obtained by summing all of the items that belong to a particular dimension. Only those items that attain high correlations with the total score are retained for the performance appraisal measurement. This procedure assures a high degree of internal consistency for each dimension. An example of a BOS used in evaluating the performance of a security dispatcher is presented in Table 5.5.

Effort Low High

1 2 3 X

4 5

EFFORT – Consider the amount of energy brought to the job to complete the work in a professional manner. Circle the number that best re�ects the employee’s effort on the job.

1 2 3 4 5

Poor Below

Average Average

Above Average

Excellent

figuRE 5.4

ExAmPLEs Of gRAPHiC RATing sCALEs

a) A Poor Rating Scale: The scale does not provide a definition of the trait or characteristic being measured, and it provides little if any instruction on how to make a response. The labels for values “1” and “5” are subjective and open to interpretation by different raters. Does the “x” represent a value of “2,” “3,” or somewhere in between?

b) A Better Rating Scale: The scale offers a definition of “Effort” and provides instructions on how to rate, but the value labels are still subjective and open to different interpretations by different raters.

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Excellent Makes interesting and informative presentations; explains complicated points in different ways to ensure understanding; written reports are concise, understandable, and lead to defendable and convincing conclusions; uses email effectively and replies in a timely fashion; actively listens to others to ensure understanding of what they said; uses humour to capture and maintain attention of audience; makes effective use of nonverbal communication; provides feedback to ensure comprehension of messages that are received.

Above Average Written and oral communication exhibit excellent grammar and vocabulary; maintains eye contact with audience during oral presentations; speaks with con�dence and authority; written and oral presentations are well organized; gets to the point in oral presentations; accurately summarizes positions taken during group discussions; listens carefully to opinions and concerns of others.

Average Performs well in a structured setting; actively participates in group discussions; presents unpopular positions in a nonthreatening manner and acknowledges opposing points of view; asks for feedback from audience; makes presentations in a clear and concise manner.

2 Below Average Oral presentations are factual and accurate but lose the attention of the audience; presentations are overly long; leaves out important points in both oral and written reports; email messages are confusing; performs other tasks while listening to people and does not hear what was said; needs to repeat points to get them across to an audience; does not make an effort to obtain feedback from audience.

1 Unsatisfactory Has dif�culty establishing a relationship with the audience; uses inappropriate grammar and vocabulary; responds inappropriately to what has been said; does not make an effort to ensure that presentation was understood; ideas are presented in a disorganized manner; written communication and emails are brief and incomplete.

figuRE 5.5

bEHAviOuRAL AnCHORs usEd TO AssEss COmmuniCATiOn COmPETEnCy

Communication involves communicating ideas and information orally and/or in writing in a way that ensures the messages are easily understood by others; listening to and understanding the comments and questions of others; marketing key points effectively to a target audience; and speaking and writing in a logical, well-ordered way. Circle the rating that best represents the degree of communication exhibited by the employee you are rating.

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NEL 213CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

managemenT by obJecTives (mbo)

Management by objectives is a performance measurement system that emphasizes com- pletion of goals that are defined in terms of objective criteria such as quantity produced or savings realized. It is a results-based system. MBO starts with the identification of organizational goals or objectives and uses these to specify goals for each employee’s job performance. Before any goals can be set, the job-related behaviours must first be identified through a job analysis. The employee plays an important role in this process. Once both the employee and supervisor understand the job, both meet to develop a mutually agreeable set of goals that are outputs of the employee’s job. Once the goals are established, the supervisor uses them to evaluate the employee’s performance. Over the review period there are several meetings between employee and supervisor to review progress. At the end of the review period, there is a final meeting to assess whether the employee met the established goals and to set the goals for the next review period.

Strengths of this system involve the linkage between organizational and individual goals, frequent analysis and discussion of the employees’ progress toward meeting the goals, and immediate feedback about performance. The employees know, from the objec- tive criteria, whether they are performing up to expectations. Because the system is based on objective or hard criteria, the system suffers from all the problems inherent in the use of that type of performance measure. The emphasis on task performance through hard criteria mostly ignores contextual performance that may be as critical to the organiza- tion’s success. In addition, the process can be as time consuming as a BARS procedure to develop, with managers at different levels in the organization having conflicting views on what constitute appropriate goals. The process may stifle creativity because of its emphasis on short-term results. It leads to the emphasis on personal goals, which may impede the development of teamwork.104

JOb-sPECifiC TAsk PROfiCiEnCy

Properly secures lost and found articles

Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always

Controls visitor access to buildings Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always

Monitors multiple surveillance devices

Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always

Ensures confidentiality and security of information

Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always

Activates appropriate emergency response teams as needed

Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always

6–16 very Poor 17–19 Unsatisfactory

20–21 Satisfactory

22–23 Excellent

Total Score_____ 24–25* Superior

* Management sets performance standards.

TAbLE 5.5

bEHAviOuRAL ObsERvATiOn sCALE usEd TO EvALuATE A sECuRiTy disPATCHER

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balanced scorecard

A balanced scorecard approach, like MBO, links higher-level strategic goals to indi- vidual performance. It provides feedback around both the internal business processes and external outcomes in order to continuously improve strategic performance and results. The balanced scorecard approach is an approach to describing and communicating strategy and selecting performance measures linked to strategic outcomes.105 The bal- anced scorecard approach provides a measurement system for evaluating organizational effectiveness as well as providing a management framework for aligning activities with an organization’s mission, vision, and strategy. The basic premise of the balanced scorecard system is that organizational effectiveness is a multidimensional concept and that the major elements of the system, including individual performance, must be in alignment with accepted organizational objectives.

The balanced scorecard incorporates performance feedback around internal business process outputs and the outcomes of business strategies. Measurement is key to improve- ment and the success of the system. Measures and indicators are developed for the strategic plan’s priorities. The selected measures and indicators provide the necessary information on the organization’s progress toward meeting its strategic objectives. Pro- cesses are then designed to collect information relevant to these metrics and reduce it to numerical form for storage, display, and analysis. Decision makers examine the outcomes of various measured processes and strategies and track the results.

The balanced scorecard approach is a useful method for clarifying the multiple performance dimensions of a job that should be the basis of evaluation. It also estab- lishes the linkages of any one job or position to other components of the organization. For example, a human resources professional’s job may involve contact with specific employees, service to other organizational units, interaction with budgeting and finance, working with the training department to establish development plans for employees or groups, and so forth. In the case of teams, the balanced scorecard can be used to track team performance with respect to key objectives or activities. Actions or processes that are under the control of individual team members can be tracked and can help the team to take corrective action in support of individual members. The approach can help the team to identify ongoing problems and to address those issues to avoid further complica- tions.106 More information on the balanced scorecard approach can be found at http:// www.balancedscorecard.org.

Perceived fairness and saTisfacTion WiTh raTing sysTems

An important consideration in the choice of a rating system is not only the validity and reliability of the system, but also its acceptance by those it will be used to evaluate. Acceptance of the rating system by those subject to evaluation by the system is critical to the system’s successful implementation and continued use.107 The perceived fairness and perceived justice of the performance appraisal process plays a central role in determining employee reactions. Rating systems that are perceived to be fair and those that produce a high degree of satisfaction among the ratees are more likely to find acceptance.108 Both the BOS and BARS produce greater degrees of satisfaction and perceived fairness than trait scales. Managers do not view trait scales as an acceptable measurement instrument, particularly when they are used to assess their own performance by other managers.109

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NEL 215CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

Most importantly, organizations are more likely to win cases involving performance evaluation when they can show a court or tribunal that the performance appraisals were fair and carried out with due process.110

creaTing a Job Performance daTabase

Throughout this chapter we have discussed the necessity of organizations obtaining performance data to develop criteria that can be used to validate selection systems. We started off by describing the different types of performance and then moved on to discuss issues involving job performance measures used as criteria. Finally, we briefly looked at some ways of assessing employee performance. There may be considerable individual variation in how employees carry out their jobs. This individual performance data must be recorded to help employees identify strengths and weaknesses and to improve through training but also to assist the organization in recruiting and selecting people who meet the KSAOs or competency profile for a specific position. Many organizations use a Human Resource Information System (HRIS) to carry out these functions.

HRIS is generally an online, centralized set of standardized and specialized software packages that track existing employee data including personal histories, skills, capabilities, accomplishments, and salary. HRIS management modules record basic demographic data and information on selection, training and development, competencies and skill manage- ment, and compensation. The data can be used in recruitment, selection, performance appraisal, promotion, and compensation. Some systems have an “employee self-serve module” that is interactive; for example, employees may query the system about their attendance record and upload achievements relevant to their KSAOs and competencies, as well as upload other changes to their personal information. In this latter case, sophis- ticated HRIS can match the qualification of employees with requirements of positions in creating succession plans or identifying potential candidates for promotion. The HRIS also contains the performance appraisal data collected by supervisors. HRIS also contains other modules that go beyond the needs of recruitment and selection.

// human righTs and Performance aPPraisal Ever since Griggs v. Duke Power,111 which we discussed in Chapter 3, personnel practices in the United States and Canada have been increasingly subjected to review by judiciary or human rights tribunals. Although the Canadian legal precedents have occurred more recently, they have been influenced by U.S. case law.112,113 Reviews of U.S. decisions related to criterion-related validity studies and performance measurement systems empha- size that the defensibility of performance measures rests on the ability to demonstrate that they are job related.114 This point was emphasized in the Supreme Court of Canada’s Meioren decision.115 The court ruled that a standard—that is, a criterion—must be reason- ably related to the accomplishment of work-related purposes (see Chapter 3).

The absence of a job or work analysis as part of criterion development will likely cast suspicion on any performance measurement system subject to judicial review.116 In B.L. Mears v. Ontario Hydro,117 a tribunal under the Ontario Human Rights Commis- sion decided that black employees were unfairly ranked for layoffs, compared with white employees, through the use of vague and undefined criteria (e.g., productivity, safety,

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL216

quality of work, attendance, and seniority). Additionally, the ranking system was informal, as no written records of productivity or quality of work were kept. In reviewing U.S. court decisions involving performance appraisal systems, Barrett and Kernan118 also note the requirement for written documentation regarding performance measurements. They go on to advise employers to maintain a review mechanism through which employees can appeal performance assessments they believe to be unfair or discriminatory.

Increased critical examination of performance measurement practices by Canadian human rights commissions and courts will mean strict adherence to accepted professional standards of criterion development.119 These standards will include those that apply in the United States unless it can be shown that professional standards in Canada seriously deviate from those in the United States, or that Canadian legislation or case law has established practices that vary from U.S. standards. At present neither of these conditions hold. The most explicit statement on criteria is contained in the “Uniform Guidelines,”120 which were jointly developed by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Civil Service Commission, Department of Labor, and Department of Justice (p. 38300)121:

Whatever criteria are used should represent important or crucial work behavior(s) or work outcomes. . . . The bases for the selection of the criterion measures should be provided, together with references to the evidence considered in making the selection of criterion measures. A full description of all criteria on which data were collected and means by which they were observed, recorded, evaluated, and quantified should be provided. If rating techniques are used as criterion measures, the appraisal form(s) and instructions to the raters should be provided as part of the validation evidence or should be explicitly described and available. All steps taken to insure that criterion measures are free from factors which would unfairly alter the scores of members of any group should be described.

A performance measurement system must meet both legal and professional practice standards to satisfy human rights requirements. Reviews of legal decisions and research suggest that the steps outlined in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 5.1 must be included in a performance measurement system to meet those requirements.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOk 5.1

DESIGNING A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SySTEM TO MEET LEGAL AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS

1. Conduct a job and organization analysis to describe the job performance domain and competencies that are necessary for successful completion of the orga- nization’s goals.

2. Select criteria that are valid, reliable, and practical measurements of the job performance dimensions or competencies. Document the development of the cri- teria and measurement scales as well as their validity.

3. Identify the performance standards and goals or expected results that will be used to evaluate

employees on the selected criteria. These standards should be made known to employees in understand- able terms at the beginning of the review period. These standards must be work related and bona fide occupational requirements.

4. Train people in the use of the performance measure- ment system, particularly when they will be called on to make judgments about employee performance. This training should include a review of the criteria, the measurement scales, and the standards.

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217CHAPTER 5 Job Performance NEL

// summary This chapter illustrates the important role that job performance plays in recruitment and selection. The premise of the chapter is that a solid understanding of job performance and its measurement is an integral part of building a selection system that will meet pro- fessional and legal standards. A key to validating selection systems, whether competency based or the more traditional type, is to understand the nature of the job performance that is being predicted by the competencies or KSAOs. Job performance is linked to an organization’s mission, values, and goals. One useful approach to understanding job per- formance is to recognize that job performance is a multidimensional construct composed of task, contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours.

The chapter uses the performance model developed by Campbell122 that categorizes jobs in terms of their performance requirements into eight performance dimensions to illustrate the role that contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours play in any job. Understanding the factors that underlie job performance is necessary to its measurement. The Campbell model emphasizes that declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motivation underlie job performance. The chapter uses these concepts to illustrate likely predictors of different aspects of job behaviour, particularly contextual, adaptive, and counterproductive work behaviours.

The usefulness of any selection system is determined by how well it predicts job performance as measured by job-related criteria. Any criteria chosen as a measure of job performance must be valid, reliable, practical, and capable of withstanding legal chal- lenge. A construct validation strategy such as that outlined by Campbell123 will help to satisfy legal requirements. Once job-related performance dimensions or competencies have been identified, the type of criterion measure that most validly represents each per- formance dimension or competency should be selected. Most likely there will be different measures for different performance dimensions or competencies.

The chapter reviews different factors that affect criteria and the pros and cons of combining different criterion measures to form composites. It also assesses the stability of performance measures over time. Current research suggests that training criteria are acceptable performance measures for estimating maximum performance. However, to obtain a better understanding of possible changes in validities over time, repeated

5. Provide written instructions to all assessors on the proper use of the measurement system, particularly if the system involves the use of rating procedures.

6. Provide feedback from the performance evaluation to the employees. Assist those employees who receive poor evaluations to improve their performance. Raters should be trained in the effective use of feedback.

7. Establish a formal review mechanism, which has responsibility for the appraisal system and for any appeals arising from the evaluation process.

8. Document all steps in the development of the appraisal system and its use, as well as all decisions affecting employees that result from using the perfor- mance measurement data.

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218 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

measures of performance should be taken over time. Data from the various criterion measures should be collected in an uncollapsed form and formed into composites when necessary. The weighting of composites should reflect the priority assigned by the orga- nization to the different goal-related behaviours. All the procedures used in establishing the performance dimensions or competencies, their measures, and data collection and analysis should be documented. The chapter ends with a brief review of objective and subjective performance appraisal tools.

key Terms

Absolute rating systems, p. 210 Adaptive performance, p. 183 Contextual performance, p. 182 Counterproductive work behaviours, p. 183 Criteria, p. 181 Criterion contamination, p. 201 Criterion deficiency, p. 201 Criterion relevance, p. 201 Job performance, p. 181 Job performance domain, p. 184 Objective performance measures, p. 206 Performance dimensions, p. 185 Practicality, p. 202 Relative rating system, p. 209 Subjective performance measures, p. 206 Task performance, p. 182 Ultimate criterion, p. 203

discussion QuesTions

1. Why is it important to understand performance as part of the recruitment and selec- tion process?

2. In this chapter we discuss task performance, contextual performance, adaptive behav- iour, and counterproductive behaviour. Discuss the role that each of these plays in developing a recruitment and selection system.

3. If you were limited in selecting employees on the basis of only one of the four types of performance discussed in this chapter, which one would you choose? Why?

4. Discuss Campbell’s performance taxonomy. Can you think of a job that does not fit that model?

5. Compare Campbell’s model to the “Great Eight” competencies presented in David Bartram’s paper: The Great Eight Competencies: A Criterion Centric Approach, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1185–1203. What are the differences/ similarities?

6. Discuss the distinction among criterion relevance, criterion contamination, and cri- terion deficiency.

7. What are the characteristics of a good criterion measure?

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219NEL CHAPTER 5 Job Performance

exercises

Many of the forms used by colleges and universities to assess teaching performance suffer from all the defects of graphic rating scales. For this exercise:

1. Obtain a copy of the teaching assessment form used by your institution and critique it using the information presented in this chapter. If a teacher were dismissed solely on information obtained from this instrument that indicated the person was a poor teacher, would the decision stand up before a court or labour arbitration board?

2. Assume that teaching involves the following major activities: lecture preparation and organization; communication skills; use of examples and exercises; use of audio- visual materials/PowerPoint/Internet; grading; course-related advising and feedback; interaction with students; and maintaining class and office hours.

a. Place these activities into the job performance dimensions developed by Camp- bell as well as the leadership competencies described in the text. More than one activity may be placed in a dimension.

b. Identify the major behaviours and/or KSAOs for each dimension.

3. (May be done as a group exercise.) For each job dimension or competency, construct a behaviourally anchored rating scale of the type shown in Figure 5.5. You do not have to follow all the steps required to construct a BARS. Act as your own SME and then have a classmate rate the different behaviours for their importance. Shaw, Schneier, and Beatty124 present useful information for constructing a BARS.

4. Compare your scale with the one used in your institution. Which one would you prefer to use? Which does your professor prefer? Why?

5. What are your views on performance appraisal? Do you believe that individual per- formance feedback has an impact on improving team or organizational performance?

CAsE sTudy THE QuALiTy Of PERfORmAnCE AssEssmEnT

As part of restructuring, a television network decided to close one of its local sta- tions in Cape Breton. Several different unions represented the employees at the station. Employees were given severance packages or opportunities to transfer to the network’s Halifax station if they were qualified for any available positions. Two elec- tronic news-gathering (ENG) camera operators received layoff notices and requested transfer to Halifax, where two ENG positions were open. Two ENG operators—two ENG positions to fill. No problem? Not quite. A recent hire at the Halifax station also applied for one of the two positions. Under the terms of the ENG operators’ collective agreement, during any restructuring the employer had the right to fill positions with employees deemed to be the best performers.

The network had never employed any type of performance assessments with its unionized employees and was at a loss as to how to determine which two of the three were the best, other than through their supervisors’ opinions. The collective agreement, however, called for an “objective” assessment. The network’s HR director recalled that a few years previously its Toronto station had had to prepare for com- pliance with pay equity legislation and had developed a rating system to evaluate all its Toronto employees, from secretaries to on-air news anchors. The survey was

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// endnoTes 1. “Best Practices in Performance Appraisals.” 2000. HR Focus 2: 8.

2. Austin, J.T., and P. Villanova. 1992. “The Criterion Problem: 1917–1992.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 836–874.

3. Borman, W.C., and S.J. Motowidlo. 1993. “Expanding the Criterion Domain to Include Elements of Contextual Performance.” In N. Schmitt and W.C. Borman, eds., Personnel Selection in Organizations (pp. 71–98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

4. Campbell, J.P., M.B. Gasser, and F.L. Oswald. 1996. “The Substantive Nature of Job Performance Variability.” In K.R. Murphy, ed. Individual Differences and Behavior in Organizations (pp. 285–299). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

a graphic rating scale very similar to the type shown in Figure 5.4(b). It listed 12 traits or characteristics, including “effort,” as shown in Figure 5.4(b). The 12 traits were very general characteristics such as “knowledge,” “willingness to learn,” and so on. The HR director asked two different managers who had worked with the three employees to use the form to rate the employees’ performance. The new hire received the highest rating and was offered a position. The two potential transfers received low ratings and neither was offered a position.

Under the terms of the collective agreement, the two laid-off employees had the right to grieve the decisions, and their union carried the case to arbitration. The arbitration panel was composed of a neutral chairperson, who was mutually selected by the other two members of the panel, one of whom was appointed by the employer and the other by the union. In presenting its case to the arbitration panel, the union’s lawyer decided to call an expert in HR to comment on the performance measure that had been used to assess the employees. After hearing the expert’s opinion, which was not challenged by the employer, the arbitration panel threw out the decision based on the performance measure and declared that the two laid-off employees must be offered the two vacant positions.

QuesTions

1. What did the expert most likely tell the arbitration panel?

2. If you were that expert, what would you tell the arbitration panel? Be as detailed as possible and call upon all the material that has been covered in previous chapters.

3. Do you think an “off-the-shelf ” measure that was designed for one pur- pose can be used to assess performance in another context?

4. After rejecting the performance measure, the arbitration panel itself was charged with assessing which of the three employees were the best per- formers. What would you advise the panel to do in this situation? How should they evaluate the employees’ performance?

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5. Sonnentag, S., J. Volmer, and A. Spychala. 2008. “Job Performance.” In J. Barling and C.L. Cooper, eds., Sage Handbook of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 1 (pp. 427–447). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

6. Rotundo, M., and P.R. Sackett. 2002. “The Relative Importance of Task, Citizenship and Counter Productive Performance to Global Ratings of Job Performance: A Policy-Capturing Approach.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87: 66–80.

7. Koopmans, L., et al. 2011. “Conceptual Frameworks of Individual Work Performance: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 53: 856–866.

8. Motowidlo, S.J., W.C. Borman, and M.J. Schmit. 1997. “A Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance.” Human Performance 10: 71–83.

9. Motowidlo, S.J., and M.J. Schmit. 1999. “Performance Assessment in Unique Jobs.” In D.R. Ilgen and E.D. Pulakos, eds., The Changing Nature of Performance (pp. 56–86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

10. Coleman, V.I., and W.C. Borman. 2000. “Investigating the Underlying Structure of the Citizenship Performance Domain.” Human Resource Management Review 10: 25–44.

11. Conway, J.M. 1999. “Distinguishing Contextual Performance from Task Performance for Managerial Jobs.” Journal of Applied Psychology 84: 3–13.

12. VanScotter, J.R., and S.J. Motowidlo. 1996. “Interpersonal Facilitation and Job Dedication as Separate Facets of Contextual Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 81: 525–531.

13. Motowidlo and Schmit. 1999.

14. Koopmans et al. 2011.

15. Pulakos, E.D., S. Arad, M.A. Donovan, and K.E. Plamondon. 2000. “Adaptability in the Workplace: Development of a Taxonomy of Adaptive Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85: 612–624.

16. Kelloway, E.K., C. Loughlin, J. Barling, and A. Nault. 2002. “Self-Reported Counterproductive Behaviors and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: Separate But Related Constructs.” International Journal of Assessment and Selection 10: 143–151.

17. Sackett, P.R., C.M. Berry, S.A. Wiemann, and R.M. Laczo. 2006. “Citizenship and Counterproductive Behavior: Clarifying the Relationship between Them.” Human Performance 19: 441–464.

18. Robinson, S.L., and R.J. Bennett. 1995. “A Typology of Deviant-Workplace Behaviors: A Multidimensional Scaling Study.” Academy of Management Journal 38: 555–572.

19. Organ, D.W., and J.B. Paine. 1999. “A New Kind of Performance for Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Recent Contributions to the Study of Organizational Citizenship Behavior.” International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 14: 337–368.

20. Borman, W.C. 1991. “Job Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd ed. (pp. 271–326). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

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21. Motowidlo and Schmit. 1999.

22. Murphy, K.R., and A.H. Shiarella. 1997. “Implications of the Multidimensional Nature of Job Performance for the Validity of Selection Tests: Multivariate Frameworks for Studying Test Validity.” Personnel Psychology 50: 823–854.

23. Campbell, J.P. 1990. “Modelling the Performance Prediction Problem in Industrial and Organizational Psychology.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., The Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (pp. 687–732). San Diego: Consulting Psychologists Press.

24. Campbell, J.P., R.A. McCloy, S.H. Oppler, and C.E. Sager. 1993. “A Theory of Performance.” In N. Schmitt, W.C. Borman, and Associates, Personnel Selection in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

25. Campbell 1990.

26. Ibid.

27. Koopmans et al. 2011.

28. McCloy, R.A., J.P. Campbell, and R. Cudeck. 1994. “Confirmatory Test of a Model of Performance Determinants.” Journal of Applied Psychology 79: 493–505.

29. Sonnentag et al. 2008.

30. Borman and Motowidlo. 1993.

31. Ibid.

32. Coleman and Borman. 2000.

33. Organ, D.W. 1997. “Organizational Citizenship Behavior: It’s Construct Cleanup Time.” Human Performance 10: 85–97.

34. Organ 1997.

35. Campbell, Gasser, and Oswald. 1996.

36. Hoffman, B., C. Blair, J. Meriac, and D. Woehr. 2007. “Expanding the Criterion Domain? A Quantitative Review of the OCB Literature.” Journal of Applied Psychology 92: 555–566.

37. Conway 1999.

38. Rotundo and Sackett. 2002.

39. Bowen, D.E., G.E. Ledford Jr., and B.R. Nathan. 1991. “Hiring for the Organization, Not the Job.” Academy of Management Executive 5: 35–51.

40. Goodman, S.A., and D.J. Svyantek. 1999. “Person–Organization Fit and Contextual Performance: Do Shared Values Matter?” Journal of Vocational Behavior 55: 254–275.

41. Pulakos et al. 2000.

42. Griffin, M.A., A. Neal, and M. Neal. 2000. “The Contribution of Task Performance and Contextual Performance to Effectiveness: Investigating the Role of Situational Constraints.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 49: 517–533.

43. Spector, P., S. Fox, and T. Domagalski. 2006. “Emotions, Violence, and Counterproductive Work Behaviors.” In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, and J.J. Hurrell, Jr. Handbook of Workplace Violence (pp. 29–46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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44. Robinson and Bennett. 1995.

45. Gialacone, R.A., and J. Greenberg. 1997. Antisocial Behavior in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

46. Johns, G. 2002. “Absenteeism and Mental Health.” In J. C. Thomas and M. Hersen, eds., Handbook of Mental Health in the Workplace (pp. 437–455). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

47. Stewart, N. 2013. Missing in Action: Absenteeism Trends in Canadian Organizations. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada.

48. Böckerman, P., and E. Laukkanen. 2010. “What Makes You Work While You Are Sick? Evidence from a Survey of Workers.” European Journal of Public Health 20: 43–46.

49. Robertson Cooper. 2010. “‘Presenteeism’ on the Rise as an Estimated Quarter of UK Employees Admit to Working When Ill.” Retrieved July 17, 2017, from http://www.robertsoncooper.com/news/1-latest-news/167-presenteeism-on- the-rise-as-an-estimated-quarter-of-uk-employees-admit-to-working-when-ill http://www.robertsoncooper.com/news/presenteeism.aspx

50. Johns, G. 2011. “Attendance Dynamics at Work: The Antecedents and Correlates of Presenteeism, Absenteeism, and Productivity Loss.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 16: 483–500.

51. Brun, J.P. 2009. “Missing Pieces: 7 Ways to Improve Employee Wellbeing and Organizational Effectiveness.” Montréal: Les Éditions Transcontinental.

52. Sagie, A., A. Birati, and A. Tziner. 2002. “Assessing the Costs of Behavioral and Psychological Withdrawal: A New Model and an Empirical Illustration.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 51: 67–89.

53. Robinson and Bennett. 1995.

54. PricewaterhouseCoopers. 2012. “Stealing Retailer’s Thunder: PwC Estimates Canadian Retailers Are Losing over $10 million a Day to Shrinkage.” Retrieved from http://www.pwc.com/ca/en/media/release/2012-10-31-cana- dian-retailers-losing-ten-million-a-day-shrinkage.jhtml

55. Schat, A.C.H., M.R. Frone, and E.K. Kelloway. 2006. “Prevalence of Workplace Aggression in the U.S. Workforce.” In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, and J.J. Hurrell, Jr. Handbook of Workplace Violence (pp. 47–89). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

56. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2014. “Revisions to the 2012 Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) Counts.” Retrieved July 17, 2017, from http:// www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cfoi_revised12.pdf

57. Ministry of Labour. 2010. “Protecting Workers from Workplace Violence and Workplace Harassment.” Fact Sheet #2. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Labour. Retrieved January 9, 2012, from http://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/hs/pdf/ fs_workplaceviolence.pdf

58. Raynor, C., and C.L. Cooper. 2006. “Workplace Bullying.” In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, and J.J. Hurrell, Jr., eds., Handbook of Workplace Violence (pp. 121–46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

59. Raynor and Cooper. 2006.

60. Ibid.

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61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. OSH Fact Sheet- Bullying in the Workplace. Retrieved July 17, 2017, from https://www.ccohs. ca/oshanswers/psychosocial/bullying.html

64. Act Respecting Labour Standards. (2004). R.S.Q. c. N-1.1, ss. 81.18-81.20 and 123.6–123.16.

65. Ibid.

66. Schmidt, F.L., and J.E. Hunter. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 Years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin 124: 262–274.

67. Schmidt, F.L. 2002. “The Role of General Cognitive Ability and Job Performance: Why There Cannot Be a Debate.” Human Performance 15: 187–210.

68. Outz, J.L. 2002. “The Role of Cognitive Ability Tests in Employment Selection.” Human Performance 15: 161–171.

69. Hausdorf, P.A., and S.D. Risavy. 2015. “Predicting Training and Job Performance for Transit Operators.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 23: 191–195. doi:10.1111/ijsa.12107

70. Campbell et al. 1993.

71. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984. “Validity and Utility of Alternative Predictors of Job Performance.” Psychological Bulletin 96: 72–98.

72. McDaniel, M.A., F.P. Morgeson, and F.B. Finnegan. 2001. “Use of Situational Judgment Tests to Predict Job Performance: A Clarification of the Literature.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86: 730–740.

73. McDaniel, M. A., F.L. Schmidt, and J.E. Hunter. (1988). Job Experience Correlates of Job Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73: 327–330.

74. Hogan, J., S.L. Rybicki, S.J. Motowidlo, and W.C. Borman. 1998. “Relations between Contextual Performance, Personality, and Occupational Advancement.” Human Performance 11: 189–207.

75. McManus, M.A., and M.L. Kelly. 1999. “Personality Measures and Biodata: Evidence Regarding Their Incremental Predictive Value in the Life Insurance Industry.” Personnel Psychology 52: 137–148.

76. Pulakos, E.D., et al. 2002. “Predicting Adaptive Performance: Further Tests of a Model of Adaptability.” Human Performance 15: 299–324.

77. Daw 2001.

78. D.S. Ones, C. Viswesvaran, and S. Dilchert. 2005. “Personality at Work: Raising Awareness and Correcting Misconceptions.” Human Performance 18: 389–404.

79. Murphy and Shiarella. 1997.

80. Rotundo and Sackett. 2002.

81. Austin and Villanova. 1992.

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82. “Best Practices in Performance Appraisals.” 2000.

83. Sulsky, L.M., and J.L. Keown. 1998. “Performance Appraisal in the Changing World of Work: Implications for the Meaning and Measurement of Work Performance.” Canadian Psychology 39: 52–59.

84. Farrell, S., and R. Hakstian. June 2000. A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effectiveness of Personnel Selection Procedures and Training Interventions in Sales Occupations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Ottawa.

85. Smith, P.C. 1976. “Behaviours, Results, and Organizational Effectiveness: The Problem of Criteria.” In M.D. Dunnette, ed., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 745–776). Chicago: Rand McNally.

86. Austin, J., and P. Villanova. 1992. “The Criterion Problem: 1917–1992.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 836–874.

87. Austin, J., and T. Crespin. 2006. “Problems of Criteria in Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Progress, Pitfalls, and Prospects.” In W. Bennett, Jr., C.E. Lance, and D.H. Woehr, eds., Performance Measurement: Current Perspectives and Future Challenges (pp. 9–48). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

88. Thorndike, R.L. 1949. Personnel Selection: Test and Measurement Technique. New York: Wiley.

89. Austin and Villanova. 1992.

90. Smith 1976.

91. Guion, R.M. 1987. “Changing Views for Personnel Selection Research.” Personnel Psychology 40: 199–213.

92. Landy, F.L. 1989. Psychology of Work Behavior, 4th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

93. Ghiselli, E.E. 1966. The Validity of Occupational Aptitude Tests. New York: Wiley.

94. Sackett, P.R., S. Zedeck, and L. Fogli. 1988. “Relations between Measures of Typical and Maximum Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 73: 482–486.

95. Sackett, P. 2007. “Revisiting the Origins of the Typical-Maximum Performance Distinction.” Human Performance 20: 179–185.

96. Marcus, B., R. Goffin, N. Johnston, and M. Rothstein. 2007. “Personality and Cognitive Ability as Predictors of Typical and Maximum Managerial Performance.” Human Performance 20(3): 275–285.

97. Deadrick, D.L., and R.M. Madigan. 1990. “Dynamic Criteria Revisited: A Longitudinal Study of Performance Stability and Predictive Validity.” Personnel Psychology 43: 717–744.

98. Austin and Villanova. 1992.

99. Goffin, R.D., I.R. Gellatly, S.V. Paunonen, D.N. Jackson, and J.P. Meyer. 1996. “Criterion Validation of Two Approaches to Performance Appraisal: The Behavioral Observation Scale and the Relative Percentile Method.” Journal of Business and Psychology 11: 23–33.

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100. Goffin, R.D., and Olson, J.M. 2011. “Is It All Relative? Comparative Judgments and the Possible Improvement of Self-Ratings and Ratings of Others.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 6: 48–60.

101. Greene, L., H.J. Bernardin, and J. Abbott. 1985. “A Comparison of Rating Formats after Correction for Attenuation.” Educational and Psychological Measurement 45: 503–515.

102. Catano, V.M., W. Darr, and C.A. Campbell. 2007. “Performance Appraisal of Behavior-based Competencies—A Reliable and Valid Procedure.” Personnel Psychology 60: 201–230.

103. Latham, G.P., and K.N. Wexley. 1981. Increasing Productivity through Performance Appraisal. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

104. Bowman 1999.

105. Kaplan, R.S., and D.P. Norton. 1996. The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action. Boston: The Harvard Business School Press.

106. Meyer, C. 1998. “How the Right Measures Help Teams Excel.” In Harvard Business Review on Measuring Performance (pp. 99–122). Boston: HBS Publishing.

107. Hedge, J.W., and M.S. Teachout. 2000. “Exploring the Concept of Acceptability as a Criterion for Evaluating Performance Measures.” Group & Organizational Management 25: 22–44.

108. Smither, J.W. 1998. “Lessons Learned: Research Implications for Performance Appraisal and Management Practice.” In J.W. Smither, ed., Performance Appraisal: State of the Art in Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

109. Latham, G.P., and G.H. Seijts. 1997. “The Effect of Appraisal Instrument on Managerial Perceptions of Fairness and Satisfaction with Appraisals from Peers.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 29: 278–282.

110. Werner, J.M., and M.C. Bolino. 1997. “Explaining U.S. Courts of Appeals Decisions Involving Performance Appraisal: Accuracy, Fairness, and Validation.” Personnel Psychology 50: 1–24.

111. Griggs v. Duke Power. 1971. 401 U.S. 424.

112. Cronshaw, S.F. 1986. “The Status of Employment Testing in Canada: A Review and Evaluation of Theory and Professional Practice.” Canadian Psychology 27: 183–195.

113. Cronshaw, S.F. 1988. “Future Directions for Industrial Psychology in Canada.” Canadian Psychology 29: 30–43.

114. Barrett, G.V., and M.C. Kernan. 1987. “Performance Appraisal and Terminations: A Review of Court Decisions since Brito v. Zia with Implication for Personnel Practices.” Personnel Psychology 40: 489–503.

115. British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v. BCGSEU. Supreme Court of Canada decision rendered September 9, 1999.

116. Landy 1989.

117. B.L. Mears, Gifford Walker, George Wills, Hollis Trotman, Thomas Atherly, Hubert Telphia and Leon Francis v. Ontario Hydro and Jack Watson, A. Watkiss, T.

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Ouelette and Mossis Loveness. 1984. Canadian Human Rights Reporter, 5, D/3433 (Ontario Human Rights Commission Board of Inquiry, December 1983.

118. Barrett and Kernan. 1987.

119. Cronshaw, S.F. 1988. “Future Directions for Industrial Psychology in Canada.” Canadian Psychology 29: 30–43.

120. Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures.” 1978. Federal Register 43: 38290–315.

121. Ibid.

122. Campbell 1990.

123. Ibid.

124. Shaw, D.G., C.E. Schneier, and R.W. Beatty. 1991. “Managing Performance with a Behaviorally Based Appraisal System.” In J. Jones, B.D. Steffy, and D.W Bray, eds., Applying Psychology in Business: The Handbook for Managers and Human Resource Professionals (pp. 314–325). New York: Lexington Books.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter reviews the role played by recruitment in HR planning. We present this topic from the perspective of recruitment as the first step in selection. The first part of the chapter looks at recruitment as part of a HR strategy along with the factors that influence the strategy. The second part reviews different recruitment methods and their overall effectiveness. In the third part, the factors that may attract job applicants and influence them to apply for jobs are reviewed. The chapter ends with points to consider when evaluating the success of recruitment strategies.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• discuss recruitment as part of an organization’s strategic planning;

• recognize the link between recruitment and selection;

• describe how the characteristics of the job and organization are influential in attracting job applicants;

• explain the role that accurate expectations play in developing a fit between a person and an organization;

• identify the internal and external factors that influence an organization’s recruit- ment strategy;

• design and implement a recruitment action plan;

• identify the different methods used to recruit internal and external job applicants;

RECRuiTmEnT: THE fiRsT sTEP in THE sELECTiOn

PROCEss

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NEL 229CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

• recognize the increasingly important role played by the Internet and social media in recruiting;

• discuss why a realistic job preview may benefit both the job seeker and the orga- nization; and

• discuss the need to evaluate the effectiveness of different recruitment methods.

Big Rock Brewery of Calgary has attracted a Facebook and Twitter following among fans of its premium craft beers. Sellout crowds attend its annual awards for the best ama- teur beer commercials.

Brewmaster Paul Gautreau’s blog promotes the latest product offering, Gopher Lager, and throws in recipes to pair with Big Rock ales: Guacamole, with Big Rock Lime; an Italian sausage dish with Grasshopper, a wheat ale; and—“I know it sounds weird”—apple pie, with Big Rock’s Traditional Ale served at 5 degrees Celsius, or even warmer.

And then there’s what HR specialists refer to as the “employer brand,” which gives prospective employees a taste of what the work environment is like.

“Imagine taking your work home with you,” the brewery posts on its careers Web portal. “If you’re the type of person who thinks that making exceptional beers for discriminating customers while working for an underdog that takes on the big multi-nationals describes your perfect job, please send us your resume.”

“Our website gets a lot of hits; it’s very popular,” said Lynn Thomson, supervisor of human resources and admin- istration at Big Rock Brewery Income Trust. “So we have had a lot of success hiring from our website. We posted three opportunities in March and the response was over- whelming, just overwhelming.”

Companies have always focused on their brand to win over customers. Now, many—like Big Rock—are finding they can gain an edge in the war for talent by focusing on their “employment branding” as well.

Another way companies are recruiting people is through social media sites such as LinkedIn, which has become a fertile hunting ground for employers on the prowl, said Bill Greenhalgh, chief executive officer of the Human Resources Professionals Association. “Social [media] networks in general in the recruitment industry are a game-changer, there’s no question about that.”

“They allow potential recruits to check out what other people feel about an organization, and they allow

organizations to identify people who are not neces- sarily looking for jobs but might be amenable to being approached.”

LinkedIn, which members use primarily for business networking purposes, has emerged as a favourite with recruiters, he said. “A lot of people who go on LinkedIn and put their information on there are surreptitiously looking for jobs. They don’t want to broadcast it too broadly, but of course they are always open to offers and approaches.”

Neil Crawford, leader of Hewitt Associates’ Best Employers in Canada study, said that for employers, Face- book and LinkedIn are “valuable ways to connect with people and get your message out, particularly for compa- nies that are not household names.”

But once employers have tapped into this pool of pro- spective candidates, they need some sort of process to deter- mine which candidates will be the best fit, Mr. Crawford said.

Right Management Canada, a career and talent man- agement company, has found more employers seeking help with the assessment process as the economic recovery gains traction. They are now hiring again, but very selectively, Bram Lowsky, the firm’s senior vice president and general manager, said in an interview.

Employers are looking for candidates who have the capability and technical expertise to do the job, “but ultimately the cultural fit is going to be the driver of suc- cess, and the more senior the role, the more critical that becomes,” Mr. Lowsky said.

When Ms. Thomson posts a position at Red Rock— listing all the requirements of the job in question—those candidates whose résumés address every single point in the posting warrant a second look. If a current employee recommends one of the applicants, even better. Who you know still counts—a lot.

“It’s important,” said Ms. Thomson, who places a lot of weight on employee referrals. “If an employee comes forward, they are putting their reputation on the line.”

EmPLOyERs bREw uP nEw wAys TO RECRuiT TALEnT

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL230

Recruitment is the first step in the selection process. People apply for jobs in organizations on the basis of their interest in the job and their belief that they have the required knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies needed to do the job well. They also hope that the organization will provide a hospitable environment in which to spend their working hours. Obviously, this is an idealized view of the world; in bad economic times, when jobs are at a premium, people may change their perceptions of jobs and organizations, as well as their willingness to work in either. In hard economic times, people may value the security of having a job and the income it provides above everything else. However, security and income, although important considerations, are not always the most influential factors in attracting applicants to jobs or organizations.

The ultimate goal of a job-related selection system is to bring people into the organization who will perform at above-average levels and who will increase the productivity of the organization. The goal of recruitment is to attract a large pool of qualified candidates (an applicant pool) from whom the organization can select the best-qualified people for the position. Recruitment is done to meet management goals and objectives for the organization and must also meet current legal requirements (human rights, employment equity, labour law, and other legislation).

Only within the last 30 years or so has recruitment received serious attention for the important role it plays in the selection process. Previously, recruitment was simply a means of attracting a large enough pool of candidates from which the organization could select the best-qualified people, without much thought as to how that was done or what factors influenced applicants to become part of that pool of candidates.1 The quality and quantity of the applicant pool is related to the source and nature of the recruiting information an applicant receives.2 In the past, though, the availability of a job and the need for money were assumed to be motivation enough to attract candidates. Hardly any consideration was given to the possibility that candidates were using the recruiting process to select the organization. Job applicants are not passive organisms; during the recruitment and selection process, they form opinions about the organization, the selec- tion process, the people they meet, and the desirability of working in the organization.

In Part I of this chapter, we discuss strategic recruitment as the end product of HR planning and link recruiting to an organization’s business strategy. We discuss the rel- evance of both job and organizational analysis in developing a recruitment action plan. Part II discusses the sources that an organization uses as part of its recruitment strategy, and provides an assessment of those sources. E-recruitment is now playing an increas- ingly important role in recruitment and is a major focus of Part II. In Part III, we review

Recruitment The generation of an applicant pool for a position or job in order to provide the required number of qualified candidates for a sub- sequent selection or promotion process.

Applicant pool The set of potential candidates who may be interested in, and who are likely to apply for, a specific job.

“We look for people we feel will blend in with the close-knit staff, because we are a modest size,” she said of the company, which has 120 employees. “Attitude and the ability to blend in and fit the culture is really paramount.”

Mr. Greenhalgh said it has always been the case that more than 70 percent of positions are never adver- tised. The Internet just makes it that much easier to find someone who might know someone who would be ideal for the job.

Ms. Thomson herself was recommended to Big Rock by a former business acquaintance—now in a senior role at the brewery—with whom she had kept in touch by email.

“I was interviewed by the president and the brew- master,” said Ms. Thomson, who joined the company in March.

Source: © Virginia Galt. Special to The Globe and Mail. Published Wednesday, Jun. 09, 2010.

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Recruiting through social media and the Internet

06_Ch06.indd 230 11/10/17 4:32 PM

NEL 231CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

those organizational factors that attract job candidates and procedures that can be used to ensure job candidates are provided with accurate information about the job and the organization. Accurate information and expectations help to prevent recruitment failures and promote the staffing of organizations with people who not only are qualified for the job but also have a good understanding of the organization in which the job takes place.

// PARt I: StRAtegIc RecRuItment Recruitment takes place within a strategic HR management context; that is, the inter- related practices, policies, and philosophies that are linked to organizational or business strategies. Figure 6.1 presents a simplified view of this model, discussed in Chapter 1. In this model, recruitment is an outcome of HR planning. The decision to recruit candidates for jobs in an organization is based on (1) an assessment of the internal and external factors affecting the organization, (2) an organization analysis based on those factors, (3) a job analysis that identifies worker behaviours and characteristics to aid in selecting candidates who are qualified for the position, and (4) forecasts about the supply of labour with the requirements to fill vacant positions. We will take a more detailed look at external and internal factors, organizational analysis and HR planning functions that influence the development of a recruitment action plan.

exteRnAl FActoRS

In Chapter 1 we discussed a number of factors that influenced recruitment and selection: global competition, technological advances, changing work force demographics, and the economic environment. You may wish to review that section of Chapter 1 before proceeding further. Recruitment is also influenced by two external factors over which the organization has little control: (1) the labour market, which is a function of the economic environment, and (2) the laws and regulations that pertain to recruitment and selection.3

lAbouR mARketS And RecRuItIng

Organizations must develop a recruiting campaign that makes sense in the context of a specific labour market. Labour markets and economic conditions impose different con- straints. The overall nature of the economy may influence an organization’s decision to hire or not to hire, but once a decision to hire is made, the nature of the labour market determines how extensively the organization will have to search to fill the job with a qual- ified candidate. In 1996, Toyota Canada was in the enviable position of having more than 50 000 people apply for 1200 positions that were being created as part of an expansion at its Cambridge, Ontario plant. The jobs paid $20 per hour plus benefits in a geographic area that had an 8.3 percent unemployment rate. Toyota had 11 000 applications on file before it had run a single advertisement or posted the jobs with employment centres.4

When qualified labour is scarce, the organization must broaden its recruiting beyond its normal target population. This includes going beyond normal recruiting channels to attract applicants it might not seek in more favourable times. For example, if there is a shortage of chartered accountants, the organization may take a look at hiring finance majors with a background in accounting who may develop into the accounting position

06_Ch06.indd 231 11/10/17 4:32 PM

Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL232

External Factors Labour Market Economic Climate Laws and Regulations Competition

Internal Factors Mission Statement Organizational Values Strategic Goals Strengths and Weaknesses

Organization Analysis Clari�cation of Values, Goals, and Operational Environment

Job Analysis Human Resources Planning Process Mapping Staf�ng Needs

Job Performance

Recruitment

Selection

figuRE 6.1

RECRuiTmEnT As PART Of THE HR PLAnning PROCEss

with some additional training. The organization may also recruit outside its normal ter- ritory, emphasizing those geographic regions with high unemployment rates or low eco- nomic growth. The controversial Temporary Foreign Workers program was designed to address labour shortages in certain sectors where it was difficult to find Canadian workers even in times of high unemployment. The restaurant and fast-food industries, farming, and fish plant operators have used the program extensively to meet labour shortages.

In favourable labour markets, the organization may advertise the accounting posi- tion only in one or two professional journals. In a poor market, it may decide to use a variety of media to attract as many qualified applicants as possible. With poor labour

06_Ch06.indd 232 11/10/17 4:32 PM

NEL 233CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

markets, the organization may make the job more attractive by improving salary and benefits, training and educational opportunities, and working conditions. In poor mar- kets, the organization may spend additional resources to overcome the shortage of quali- fied applicants and to increase the attractiveness of the organization and the job. These considerations become even more important when the organization must compete with its rivals for scarce human resources. Recruiting when the labour market is poor is an expensive proposition.

Organizations must be prepared to alter their recruiting strategy to match labour market conditions. Internal demand and external supply of job candidates may vary considerably, causing firms to change their recruiting strategies. As well, job applicants who perceive that they have fewer or more choices are likely to react differently to dif- ferent recruiting strategies.5

PARt-tIme lAbouR mARketS And RecRuItIng In response to today’s global economy, more and more companies are employing low-wage, entry-level workers on a part-time basis. Temporary or contingent jobs have shown tremendous growth over the last decade. Nearly 2 million people go to work each day in North America on a part-time basis. North American retailing giants such as Sears, Walmart, and K-Mart have made part-time work their industry norm.

Recruiting and retaining the best part-time workers present unique problems to companies choosing to go this route. Workers who receive lower pay and benefits are less likely to feel committed to their organization or to go out of their way to get the job done. Many part-time workers are unskilled and poorly educated. Companies such as Whirlpool have responded to the need to recruit part-time workers by restructuring their pay and benefits, as well as by providing training and educational opportunities for them. Others, such as Taco Bell, have attempted to restructure the work environment to meet the needs of their part-time employees.6

Increasingly, temporary work is serving as a training ground for more permanent positions. On the other hand, ever-greater numbers of skilled professionals and retired workers are taking jobs on a part-time or contract basis.7 A recent survey found that over two-thirds of temporary workers reported that they gained new skills while in their tem- porary positions. Organizations that depend on part-time workers will need to develop recruiting methods to attract and retain contingent employees. Indeed, some workers prefer part-time status, and when these employees are placed in part-time positions, they tend to be satisfied and committed to the organization. They also tend to remain longer.

However, placing them into full-time positions leads to less satisfaction and more turnover. The same effects occur when workers who desire full-time jobs are placed into part-time positions: less satisfaction and commitment and higher turnover.8 The con- tingent or part-time status of jobs should be clearly indicated in all recruiting materials.

outSouRcIng Outsourcing is the practice of contracting with an outside agent to take over specified HR functions, specifically, recruitment. Companies that need workers on a temporary or short-term basis often turn to temporary help agencies to provide them with contingent workers. In these cases, the workers are employees of the temporary help firm, not of the organization in which they do their work. The employee is actually “leased” from the outside firm. The individual is employed by the outside agency but assigned to a position with the client organization.

The outside firm assumes all payroll responsibilities (pay and benefits), but charges the client administration and placement costs, usually prorated to salary. If the client

outsourcing Contracting with an outside agent to take over specified HR functions.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL234

chooses to hire the individual for a full-time permanent position, then additional fees are paid to the employment agency. Some Canadian banks now meet part of their staffing needs through these arrangements. Client organizations benefit from increased work force flexibility and savings in administrative costs. They also get to see the worker on the job over a period of time before any decisions to hire directly are made.

Investigations in both Canada and the United States suggest that some temporary help agencies may be willing to accommodate their client organizations’ requests that the agency not send blacks, people with accents, or unattractive women.9,10 Often, the client organizations have the mistaken notion that since they are not the legal employer, they are immune to charges of discrimination and free from any employment equity obligations. However, by allowing temporary workers on their premises and directing their work, the client organization can be subject to discrimination claims, unless it can show that the assignment based on group membership was a bona fide occupational requirement.11

Current information on the state of the Canadian labour market and the availability of different skill sets can be found at http://www.jobbank.gc.ca/home-eng.do?lang=eng. The website provides information for Canada as a whole and each province or territory. It also tracks the availability of specific skills and abilities and jobs that require them.

the legAl envIRonment

Any organizational recruitment program must comply with the legal and regulatory requirements that apply to its operation. Chapter 3 presented some of the landmark cases and legislation that govern employment in Canada. In the United States, employment laws and regulations are assumed to affect both recruitment practices and outcomes.12 It is likely that Canadian employment legislation has similar effects on recruitment in Canadian organizations. The most important considerations are employment equity and pay equity legislation. Any recruitment campaign that intentionally or unintentionally excludes members of groups that are protected under human rights legislation runs the risk of being declared discriminatory, with the organization subject to penalties and fines. The best defence against charges of systemic discrimination is to document that every attempt has been made to attract members from the protected groups.

dIveRSIty RecRuItment In Canada, employment equity legislation seeks to eliminate discrimination in the workplace for women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities.

Organizations may be required, particularly if they wish to do business with the fed- eral government, to demonstrate that they have actively sought to recruit members from these four groups. The federal government’s recent initiatives with respect to Aboriginal people suggest that organizations may have to be more sensitive to recruiting Aboriginal people. Good-faith recruitment efforts mean that the organization must use a variety of communication channels to get its message to members of different groups and to present its recruiting message in a way that interests different audiences. The recruitment effort must make members from these groups feel welcome in the organization, even when they are working there on a temporary basis.

Organizations perceived as hostile to workplace diversity will see the effectiveness of their recruitment efforts significantly compromised, and the quality of their overall applicant pool adversely affected. Diversity advertising focuses on how firms present diversity. To recruit women, Aboriginal people, and visible minorities, organizations

Systemic discrimination In employment, the intentional or unintentional exclusion of members of groups that are protected under human rights legislation through recruiting, selection, or other personnel practices or policies.

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NEL 235CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

must communicate that they value diversity, fairness, and inclusion. Job advertisements depicting diversity and emphasizing equal employment opportunities for visible minori- ties tend to make the organization more attractive to members of minority groups.13

Many Canadian communities have made an effort to recruit women, Aboriginal people and visible minorities for employment as police officers. Most of these efforts have been relatively unsuccessful. For example, black police applicants often perceive a lack of fit between their attitudes and the demands of modern policing that is related to racial prejudice on the part of serving police officers and the community.14 To help over- come these types of barriers, women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities should participate as front-line recruiters to help send a clear message that equal employment opportunities and a welcoming environment will be provided.15 Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.1 presents elements of a plan, based on research, to recruit members to increase diversity.16

Organizations must think very carefully about the messages they convey to job applicants when they seek to increase workplace diversity. While members of minority groups react favourably to efforts to recruit them, white males tend to react negatively.17 They may see these efforts as a form of “reverse discrimination,” and bias against white males. Section 15(2) of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms does allow preferential hiring to ameliorate disadvantages to groups or individuals because of past injustices. All job candidates, however, react negatively to questions about their age, marital status,

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 6.1

ELEMENTS OF A PLAN FOR RECRuITING MEMBERS TO INCREASE DIVERSITy

Targeting minority/diversity groups

• Recruit in a wide variety of places that may be fre- quented by members of targeted groups, including community boards, immigrant service agencies, employment service centres, cultural community groups, local community centres, local ethnic and community newsletters or newspapers, associa- tions and organizations that serve ethnic commu- nities and language schools.

• use referrals from current diversity employees to identify possible applicants.

• Do not rely solely on traditional recruitment sources.

• Explore the use of social media, particularly those venues that may be heavily used by minority group members.

• Ensure that initial recruitment activities (e.g., web- site, brochures) are attractive to minority/diverse candidates and present a positive image related to the organization’s commitment to diversity.

build Relationships

• Maintain contact with cultural groups and organi- zations that work with diverse communities.

• Raise the organization’s profile as one that is con- cerned about diversity. This should be a constant effort and not just when recruiting.

• Recruiters who have contact with applicants and minority/diversity groups should have excellent interpersonal skills.

Promote the Organization as a desirable Place to work

• Individuals may not be considering working for the organization. Increase the company’s visibility as an employer by attending job fairs and networking events in the community and address mispercep- tions about working for the company.

• Provide applicants with a realistic, clear, specific, and complete information about the work they will be doing.

06_Ch06.indd 235 11/10/17 4:32 PM

NEL236 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

gender, or ethnicity,18 which we noted in Chapter 3 as violating various human rights legislation. Efforts to recruit minorities may lead to reduced self-esteem on the part of the minority hires and reduced perceptions of their competence (i.e., perceptions that they were hired because they were from a minority group and not because of their fit to the job and organization). White males often see a process that emphasizes group membership as a factor in hiring as unfair where unqualified people are hired in place of those more qualified. These negative issues, for members of both minority and majority groups, seem to decrease when merit is central to the decision-making process.19 When organizations seek to recruit members from minority groups, they should emphasize that hiring decisions are merit based.

The sources used to recruit minorities may also be very important to the success of attracting them to apply for jobs with an organization. Ryan, Horvath, and Kriska20 dem- onstrated that the informativeness of the source was related to whether individuals who were interested chose to apply for a firefighter’s job. Applicants who received more and better information about a job were more likely to apply for the job and saw themselves as a good fit with the job and organization. Often minorities do not choose to apply for positions as they see themselves as a poor fit with the organization, no matter how well qualified they are. One strategy to improve diversity would be to ensure the use of highly informative recruitment sources when recruiting minorities.

InteRnAl FActoRS

While it is clear that different organizations take different approaches to recruiting new employees, very little is known about how organizational characteristics produce dif- ferences in recruiting practices, processes, or outcomes. Partly, this is the result of most research focusing on job seekers rather than on the employing organizations.21 Many possible organizational characteristics could influence a job seeker’s perception of the organization during the job search phase (e.g., the type of industry, size of the organiza- tion, profitability, growth, and financial trends). These characteristics may influence both the number and the quality of applicants who apply for a position with the organization. They may also influence how the organization recruits candidates and how competitive the organization is in making offers to the best applicants.22

buSIneSS StRAtegy

A company’s business strategy or plan has a major impact on its recruitment strategy. To be effective, the recruitment strategy must be linked to the business plan. A com- pany’s business plan is its action plan for managing the company. The business plan or strategy includes a statement of its mission and philosophy, recognition of its strengths and weaknesses, and a statement of its strategic goals and objectives for competing in its economic environment. A business plan addresses those aspects of the external environ- ment that affect how the company does business and influences the company’s recruiting process. For example, Company A wants to be a market leader on price and carefully controls labour costs. Company A’s recruiting is primarily at the entry job level for mostly unskilled workers. Company A’s recruitment is likely to be by word of mouth or by applicants applying on-site, thus saving the costs of more expensive recruiting sources. Company B wants to be a leader in producing unique, quality consumer products. It needs employees who are innovative and creative. Company B’s recruitment efforts would be directed at identifying people with the skills and abilities it needs to produce its

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NEL 237CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

products. It is likely to recruit through the Internet and through specialized, professional magazines. A company’s business plan also influences the degree to which it fills vacan- cies with internal or external applicants.23 Rarely do organizations like Company A fill entry-level positions with internal candidates; vacant higher-level positions in Company A are mostly filled through internal promotions. It is quite common for organizations like Company B to bring someone in from the outside to fill a vacant position at both lower and higher organizational levels.

There may also be factors other than a business plan that influence how companies fill vacant positions. Some companies may insist, as a matter of organizational policy, that internal candidates be given preference as a means of motivating employees and ensuring that the successful candidate knows and shares the organization’s philosophy, values, goals, and attitude toward achieving a return on investment in both human capital and material resources. As we discussed in Chapter 1, collective agreements that apply to a workplace may require that internal applicants be given first consideration for positions for which they are qualified. Other organizations may have policies that insist external can- didates be given preference for jobs in order to expose the company to new ideas and to new ways of doing business. Still other organizations may insist that the best candidate be given the job offer, regardless of whether that person is an internal or an external applicant.

Job level And tyPe

As we saw with Company A and Company B, both the type of occupation and the nature of the industry in which it is involved may influence an organization’s recruiting strategy.24 In some industries or occupations, people are recruited in a particular way not so much because that method is very effective, but because it is the norm. It is how recruiting is done for that type of work, and how it is expected to be done. For certain executive-level positions, vacancies are never advertised but are instead given to a con- sulting company to carry out an executive search. Such “headhunting” firms generally have a list of potential executive candidates that they have developed over time through contacts in many different organizations; as well, many constantly troll LinkedIn looking for likely candidates. The search firm knows the organization and works to find a match with one of its candidates. We will have more to say about search firms later in this chapter. Rarely, if ever, are such firms used to recruit production or service workers; vacan- cies for those types of positions are filled by candidates who respond to local newspaper advertisements or job postings with Government of Canada (http://www.jobbank.gc.ca) or who are referred by other employees, as was the case with the 50 000 applicants for the production jobs at Toyota Canada.25

oRgAnIzAtIon AnAlySIS

Organization analysis is an important step in the recruitment and selection process. When designing and implementing recruitment and selection programs to fill jobs within their organization, human resources specialists must be aware of the mission, goals, and business strategy of the organization. Although there are many ways to conduct an organization analysis, most methods share the common goals of describing and under- standing the design and structure, functions and processes, and strategies and missions of organizations. An organization analysis highlights areas of strength and weakness useful to human resources planning. For example, recruitment efforts might be directed to addressing perceived weaknesses in skills.

organization analysis An important step in the recruitment and selection process in which human resources specialists consider the design and structure, functions and processes, and strategies and missions of organizations to highlight areas of strength and weakness useful to human resources planning.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL238

Recruitment and selection must be linked to the strategic goals of the organization. When the guiding principles of an organization are laid out as goals, and the environment in which the organization operates is defined, recruitment and selection processes can most effectively contribute to the overall success of the organization. Different organi- zational goals lead to different recruitment strategies. Similarly, an organization’s philos- ophy and values influence whether it actively seeks to recruit women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities, or whether its approach to employment equity is one of minimal compliance. Organization analysis helps to clarify these issues. In developing recruiting strategies, one must decide whether to concentrate recruiting efforts on internal or external candidates. Organization analysis reveals the likelihood of finding suitable internal candidates, and the extent to which qualified internal candi- dates can fill the job openings, by providing an inventory of skills and abilities that exist within the company as well as indicating the potential for advancement among current employees. In conjunction with job analysis, this information gives a good indication of the likelihood of finding the right internal people for the job and the need for external recruiting. Unfortunately, relatively few companies inventory their employees’ skills and abilities; such inventories are expensive to develop and to maintain.

Job AnAlySIS

Before you can recruit employees, you must have an idea of the KSAOs or competen- cies that they should have now or after training. To what extent do these KSAOs or competencies exist among our current workers? Map these KSAOs or competencies of current employees onto the KSAOs or competencies needed to implement the strategic business plan. Are there any gaps in the attributes your current employees have and those needed to meet your strategic goals? Recruitment should seek to narrow any gaps that result from this assessment.

One of the most important pieces of information that both a recruiter and job candidates rely on throughout the recruiting process is a description of the job and worker requirements. The recruiter needs to know what type of applicant to seek out and applicants need to have a clear idea of the duties and tasks that they will perform on the job and the resources that they will need to bring to the job. It is very difficult to recruit job applicants without knowing the essential characteristics of the position or the worker requirements. Job descriptions that are up to date and based on a job analysis lead to accu- rate expectations on the part of the job candidate. Both applicants and recruiters should have a clear idea of the qualifications needed by people in the position. Often recruiters are told to seek the “best person” for the job, instead of being told to find the “best- qualified person” for the job. Recruitment and Selection Today 4.1 in Chapter 4 presented a job description for a Licensed Practical Nurse. This description, used in recruiting, is sufficiently detailed to provide both the job candidate and the recruiter with a clear idea of what the position entails and how it fits into the organization. It also suggests the type of person who will best fit with the values and culture of the hiring organization.

humAn ReSouRceS PlAnnIng

Human resources planning is the process of anticipating and providing for the move- ment of employees into, within, and out of an organization.26 It is an effort to forecast the net requirement for personnel by determining the demand for and supply of human

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NEL 239CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

resources now and in the future. This planning process integrates the results from both the organizational analysis and job analysis, as seen in Figure 6.1, resulting in a fore- cast of the number and type of employees required to meet the business plan’s objec- tives. Through organization and job analyses, the planning process identifies the human resources needed to carry out the business plan, both those resources that exist within the organization and those that must be secured through a recruiting program.

HR planning must also evaluate the potential supply of job applicants with the desired attributes. You need to consider the demographics of the work force that is avail- able, including likely educational attainment, mobility, and unemployment rates. As well, consideration must be given to any relevant laws such as equity that will have an impact on recruitment. The final step in the planning process is to determine how to balance your demand for employees with the supply of people with the attributes you are seeking. This final evaluation should determine the type of people you are recruiting, the number you want to hire, if there is an adequate supply, and whether you will hire full- or part-time employees. Human resources planning develops an action plan based on this analysis.

RecRuItment ActIon PlAn

Recruitment is the end product of human resource planning. In Chapter 1 we presented a fairly detailed overview of the elements involved in recruitment and selection; you may want to review that example now. HR planning should have developed a number of questions that resulted from the integration of the job and organizational analyses. Answers to these questions form an action plan that is in accordance with the organiza- tion’s business strategy. These questions include the following but may expand to include others specific to an organization. These questions are just a guide.

• Based on your business plan, how many positions will we need to staff? How many will be full time versus part time?

• Based on your business plan, what are the levels and types of positions you are seeking to fill?

• Based on your job analysis, what is the job description for the positions to be filled?

• Based on your job analysis, what qualifications (knowledge, skills, abilities, expe- rience, and competencies) must job candidates possess to do the job successfully?

• Based on your organization analysis, what percentage of the positions can, or should, be staffed with internal candidates?

• Based on your analysis of the labour market, is there an available supply of qualified external candidates?

• Based on the labour market, how extensively will we have to search for qualified applicants? Will we have to search beyond our normal geographic boundaries? Will we have to take special measures to locate our target applicant population?

• What sources or methods should we use to reach the potential applicants?

• Based on your policies and philosophy and legal considerations, what are the employment equity and diversity goals?

• What is your recruiting budget?

• Who will do the recruiting?

• Based on the business plan, organization analysis, and job analysis, is it feasible to recruit at this time?

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL240

tImIng oF RecRuItment InItIAtIveS

In many organizations, recruiting occurs in response to need. An employee leaves for one reason or another and, if the position is retained, must be replaced through either internal or external hiring. In cases like this, there is little organizational control over timing. Delays in hiring may lead to delays in production, with unrealistic demands placed on the remaining employees. The recruitment goal is to hire someone qualified to do the work as soon as possible, even if hiring at a later date may have led to finding someone who was better qualified for the position. In other organizations, where there is a systematic turnover of employees, recruiting may follow a well-defined pattern.

This pattern occurs most often in large organizations, which recruit heavily from among college and university graduates.27 The availability of such graduates in the spring of each year often determines when organizations implement their recruiting strategy; it influences when they send information to campus employment centres, place advertise- ments in campus newspapers, visit the schools, meet with the potential applicants, extend invitations to visit the organization, and make their job offers. If an organization is late in recruiting, top candidates may have already accepted offers from the competition. To remain competitive, the organization must synchronize its recruiting to when the best candidates are likely to be available. This means that the HR team must have a good working knowledge of the labour market and an effective recruitment and staffing plan (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.2).

In competing for qualified candidates, particularly when supply is weak, organi- zations are starting to incorporate in their recruiting strategies knowledge of how job

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 6.2

ELEMENTS OF A RECRuITMENT AND STAFFING ACTION PLAN

1. Develop Recruitment Strategy

• Establish selection committee.

• Review organization’s goals and objectives.

• Establish budget for the recruitment process.

• Establish timelines for recruitment and selection activities.

• Review job description for position.

• Develop selection criteria.

• Develop profile of “ideal” applicant.

• Develop job advertisement/recruiting materials.

2. Develop the Applicant Pool

• Review state of the labour market.

• Consider employment equity issues.

• Determine if recruitment will be internal or external.

• Identify target applicant pool.

• Identify recruitment methods to be used.

• Place ad/recruiting materials in agreed-on media.

3. Screen the Applicant Pool

• Determine whether applicant pool is large enough; if not, renew recruitment efforts.

• Screen job candidates’ application forms and résumés.

• Conduct short screening interviews.

• Select “long list” of candidates for further review.

4. Conduct Review of Job Applicants

• Selection committee develops shortlist of candidates.

• Arrange visits of short-listed candidates to company.

• Conduct realistic job preview for candidates.

• Conduct employment tests.

• Conduct selection interview.

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NEL 241CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

candidates evaluate jobs and make choices. There is evidence to suggest that job seekers prefer early job offers as a way of reducing anxiety and uncertainty about other offers; there is also evidence to suggest that more-qualified candidates generate offers earlier and more easily than less-qualified candidates.28 If this is so, then organizations may have to begin recruiting as early as possible if they want to hire the most-qualified candidates. Instead of waiting until the spring to recruit college and university graduates, an orga- nization may begin the process earlier in order to make job offers before the end of the fall semester.

Some organizations are also beginning to pursue college and university students before they enter the job market. Companies often use summer job placements, intern- ships, or cooperative education as early-recruitment programs.29 These strategies are designed to have candidates accept an early job offer that meets their minimum standards rather than waiting to make a choice between competing offers.

The timing of events within a recruiting program is important. The recruiting pro- cess can extend over a considerable period of time, with several candidates evaluated for each vacancy. Job candidates do not stop their job search activities while waiting for a decision. An organization that does not provide candidates with timely feedback about their progress through the recruitment and selection process may risk losing top candidates. Job seekers may take lack of contact as a lack of interest and accept an early offer from a less-preferred company. Job candidates may not stop their job search activities even after accepting an early offer from an organization. They may continue to receive interest from other companies that were late off the mark in recruiting and, if they receive an attractive offer, they may change their minds about accepting the first offer. Maintaining contact with the candidate after an offer is accepted helps to forestall such reversals. Organizations must maintain contact with high-quality, viable candidates during all phases of the recruiting process until a job offer is tendered and accepted.30

locAtIng And tARgetIng the APPlIcAnt Pool

In an ideal world, an organization could search as broadly as possible until it found the most suitable applicant. However, extensive recruiting is an expensive proposition that few organizations can afford. It is also questionable whether the benefits of extensive recruiting surpass its associated costs. A more effective plan is to target recruiting efforts on a specific pool of job applicants who have the appropriate knowledge, skills, abilities, competencies, and other talents needed to perform the job. This applicant pool may be concentrated in one geographic area or spread widely throughout the country. The HR team must know where to find the appropriate applicant pool.

• Identify leading candidate(s) for position.

• Complete reference and background checks on leading candidates.

• Make hiring recommendation.

• Contingent on offer of employment, arrange for any required medical or physical examinations.

5. Evaluate the Recruiting Effort

• Review the recruiting process: What went right? What went wrong?

• Review the outcome of the recruiting process.

• Review the performance of people who were hired.

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If a company wants to hire electronics technicians, it makes more sense to concen- trate on recruiting graduates from electronics training programs or from areas where there is a concentration of electronics technicians rather than search broadly throughout the country. The HR team must know which colleges or institutes offer training in electronics, and must know where electronics industries are concentrated. If a company were recruiting experienced miners, it would be more appropriate to target Cape Breton as a source for this applicant pool rather than Metropolitan Toronto. On the other hand, recruiting upper-level executives might require a nationwide search to find the best candidate.

Targeting a specific applicant pool allows the organization to tailor its message to that group, to understand where that applicant pool is likely to be located, and to attract applications from that pool. In limiting its recruiting to a target applicant pool, however, an organization must be careful not to systematically exclude members of protected groups. In fact, organizations may target members of minority groups to increase orga- nizational diversity and to comply with legal mandates.31

AttRActIng the tARget APPlIcAnt Pool’S AttentIon

Simply posting a job ad may not be sufficient to attract the right people for the job. The job advertisement may be key to getting the position noticed by the target audience and unlocking a flow of applicants. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.3 offers some tips on producing job advertisements that will attract the target applicant pool.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 6.3

NINE SIMPLE STEPS TO WRITING A COMPELLING JOB ADVERTISEMENT

Writing a job ad is just like writing any advertisement. you need to know your target audience, address them in the language they understand and offer them what they want.

What are the key steps to writing a compelling job ad? Here are some ways to sharpen the focus of your ad, to the point where it draws in only the most qualified candidates:

1. be specific About the Role

This will allow candidates to compare what is required with their own skills and experience and discourage those not qualified from applying. The job title (headline) has to be very clear and should in no way deceive or mislead the reader.

you should also try to incorporate three bullet points containing the “punchiest” (eye-catching) benefits or incentives associated with the job. Salary (if it’s within or above market rate) is always a good one. Similarly, whether there is on-site parking available, the ability to work from

home, or proximity to public transport will also grab the reader’s attention. you might even include something along the lines of “modern office; stunning harbour views; team lunch provided every Friday.”

Provide a salary range. If it’s not in their ball park, they won’t waste their time and yours by applying.

2. distinguish “must Haves” from “nice-to-Haves”

you also need to clearly articulate whether there are any essential qualifications, desirable skills, or any other “nice to haves” in terms of previous experience required in the role.

3. don’t Exaggerate

When a job sounds too good to be true, it generally is and will attract only applicants who are gullible, unrealistic, and nonperformers. If you are looking to fill an Office Assistant

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NEL 243CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

or Accounts Clerk role, you probably shouldn’t have the heading “Job of a Lifetime.” Sometimes it’s best just to keep it simple. “Office Manager—3 days/week. Ideal for a working Mum.”

4. Offer Challenges, not Rewards

This is more likely to attract someone with drive and ambition, rather than someone just looking for an easy ride.

5. Tell Them About your Company

Next you need to describe the company—but not in too much detail. you don’t want the reader to get excited about the company and then not have any connection to the actual role. Remember it’s a job ad. Above all you want someone who wants to do the job in question. The fact that it’s for your company is an added bonus.

The information you include in the actual description of the job and the profile of the ideal candidate should come very easily to you—assuming you have written a proper job description and prepared a performance pro- file for the role. Select the key skills, core competencies, and most relevant performance or success measures and include them. This is where you will eliminate those appli- cants who are not actually suitable for the role.

6. Provide a Phone number for Enquiries

This can help you eliminate unsuitable candidates early in the process. Trust me … you can learn a lot from a prospective candidate over the phone.

7. Ask for a Cover Letter

This can provide useful clues as to character, education level, and communication style and allow you to filter out unsuitable candidates prior to interview.

When I was a hands-on recruiter, I would always ask for a cover letter as part of the application process. If a can- didate submitted just their résumé without a cover letter, I immediately rejected them. Call me harsh—but it revealed a lot about their ability to follow a very simple instruction.

8. Talk to the Reader

When you are writing your advertisement, avoid phrases like “the successful candidate” or “the ideal applicant” since this will make even the most suitable candidate question whether they’re right for the role. Rather say something along the lines of, “In this exciting role you will be working with …” or “Coming from a strong sales back- ground, you will be expected to….”

9. nail the short description

And finally, when it comes to online job ads in particular, you should be aware that on average four times as many people read the short description than actually click through to the ad itself. So put some effort into what you write … even if you only have 140 characters in which to say it. After all you don’t just want people reading the snapshot. you actually want people to read your entire advertisement … and of course you then want the best candidates to press “Apply Now.”

Adapted from a blog by Paul Slezak. Paul is a cofounder of RecruitLoop, a hands-on recruiter, manager, trainer, coach, mentor, and regular speaker for the recruitment industry for 20 years.

Source: Paul Slezak, http://recruitloop.com/blog/how-to-write-an-effective-job-advertisement/

// PARt II: RecRuItment SouRceS Once the target applicant pool has been identified and located and the advertisement crafted, the HR team must choose the most appropriate recruitment methods or sources for reaching all potential job applicants, including members of protected groups. The following sections describe some of the more popular recruiting methods that have been used to contact members of different applicant pools. We review first more traditional recruiting sources followed by Internet and social networking recruiting.

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tRAdItIonAl RecRuItment SouRceS

InteRnAl cAndIdAteS

Internal candidates provide the organization with a known source of labour. Many of the activities carried out as part of HR planning provide the organization with informa- tion about the best-qualified internal applicants. Internal applicants are likely to have more realistic expectations about the job or the organization and to have more job satisfaction and organizational commitment, but there is a risk that recruiting through internal sources may lead to a work force that is less diversified with respect to minority applicants. We briefly review some common sources used to attract internal applicants.

InteRnAl Job PoStIngS

Internal job postings can be notices posted on bulletin boards, ads placed in company newsletters, announcements made at staff meetings, or notices circulated through depart- ments. The intent of the posting is to make internal employees aware of the vacancy and to allow them an opportunity to apply for the position. As a matter of policy, some organi- zations seek to fill positions through internal sources before going to the external market. Other organizations may have agreed, through a collective agreement with employees, to give first consideration to internal candidates for any vacant position that falls under the collective agreement. In these cases, the jobs are posted for a period of time in speci- fied locations. Internal postings generally provide information on the job, its require- ments, and the compensation associated with the position. Internal job postings make the vacancy known to all employees, which is an important consideration when implementing employment equity programs throughout different levels of the organization.

There are, however, disadvantages to internal job postings. Internal postings lengthen the time needed to fill the position, as external searches generally do not begin until after all internal candidates are first evaluated. Internal candidates who are unsuccessful may become less motivated, or may initiate a job search outside the organization. Placing an internal candidate in a vacant position sets off a sequence of events that brings with it a degree of instability and change: The position the employee leaves must itself be posted and filled. The effects of filling the first position with an internal candidate reverberate through several layers of the organization before the process comes to an end.

SucceSSIon PlAnS/RePlAcement chARtS

Organizations expect that vacancies will occur through death, illness, retirement, resigna- tion, or termination and, as part of the HR planning function, develop a succession plan for filling vacancies with existing employees. Organizations have a good idea of the talent in other positions that can step in to fill a vacancy, either on a short- or long-term basis. Succession/replacement charts, like organizational charts, list each job with respect to its position in the organizational structure, particularly its relationship to positions above and below it. The replacement chart lists the incumbent for the position and the likely internal replacements for the incumbent. The chart includes information on the present job performance of each potential successor (e.g., “excellent performer”), an assessment of the successor’s potential and readiness to step into the position (e.g., “needs more experience in present position”), and a rank-ordering of each as the incumbent’s replace- ment. Sometimes a chart will also include a photo of the individual holding the position.

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We caution against this as the use of a photo may lead to a discrimination charge by an employee who is lower ranked on the chart. Figure 6.2 presents an example of a succes- sion plan for a Chief Financial Officer.

Replacement charts provide a quick, visual presentation of an organization’s human resources, but they give little information beyond that of a candidate’s performance and promotability. These charts are limited by the constraints imposed by the organiza- tional chart. Employees are evaluated for positions one level above theirs in the chain of command. They are not evaluated for positions that are horizontal or lateral to theirs, although in contemporary organizations, employees are expected to have skills and com- petencies that are transferable to jobs that are related to their position.

humAn ReSouRceS InFoRmAtIon SyStemS (hRIS)

As we discussed previously, human resources planning often involves the creation of a comprehensive computerized database that contains the job analysis information on each position, including information on the required KSAOs. This computerized inventory

Mary Smith Chief Financial Of�cer

Adam Smith Finance Analyst

Samir Ali Director,

Corporate Accounting

Anne Simard Director, Internal Audits

Jane Grey Stoke Controller

Performance 3 Potential Rating 4 Tenure 7.1 SUCCESSION PLAN 1. Anne Simard 2. Samir Ali 3. Jane Grey Stoke

Performance 2 Potential Rating 3 Tenure 3

Performance 3 Potential Rating 4 Tenure 2

Performance 2 Potential Rating 3 Tenure 1.4

Performance 3 Tenure 7

figuRE 6.2

ExAmPLE Of A suCCEssiOn/REPLACEmEnT PLAn fOR A CHiEf finAnCiAL OffiCER

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also contains information on employee competencies and KSAOs, along with employee work histories, experiences, and results of performance evaluations. Internal candidates for a vacant position may be found through a HRIS match of the person’s characteristics with those required by the job. The match does not give any indication of employee interest in the position or motivation to take on the new job. It is simply a first cut of employees who qualify for the position. This database is often used to create a succession plan for each position.

nomInAtIonS

Nominations are the least systematic internal recruitment method. They occur when someone who knows about a vacancy nominates another employee to fill it. In most cases, supervisors nominate one or more of their employees for a vacant position. Presum- ably, the supervisor nominates those employees whose KSAOs or competencies match those needed by the job. However, this process often results in very good employees not being nominated for a position. Supervisors or managers may use the nominating process to rid themselves of a problem employee or someone with whom they have poor interpersonal relations.

Nominations also leave the organization open to charges of discriminatory promo- tion practices. For example, in replacing a manager, the other senior managers who are male may fail to nominate any women for the position. The women employees who were passed over may ask whether the failure to nominate women was due to a lack of qualified female employees or to male bias against female managers.

exteRnAl cAndIdAteS

The sources organizations use to attract external applicants have to be more creative and varied than those for internal candidates. The following section reviews some of the more common means used to reach external candidates.

Job AdveRtISementS

Organizations spend a considerable part of their recruiting budgets on advertising vacant positions, and the “help-wanted” ad in the past was one of the most commonly used methods of recruiting job candidates.32 Help-wanted ads come in various forms and use different media. The advertisements identify the employer and may include basic information on the job and compensation, the job requirements, and how to apply (including closing dates for applications). The ad may also contain information on the organization’s employment equity program. The ad should not include any statements that could lead to charges of discrimination (e.g., “The ideal applicant will be between 25 and 30 years old”), unless those statements can be supported as bona fide occupational requirements. Advertisements that follow the nine steps presented in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.3 are likely to be effective.

Organizations also use job advertisements to enhance their image with potential can- didates. Image concerns may dictate the size of the advertisement, where it is placed, and the content of the ad as much as the information needed to attract qualified candidates.

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Job advertisement campaigns should also be designed with the target applicant pool in mind:

• Who are we trying to reach? Who is in our target applicant pool?

• How large is the target applicant pool and what portion of it do we need to reach to obtain a reasonable number of applicants?

• How many applicants do we need to fill the position with qualified people?

• What type of ad content will attract the target applicant pool’s attention?

• What advertising media are likely to reach the target applicant pool?

The answers to most of these questions are complex and depend on consideration of many factors, including the nature of the organization, the job, and the target applicant pool. One of the most important decisions is choosing the media for the advertising campaign.

Newspapers offer a quick and flexible means of contacting potential applicants. Newspapers need only a short lead time before an ad is published. The ad can be placed in the classified ads section listing employment opportunities or prominently displayed in another section of the paper. Often managerial and professional positions are adver- tised in a newspaper’s business section. Newspaper ads attract the interest of people who are actively searching for a job and who happen to see the advertisement before it disappears. There is some evidence that newspaper ads are not a very effective means of attracting very qualified applicants,33 particularly scientific and technical personnel.34 Newspaper ads tend to be less effective in attracting candidates than other recruiting methods.35

Professional periodicals and trade journals allow the organization to reach very special- ized groups of applicants. Many professional and trade associations publish newsletters or magazines that are distributed to each member. These publications carry job adver- tisements. The association, and the distribution of its publication, may be international, national, or regional. Publications of this type are the best means of reaching people with specific skills or qualifications. Ads in these types of publications often require a long lead time before the ad appears. For example, an advertisement appearing in the March issue of a journal may have an early January deadline for ad copy. With the growth of the Internet, many professional and trade associations have reduced the publication lag by posting job ads in their online publications as the ads are received; the ads are also published in the print edition later.

Radio and television job advertising, in comparison to print media, has not been used extensively, although these media offer the potential to reach large numbers of the target applicant pool. Radio and television advertising directors have detailed demographic information on the audience for specific shows and can place the advertisement during shows likely to be watched or listened to by the target applicant pool. Nonetheless, organizations appear reluctant to use these methods for job advertisements and limit their use to image advertising. The cost of radio and television advertising, particularly on a national scale, may be quite high even for a 15- or 30-second commercial. The short duration of most commercials prevents the inclusion of essential job information. Many organizations now place ads on the Internet, including YouTube, with the expectation that they will reach a wider audience at little cost. In fact, some organizations rely solely on the Internet rather than running ads on broadcast outlets.

Public displays attempt to bring job vacancies to the attention of the target applicant pool through the use of advertisements that range from help-wanted notices to display

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ads placed in buses, trains, and subway stations. Service and retail employers rely on help-wanted signs posted in their windows or near service counters to attract job applicants. Most positions advertised through these types of notices are at the entry level and do not require extensive skills or abilities on the part of the applicant. These ads are directed at recruiting employees from among the employer’s normal range of customers. Display ads in public transportation stations and vehicles attempt to reach a broader population than service and retail help-wanted ads, but they are also directed at attracting people for low- skill or limited-ability entry-level positions. Public display ads tend to be low in cost relative to the number of people that they reach.

Direct mail advertising attempts to bring the organization’s recruiting message directly to members of the target applicant pool. The potential employer sends each person on the mailing list recruiting information about the organization and the job, reaching both those who are actively seeking jobs and those who may become interested through reading the materials. The keys to this type of advertising are the acquisition or development of a mailing list consisting of names and addresses of the target applicant population, the attractiveness of the recruiting materials, and the ease with which follow-up con- tacts can take place. Often, mailing lists can be obtained from various professional associations. The costs of direct mailings are high with the Internet offering a better way to reach an audience. Direct mail is rarely used to fill a specific job vacancy; rather it is used to draw attention to openings in an organization.

Open houses involve inviting potential job applicants from the local community to visit the company facilities to view demonstrations or videos about the company and its products, and to meet the organization’s employees informally over refreshments. The invitations are advertised through local print and electronic media, and company websites. Sometimes, the organization may choose to hold the affair offsite at a trade centre or hotel because of security or other concerns. Open houses work best when an organization has several jobs to fill and when there are tight labour markets.

Job fairs involve several organizations seeking to hire from the same target applicant pool having arranged to recruit in conjunction with an ongoing event. For example, a trade or professional association may invite employers to hold a job fair as part of its annual convention. The employers, who pay a fee to participate, have access to all of the convention delegates, both those who are actively seeking jobs and those who may become interested through meeting an organization’s representative. The convention delegates represent the ideal target applicant pool. The job seekers make contact with organizations, while the employers meet many prospective employees in a short period of time at a relatively low cost. The disadvantage is information overload, where the candidate is bombarded with too much information from too many organizations.

Employee referral is word-of-mouth advertising that relies on current employees telling their friends and relatives about job vacancies in their company. This is a low or no-cost method of advertising. It assumes that the employees know other people with skills and abilities similar to their own, that the employees refer people with good work habits and attitudes similar to their own, and that current employees are the best representatives of the organization. In some companies, employees are paid a bonus for each successful referral.

A recruitment ad for A&W Canada.

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NEL 249CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

The referred candidate is likely to have been given an accurate representation of the job and organization by the friend or relative.36,37 There is some evidence that employees recruited by referral remain with the organization longer than employees recruited through other means and have more positive organizational outcomes.38,39 The greatest concern with using referrals as a recruiting method is the probability that it may produce charges of discriminatory hiring practices. In referring friends and relatives, employees are likely to refer individuals from their own ethnic, racial, or gender groups; this could work against meeting employment equity goals. However, as discussed in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.1, referrals from women, Aboriginal people, and visible minorities may be a means of increasing the diversity within an organization. Referrals, however, are a very popular means of attracting job applicants.40,41

Networking is a cross between a recruiting method (such as referrals and nomina- tions) and a job search technique. For professionals, networking is deemed to be vital to career advancement and is promoted by career transition experts as the best way for a professional to find a job. Job seekers are encouraged to join industry groups and profes- sional organizations, join study groups, read journals, and attend conferences. Recruiters, searching for talent, may also join these groups. Networking also involves joining college or university alumni associations; keeping in touch with family, friends, professors, advi- sors, coaches, and tutors; and joining social clubs or volunteer groups. It also includes activities such as meeting an old friend for coffee to obtain information on career oppor- tunities or asking a friend’s father to put in a good word for you at his company.

Networking contacts can keep the job seeker informed about what life is like in a company from the perspective of an insider. At the same time, the networking contact is aware that the job seeker is looking for employment or for a new position and can forward that information to appropriate people in the company. Monster.ca (http://career-advice. monster.ca/Job-Hunt-Strategy/Professional-Networking/jobs.aspx), an Internet recruiting source, is an established website that provides advice on networking. In Recruitment and Selection Today 6.1 two recruiters discuss the importance of networking referrals in the context of social media.

WAlk-InS

In the external sources described above, the organization makes every attempt to contact members of the target applicant pool; the potential employer initiates the recruiting activity. For walk-ins the job seeker initiates the activity by visiting an organization’s personnel office and requesting to fill out an application for employment, even though the company may not have any job vacancies. The write-in method is a variation of this approach; rather than visiting the company, job seekers send their résumés to the HR office of the company. The company usually holds the applications and résumés for a period of time (e.g., three months), in case vacancies do occur. Walk-in and write-in methods are inexpensive ways to fill entry-level positions, although they are less effective than referrals.42

emPloyment AgencIeS

Employment agencies are independent organizations that attempt to find a match between a person and a job. Their success depends on the willingness of both the job seeker and the organization to use their services. We will look at the major types of

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employment agencies: Service Canada’s Job Bank, private employment agencies, execu- tive search firms, in-house recruiters, and temporary help agencies.

Service Canada Centres throughout the country provide no-charge access to the online Job Bank for both job seekers and employers. As soon as employers post a job vacancy, the position is listed in the Job Bank at http://www.jobbank.gc.ca. Available jobs across the country are listed by province to facilitate the job search for workers who want to remain in their home provinces or who want to relocate. The job seeker selects a job cat- egory, and all of the available jobs in that category are displayed, along with the salary (if specified) and location of each job. Clicking on one of the job titles produces a detailed description of the job, including a list of the skills, education, and credentials required. The manner in which a job application is to be made is specified (e.g., in person, or by mail, email, fax, or website).

The Job Bank site also offers information about effective job search strategies and even a “Job Seeker” feature (http://seekers.jobbank.gc.ca/commun-common/connection- login.aspx), for which applicants have to register to gain access. The effectiveness of the Job Bank is somewhat mixed; most of the job placements are in sales, clerical, and service industries, with very few in managerial and professional occupations.

Private employment agencies bring together job seekers and hiring organizations. These agencies charge a fee for their services. Most provinces regulate employment agency fees and prohibit the agency from charging job seekers for placing them with employers. The agency fees are paid by the employing organization, usually in the form of a com- mission tied to a percentage of the job candidate’s starting salary. Employment agen- cies may use any of the recruiting methods we’ve discussed, but they tend to rely on walk-ins, newspaper advertising, and lists of potential job seekers compiled over time. Employment agencies tend to have a fair degree of success in finding both skilled and managerial workers.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.1

IS THE RéSuMé DEAD?

The way businesses select and hire potential employees has been evolving for decades—especially with the intro- duction of social media. But is this the way of the future? Is the current format by which we recruit and hire a thing of the past?

To further delve into this topic, The Globe and Mail asked two experts in the field to offer their predictions: Karen Scott, vice-president of human resources at Acosta Mosaic Group, a Jacksonville, Fla.-based marketing com- pany, and Lisa Kramer, director of campus recruiting at Royal Bank of Canada.

How has social media affected the recruitment process for your companies?

Karen scott: Social media has had a great impact for our organization because it took a lot of the things that we

were already doing and gave us better, faster opportunities to communicate. The things we’ve been able to do with things like our Facebook page around what it’s like to work at Mosaic, giving job seekers tips, and further connecting to what I call a “warm-candidate” population. It was just a whole lot easier to do on Facebook than it was on our tra- ditional website. We use the term “extended experience”; we’ve been able to take all of the things that we did offline and put a lot of them online, which has been great. We use three of the main, traditional social media elements of Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn.

Lisa Kramer: For us at RBC, I would have to 100-percent agree that social media has definitely impacted our recruit- ment process, more from an education piece. It allows us to start the conversation with candidates much earlier in the recruiting process than we would have before. We’re able

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to educate them on the different opportunities we have with different platforms across the bank. In some cases it allows candidates to direct themselves to the appropriate area or career path within the bank that matches their skill set. In the past, without social media, [students] were waiting until we came to campus to get that information. [Social media] allows us to answer those questions and then brand and promote the opportunities that we have to the right subset of students.

How important are referral programs going to become in the next five to six years?

Ks: Referral programs in networking, and sharing refer- rals, have been a part of how people have gotten jobs for the last 200 years. In the next five, I think referral programs and the concept of referring people for jobs has just heightened with the ability to do it in a very easy way because of things like social media. I think referrals will remain a critical part of successful hiring. We have

our recruitment methods and one of our biggest suc- cesses is our word-of-mouth recruitment, which centres around some core referral programming. The tactics with which you go out and get referrals, I think they’ll prob- ably ebb and flow. I think there will be some different options you can use to get to referrals faster and with better candidates.

LK: It’s really, as Karen said, going beyond the referrals. It’s that whole networking piece. We’ve spent time in going back to campus and working with students to really under- stand how they can effectively network and make those connections. It’s not enough now to just wait for the job posting to show up in their inbox and go in and apply—it’s candidates being proactive and networking. We know that great employees know great candidates and that’s why referral programs are so effective. Really working your net- work, maybe uncovering those opportunities that maybe aren’t posted or you didn’t know existed, that’s going to happen through that process.

Source: Daina Lawrence, Special to The Globe and Mail. June 5, 2014. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/is-the-resume- dead/article18988834/ Reprinted by permission of the Canadian Writers Group.

Executive search firms are private employment agencies that specialize in finding execu- tive talent. These firms charge the organization for their services, whether or not they are successful in filling a position. Some firms, but not all, will offer a guarantee that should the search fail they will search again at no cost. The cost of the search is generally pegged to the level of the position; with those searches for top executives costing more. The search firm will meet with key players in the company to identify their needs and to develop a job description that will be the basis of a job advertisement. The major differ- ence between search firms and employment agencies is that search firms rarely advertise positions, although they will do so if requested by their clients. Rather, they seek out candidates who are not actively searching for jobs through an extensive list of contacts that they have developed over time. Their main supply of talent comes from executives who are already employed by other organizations; consequently, these search firms are also known as “headhunters.”

More recently, search firms have started to use online recruiting websites, particularly LinkedIn, as a source for their referrals. However, good HR managers know how to use social media, reducing the need to hire search firms for all but the most senior positions. LinkedIn has become central to recruiting. Headhunters can quickly do keyword searches by geographic area to find people with the skills they need. They also join LinkedIn discussion groups to identify talent and those with leadership potential, even those who are not looking for a job, but who are “poachable.”

The major disadvantages of using search firms are their costs, which is one reason that many companies use in-house HR to recruit through LinkedIn and other social media. These costs also reflect that the search firm carries out all the administrative

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work involved in the search, including obtaining references and background checks (see Chapter 7). Another disadvantage is the likelihood that some firms develop specific recruiting philosophies that lead them to look for the same type of executive to fill all positions.

Hiring any type of search firm does not absolve the company of all responsibilities for the hiring process. A successful search depends on the company working with the search firm and doing its homework about the nature of the position to be filled and the required KSAOs and competencies before the search firm is called on to begin the search. Headhunters Canada provides an online directory of executive search firms across Canada listed by province and specialty area (http://headhunters-canada.com).

In-house recruiters are usually executive-level employees or highly respected profes- sionals who hold an executive title such as vice-president or director. They are similar to headhunters in that they seek to recruit upper-level executives and professionals, except that they work only for their own company and do not recruit for any other company. In-house recruiters know the opportunities that exist in their organization; as well, they know the strengths of the local community and the social environment in which the new recruits are likely to live. Relying on networking and social media to identify potential candidates, in-house recruiters are typically used to recruit professionals who are in high demand and in short supply. In the health-care industry, many hospitals use nurses and physicians as in-house recruiters to travel across the country seeking to recruit other health-care professionals for their hospitals.

In-house recruiters do have some disadvantages. Most companies use them to reduce the costs associated with an executive search firm. However, unless in-house recruiters take time to become familiar with different recruiting methods, they may limit their work to posting notices on different Internet sites. In-house recruiters may also suffer from “tunnel vision” in looking only for certain types of candidates and ignoring a broader range of qualified job seekers.

Temporary help agencies are similar to private employment agencies except that they specialize in providing organizations with short-term help. In most cases, the worker remains employed by the temporary help firm, but carries out duties under the direction and control of the temporary help firm’s client organization. These agencies provide clients with temporary help, contract workers, and seasonal and overload help in certain specialized occupations, such as secretaries, computer experts, labourers, and executives, among others. Temporary help agencies are an example of outsourcing, which we dis- cussed earlier in this chapter. These agencies rely on inventories of talent pools they have developed over the years and are capable of filling their clients’ needs within a reason- able amount of time. However, as discussed previously, the client organizations may be liable for any discrimination claims incurred through the control and direction of the temporary employee.

RecRuItIng At educAtIonAl InStItutIonS

Technical schools, colleges, and universities are common sources of recruits for orga- nizations seeking entry-level technical, professional, and managerial employees. Many schools provide their students with placement services, which assist the recruiting efforts of visiting organizations. Recognizing educational institutions as a good source of target applicants, organizations have well-established campus recruiting programs that involve both campus advertising and campus visits by company recruiters. Campus recruiting is one of the most popular ways in which graduates find their first job. It is also an expensive

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NEL 253CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

proposition in terms of both time and money. It becomes even more expensive consid- ering that, on average, about 50 percent of recruits may leave the organization within the first few years of employment.43

Many research studies have tried to identify factors that produce successful recruiting campaigns at educational institutions. In a recent meta-analysis, Chapman and his associ- ates found that while job–organization characteristics, recruiter behaviours, perceptions of the recruiting process, perceived fit, and hiring expectancies predicted applicant attrac- tion to an organization, the recruiter demographics, such as age, gender, and race, did not.44 Rynes and Cable45 reviewed the post-1991 research on recruiter effects and came to much the same conclusion as previous research: that “recruiters probably do not have a large impact on actual job choices.”46

e-RecRuItIng: uSe oF the InteRnet And SocIAl netWoRkS

In a few short years, the Internet has transformed recruiting and become an important job search tool for job hunters.47 Traditionally, a company used one of the means we just described to reach potential job applicants. The company may have placed an advertise- ment in the print media, made use of referrals and nominations from current employees, or participated in job fairs. Applicants who happened to become aware of the vacancy submitted their résumés by mail or fax, or dropped them off in person. Staff in the HR department reviewed the applications. Candidates whom the staff judged to be quali- fied on the basis of that review were invited for an interview and possible further review through employment tests. Eventually, one of these applicants might be offered a posi- tion. The remaining applications were likely discarded, with perhaps a few kept on file. This process could take weeks or months from the initial announcement of the position to an offer. The Internet has changed everything. We review two ways that the Internet is used in recruiting. The first is the more established use of a company’s own website and job boards while the second approach focuses on social networks.

InteRnet RecRuItIng

With Internet recruiting, a company can place notice of a vacancy on its website or list it with one of the online job or career websites. The job or career site does a keyword search of résumés in its database and forwards those that match the position requirements to the company. For example, the Government of Canada conducts external recruitment almost exclusively online and provides online application blanks on the Public Service Com- mission’s website (http://jobs-emplois.gc.ca/index-eng.htm). Some sites alert job seekers who are listed with it by email when a job is posted that exactly matches their qualifica- tions. Some HR practitioners argue that someday online recruiting will be the only job hunting source48 and that it is driving the integration of other HR functions.49 Some of the more frequently used sites are Monster.com, Workopolis.com, Service Canada Job Bank, CareerBuilder.com, among others. Just search “career sites” to find all of these.

Once a company receives résumés or applications from a posting on its own website or from an Internet job site, it begins its review. It may decide to continue its search or to invite a few of the applicants for interviews, after which it may make job offers. The interviews may take place on-site at the company or through videoconferencing if the candidate is outside the company’s geographic area. Any employment testing that the company wishes to do may also be carried out online with an HR consultant.

Internet recruiting The use of the Internet to match candidates to jobs through electronic databases that store information on jobs and job candidates.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL254

Videoconferencing and online testing are becoming increasingly popular since the Internet has no geographical boundaries. A company may receive applications from far outside its normal territory. The whole process may take just a few days from placing the notice of the vacancy to making an offer. Recruitment and Selection Today 6.2 presents the experience of NAV CANADA with Internet recruitment. Using the Internet signifi- cantly increased the number of applications and reduced time to selecting job candidates for further screening and training; as well, it helped develop the brand image of NAV CANADA.

Large national or international Internet sites (e.g., Service Canada’s Job Bank) may list tens of thousands of jobs. The job seeker usually has the option of limiting the search to specific geographic areas or types of work, occupations, or industries. Some sites are limited to specific regions of the country. Certain sites are specific to an industry or

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.2

E-RECRuITING AT NAV CANADA

Michelle Gauthier is the national manager of candidate selection at NAV CANADA. She provided the following infor- mation on NAV CANADA’s experience with e-recruitment.50

“NAV CANADA is the country’s air navigation services provider, responsible for delivering essential air traffic con- trol services to pilots and airlines that operate in Canadian airspace. Following a period of 10 years where the Recruit- ment and Selection function was managed by an external contractor, NAV CANADA made a strategic decision in early 2008 to bring recruitment and selection functions for air traffic control and flight service specialist careers in- house. For those 10 years, the third-party contractor was responsible for the screening, testing, and interviewing of prospects. As part of the recruiting function, the contractor was also responsible for the marketing and branding com- ponent related to building awareness of air traffic control and flight service specialist careers. The third party used an online application system that was very limited in its functionality and relied heavily on traditional forms of mar- keting, such as print ads and participating in career fairs. under this process the third-party contractor averaged about 4500 applicants per year.

“NAV CANADA immediately focused on e-recruitment as it was consistent with our philosophy, which was to focus on an integrated approach and leverage technology to improve efficiencies and effectively target our audience. utilizing the power of social media avenues and linking them to our Candidate Tracking System, we were able to draw key metrics on the performance of these methods. However, in order to achieve this, the entire process had

to be cohesive in its design and also focus on under- standing our target audience. Social media avenues have afforded us the ability to attract our target market and drive them to the Career microsite. Our main goal was to build awareness of these career opportunities at NAV CANADA, which means increasing traffic to our http://takecharge. navcanada.ca microsite. Social media tools have the ability to select demographic information (age, location, interests) on prospects and allow your ad to reach your audience much more effectively.

“From these ads, prospects are launched to our http:// takecharge.navcanada.ca microsite where they can learn about these careers, the company, the training, the selec- tion process, eligibility requirements, and gain access to the application system.

“Interested prospects then begin the selection pro- cess, by gaining access to the Prospect System. This system allows them to complete their application informa- tion (Contact, Work History, Education, etc.), and complete two pre-screening tests; prospects also have the ability to follow their progress through the entire process, up to and including the offer stage. This system truly took into account the needs of our prospects, and their need to follow their progress and provide key information on upcoming hurdles and requirements.

“The ability to attract prospects to NAV CANADA careers is one thing, but the key to success of an e-recruitment platform is the ability to manage appli- cation information from the business point of view. The Applicant Candidate Trainee Tracking System (ACT System)

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NEL 255CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

allows NAV CANADA to manage these prospects through the various selection hurdles to ensure consistency of the process/program, ensure constant communication with those involved in the selection of prospects, and the ease to access information. A strong recruitment system which incorporates the necessary workflows reduces time to pro- cess an applicant, bearing in mind the balance between supply and demand (i.e., the number of interested appli- cants versus the number of trainees required).

“The e-recruitment system has increased our number of interested candidates to 16 000 registrations per year, of which 6900 candidates complete the application pro- cess including the pre-screening testing requirements. Depending on the individual, it takes between 1 and 1-1/2 hours to complete both the application portion and the ini- tial screening requirements.

“The initial screening takes place online, and there are two requirements that need to be completed:

1. Application Requirements (depending on the indi- vidual and level of work experience and education, this process can take anywhere from 30–60 minutes to complete; there is also an essay question that must be completed).

2. Online testing (there are two tests that are adminis- tered: the first test is a personality test, that does not have a time limit associated with it; the second test is a short-form general cognitive ability test that is timed at eight minutes—prospects typically average 30 minutes to complete both testing requirements).

“Once the tests are completed and submitted, the system informs the candidate, typically within minutes, of their overall results, i.e., successful/unsuccessful. At this point, NAV CANADA screens in a total of 35% of applicants who then move on to the next hurdles, which are administered for security and other reasons at NAV CANADA testing sites.

“We believe that e-recruiting has the following advantages:

1. Ad creation and utilization is uncomplicated and cost effective, with much more rapid turnaround compared to previous methods.

2. Brand building and awareness—reach is far greater using social media methods; our Facebook fanpage enables the Company to build brand loyalty and build a connection with interested prospects.

3. Ability to reach a more diverse population.

4. Higher quality of candidate simply because you can reach greater numbers of the required target audi- ence, especially taking advantage of the targeting capability in today’s social networks, with the ad placements and automated screening-in process.

5. The metrics that are available when using these ave- nues are invaluable. Google Analytics is a powerful tool and can provide some key insights about your site, visitors and ad effectiveness; and trend reporting is done with a simple click.

6. Increased workforce efficiencies through the use of technology with the integration of the online applica- tion process and the internal workflow management system.

7. Provides prospects with access 7 days a week, 24 hours a day to career information and the application system.

“E-recruiting does have disadvantages:

1. May not reach the more remote areas in Canada; for these areas NAV CANADA also incorporates traditional forms of marketing.

2. Too many unqualified applicants; however, NAV CANADA sees this as an opportunity to continue with building the brand and awareness of careers in air traffic control and flight service.

“We have received countless positive comments from applicants relating to the ease of applying, the transpar- ency of the information both on the microsite and discus- sion boards on Facebook, the quality of information that is available to candidates, but most importantly the ability of a prospect to view their status online through the Prospect System and view information related to upcoming hurdles. A ‘positive candidate experience’ is one of our goals and will continue to be one of our goals.”

Source: Reprinted with permission of NAV CANADA.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL256

profession; for example, prospective university professors can find out about job post- ings by checking the Canadian Association of University Teachers website at http://www .academicwork.ca. Job seekers interested in working in the not-for-profit sector can go to http://www.charityvillage.com; those interested in working in the arts can review the postings at http://www.workinculture.ca. Each provincial human resources association has a members-only location on its website for HR-related job postings. Increasingly, newspapers and professional journals are placing copies of classified ads for job openings on their websites to run either before or at the same time as print ads.

Internet recruiting has several advantages for both the employer and the job seeker. The biggest advantage to the company is that it can reach a potentially limitless talent pool at minimal cost and beyond its normal geographic location. It allows the company to provide more information about the position to job seekers than does a typical print ad. Internet recruiting also allows companies to provide up-to-date information on their corporate image. New jobs can be posted on a daily basis rather than being at the mercy of a newspaper’s or journal’s publication schedule. Most of all, Internet recruiting speeds up the process of finding good prospective employees by facilitating searches of thou- sands of résumés stored in data banks. It facilitates finding the right candidate for the job in a cost-efficient manner. Internet recruiting is relatively inexpensive and provides more opportunities for smaller firms.51

From the job seekers’ perspective, Internet recruiting allows them to apply for many jobs quickly at no cost other than that of an Internet connection. It gives job seekers access to a larger geographic area than other recruitment sources and provides them with a feel for the labour market. Job seekers can use the Internet 24/7 with the advantage of time savings and quick turnaround time on their applications. It allows job seekers to target specific searches.52 Also, résumés posted on a job search website can be accessed by an unlimited number of potential employers. Résumés remain in the database for a specified length of time, and can usually be modified at any time. In addition, job seekers registered with some Internet job sites receive information about new job open- ings as they become available. Internet recruiting does not appear to affect job seekers’ perceptions of the realistic nature of the information they find on the Internet; they perceive it to be as realistic as information provided by other means.53 Recruiting on the Internet does appear to influence perceptions of whether the applicant is a good fit for the organization54 or the applicant’s attraction to the organization.55 In the latter case, applicant attraction may be influenced by the design features of the organization’s website.

Internet recruiting is not without its disadvantages. The ease of submitting résumés coupled with the sheer number of websites devoted to jobs and careers means that a com- pany may be flooded with applications. According to the Internet Business Network,56 there are now more than 100 000 career websites on the Internet. Whatever savings a company makes through Internet recruiting may be eroded by the costs of dealing with the large volume of applications.

The disadvantages of Internet recruiting for job seekers take a different form. First, given a choice, some job seekers prefer to read job postings in traditional paper formats, as opposed to Web-based postings. Job seekers are also turned off by low-quality websites.57 Internet recruiting brings with it an overwhelming number of applicants, many of whom are unqualified. The cost savings from using the Internet are soon consumed by staff time required to sift through the résumés that are received. Next, Internet recruiting and job searching are available only to job seekers who have access to the Internet and the exper- tise to use computers and related software. This restriction may impede an organization’s ability to attract candidates from different population subgroups and meet employment

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NEL 257CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

equity goals; it may be seen as discriminatory.58 However, most public libraries offer computer and Internet access free of charge, somewhat ameliorating this concern.

Perhaps the major concern of job seekers is related to privacy.59 When a résumé is included in a database, or when it is circulated, it becomes more or less a public docu- ment. Often, job seekers who are employed do not want their current employer to know they are looking for other work; they should first assure themselves of the privacy policy of the website before submitting an application through the site. Some employers now routinely have staff or agencies comb through job and career sites to find out if any of their employees are on the job market. Corporate recruiters regularly “mine” job sites using sophisticated technology to gather lists of prospects. They also mine news articles and corporate websites for candidates, even though those individuals may not be seeking employment elsewhere.60

Although managerial and professional jobs appear to be particularly well suited to Internet recruiting, people in these types of positions have concerns about their résumés appearing in databases and having others know that they are “shopping around.” Except for a few high-tech firms, most companies have not abandoned more traditional forms of recruiting. Internet recruiting is used as part of a mix of methods to obtain the “best” candidates. With the phenomenal growth of the Internet, this may change very rapidly as more companies start to rely solely on Internet recruiting.

SocIAl netWoRk RecRuItIng

Social networking has grown from a fad to a powerful recruiting source. Social networks offer almost instant contact between HR professionals and potential job applicants, par- ticularly those who may not be actively engaged in a job search. A July 2016 survey of 1600 recruiting and HR professionals carried out annually by Jobvite61 found that 87 per- cent of recruiters used some form of social media to recruit for their organizations; this was an increase from 78 percent in 2008. The vast majority of recruiters used LinkedIn to vet applicants during the hiring process, particularly those under the age of 45 years old. A recent 2017 survey by Jobvite found that 28 percent of applicants in the 18–29 years age group were more likely to use Instagram as their preferred social media. Recruitment and Selection Today 6.3 presents the reported use by recruiters of the different social media to vet applicants during the hiring process in the 2016 survey.

Almost 59 percent of the job seekers surveyed reported that they had used social media to research the company culture of the organization that they were interested in joining. Despite this growing popularity as a recruitment source, many questions remain to be answered, including the validity and usefulness of information found on social networking sites.62 As discussed at the start of the chapter, low recruiter ratings based on negative perceptions from Facebook may not indicate that candidates will be poor performers as employees. Information gathered from social media sites should not be used alone in making decisions about candidates.

WhAt ARe SocIAl netWoRkS? Social networks are Internet sites that allow users to post a profile with a certain amount of information that is visible to the public. The more popular sites for recruiters include LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. These sites allow users to share information online including photos and videos. With respect to recruiting, the Jobvite survey found that 94 percent of the companies surveyed used LinkedIn, followed by 65 percent for Facebook and 55 percent for Twitter. Another 15 percent of companies used YouTube as a recruiting tool. As noted earlier, LinkedIn especially is a

Social networks Internet sites that allow users to post a profile with a certain amount of information that is visible to the public.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL258

very popular recruiting tool. Recruitment and Selection Today 6.4 presents a discussion on how to use LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter to recruit.

beneFItS oF SocIAl netWoRk RecRuItIng HR professionals who have engaged in social network recruiting believe that the people hired through social networks perform better on the job and stay with the company for longer periods of time. The costs associated

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.3

RECRuITERS JuDGE ON SOCIAL MEDIA

Source: Jobvite Recruiter Nation Report 2016: The Annual Social Recruiting Survey Results, p. 14. http://www.jobvite.com/wp-content/uploads /2016/09/RecruiterNation2016.pdf

Recruiters Judge on Social Media

59% of job seekers use social media to research the company culture of organizations they are interested in (JSN)—so recruiters

are in the right place.

The overwhelming majority (87%) of recruiters �nd Linkedln most effective when vetting candidates during the hiring process—

especially those under 45 (90%).

Recruiters use the following networks to evaluate candidates when hiring.

Heads up recruiters—Facebook is where it’s at for social job seekers. 67% of them use Facebook in their job search (JSN).

87%

43%

22%

11%

8% Blog

87%

59%

Jobvite

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NEL 259CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.4

HOW TO uSE SOCIAL MEDIA AS A RECRuITING TOOL

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy

As a recruiter you want to be where the most qualified, tal- ented, and largest pool of applicants are. Human resources can leverage social media to tap in to potential recruits. This type of head hunting is called social recruiting. It’s about engaging with users and using social media tools to source and recruit talent. LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter have over 535 million combined users. That equals a lot of potential talent for your company. But how do you find the right person for the job you have available using social media? Here’s how to get started.

using Linkedin

The most obvious ways to use LinkedIn are to post jobs you have available and search for candidates. It costs $195 to post a job for 30 days. Or you can buy job credits and pay less per job posting if you buy more credits. you can also sign up for LinkedIn Talent Advantage. It is an exclusive suite of tools for recruiters. But if you don’t have the budget to pay for job postings or join the Talent Advantage you can still tap in to the free resources LinkedIn offers.

you should start by building connections to people you already know. This could include former coworkers, current clients, local entrepreneurs and even friends and family. Because you never know who someone else may be connected to who could make a top-notch candidate. you should also join groups where you might connect with potential candidates. For example, if you are always looking for IT consultants you can find an affiliated group on LinkedIn. Once you join relevant groups, find ways to begin discussions with people in the group. If you notice people who are active in the group, they always ask ques- tions and answer others’ questions, those might be the people you hone in on for job opportunities.

There is also a free way to advertise that you are hiring on LinkedIn without posting a job. use your network activity box (also known as a status box) to broadcast that you are hiring. “Looking for an IT consultant. If you know someone, maybe even you, contact me.”

When you find someone who may be a good fit for your company you have to evaluate their LinkedIn pro- file. Does the person have a complete profile including

a picture? Do they have recommendations from peers, managers and colleagues? Are they a member of groups relevant to their field? Do you have any 2nd or 3rd degree connections to the person to get a more personal referral? you can find out a lot about a person from their profile before contacting them for an interview.

using facebook

How many candidates do you have in your database? Whatever the number, it doesn’t come close to how many potential candidates are on Facebook. Facebook provides easy and affordable ways to increase your applicant pool. First utilize the Facebook Directory to search for users, pages, groups, and applications.

you can post a job for free in the Facebook Market- place. The ad requires basic information such as location, job category, subcategory, title, why you need to fill this position, description, and if you want to post your photo with the job posting or another image. The limitation of a free job posting is that you can’t target it to a specific group of people like you can with a Facebook Ad.

Facebook Pages are another free resource within Facebook. A Facebook Page is a public profile that enables you to share your business and products with Facebook users. If you don’t have a Facebook Page you can search other Facebook pages to find people both active and interested in your field or who might be interested in your available position. If your company has a Facebook page you may want to use it as a recruiting tool. Make sure the information about your company is relevant and up to date. you can also post job openings for your fans to see. These people are passionate about your company and can be just as passionate about working for your company.

Another option is to post a Facebook Ad if you aren’t getting the results you want from searching. The advan- tage of the ad platform on Facebook over its rivals Google Adwords and yahoo! Advertising is that Facebook has laser targeting ability. With a Facebook Ad you can choose the exact audience that you are looking to target. The system will ask a series of questions about the characteristics of the people you want to see your job posting ad. you will be asked specific keywords related to the position. Face- book will then calculate how many users fit that criteria.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL260

you have the choice to pay per click (how many people clicked on your job ad), pay per impression (how many people potentially saw your ad), and set how much you are willing to pay. you can decide whether to run the job ad continuously or only during a certain time.

For example, if your company is in Minneapolis and you are not including relocation in the budget for this posi- tion you can target the job posting to be shown to only people who live in Minnesota or bordering states. If the position is an entry-level position you can target the job posting to less-experienced persons. The options are end- less to how narrow a field you can define. Be careful to not make the criteria too specific or you may not get the applicants you want, and to be cognizant of human rights legislation.

using Twitter

Twitter can be powerful for small companies or a recruiter who wants to get an edge over the competition. The easiest way to recruit is to tweet jobs you have available. “Looking for a Sales Rep in NyC, Very competitive salary, apply at [include a shortened uRL].”

If your company has a Twitter account but not a lot of followers you can expand your network and build rela- tionships with clients and job candidates on Twitter. Run a quick search on Twitter (search.twitter.com) for anybody discussing a specific keyword and you can get hundreds of contacts. you can search for people you know, by loca- tion, by industry or interest, by hashtag, by popularity, by time and more.

To make your job posting tweets stand out you can also use hash tags, #. Hash tags are used as a way to filter and find information on Twitter. All you have to do is include the hash tag with a keyword in your tweet and it becomes instantly searchable. Here are a few examples of hash tags

you might consider using: #job, #jobpost, #employment, #recruiting, #hiring, #career, #staffing, #salesjob, #NAJ (that is Twitter lingo for “Need A Job?”). you can use more than one hash tag in your tweet but remember you are limited to140 characters so be strategic in which hash tag or tags you use.

you can engage with candidates and see what topics they tweet about. There is also the opportunity to market events you will be attending. “Stop by our career booth at the Sales Tech Expo.”

There are companies like AdLogic that help busi- nesses target to a particular Twitter audience. AdLogic lets clients create custom job feeds and corresponding special- ized Twitter profiles for each area that they recruit for.

your company Twitter account is also an opportunity to inform potential hires about your company. your tweets say a lot about the company and what topics are important to your company.

When you find potential candidates on Twitter, eval- uate their activity to see how often they tweet, if they have a healthy balance between followers and following, how big is their network and the quality of their tweets. Do they keep a balance between personal and professional tweets? Do they only post updates or do they respond to others and retweet others fully utilizing what Twitter is about?

Return on investment

Social media recruiting helps an employer get to know a potential job candidate. Is this a highly skilled, well- rounded individual that fits with your team? As with any job opening, using social media recruiting requires time and effort but it’s an investment in longer-term benefits for your company. using LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter takes recruiting back to its grass roots of networking but for a digital age.

Source: Tiffany Black, Adapted from http://www.inc.com/guides/2010/04/social-media-recruiting.html

with social networking are confined to the HR staff charged with the recruiting. Unlike job boards, there is no cost to joining a social network. Thus, the returns on invest- ment for social network recruiting can far exceed those associated with other recruiting sources. Additionally, social network recruiting can identify “passive” applicants, those not actively seeking a new job but who can be targeted by the recruiter because of their apparent skills and abilities. Many recruiters join LinkedIn to scout potential talent for their organization whether or not they are looking for a job.

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NEL 261CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

the doWnSIde oF SocIAl netWoRk RecRuItIng The most significant disadvantage of social network recruiting is that it may have adverse impacts on members of protected groups. While data for Canada are lacking, studies in the United States show that Hispanics and African-Americans participate in LinkedIn to a lesser degree than members of those groups in the total U.S. population—2 percent versus 15.4 percent for Hispanics and 5 percent versus 12.8 percent for African-Americans.63 Most likely, the participation rates for other social networks are similar. Recruiting only from social networks may leave a company open to charges of systemic discrimination.

A related issue is the use of social networks in screening job candidates, either those being recruited or those candidates who may be about to receive a job offer. There are media reports about job candidates who were about to receive job offers until HR staff reviewed their social media accounts. The Jobvite 2013 Social Recruiting Survey found that 42 percent of personnel involved in recruiting reconsidered a candidate based on the content of their social media pages.64 They reacted most negatively to profanity and poor grammar, punctuation, and spelling in posts. Postings on social media can be unre- liable, with users tending to boast about their activities, including drug and alcohol use. Users post photos and videos, sometimes placing themselves in compromising positions; photos may also indicate that the job candidate has a disability. Users may indicate their sexual orientation or make antigay remarks. In all cases, reviewing this material may place HR in contravention of legal and ethical issues. As we have noted in previous chapters, HR personnel cannot ask certain questions, yet viewing photos on Facebook identifies the race of the candidate. Age, religious preference, and other private informa- tion can also be identified (See Recruitment and Selection Today 6.4). Using information from these sources to eliminate job candidates leaves the organization open to charges of discrimination,65 unless these attributes are bona fide occupational requirements.

Privacy issues may or may not be an issue. Unless members of LinkedIn or Facebook restrict their pages, any member has access to their sites. If the members are looking for a job, actively or passively, allowing anyone to see their sites might be acceptable. If they are not searching for a job, then all of their postings are open to inspection by potential employers. There is no legal impediment to any employer accessing postings on social media that have not been restricted. Posting on a social media site is the modern-day equivalent to writing on the back of a postcard—anyone who has the card sees the message being sent.

SocIAl netWoRk RecRuItIng guIdelIneS Social networks are becoming an integral part of recruiting and there is every indication that their popularity will increase. It is essential that HR staff use them properly and avoid the pitfalls that may lead to charges of dis- crimination. The following guidelines are offered as a means of avoiding those charges.

1. Develop a written policy on the use of social networks in recruiting and screening.

2. Document your use of the social network sites; keep detailed records of your searches that can be used to show that hiring decisions were related to job- relevant criteria.

3. Do not use social networking sites as the only recruiting source; doing so may lead to charges of adverse impact by members of protected groups.

4. Avoid using social networks for screening candidates unless you can be assured that the information on those sites is reliable and accurate.

5. Disclose to candidates that you will review social networking sites. If you discover negative information about a job candidate, give the candidate an opportunity to respond to that information.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL262

comPARISon oF RecRuItment methodS

Table 6.1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different recruitment methods. Internal recruitment has the advantage of dealing with known quantities. Internal job applicants already have realistic expectations of life in the organization. They are, or should be, aware of the organizational goals and values. Likewise, the organization is familiar with the internal applicant’s work history and performance record. Internal recruitment is also relatively inexpensive. Most middle-level jobs in an organization are filled through this means. External recruitment, on the other hand, is used mostly to staff jobs at either the entry or executive levels. External recruitment brings needed skills and competencies to an organization and prevents organizations from becoming “inbred.” It exposes companies to new people, new ideas, and new ways of doing things. External recruitment may be the only means through which employment equity programs suc- ceed. External recruitment can be very time consuming and expensive.

RecRuItIng And InteRnAtIonAl ASSIgnmentS

With the spread of globalization, Canadian organizations increasingly need to staff for- eign operations. Most of this recruitment has focused on managerial-level personnel. Recruiting someone to head a project in another country is very important if a company is to expand its business into foreign markets. Typically, Canadian organizations have recruited internally or domestically for foreign assignments and have paid the recruits

mETHOds AdvAnTAgEs disAdvAnTAgEs

inTERnAL RECRuiTmEnT

Job postings • Inexpensive • Rewards performance • Discovers talent

• Time consuming • Produces instability • Demoralizing process

Succession/replace- ment charts

Based on known human resources

Limited by organizational chart and structure

Information systems (HRIS)

Known KSAO database linked to job

• Expensive • Rarely used by companies

Nominations Based on known human resources

• Random process • May lead to discrimination

ExTERnAL RECRuiTmEnT

Newspaper ads • Quick and flexible • Specific market

• Expensive • Short lifespan for ads

Periodicals/journals Targets specific groups or skills • Long lead time for ads • Expensive

TAbLE 6.1

COmPARisOn Of RECRuiTmEnT mETHOds

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NEL 263CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

mETHOds AdvAnTAgEs disAdvAnTAgEs

Radio and TV • Mass audience • Targets specific groups • Image advertising

• Very expensive • Short ad duration • Provides little information

Public displays • Inexpensive • Provides little information

Direct mail • Targets specific groups and skills

• Can provide much information

• Expensive and inefficient • Requires mailing list • Often not read

Special events: open house, job fairs

• useful for filling multiple jobs • Relatively inexpensive • Targets job pool

• Shares job pool with competition

• Information overload/stress

Employee referrals Inexpensive May lead to discrimination and inbreeding

Networking Inexpensive May lead to discrimination and inbreeding

Walk-ins Inexpensive Random process; inefficient

Canada Employment Centres

Inexpensive; job–KSAO fit Success limited to certain occu- pational categories

Private employment agency

Person–job fit Expensive

Executive search firm Known talent pool Very expensive

In-house recruiter Knows company Limited knowledge of recruiting methods

Temporary help agency

• Access to short-term labour pool

• Few recruiting demands

• Exposure to risk of discrimi- nation claims

• Mostly unskilled and poorly educated talent pool

Recruiting at schools • Known talent pool • Pretrained applicants

Time consuming Very expensive

Internet • Mass audience • Inexpensive • Specific audience

• Random process • unknown audience

Social networks • Targets “passive” applicants • High rate of return on

investment

• Potential for discrimination • Information may be

unreliable

TAbLE 6.1

Continued

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL264

up to three times their normal salaries for accepting foreign postings.66 Use of North American expatriates to staff the operations of North American firms overseas, however, has not been successful in many cases. One reason for this is that international recruiting tends to rely on domestic hiring practices with some cosmetic changes.67 Problems associ- ated with family adjustment to new cultures and the manager’s lack of personal adjust- ment to the foreign business environment often lead to failure.68

Moore69 makes the point that international recruitment involves defining the assign- ment and the person requirements needed for the position, and then developing a recruit- ment campaign to attract people with the needed skills. Dowling and Welch70 identified four myths about international recruiting:

1. There is a universal approach to management.

2. People can acquire multicultural behaviours without outside help.

3. There are common characteristics shared by all successful international managers.

4. There are no impediments to mobility.

Holding on to these myths is a recipe for failure in the international arena. Inter- national recruitment is context dependent; it is difficult to predict who will do well. However, giving recruitment careful consideration may reduce the risk of failure.71

Canadian firms must do a much better job of identifying, recruiting, and selecting individuals based on those competencies related to success abroad. With the develop- ment of the borderless job search websites and résumé data banks, companies may have an easier time finding job applicants from around the world who have the requisite knowledge of the laws and culture of the host country.

FRequency oF uSe oF RecRuItIng methodS

Zottoli and Wanous72 in 2000 reviewed over 50 years of research on recruiting source effectiveness, as measured through job turnover/survival and job performance. Referrals by family and friends and current employees, in-house job postings, and rehiring of former employees were the most effective methods in filling positions. Walk-ins were slightly less effective, with the least effective sources consisting of newspaper ads, placement services, and employment agencies, whether private or government-run. The Internet was not used as a recruiting source in the reviewed research. In an online survey, based mainly on Canadian workers, Bissonnette73 in 2011 found similar results to Zottoli and Wanous. Job seekers used family and friends, networks, and employee referrals most often to find a job. Her sample found walk-ins and employment agencies to be less effective. The most striking difference was over 50 percent of job seekers had used the Internet to find their positions. As the most popular recruiting methods also have the potential to produce systemic discrimination, HR practitioners must be particularly alert to this undesirable outcome.

// PARt III: AttRActIng Job APPlIcAntS Recruiting is a two-way street. Organizations wish to attract high-quality job applicants, but at the same time applicants are evaluating the organization as a place of employment. Breaugh and Starke74 present a model of how job expectations on the part of an applicant influence attitudes and behaviours toward an organization and a job (see Figure 6.3).

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NEL 265CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

Job Candidate’s Initial Impression of the Position

• Favourable/unfavourable • Unaware of job attributes • Inaccurate job perceptions

Candidate initiates information gathering

Organization provides information

More accurate and more complete job and organizational expectations

Person’s ability compared to job

requirements

Person’s needs/wants compared to job reward

Candidate self-selection

Person–job congruence

Congruence between person’s KSAOs and job

requirements

Congruence between person’s needs/wants

and what job offers (rewards)

Satisfactory job performance

Value attainment

Job satisfaction

Employee longevity

Candidate perceives employer as being

honest

Candidate feels commitment to job

choice decision

figuRE 6.3

THE fORmATiOn Of JOb ExPECTATiOns And THEiR infLuEnCE On JOb APPLiCAnT ATTiTudEs And bEHAviOuRs

Source: J.A. Breaugh and M. Starke. 2000. “Research on Employee Recruitment: So Many Studies, So Many Questions,” Figure 2. Journal of Management, Vol. 26, Issue 3: 405–34. Copyright © 2000 SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of SAGE Publications.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL266

Because of their experience, many job candidates conclude that they do not want to work in a particular organization, or that they will not fit in; they may also form other attitudes, which last through their early work experience.75 A study of over 3500 police applicants showed that those who self-selected out of the process and those who stayed differed in their perceptions of the organization, expectations about the job, and the opinions of family and friends about joining the police.76

In the long run, such self-selecting out may be in the best interests of both the appli- cant and the organization, if that decision is based on accurate information and a realistic perception of the job and the organization. On the other hand, if these early decisions are based on inaccurate information, both the candidate and the organization may be worse off. Ryan and colleagues77 found that the perceptions of women and blacks who withdrew from the police application process differed from the majority group, posing difficulties for organizations trying to increase their diversity.

the oRgAnIzAtIonAl context

Individuals become job applicants after forming an opinion on the desirability of working in a particular job within a specific organization.78 Organizational characteristics such as location, size of the enterprise, and type of industry may steer individuals away from applying for jobs no matter how attractive the job or how qualified they are to do it.79 For example, a physician is unlikely to apply for a position in Yukon if she is concerned about her aging parents living in Nova Scotia, regardless of pay or career opportunities; location may be the main factor in deciding whether to apply for the position.

In today’s rapidly changing workplace with a highly educated work force, jobs pro- viding autonomy, decision-making authority, and opportunities for self-development win out over those that lack these attributes. Moreover, with the increase in dual-career couples, single-parent families, and female representation in the work force, organiza- tions that offer special accommodations and flexible work arrangements gain competitive advantages in recruiting. For positions requiring geographical relocation of candidates, employers that assist working spouses to secure local employment gain further advantage.

Ultimately, the interests and values of the job applicant influence the relative impor- tance of different organizational attributes and whether an individual will apply for a specific job. Interests and values do not indicate whether a person is qualified for a job; they only suggest the type of work a person may find satisfying. Potential job applicants must also have the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies (KSAOs) that are required for the job. Nonetheless, the degree of satisfaction with a job is one of the many factors that influence job turnover, especially in good economic times when jobs are plentiful.80

The Department of National Defence actively recruits members for both civilian and military jobs in the Canadian Forces through its website (http://www.forces.ca /en/home), which includes a Jobs menu that provides information on specific jobs and occupations in the Canadian Forces, particularly those in demand. The site also includes information on the working environment and requirements for entry and training for the different positions.

NAV CANADA owns and operates Canada’s civil air navigation service. It coor- dinates the safe and efficient movement of aircraft in domestic international air space assigned to Canada. Information on careers available with NAV CANADA, for example air traffic controllers, can be seen at https://takecharge.navcanada.ca/

Self-selecting out Occurs during the recruitment and selection process when candidates form the opinion that they do not want to work in the organization for which they are being recruited.

Interests and values An individual’s likes and dislikes and the importance or priorities attached to those likes and dislikes.

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NEL 267CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

Many professional associations also provide information on careers in their profes- sions and the KSAOs and credentials needed for entry. These sites also list positions that are available. A good example, which deals with chartered accountants, is http://www .casource.com

The size of an organization influences its attractiveness to prospective employees, as well as the organization’s recruitment strategies. A study of 119 small-business employers and 184 large employers showed that job seekers have distinct preferences regarding firm size that influence their job search behaviours to such an extent that one might argue large and small firms comprise separate labour markets.81 Job seekers appear to tailor their job search to match the recruiting strategies used by large or small organizations. Large firms, particularly when recruiting college or university graduates, tend to have more formal and bureaucratic recruiting practices, while smaller firms rely on more informal methods.

Large firms tend to start recruiting earlier and to use trained recruiters and campus placement offices. They also are more likely to base their decisions on a candidate’s objective qualifications and the results of employment tests. Smaller firms tend to rely more on traditional sources such as advertising and internal referrals to fill their posi- tions and to base their decisions on an interview. Students who prefer a large firm start their job search earlier and make use of recruiting sources, such as the campus placement office, that are used by larger firms. Students who prefer smaller firms are less intense in their search efforts and rely on traditional sources of information about jobs.82 The strategies and information that people use in forming preferences and opinions about organizations are by no means clear. In some cases, information is based on preconceived stereotypes or information obtained from inaccurate sources. In other cases, people may undertake extensive job searches before applying for employment with an organization. They may consult a variety of published documents for information about the organi- zation, including annual reports and stories about the company and its employees in newspapers and business periodicals. Also, they might check companies’ Internet sites for job opportunities.

Internet employment-related websites offer profiles on the various companies that use their sites. For example, Monster.ca provides information on the company, its major products or services, the number of people it employs, its location, and current employ- ment opportunities. The Government of Canada now uses the Internet extensively to recruit people for different positions throughout Canada. Job listings can be found at http://jobs-emplois.gc.ca/index-eng.htm. Selecting a specific job posting provides a wealth of information about the job and its organizational environment. Also, job appli- cants sometimes seek out employees of an organization or friends or acquaintances who have worked for a company to obtain personal views on what it is like to work there and what the employees are like as coworkers.

coRPoRAte ImAge And APPlIcAnt AttRActIon

Often, the reputation of an organization is an important concern to job applicants. Cor- porate image predicts the likelihood of interest on the part of a job seeker: The better the image, the more attractive the organization is.83 Job seekers may not even consider applying for jobs in organizations that have a negative image. This lack of attractive- ness may be particularly troublesome in tight labour markets, when there is a scarcity of qualified job applicants. In the case of high-reputation firms, there is likely to be a steady stream of job applicants, regardless of the labour market, making selection rather

Job search The strategies, techniques, and practices an individual uses in looking for a job.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL268

than recruitment the key to successful staffing.84 Recruitment and Selection Today 6.5 describes an advertising campaign used by General Electric to counter the negative image of manufacturing companies among young millennial workers. The intent of the adver- tising is to improve the image of manufacturing jobs and to help recruit young workers.

What influences organizational attractiveness? One of the most prominent factors is the job applicant’s degree of familiarity with the organization. The more familiar appli- cants are with the company, the more likely they will hold a positive image of it.85,86 The profitability of a company and its pay level positively influence attractiveness and reputation,87 with pay strongly predicting whether a job applicant will pursue a job with an organization.88 There are other considerations on the part of younger workers who compare their values with those of the organization. Organizations that express positive corporate social policies, those that include concern for the environment, promoting community relations, improving labour relations, and improving diversity, are more attractive to job applicants.89 As well, job advertisements that present an organization as one that is psychologically healthy, in that it cares about the health of its employees, help the organization to be seen as very attractive by job seekers, especially among millennial job seekers.90 On the other hand, job applicants rate vacant positions as less attractive when the company’s help-wanted advertisements contain minimal information about both the attributes of the position and the pay associated with it.91

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.5

HOW MANuFACTuRERS ARE RECRuITING MILLENNIALS

In a fall 2015 General Electric TV commercial, a millennial named Owen has just told his parents he got a job at GE.

“GE, a manufacturer,” his dad says proudly and produces a large hammer that belonged to Owen’s “Grandpappy.” “He would have wanted you to have it,” Owen’s dad says.

Owen, flustered, explains: “yes, GE makes powerful machines. But I will be writing the code that will allow those machines to share information with each other.”

Like GE, thousands of companies across the u.S. are trying to rebrand manufacturing as a high-tech industry full of opportunity. Their target audience: smartphone-wielding millennials and their parents who still think of manufac- turing jobs as high-risk for moving offshore or as a backup career if one can’t become a doctor, lawyer or teacher.

Manufacturers are recruiting both to attract skilled labor to a growing number of positions and to replenish a workforce from which baby boomers are retiring at a rapid pace. By 2025, there will be two million unfilled manufac- turing jobs, predicts a study by the Manufacturing Institute and Deloitte Consulting.

One obvious solution could be millennials, young people born in the 1980s and 1990s, currently the largest generation in the u.S. population.

But manufacturers face an uphill battle wooing this group. The reason: For millennials choosing careers today, the most sought-after industry is technology, according to another study by the Manufacturing Institute and Deloitte. Though modern manufacturing relies heavily on high-tech applications, millennials don’t automatically connect the two. Indeed, manufacturing ranked seventh in that study.

“What millennials don’t realize is that modern manufacturing is full of cutting-edge technology,” says Jennifer McNelly, executive director of the Manufacturing Institute. Research by the Washington-based institute shows that more than two-thirds of u.S. manufacturing companies are adopting 3-D printing and more than half use robots.

“We make lifesaving medicines,” says Ms. McNelly. “We make cool cars. We are problem solvers on a global scale.”

The salaries are competitive, too. The average u.S. manufacturing worker earned $79,553 in 2014, compared with $64,204 for the average worker in all industries, according to data from the u.S. bureaus of Labor Statistics and Economic Analysis.

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NEL 269CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

Tailored Effort

To recruit millennials, companies are using mobile devices, video and virtual reality.

Many millennials use smartphones to access the internet, notes Gina Max, director of talent at uSG Corp., a 114-year-old Chicago-based maker of construction mate- rials. uSG started accepting job applications by mobile phone in the fall of 2014. In that quarter, applications jumped 26%, and average applications per job have remained higher since.

Similarly, millennials watch videos to learn about new topics far more than older generations, Ms. Max says. So, in 2014, uSG started adding videos to job postings to demystify certain manufacturing jobs.

“We realized short videos could give a quick intro- duction to what a job looks like and give a flavor of our culture,” she says. Since then, uSG has seen the number of people who actually submit a job application after looking at a listing increase by 50%.

virtual Reality

Companies also are using a cutting-edge tool, virtual reality, to both attract young talent and dispel the percep- tion of manufacturing as outdated.

“Virtual reality has let people experience GE and its technology in a way that would otherwise be inaccessible,” says Julie Grzeda, a director of global leadership programs and university relations at GE.

In a promotion that GE has used at career fairs, stu- dents don a VR headset and ride aboard a new GE locomo- tive as it races across a Colorado prairie. In another, they explore GE’s subsea oil-and-gas recovery machines.

Cleveland-based Lincoln Electric Holdings Inc. uses VR to let young people test their welding skills around the country at career fairs, Boy Scout jamborees, farmer conventions and robot-building competitions. The system helps recruiters screen job candidates and find the best welders in the bunch.

“It has been like putting a bird feeder out in the winter,” says Carl Peters, the company’s director of tech- nical training. “People flock to the simulator and want to put on the helmet and try it out.”

Lincoln estimates more than 100,000 young people have tried its VR simulator, through which they see a

welding environment like a race-car workshop or a high- rise construction site. They make welds, and a virtual scoreboard tells them where they need to improve.

Ambassador Program

Because millennials will listen to their peers more readily than they will older experts, the Manufacturing Institute has led an initiative for companies to send younger employees as “ambassadors” to college campuses and schools where they speak about their jobs. These ambassadors also lead shop tours when students and young job seekers come to their plants and factories.

Nichole Williams, a 25-year-old from Iuka, Miss., is an ambassador for her employer, Cooper Tire & Rubber Co. Ms. Williams has a B.S. in chemical engineering and helps teams of employees design and improve the efficiency of different processes at the Cooper Tire plant in Tupelo, Miss. In her capacity as ambassador, she speaks to students about her work and her company.

“Students have no idea what jobs there are in manu- facturing,” she says. “They want to know what I do all day. So we talk about how manufacturing jobs are not the dark, dirty and dangerous jobs of the past. They are really high- tech and innovative. you can make a lot of money and have a good career path.”

Retaining Talent

These types of leadership programs that draw on young talent also help retain millennials once they take the job.

“This generation wants to lead early,” says Ms. McNelly. Millennials also want frequent feedback and a variety of work experiences, she says.

GE has a leadership program in manufacturing and operations where new early-career employees try out roles that could include leading a manufacturing team or managing suppliers and negotiating prices. It has also replaced annual performance reviews with an online tool that provides feedback on demand.

“It looks and feels like a social-media platform,” says Sarah Dunn, a human-resources manager in GE Aviation. Employees can request feedback from managers, peers or internal clients whenever they want it.

Source: Aili McConnon, Wall Street Journal, June 7, 2016, Retrieved from http://www.wsj.com/articles /howmanufacturersarerecruitingmillennials1465351261

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL270

Organizations often initiate activities designed to enhance their image and reputation. Providing job applicants with more information about an organization appears to influ- ence job applicant behaviour; organizational familiarity, and thus attractiveness, seems to increase when an applicant receives more information about a company through employ- ment advertisements and other recruitment materials.92 A company’s recruitment image is also affected by the advertisements it places for products or services.93 Many companies undertake image advertising to raise the profile of their organizations in a positive manner to attract interest from job seekers, as well as increase interest in their services and prod- ucts.94 A good example of image advertising is the sponsorship of the many summer jazz festivals and other cultural events by Canadian companies. The hope is that associating their names with high-profile events will improve the corporate image and result in greater interest in the company.95 Presumably, working for companies with positive images raises the self-esteem of employees, and this prospect is attractive to potential employees.96

Similar to image advertising, another strategy that corporations use to enhance their identity in the marketplace and to sell the organization is “branding.” Companies use branding to establish certain perceptions about the corporation in the public’s mind through associating the organization with high-profile celebrities or being known as one of the best 100 employers in Canada. Again, these strategies may backfire. Many retail companies used Tiger Woods, who had a positive reputation as a golfer, to enhance their own identity through associating him with many of their own products. After Woods was embroiled in a sex scandal, these same companies scrambled to disassociate themselves from him.

An organization that is having trouble attracting qualified candidates should investi- gate how it is perceived by job candidates and take corrective action, if necessary. One of the difficulties is identifying the components that influence an organization’s image, as different individuals may have different perceptions of the same company; job seekers and company executives may hold very different perceptions of the organization’s image. Image advertising must present an accurate and consistent picture of the organization. Image advertising that creates misperceptions will lead to mismatches in the fit between person and organization. Image advertising should be designed to improve the attractiveness of the organization on the basis of an accurate representation of its characteristics. Recruit- ment and Selection Notebook 6.4 provides a few guidelines for organizational recruiting.

Image advertising Advertising designed to raise an organization’s profile in a positive manner in order to attract job seekers’ interest.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 6.4

GuIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE RECRuITING

• Ensure that candidates receive consistent and noncontradictory information about important fea- tures of the job and its environment from all people involved in the recruiting process.

• Recognize that the behaviour of recruiters and other representatives gives an impression of the organization’s climate, efficiency, and attitude toward employees.

• Ensure that all recruiting information and materials given to job applicants present accurate and con- sistent information, whether positive or negative.

• Present important information on the job and the organization to job candidates by several different, reliable, and credible sources.

• Give serious consideration not only to the content of information presented to candidates but also to the context in which it is presented.

• Take extreme care in preparing recruiting mate- rials and selecting advertising media, and also in choosing the recruiters who will interact with job applicants.

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NEL 271CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

// the PeRSon–oRgAnIzAtIon FIt No matter how desirable or compatible a job and organization appear to the candidate, it is all for naught unless the candidate receives an offer of employment. During the recruit- ment process, the organization, through its representatives, is seeking to learn as much as it can about the candidate. Recruiters assess potential employees in terms of their fit with both the job and the organization. Person–job fit concerns whether the job applicant has the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies required by the job, while person–organization fit is the recruiter’s belief that the candidate fits with the organization’s values and culture; that is, the candidate has the contextual attributes that the company is looking for.

Recruiters distinguish between these two types of “fit” and tend to make decisions early in their interview with a candidate on whether the candidate matches what the orga- nization is looking for.97 The recruiter’s perception that the applicant fits the job appears to be based mainly on an assessment of the candidate’s skills and experience, derived from information gathered during the recruiting process. These sources are likely to include a review of the candidate’s résumé and a brief screening interview. In some cases, candidates may also be asked to take employment tests at this stage. These screening and selection procedures are the focus of Chapters 7–9. The recruiter’s perception of a person—organization (P-O) fit is mostly based on an assessment by the recruiter of the candidate’s work experience, personality, and values.

An applicant’s résumé plays an important role in determining whether the applicant will proceed to the next stage of the hiring process. Organizational recruiters use the content of job applicants’ résumés to make inferences about the suitability of applicants for both P-O and P-J fit. As noted above, they use information about the candidate’s work experience and educational background to assess person–job (P-J) fit. Recruiters go on to use work experience and extracurricular activities that are noted on the résumé to make an assessment of the applicant’s P-O fit. Résumé content influences the recruiter’s hiring decision.98

Both the perception of P-J fit and of P-O fit predict whether the company will make a job offer. The perception of a poor P-O fit, however, will reduce the likelihood that a person with a good job fit will receive a job offer. Recruiters form and use per- ceptions of a candidate’s organizational fit as part of the hiring process.99 Hiring by Zappos, a retail clothing company owned by Amazon, is based solely on P-O fit and not an assessment of job fit. We don’t have any data on how successful Zappos is in hiring successful employees, but the empirical evidence is not good. Unfortunately, predictions based only on P-O fit are not very accu- rate. Meta-analysis has shown that P-O fit is not a good predictor of job performance (r .15)5 , although a somewhat better predictor of job turnover (r .24)5 .100 P-O fit and P-J fit do a much better job at predicting several attitudinal variables such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Both are also negatively related to inten- tions to quit and indicators of strain.101 Table 6.2 presents the results from two meta-analyses supporting these conclusions.

The assessment of fit and the decision of the company to make an offer and the candidate to accept it are based on the exchange of infor- mation, including the résumé, that takes place over the recruitment process. If the job candidate does not make an adequate investigation of the job or organization, or if the organization does not represent

Person–job fit Occurs when a job candidate has the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies required by the job in question.

Person–organization fit Occurs when a job candidate fits the organization’s values and culture and has the contextual attributes desired by the organization.

to ck

.c om

/m ev

an s

square peg in round hole.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL272

PERsOn–ORgAniZATiOn fiT PERsOn–JOb fiT

Job performancea, b .15 .20

Intentions to quitb −.35 −.46

Job satisfactionb .44 .56

Organizational commitmentb .51 .47

Coworker satisfactionb .39 .32

Supervisor satisfactionb .33 .33

Indicators of strainb −.27 −.28

Sources of data: a Arthur, W., Jr. S.T. Bell, A.J. Villado, and D. Doverspike. 2006. “The use of Person-Organization Fit in Employment Decision Making: An Assessment of Its Criterion-Related Validity.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91: 786–801. b Kristof-Brown, A.L., R.D. Zimmerman, and E.C. Johnson. 2005. “Consequences of Individual’s Fit at Work: A Meta-Analysis of Person–Job, Person–Organization, Person–Group, and Person–Supervisor Fit. Personnel Psychology 58: 281–342.

TAbLE 6.2

THE CORRELATiOn Of P-O fiT And P-J fiT wiTH vARiAbLEs LisTEd in THE fiRsT COLumn

itself accurately through the people involved in recruiting and selection, the probability of a person–organization mismatch increases. Mismatches can be quite costly in terms of absenteeism, low productivity, and turnover. A major goal of any recruitment cam- paign should be to improve the chance of making a good fit between candidates and the organization.

communIcAtIon And PeRcePtIon

Based on information that was available or obtained during the recruitment process, the candidate and the organization form a perception of each other. If the perceptions of both are positive (“This is the right candidate,” “This is the right job for me”), a job offer is made and accepted. If the perceptions of one do not match those of the other, a job offer is either not made or, if made, not accepted. Figure 6.4 presents the possible out- comes from this process. In all cases, there is a possibility that the perceptions formed by the candidate and/or the organization are wrong. Candidates, particularly, may develop overly positive perceptions of the organization.102

Perceptions are based on communication. During the recruiting process both the candidate and the organization try to control the flow of information from one to the other. One party may not wish to share some information with the other. An orga- nization may fear losing top-quality candidates by revealing that it is not the perfect workplace; candidates may fear losing a job offer by admitting they do not plan to stay with the organization for a long period of time. Both may misrepresent their attributes or characteristics. An organization may exaggerate the chances for promotion to attract a candidate; candidates may exaggerate their experience. Both the organization and the candidate evaluate each other during the recruitment process.103

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NEL 273CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

Inaccurate, incomplete, or distorted information leads to misperceptions and inac- curate decisions. A primary goal of recruitment should be to increase the accuracy of the perceptions that each party holds about the other.

AccuRAte exPectAtIonS

By developing a systematic job search strategy, job candidates will come into contact with information on jobs and organizations. Many of the initial expectations that can- didates develop are based on the accuracy of this preliminary information, as well as the more extensive information that accumulates during the recruiting process. For example, accuracy of information received from the recruiting source and the organization directly influenced the length of time that Canadian students stayed in seasonal jobs, as well as their commitment to the organization and their job satisfaction.104 Candidates actively evaluate the merits of any message they receive.105 Organizations, however, have no control over whether candidates search for any information, or which information they select and use in forming an opinion about the job or the organization.

Newcomers in an organization often develop overly high expectations about the job and the organization, and these initial expectations may substantially influence the long- term relationship between the candidate and the organization.106 Organizations do, how- ever, have control over the accuracy and the completeness of the information they present when recruiting job candidates (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 6.5). During the United States’ first war with Iraq, many military personnel who were recruited into the U.S. Reserve Forces were shocked and outraged to learn that they were liable for combat duty; they claimed that they had never been made aware of such a possibility before signing on.107 Unmet expectations on the part of new hires leads to lack of both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.108 Adding more relevant information about the job and the organization to job postings can lead to an applicant’s greater attraction to the job while a lack of information may lead to negative inferences and lower attraction to the job.109

figuRE 6.4

mATCHing THE CAndidATE’s And ORgAniZATiOn’s PERCEPTiOns: JOb OffER OuTCOmEs

Candidate’s Perception of the Organization

Organization’s Perception of the Candidate

Positive Negative

Positive

Negative

Job offer made by organization and accepted by candidate.

Job offer made by organization and rejected by candidate.

Job offer not made by organization but would have been accepted by candidate.

Job offer not made by organization and would not have been accepted by candidate.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL274

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 6.5

CREATING ACCuRATE ExPECTATIONS

Four factors play an influential role in creating accurate expectations that candidates hold about prospective jobs:

1. Source of information. In describing a job or posi- tion, the organization should present information to job candidates that accurately describes the job and its context.

2. Communication media. Recruitment media differ in their effectiveness. Organizations should use as many different types of communication media as they can afford, including newer technologies such as job postings on their websites or on Internet employment sites.

3. Content of information. The content of informa- tion provided throughout the recruitment process is the most important factor in creating accurate job expectations and should be:

• Accurate—Job candidates should be given both positive and negative information about the job and the organization.

• Specific—Job candidates should be given detailed information that will allow them to make an informed decision.

• Broad—Job candidates should be given informa- tion about a wide range of job and organizational attributes, not only information related to a narrow range of topics.

• Credible—Job candidates must believe that the information they receive is reliable and accurate.

• Important—Job candidates should be given infor- mation that is important to their decision making and which they are unlikely to receive through other means.

4. Nature of the job candidates. The organization must know something about the audience that it wants to respond to the information. This includes knowledge of the social and demographic character- istics of the target group. The content of the message should be compatible with its intended audience and address their needs and interests. It should be placed in media most likely to be used by the target group.

Courts in both Canada and the United States have held employers accountable for the accuracy of information they present to job candidates as part of the recruiting process. False promises and misrepresentations made in recruiting candidates to work for a company may result in a damage award. Recruiters must be very careful in state- ments they make to job applicants concerning issues such as time to promotion and pay increases.110 Employees who believe that they were misled about the nature of their working conditions or their working environment are likely to take legal action against their employers to the extent that they are injured through reliance on the false or mis- leading statements.111 As part of orienting newcomers into an organization, a company may wish to initiate a set of procedures that are designed to lower the expectations of the new hire to more realistic and accurate perceptions of the organization, apart from that individual’s specific job.112

ReAlIStIc Job PRevIeWS

Recruitment programs can be designed to increase the accuracy of the expectations that job candidates hold about the job and the organization. One such program, realistic job previews (RJPs), is intended to improve the possibility of identifying a fit between

Realistic job preview A procedure designed to reduce turnover and increase satisfaction among newcomers to an organization by providing job candidates with accurate information about the job and the organization.

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NEL 275CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

the job candidate and the organization. The primary goal of RJPs is to reduce turnover among newcomers to an organization by providing job candidates with accurate informa- tion about the job and the organization.113 Other hoped-for outcomes of the RJP are (1) that the job candidates will develop realistic perceptions of what it is like to work in the organization, (2) that they will view the organization in a more credible light, and (3) that, if they accept the job offer, they will be more satisfied with their job and committed to the organization. Extensive research shows that while RJPs accomplish their goals, they do so at a modest level.114

Rather than have a candidate accept a job on the basis of unrealistic expectations, only to quit after discovering a mismatch with the organization, RJPs give the candidate an accurate preview of the job before the job offer is accepted (e.g., weekend work, limited promotional opportunities). In this way, candidates who discover a mismatch self-select out, or remove themselves from the competition, saving themselves the aggravation of having made a bad decision and the organization the cost of hiring and training them. There are some concerns that the realism also discourages very qualified candidates from accepting job offers from the organization115; however, the number of withdrawals from the applicant pool after an RJP is not great.116

The more exposure a job applicant has to a job, the more likely it is that the applicant may overemphasize the negative aspects of the job and refuse a job offer; this aspect of RJPs may prove problematic in extremely competitive job markets.117 The negative information in the RJP appears to influence the job applicant’s decision and may have a greater adverse impact on the best-qualified applicants,118 requiring greater compensation to attract them to the position.119

On the other hand, presenting negative information as part of the RJP may have positive effects. In addition to lowering job candidates’ expectations and attraction to the organization, RJPs may increase perceptions of the trustworthiness of the organization and facilitate a person–organization match more so than a traditional job preview.120 Simi- larly, RJPs enhance a job candidate’s perception that the organization is a caring one that is concerned for its employees.121 There is some evidence that RJPs lead to increased com- mitment and reduced turnover through perceptions of employer concern and honesty.122 Recruitment and Selection Today 6.6 outlines the use of RJPs in the Canadian Forces.

RJPs remain one of the most intriguing aspects of the recruiting process. Notwith- standing the methodological flaws in RJP research,123 RJPs lead to accurate expectations on the part of job candidates, to reductions in turnover, and to improvements in job satis- faction124; however, the magnitudes of these significant effects are small, raising questions about whether the costs and time needed to develop an RJP are balanced or offset by its benefits. Rynes and Cable125 do not expect RJPs to remain a major priority for recruitment research, given the modest effects found by Phillips in her meta-analysis.126 Saks agreed that RJPs had only a modest effect on turnover reduction.127 Breaugh, on the other hand, argued that Phillips’s conclusions that RJPs produce very small or modest effects may have been premature due to the small number of studies in the meta-analysis, failure to consider different types of RJPs, and an improper application of RJP theory.128 A more recent meta- analysis confirmed many of the previous conclusions about RJPs but also found that the RJP link to reduced voluntary turnover was mediated by an instilled sense of organizational honesty. The most effective RJPs were those that were oral or written and delivered post- hire, as opposed to pre-hire, and that were designed to signal organizational honesty.129

Nonetheless, when prospective employees know more about an organization, whether through an RJP or other means, there appear to be more positive outcomes for the employees with respect to their job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Moser130 found that job applicants who were recruited by an organization through

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.6

REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS IN THE CANADIAN FORCES

The Canadian Forces (CF) uses RJPs as part of its recruit- ment program. The program was designed to reduce early attrition of new recruits by improving identification of both the person–job fit and person–organization fit. RJPs are carried out throughout the Canadian Forces as a matter of policy. They are embedded in a comprehensive counselling system designed to match the goals, interests, and abili- ties of applicants to the characteristics and conditions of service associated with specific trades in the CF.

By using advertising media and recruiting visits to schools and public places such as shopping malls, the CF raises the interest of potential applicants in the mili- tary as a career and attracts them to recruiting centres. The applicant is met by a recruiting officer, who presents the candidate with brochures and information on the CF and determines initial suitability of the candidate for a CF career. Applicants who pass this first screening then view an orientation video, which depicts the careers of two can- didates from recruitment through basic and trades training, and on to their first job postings. The video provides a real- istic preview of life in the forces in general and includes information on both the positive and the negative aspects of military life. For example, it may portray the personal and social support offered to CF members and their families as well as the hazards and physical demands of military duty.

Following the orientation video, the candidate meets with a military career counsellor and has an opportu- nity to raise any questions or concerns stimulated by the video. At this point, the candidate must make a decision about whether to continue the process by completing an

application form and a series of ability and aptitude tests. Candidates are next shown up to five trade/lifestyle videos for entry-level positions for which they qualified through ability and aptitude testing. These videos are based on inter- views with personnel from each trade they represent; they contain both verbal descriptions and live-action footage of what it is like to work in that trade in a military environment. The speakers not only provide a description of what the trade is like but also express their views about their work.

Following these videos, the candidate meets once again with a military career counsellor to review all aspects of the different trades and the military lifestyle. If the candidate remains interested in one of the selected trades, if there is an appropriate vacancy in that specialty, and if the candidate has passed a series of employment tests and interviews, the candidate is given an offer to enroll in the Canadian Forces. This offer is made conditional on the candidate’s meeting appropriate medical and physical requirements.

Some of the initial RJP material can be found on the Canadian Forces website at http://www.forces.ca/en /jobexplorer/browsejobs-70. Scroll down the page to see a list of available CF jobs. If you select “Personnel Selection Officer,” a function similar to many HR positions, a written description of the job is provided, along with a video that illustrates the working environment.

As illustrated by this example, RJPs, when done right, require an extensive array of resources during their devel- opment and implementation. The cost to produce an RJP that is done well may place it beyond the reach of many small to medium-sized organizations.

referrals from family and friends, internships, or in-house notices had fewer unmet expec- tations about the job and expressed more job satisfaction and organizational commit- ment. Moser argued that the internal recruitment sources provided the applicants with more and better information about the organization and the jobs, much like an RJP.

exPectAtIon-loWeRIng PRoceduReS

Today’s increasingly educated workers have higher expectations about their workplaces and their jobs. They expect greater opportunities for skill development and empowerment (i.e., input into decision making). However, many of these expectations may be unreal- istic. Realistic job previews may be a valuable tool in helping to lower these expectations to more reasonable levels and to improve communications and trust. There is another

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NEL 277CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

step an organization can take to ensure accurate expectations once job applicants become new hires. Many companies have new hires go through an orientation procedure to learn about the policies and practices of the company. The inclusion of material designed to lower expectations as part of this orientation will also lead to a reduction in some of the negative outcomes experienced by new hires. These expectancy-lowering procedures (ELPs) focus on the expectations of the new hires rather than on specific aspects of the job or the organization, which are typically included in an RJP.

An ELP workshop could present information showing (1) how important it is to have realistic expectations at the start of a job and how expectations are formed, (2) how unre- alistically high expectations are related to negative organizational outcomes, and (3) how unrea listically high expectations that remain unfulfilled lead to dissatisfaction with work and turnover. Buckley and his colleagues131 demonstrated that an ELP such as this led to less dissat- isfaction and turnover and recommended that organizations use it as a complement to RJPs.

Subsequently, Buckley and another team of researchers132 assessed the effectiveness of an ELP, RJP, or both together in predicting the number of days worked by applicants for telemarketing jobs, which are notorious for high turnover rates. The combination of RJP and ELP given to all job applicants resulted in the largest number of days worked by candidates who were hired, compared to applicants who were given only one of the procedures or no preview at all. The RJP by itself did not increase the number of days worked beyond that of the group not given any preview.

decISIon-mAkIng tRAInIng

Decision-making training (DMT) operates on the assumption that any actions that improve the decision-making process on the part of job candidates, by either providing accurate information or enhancing decision-making skills, will lead to the party delivering the actions being seen as helpful.133 In DMT, candidates are taught how to identify and weigh positive and negative outcomes from a set of alternatives. The message is similar to that conveyed by RJPs except that the message need not include negative information; the intention is to establish that the organization wants candidates to make decisions that are good for them even if those decisions are at the expense of the organization in losing the candidate.

DMT may be a viable, less costly alternative to RJP that produces longer-lasting ben- efits. Because the DMT does not contain information about the company, let alone nega- tive information, it avoids the negative spinoffs of RJP. DMT may prove to be a good means for determining P-O fit but, because it does not convey job information, it may be less appropriate for determining P-J fit. DMT is a relatively new concept that is primarily used in career counselling with high school and college students. Relatively few studies have looked at DMT as part of recruitment; much more research is needed.

// evAluAtIng RecRuItIng eFFoRtS We started this chapter with the proposition that recruitment is the first step in the selec- tion process through which an organization finds the best-qualified people to fill job vacancies. It is quite obvious that recruiting can be very expensive and time consuming. While it is important to know the effectiveness of different recruiting methods, organiza- tions that engage in recruiting should also be concerned that their money and time are well spent. They should want to know not only whether the job advertisements paid off in more applications, but also whether better-qualified candidates were hired, what it cost

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL278

to recruit the new employees, whether the new recruits are more productive or have a more positive attitude about the organization, and whether they stay with the organiza- tion for a longer period of time.

Unfortunately, many companies do not bother to ask these questions or evaluate the effectiveness of their recruiting efforts, the quality of the people they recruited, or the recruits’ success on the job. Their primary criteria for judging the success of recruiting appear to be the number of applications received and whether the vacant jobs were filled. Very few organizations track the performance and behavioural outcomes of people recruited into the organization or the costs associated with the recruiting campaign, including advertising costs.134 Without doubt, recruiters will increasingly be required to demonstrate the effectiveness of their programs. It is essential that HR practitioners demonstrate the effectiveness, and worth, of recruiting.135

Recruiting should not be taken at face value but should be evaluated on the basis of specific criteria. Recruiting efforts should be evaluated separately from the selection system. The criterion measures that an organization uses to evaluate its recruiting program should be consistent with the goals that were set for that effort. If the organization wanted to recruit the best possible candidates available, it would be unfair to evaluate the recruiting program on the cost involved in finding those candidates. The appropriate measure would be whether the best possible candidates were hired. If the organization used recruiting to generate a large applicant pool, then an appropriate criterion measure might be the number of applications that were received rather than the quality of the people hired.

Many different criterion measures can be used to evaluate recruiting efforts; some of them are shown in Recruitment and Selection Today 6.7.136,137 These criteria can be

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.7

ExAMPLES OF CRITERIA uSED TO EVALuATE RECRuITING METHODS

behavioural measures

• Time to fill position

• Turnover rates

– within 6 months

– within 12 months

– within 24 months

• Absenteeism

• Recruitment costs

Performance measures

• Quality of hire

• Performance ratings

• Sales quotas

• Performance potential

Attitudinal measures

• Job satisfaction

• Job involvement

• Satisfaction with supervisor

• Commitment to organization

• Perceived accuracy of job descriptions

Sources: S.L. Rynes. 1991. “Recruitment, Job Choice, and Post-Hire Consequences.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 399–444). 2nd ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; J.P. Wanous and A. Colella. 1989. “Orga- nizational Entry Research: Current Status and Future Directions.” In K.M. Rowland and G.R. Ferris, eds., Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, Vol. 7 (pp. 59–120). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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NEL 279CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process

grouped into three broad categories: behavioural measures, performance measures, and attitudinal measures.

One final criterion, employment equity, should be considered as part of evaluating any recruitment efforts. The organization must review whether its recruiting campaign has produced an increased presence of qualified women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities in its work force. In the context of Canadian employ- ment equity legislation, as discussed in Chapter 3, recruiting efforts must be judged on this basis as well as the more traditional outcome measures.

RecRuItment AudIt

Ryan and Tippens138 developed an audit of recruitment practices to help HR managers determine if their recruitment practices reflected best practices based on research. The questions that form that audit are presented in Recruitment and Selection Today 6.8. Review of the audit questions can assist HR professionals in identifying gaps in their recruitment practices.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 6.8

AN AuDIT OF RECRuITMENT PRACTICES

• Have we determined which applicant groups to target?

• Are efforts being made to recruit a diverse appli- cant pool?

• Are efforts being made to have a low selection ratio (i.e., a low number of people selected relative to the total number of applicants)?

• Are we considering combinations of tools to achieve the highest validity and lowest adverse impact?

• Have we considered how our ordering of tools affects validity and adverse impact?

• Are we considering all aspects of job performance in choosing tools?

• Have we determined which recruiting sources pro- vide the best yield?

• Are we providing applicants with the specific infor- mation they desire?

• Have we selected recruiters who are warm and friendly?

• Is appropriate attention being given to early recruitment activities?

• Are applicants being processed quickly?

• Do we solicit feedback from applicants on satis- faction with the staffing process?

• Are applicants being provided with informa- tion about the job-relatedness of the selection process?

• Are applicants provided with accurate information on which to judge their fit with the position?

• Do we have evidence that selection procedures are job related?

• Are applicants treated with respect?

• Is the selection process consistently administered?

• Does the process allow for some two-way communication?

• Is feedback provided to applicants in an informa- tive and timely manner?

Source: A.M. Ryan and N.T. Tippens. 2004. “Attracting and Selecting: What Psychological Research Tells us,” Human Resource Management, 43:4 305–18. Human Resource Management by university of Michigan. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.

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280 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

// SummARy Recruitment is the first step in the hiring or staffing process, but, unlike other aspects of this process, the actions and decisions of the job seeker play a major role. A recruitment process, no matter how brilliantly conceived, is a failure if it does not attract qualified job applicants. A recruitment strategy must be based not only on the actions and decisions of job seekers but also on the organization’s strategic planning.

In developing a recruitment strategy, HR planners must consider both the internal and the external constraints on the organization. All recruitment is influenced by external factors over which the organization has little control (e.g., the labour market and the legal environment), as well as internal factors that it can influence (e.g., its compensa- tion strategy, business plan, and values). Recruitment strategies and materials, which are grounded in organization and job analysis, establish both realistic expectations among job applicants and the availability of qualified internal and external job candidates.

Every recruitment strategy must contain an action plan, which schedules recruiting initiatives and provides a means of identifying and locating the target applicant pool. The action plan must also identify the appropriate methods for contacting the target applicant pool. The action plan should also include a method for evaluating the effectiveness of the recruitment campaign.

HR professionals must know the effectiveness of different recruiting methods and build into their recruitment strategy plans for evaluating the recruiting outcomes. They also must know the appropriate recruitment source for the target pool of applicants. In cases where informal methods such as referrals and job postings are used, care must be taken to avoid systemic discrimination. In evaluating outcomes, the quantity of appli- cants should not be the only criterion, as the quality of the applicants attracted to the organization is an even more important factor.

Recruitment campaigns are a success when they understand what organizational characteristics attract job seekers. The recruitment process must take into account the strategies that job seekers use to investigate jobs and organizations. The process should provide job candidates with information they need to make appropriate job choices. Job candidates should receive information about the job, the organization, and the orga- nization’s approach to compensation. For example, job candidates will want to know whether the company will meet market pay rates, whether compensation is related to performance, and what reward systems are in place, among other issues.

Recruitment campaigns should be based on the principle of improving the fit between job candidates and the organization. Organizations can help to achieve this by presenting an accurate image of both the job and the organization to job seekers. The organization should use communications in a way that develops accurate expectations and perceptions on the part of job applicants. One method that appears capable of doing this is a realistic job preview.

key teRmS

Applicant pool, p. 230 Image advertising, p. 270 Interests and values, p. 266 Internet recruiting, p. 253 Job search, p. 267 Organization analysis, p. 237

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281CHAPTER 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process NEL

Outsourcing, p. 233 Person–job fit, p. 271 Person–organization fit, p. 271 Realistic job preview, p. 274 Recruitment, p. 230 Self-selecting out, p. 266 Social networks, p. 257 Systemic discrimination, p. 234

dIScuSSIon queStIonS

1. Discuss the relationship between recruitment and selection.

2. Why is organizational strategy important in recruitment?

3. Discuss how the characteristics of the job and organization influence job seekers.

4. Why is it important that job seekers develop accurate expectations of what their posi- tion/role will be in an organization before accepting employment there?

5. Why does a realistic job preview benefit both the job seeker and the organization?

6. What are the internal and external factors that influence an organization’s recruit- ment strategy?

7. What are the elements of an effective recruitment and staffing action plan?

8. What are the different methods that can be used to recruit internal and external job applicants?

9. Is the Internet an effective recruiting method? Why or why not?

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of social network recruiting?

exeRcISeS

1. Choose an organization in your community and schedule a meeting with its HR manager (or designate). Using the material in this chapter as a guide, interview the HR representative on the organization’s recruiting efforts (e.g., determine the role that job and organization analysis played in developing the strategy). Ask whether the organization considers how potential applicants would react to the recruiting materials. Ask if the organization uses the Internet and social media as part of its recruiting efforts. Prepare a report on the organization’s recruiting strategy and its effectiveness.

2. Examine the organization’s recruiting program (the one chosen for Exercise 1) from a job candidate’s perspective. With the assistance of the HR representative, interview a recently hired employee who was an external applicant. Ask the employee about the employee’s job search strategy, perceptions of the organization, the recruiting process, requirements for pay and benefits, what influenced the decision to take the job, and whether that decision changed after being in the organization for a period of time. Prepare a report summarizing this interview.

3. Using the information presented in this chapter and the information obtained from your interviews in Exercises 1 and 2, develop a comprehensive recruitment strategy for the organization based on the job of the new employee whom you interviewed.

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282 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

4. How did the organization advertise the position? Identify the best ways for reaching the target applicant pool for this job.

5. Prepare an advertisement for the position of the person you interviewed. Compare the costs of running this advertisement in some of the commonly used media dis- cussed in this chapter.

6. Use the NOC or O*NET to find a job description for a position that is of interest to you. Write an effective job advertisement for that position.

7. For the position you identified above, prepare a recruitment plan to fill that position through both the Internet and social networks.

CAsE sTudy RECRuiTing in A COmPETiTivE EnviROnmEnT

When qualified applicants are scarce, recruiting becomes extremely competitive, particularly when two companies go after the same candidate, as often happens in the case of searching for professionals.

After interviewing three short-listed candidates, a high-tech company, Com- pany X, made an offer to one and advised the other two candidates that they were unsuccessful. The successful candidate was given one week to consider the offer. The candidate asked for a week’s extension to consider the offer but was granted only an additional three days.

At the end of the time period, the candidate verbally accepted the offer and was sent a contract to sign. Rather than returning the signed contract, the candi- date informed Company X that he had accepted a position at Company Y. He had received the second offer after verbally accepting the first position at Company X. The second company knew that the candidate had verbally accepted Company X’s offer.

Before accepting Company Y’s offer, the candidate had consulted a respected mentor who advised him to ignore his verbal commitment to Company X and to accept Company Y’s offer. There were no substantial differences in the salaries being offered by each company or in the work that each would expect the candidate to perform. The candidate simply saw Company Y as the more prestigious of the two employers.

queStIonS

1. Did the candidate act in an appropriate manner? 2. What should the candidate have done? 3. What would you have done if you had been in the candidate’s position? 4. Did Company Y act ethically, knowing that the candidate had verbally

accepted another offer? 5. Does a verbal acceptance constitute a legal and binding contract? 6. What should the candidate’s mentor have advised him to do? 7. Should Company X take any action to enforce the verbal commitment?

Should it take any legal action against the candidate or Company Y? Why or why not?

8. How can situations like this be avoided? 9. Describe what Company X should have done to maintain the candidate’s

interest in the position.

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// endnoteS 1. Guion, R.M. 1976. “Recruiting, Selection, and Job Placement.” In M. Dunnette,

ed., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 777—828). Chicago: Rand-McNally.

2. Ryan, A.M., and Delaney, T. 2010. “Attracting Job Candidates to Organizations.” In J.L. Farr and N.T. Tippens, eds., Handbook of Employee Selection (pp. 127—150). New York: Routledge.

3. Rynes, S.L. 1991. “Recruitment, Job Choice, and Post-Hire Consequences.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd ed. (pp. 399—444). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

4. Keenan, G. 1996. “Toyota Swamped in Rush for Jobs.” The Globe and Mail (February 21): A1, A7.

5. Dineen, B.R., and S.M. Soltis. 2011. “Recruitment: A Review of Research and Emerging Directions.” In S. Zedeck, ed., APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2: Selecting and Developing Members for the Organization (pp. 43—66). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

6. Greengard, S. 1995. “Leveraging a Low-Wage Work Force.” Personnel Journal 74 (January): 90—102.

7. Flynn, G. 1995. “Contingent Staffing Requires Serious Strategy.” Personnel Journal 74 (April): 50—58.

8. Holton, B.C., T.W. Lee, and S.T. Tidd. 2002. “The Relationship between Work Status Congruence and Work-Related Attitudes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87: 903—915.

9. Heyboer, K. 2016. “No ‘Ghetto People’. How Temp Agencies Allegedly Hire Based on Race and Gender” The New Jersey Real Time News. Retrieved July 21, 2017 from http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2016/09/no_ghetto_people_ how_temp_agencies_allegedly_hire.html

10. Evans, W. 2016. “The Astonishing Discriminatory Tactics of Companies Hiring Temp Workers: Black Applicants Losing Out Big Time.” Retrieved July 21, 2017 from http://www.alternet.org/labor/astonishing-discriminatory- tactics-companies-hiring-temp-workers-black-applicants-losing-out

11. Ryan, A.M., and M.J. Schmit. 1996. “Calculating EEO Statistics in the Temporary Help Industry.” Personnel Psychology 49: 167—180.

12. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

13. Dineen, B.R., and S.M. Soltis. 2011.

14. Perrott, S.B. 1999. “Visible Minority Applicant Concerns and Assessment of Occupational Role in the Era of Community-based Policing.” Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 9: 339—353.

15. Avery, D.R., and P.F. McKay. 2006. “Target Practice: An Organizational Impression Management Approach to Attracting Minority and Female Job Applicants.” Personnel Psychology 59: 157—187.

16. Ryan, A.M., and N.T. Tippins. 2004.”Attracting and Selecting: What Psychological Research Tells Us.” Human Resource Management 43: 305—318.

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17. Kravitz, D.A., and S.L. Klineberg. 2000. “Reactions to Two Versions of Affirmative Action among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85: 597—611.

18. Saks, A.M., J.D. Leck, and D.M. Saunders. 1995. “Effects of Application Blanks and Employment Equity on Applicant Reactions and Job Pursuit Intentions.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 16: 415—430.

19. Heilman, M.E., W.S. Battle, C.E. Keller, and R.A. Lee. 1998. “Type of Affirmative Action Policy: A Determinant of Reactions to Sex-based Preferential Selection?” Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 190—205.

20. Ryan, A.M., M. Horvath, and S.D. Kriska. 2005. “The Role of Recruiting Source Informativeness and Organizational Perceptions in Decisions to Apply.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 13: 235—249.

21. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Keenan, G. 1996.

26. Belcourt, M., G. Bohlander, and S. Snell. 2011. Managing Human Resources, 6th Canadian edition, Toronto: Nelson.

27. Barber, A.E., M.J. Wesson, Q.M. Roberson, and M.S. Taylor. 1999. “A Tale of Two Job Markets: Organizational Size and Its Effects on Hiring Practices and Job Search Behaviour.” Personnel Psychology 52: 841—868.

28. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

29. Ibid.

30. Dineen, B.R., and S.M. Soltis. 2011.

31. Avery, D.R., and P.F. McKay. 2006.

32. Arthur, D. 2001. The Employee Recruitment and Retention Handbook. New York: AMACOM.

33. Decker, P.J., and E.T. Cornelius. 1979. “A Note on Recruiting Sources and Job Survival Rates.” Journal of Applied Psychology 64: 463—464.

34. Breaugh, J.A. 1981. “Relationships between Recruiting Sources and Employee Performance, Absenteeism and Work Attitudes.” Academy of Management Journal 24: 142, 147—148.

35. Zottoli, M.A., and J.P. Wanous. 2000. “Recruitment Source Research: Current Status and Future Directions.” Human Resource Management Review 10: 353—382.

36. Taylor, S.G. 1994. “The Relationship between Sources of New Employees and Attitudes toward the Job.” Journal of Social Psychology 134: 99—111.

37. Wanous, J.P., and A. Colella. 1989. “Organizational Entry Research: Current Status and Future Directions.” In K.M. Rowland and G.R. Ferris, eds., Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, Vol. 7 (pp. 59—120). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

38. Taylor, S.G. 1994.

39. Moser, K. 2005. “Recruitment Sources and Post-Hire Outcomes: The Mediating Role of Unmet Expectations.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 13: 188—197.

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40. Zottoli, M.A., and J.P. Wanous. 2000.

41. Bissonnette, A., and V.M. Catano. 2003. Revisiting the Efficacy of Recruiting Methods. Paper presented at the 11th Congress of the European Association of Work and Organization Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal.

42. Zottoli, M.A., and J.P. Wanous. 2000.

43. Dolan, S.L., and R.S. Schuler. 1994. Human Resource Management: The Canadian Dynamic. 2nd edition. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Canada.

44. Chapman, D.S., K.L. Uggerslev, S.A. Carroll, K.A. Piasentin, and D. A. Jones. 2005. “Applicant Attraction to Organizations and Job Choice: A Meta- Analytic Review of the Correlates of Recruiting Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90: 928—944.

45. Rynes, S.L., and D.M. Cable. 2003. “Recruitment Research in the Twenty- First Century.” In W.C Borman, D.R. Ilgen, and R. Klimoski, eds., Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 12 (pp. 55—76). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

46. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

47. Ployhart, R.E. 2006. “Staffing in the 21st Century: New Challenges and Strategic Opportunities.” Journal of Management 32: 868—897.

48. Capelli, P. 2002. “Making the Most of On-Line Recruiting.” Harvard Business Review (March): 139—146.

49. Cullen, B. 2001. “E-Recruiting Is Driving HR Systems Integration.” Strategic Finance 83: 22—26.

50. Email communication from Michelle Gauthier, June 28, 2011.

51. Verhoeven, H., and S. Williams. 2008. “Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Recruiting: A UK Study into Employers’ Perceptions.” International Review of Business Research Papers 4: 364—373.

52. Verhoeven and Williams. 2008.

53. Rozelle, A.L., and R.S. Landis. 2002. “An Examination of the Relationship between Use of the Internet as a Recruitment Source and Student Attitudes.” Computers in Human Behavior 18: 593—604.

54. Dineen, B.R., S.R. Ash, and R.A. Noe. 2002. “A Web of Applicant Attraction: Person–Organization Fit in the Context of Web-based Recruitment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87: 723—734.

55. Cober, R.T., D.J. Brown, L.M. Keeping, and P.E. Levy. 2004. “Recruitment on the Net: How Do Organizational Web Site Characteristics Influence Applicant Attraction?” Journal of Management 30: 623—646.

56. Pearsall, K. 1998. “Web Recruiting Complicated by Sheer Numbers.” Computing Canada 24: 11, 14.

57. Zusman, R.R., and R.S. Landis. 2002. “Applicant Preferences of Web-based versus Traditional Job Postings.” Computers in Human Behavior 18: 285—296.

58. Verhoeven and Williams. 2008.

59. Ibid.

60. Piturro, M. 2000. “The Power of E-cruiting.” Management Review 89: 33—37.

61. Jobvite Recruiter National Report, 2016. Retrieved July 17, 2017, from http:// web.jobvite.com/Q316_SEM_2016RecruiterNation_LP.html?utm_source

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=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_term=%2Bsocial%20%2Brecruiting&utm_ content=2016recruiternation&utm_campaign=search_jobvitecorporate&gclid =CI3fzsXajdQCFZeLswod8ogHpw

62. Kristl Davison, H., C. Maraist, and M.N. Bing. 2011. “Friend or Foe? The Promise and Pitfalls of Using Social Networking Sites for HR Decisions.” Journal of Business and Psychology 26: 153—159.

63. Workforce Management Magazine. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from http://www. workforce.com/section/06/feature/26/68/67

64. Jobvite.com. 2013. Social Recruiting Survey Results. Retrieved July 24, 2017, from http://web.jobvite.com/rs/jobvite/images/Jobvite_SocialRecruiting2013.pdf

65. Kristl Davison et al. 2011.

66. Ondrack, D. 1996. “Global Warning.” Human Resources Professional (May): 27—29.

67. Moore, F. 2006. “Recruitment and Selection of International Managers.” In T. Edwards and C. Rees, eds. International Human Resource Management. London, UK: Pearson.

68. Ondrack, D. 1996.

69. Moore, F. 2006.

70. Dowling, P., and D. Welch. 2004. International Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. London, UK: Thompson.

71. Moore, F. 2006.

72. Zottoli, M.A., and J.P. Wanous. 2000.

73. Bissonnette, A.B. 2011. Job Information Sources and Applicant Perceptions: Antecedents, Correlates, and Outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS.

74. Breaugh, J.A., and M. Starke. 2000. “Research on Employee Recruitment: So Many Studies, So Many Questions.” Journal of Management 26: 405—434.

75. Rynes, S.L. 1993. “Who’s Selecting Whom? Effects of Selection Practices on Applicant Attitudes and Behaviour.” In N. Schmitt, W.C. Borman et al., eds., Personnel Selection in Organizations (pp. 240—274). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

76. Ryan, A.M., J.M. Sacco, L.A. McFarland, and S.D. Kriska. 2000. “Applicant Self-Selection: Correlates of Withdrawal from a Multiple Hurdle Process.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85: 163—179.

77. Ibid.

78. Schwab, D.P., S.L. Rynes, and R.J. Aldag. 1987. “Theories and Research on Job Search and Choice.” In K.M. Rowland and G.R. Ferris, eds., Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, Vol. 5 (pp. 129—166). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

79. Turban, D.B., J.E. Campion, and A.R. Eyrung. 1995. “Factors Related to Job Acceptance Decisions of College Recruits.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 47: 193—213.

80. Carsten, J.M., and P.E. Spector. 1987. “Unemployment, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Turnover: A Meta-Analytic Test of the Muchinsky Model.” Journal of Applied Psychology 72: 374—381.

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81. Barber, A.E., M.J. Wesson, Q.M. Roberson, and M.S. Taylor. 1999. “A Tale of Two Job Markets: Organizational Size and Its Effects on Hiring Practices and Job Search Behavior.” Personnel Psychology 52: 841—868.

82. Barber, A.E. et al. 1999.

83. Lemmink, J., A. Schuif, and S. Streukens. 2003. “The Role of Corporate Image and Company Employment Image in Explaining Application Intentions.” Journal of Economic Psychology 24: 1—15.

84. Dineen, B.R., and S.M. Soltis. 2011.

85. Turban, D.B. 2001. “Organizational Attractiveness as an Employer on College Campuses: An Examination of the Applicant Population.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 56: 293—312.

86. Cable, D.M., and M.E. Graham. 2000. “The Determinants of Organizational Reputation: A Job Search Perspective.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 21: 929—947.

87. Ibid.

88. Aiman-Smith, L., T.N. Bauer, and D.M. Cable. 2001. “Are You Attracted? Do You Intend to Pursue? A Recruiting Policy-Capturing Study.” Journal of Business and Psychology 16: 219—237.

89. Highhouse, S., E.E. Thornbury, and I.S. Little. 2007. “Social-Identity Functions of Attraction to Organizations.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 103: 134—146.

90. Catano, V. M., and H. Morrow Hines. 2016. “The Influence of Corporate Social Responsibility, Psychologically Healthy Workplaces, and Individual Values in Attracting Millennial Job Applicants.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement 48: 142—154.

91. Yuse, P., and S. Highhouse. 1998. “Effects of Attribute Set Size and Pay Ambiguity on Reactions to ‘Help Wanted’ Advertisements.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 19: 337—352.

92. Cable, D.M., L. Aiman-Smith, P.W. Mulvey, and J.R. Edwards. 2000. “The Sources and Accuracy of Job Applicants’ Beliefs about Organizational Culture.” Academy of Management Journal 43: 1076—1085.

93. Gatewood, R.D., M.A. Gowan, and G.J. Lautenschlager. 1993. “Corporate Image, Recruitment Image, and Initial Job Choices.” Academy of Management Journal 36: 414—427.

94. Magnus, M. 1985. “Recruitment Ads at Work.” Personnel Journal 64: 4—63.

95. Gil, A. 2003. “It’s Party Time at Film Festival.” Report on du Maurier’s spon- sorship of a Toronto Film Festival event. The Globe and Mail (September 23): A13.

96. Ashforth, E., and G. Kreiner. 1999. “‘How Can You Do It?’ Dirty Work and the Challenge of Constructing a Positive Identity.” Academy of Management Review 24: 413—434.

97. Kristof-Brown, A.L. 2000. “Perceived Applicant Fit: Distinguishing between Recruiters’ Perceptions of Person–Job Fit and Person–Organization Fit.” Personnel Psychology 53: 643—671.

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98. Tsai, W-C, N-W. Chi, T-C. Huang, and A-J. Hsu. 2011. “The Effects of Applicant Résumé Contents on Recruiters’ Hiring Recommendations: The Mediating Roles of Recruiter Fit Perceptions.” Applied Psychology: An International Journal 60: 231—254.

99. Kristof-Brown, A.L. 1998. “The Goldilocks Pursuit in Organizational Selection: How Recruiters Form and Use Judgments of Person–Organization Fit.” Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences 58(11-A): 4345.

100. Arthur, W., Jr. S.T. Bell, A.J. Villado, and D. Doverspike. 2006. “The Use of Person-Organization Fit in Employment Decision Making: An Assessment of Its Criterion-related Validity.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91: 786—801.

101. Kristof-Brown, A.L., R.D. Zimmerman, and E.C. Johnson. 2005. “Consequences of Individual’s Fit at Work: A Meta-Analysis of Person–Job, Person–Organization, Person–Group, and Person–Supervisor Fit.” Personnel Psychology 58: 281—342.

102. Wanous, J.P., and A. Colella. 1989.

103. Rynes, S.L. 1993.

104. Saks, A.M. 1994. “A Psychological Process Investigation for the Effects of Recruitment Source and Organization Information on Job Survival.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 15: 225—244.

105. Wanous, J.P., and A. Colella. 1989.

106. Buckley, M.R. et al. 1998. “Investigating Newcomer Expectations and Job- related Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 452—461.

107. Buckley, M.R., D.B. Fedor, and D.S. Marvin. 1994. “Ethical Considerations in the Recruiting Process: A Preliminary Investigation and Identification of Research Opportunities.” Human Resource Management Review 4: 35—50.

108. Moser, K. 2005.

109. Yuce, P., and Highhouse, S. 1997. “Effects of Attribute Set Size and Pay Ambiguity on Reaction to ‘Help Wanted’ Advertisements.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 337—352.

110. Hansen, F. 2007. “Avoiding Truth-in-Hiring Lawsuits.” Workforce Management Online. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from http://www.workforce.com

111. Buckley, M.R., D.B. Fedor, and D.S. Marvin. 1994.

112. Buckley, M.R. et al. 1998.

113. Wanous, J.P. 1980. Organizational Entry: Recruitment, Selection, and Socialization of Newcomers. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

114. Phillips, J.M. 1998. “Effects of Realistic Job Previews on Multiple Organizational Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis.” Academy of Management Journal 41: 673—690.

115. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

116. Phillips, J.M. 1998.

117. Meglino, B.M., E.C. Ravlin, and A.S. DeNisi. 1997. “When Does It Hurt to Tell the Truth? The Effect of Realistic Job Reviews on Employee Recruiting.” Public Personnel Management 26: 413—422.

118. Bretz, R.D., Jr. and T.A. Judge. 1998. “Realistic Job Previews: A Test of the Adverse Self-Selection Hypothesis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 330—337.

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119. Saks, A.M., W.H. Wiesner, and R.J. Summers. 1996. “Effects of Job Previews and Compensation Policy on Applicant Attraction and Job Choice.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 49: 68—85.

120. Travagline, A.M. 2002. “Online Recruiting: Implementing Internet-based Realistic Job Previews.” Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 63 (1—b): 579.

121. Meglino, B.M., A.S. DeNisi, and E.C. Ravlin. 1993. “Effects of Previous Job Exposure and Subsequent Job Status on the Functioning of a Realistic Job Preview.” Personnel Psychology 46: 803—822.

122. Hom, P.W., R.W. Griffeth, L.E. Palich, and J.S. Bracker. 1999. “Revisiting Met Expectations as a Reason Why Realistic Job Previews Work.” Personnel Psychology 52: 97—112.

123. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

124. Phillips, J.M. 1998.

125. Rynes, S.L., and D.M. Cable. 2003.

126. Phillips, J.M. 1998.

127. Saks, A. 2005. “The Impracticality of Recruitment Research.” In A. Evers, N. Anderson, and O. Voskuijl, eds., Handbook of Personnel Selection (pp. 47—72). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

128. Breaugh, J.A. 2008. “Employee Recruitment: Current Knowledge and Important Areas for Future Research.” Human Resource Management Review 18: 103—118.

129. Earnest, D.R., Allen, D.G., and Landis, R.S. 2011. “Mechanisms Linking Realistic Job Previews with Turnover: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis.” Personnel Psychology 64: 865—897.

130. Moser, K. 2005.

131. Buckley, M.R. et al. 1998.

132. Buckley, M.R. et al. 2002. “Implementing Realistic Job Previews and Expectation-lowering Procedures: A Field Experiment.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 61: 263—278.

133. Ganzach, Y., A. Pazy, Y. Ohayun, and E. Brainin. 2002. “Social Exchange and Organizational Commitment: Decision-making Training for Job Choice as an Alternative to the Realistic Job Preview.” Personnel Psychology 55: 613—637.

134. Rynes, S.L., and J.L. Boudreau. 1986. “College Recruiting in Large Organizations: Practice, Evaluation, and Research Implications.” Personnel Psychology 39: 729—757.

135. Grossman, R.J. 2000. “Measuring Up, Appropriate Metric Help: HR Proves Its Worth.” HR Magazine 45: 28—35.

136. Rynes, S.L. 1991.

137. Wanous, J.P., and A. Colella. 1989.

138. Ryan, A.M., and N.T. Tippens. 2004. “Attracting and Selecting: What Psychological Research Tells Us.” Human Resource Management 43: 305—318.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter introduces procedures commonly used in applicant screening, which refers to the early stages of a sequential selection process in which applicants not meeting the minimally required qualifications for a job are withdrawn from consideration. This then allows more detailed consideration to be given to the remaining candidates. The value of screening increases as the number of people applying for the position exceeds the number of positions available (i.e., when the selection ratio is low—or simply put, when you can afford to be more selective!). If all who apply are hired, then screening offers no value. As the more resource-intense assessments are best reserved for the most promising candi- dates, a well-developed and implemented screening process reduces applicant processing costs and adds efficiency for both employer and applicants.

We will review commonly used screening tools, including application blanks, bio- graphical information forms, résumés, and reference checks. More recent technology- enabled tools, such as social networking site searches, video résumés, and virtual career fairs, will also be considered. Chapter 8 will then cover the assessment methods that are typically given only to applicants who survive screening. Chapter 9 focuses on the employment interview, which though sometimes used in screening, is used mostly after screening. Importantly, all screening and post-screening assessments must satisfy both psychometric (Chapter 2) and legal requirements (Chapter 3).

sELECTiOn i: APPLiCAnT sCREEning

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NEL 291CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

Ray Stevens was having a bad day. As the head of Living Healthy Inc. (LHI), a Vancouver-based retailer of outdoor recreational gear and sporting goods, Ray had overseen expansion of LHI from three West Coast stores to 30 loca- tions in major cities across Canada. After several years of strong growth he just learned that same-store sales at LHI were down for the third quarter in a row. He knew that a turnaround in sales was crucial to the willingness of pri- vate investors to fund further expansion.

There was some good news. Recently conducted market research revealed that LHI had high name recogni- tion. Marie Squires, Len’s chief operations officer, had been able to renegotiate down the leasing costs at 12 locations as the contracts came up for renewal. Website sales also continued to grow. Still, Ray was frustrated. He had been confident that the recent expansion of men’s and women’s clothing, including yoga gear and eco-conscious offerings, would have especially boosted sales.

In considering the current state of affairs, Marie com- mented, “we haven’t thought much about it, but since you used your industry connections to place managers at most store locations, more than half of them have left.” Ray replied. “But haven’t we been moving our best salespeople into those management positions as they open up?” “We have,” countered Marie, “but Glen in Human Resources has always warned that the best salespeople don’t nec- essarily make the best managers.” Marie continued, “We also can’t seem to keep our front-line staff; many of them leave within three months. As soon as we get them trained, they’re gone!” “Well, let’s get Glen in here,” interjected Ray.

The next day, in a meeting with Ray and Marie, Glen commented, “It’s no surprise to me we have a high

turnover rate—it’s very common in the retail industry. But, there is a major opportunity here for HR to contribute to the business beyond the record keeping and benefits admin- istration we’ve been taking care of.” Ray said, “Well, I’ve never cared much for the touchy-feely aspects of people management; I think you count on the judgment of the store managers to bring in good people, and they either sink or swim in a sales environment.” “But we can do a much better job of screening the people the company hires into sales without a lot of added cost,” countered Glen. “We ought to be using the same screening process across all of our locations—not only to increase efficiency and effectiveness, but also to keep us out of legal difficulties.” Glen continued, “We use our website as another venue to boost sales, but could also use it to receive applications and résumés, paired with software to scan and identify candidates who are a good fit based on background expe- rience, interests, education, and store location. The most promising applicants can then be called into the local store for a screening interview, though we might be able to con- duct online screening interviews and save the face-to-face behaviourally focused selection interviews for on-site.”

Marie said, “Glen, you have been wary about pro- moting our best salespeople into store manager posi- tions as they open up. Why is that a problem?” “Sales positions and management positions are fundamentally different,” Glen responded. “Screening is more of a sci- ence than an art, requiring procedures designed specifi- cally with each position in mind. I’m sure I can develop a cost-effective proposal on this, including expected performance outcomes and financial returns. I’ll have this to you within a week.”

sALEs gROwTH TREnds AT Living HEALTHy inC. in POOR HEALTH

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the difference between employee screening and employee selection;

• describe the advantages and disadvantages associated with screening tools such as application forms, biographical information blanks, reference/back- ground checks, résumés, video résumés, social networking sites, and virtual job auditions;

• discuss the legal status of these screening tools and the extent to which they are predictive of job performance;

• design an effective multiphase screening program appropriate to the position requirements for any target job.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL292

// ApplicAnt Screening Screening is the first phase of selection, in which a “rough cut” of the larger applicant pool is undertaken. The goal is to identify and eliminate candidates who do not meet the minimum qualifications (MQs) established for a position. MQs often consist of educa- tional requirements, experience, and closely related personal attributes that are required for a person to have a reasonable chance of performing the target job satisfactorily.1 Can- didates who fall short of the minimum standards receive no further consideration. MQs critically affect the entire selection process, and are often closely scrutinized for adverse impact against designated targeted groups. Accordingly, they must be systematically established. Levine et al.2 provide a clear, step-by-step description of how to develop and validate MQs for selected jobs in a large mental health facility, which is a useful guide for establishing MQs in other contexts.

recruitment, Screening, And Selection

Figure 7.1 shows the relationship among recruitment, screening, and selection in terms of the key considerations at each step. The aim of recruitment is to acquire a sufficient number of qualified applicants; screening eliminates applicants who fail to meet minimum requirements, while selection identifies the remaining candidates who are most likely to be successful in the target job. Once again, the number of positions recruited for, divided by the number of applicants, provides the selection ratio. For example, 200 applicants for 10 positions yields a selection ratio of 0.05 (10/200 0.055 , or one position for every 20 applicants).

Well-designed screening tools quickly and inexpensively identify applicants who do not meet the MQs. Sometimes the decisions involved are quite straightforward, as, for example, when a high school degree is required for the job. Nonetheless, decisions concerning other MQs, such as work experience, can be subjective because the meaning of applicant claims must be accurately interpreted. Two types of errors—false positives and false nega- tives—can be made in the screening process. False positives, those who pass the screening process though ill-suited for the job, are likely to be eliminated through more extensive testing at the selec- tion stage (see Chapters 8 and 9). The implica- tions of false negatives— those who have the MQs but are inappropriately eliminated—are more serious, depending on the nature of the job involved. For example, competitive advantage is at stake if a research scientist inappro- priately eliminated during screening turns up at a competitor and is a suc- cessful innovator. More- over, applicants who are

Selection ratio The proportion of appli- cants for one or more positions who are hired.

False positives Individuals who, based on their screening out- comes, are expected to perform well in the target job, but who do not.

minimum qualifications (mQs) Knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience deemed necessary for minimally acceptable performance in one or more positions; designed for making the “first cut” in screening applicants, and sometimes referred to as selection criteria.

designated targeted groups The four groups (women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities) designated in the federal government’s Employment Equity Act that receive legal “protection” in employment policies and practices because of their underrepresentation in the workforce.

Screening The first step of the selection process; involves identifying individuals from the applicant pool who lack the minimum qualifications for the target position(s). Candidates “passing” this first hurdle then undergo more extensive assessment.

Selection identifies candidates who are most likely to be successful in the target job.

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NEL 293CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

Reject

Intensify search

Yes

Are there applicants for the job? Recruitment

Yes

Reject

Do applicants meet minimum requirements? Screening

Applications Résumés Screening interviews

Employment testing Employment interview

HIRE

Yes

RejectReference checks

Are these applicants most quali�ed? Selection

figuRE 7.1

THE RELATiOnsHiP AmOng RECRuiTmEnT, sCREEning, And sELECTiOn False negatives Individuals who, based on their screening outcomes, are expected to be unsuccessful in the job, but who none- theless would have performed satisfactorily if given the chance.

false negatives may take legal action if they believe the screening procedure was discrimi- natory and based on factors unrelated to job performance. The legal implications and psychometric properties associated with screening tools should be carefully evaluated to avoid litigation, bad publicity, and loss of competitive advantage.

Screening methodS

We now consider the common traditionally used screening procedures, including the review of information obtained from application forms, biographical information blanks, résumés, and reference and background checks, as well as the evaluation of applicant work experience. More recent technology-enabled tools, such as social networking site searches, virtual career fairs, and virtual job auditions, will also be considered. Well-designed and implemented screening tools identify and eliminate applicants who lack the MQs for the position in a manner that is cost-effective and legally defensible.

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ApplicAtion FormS

Individuals applying for jobs are almost always asked to complete, online or otherwise, an employment application form, commonly referred to as an application blank, which requests information related to the MQs for the target position. The questions often involve educational background, job experience, special training, and other areas relevant to job performance. For example, successful completion of a course on CPR (cardiopul- monary resuscitation) may be an MQ for a security dispatcher.

Regardless of the specific format used, information from application forms provides a preliminary pre-employment screen that addresses position-related MQs. Use of a standard form ensures that the same information is collected from all applicants, which can then be a common point of comparison in subsequent screening activities.

Before any information on an application form can be used for screening, its job- relatedness should be established through a job analysis—a fact often overlooked by employers. It is not in the interest of the employer to inappropriately exclude capable individuals from consideration, not only because it would be a lost opportunity to build capacity, but also because there is the potential of legal liability if members of protected groups are impacted. For example, if being credentialed to administer CPR is used as an application screen for security dispatcher, a court challenge could require the employer to demonstrate that the CPR credential is job related. Thus, when a screen has adverse impact against members of a designated minority group, whether intentional or other- wise, it is not sufficient to merely believe that applicants “ought” to have a particular credential. Human rights issues must be considered when developing and using any screen, including information from the application form.

humAn rightS conSiderAtionS

Employers cannot ask for information that is prohibited on discriminatory grounds under human rights legislation unless it can be established that the information is a bona fide occupational requirement (BFOR). If there is a court challenge, the employer must be able to show that the information in question is a BFOR.

Frequently, employers unwittingly collect information on application forms—such as social insurance number, date of birth, sex, marital status, number of dependants, name of next of kin, and health status3,4—that leaves them open to charges of discriminatory hiring. To avoid allegations that these items were inappropriately used in the hiring process, this information should be collected only after an individual is hired. Further, it is prudent for organizations that lack HR specialists to request a human rights commission review of their application forms to ensure legal compliance. The review and approval can then be noted on the application form itself, thereby decreasing the likelihood of complaints. A template job application by the Ontario Human Rights Commission is available on its website (http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/human-rights-work-2008-third-edition/appendix- d-%E2%80%93-sample-application-employment). Also, guidelines concerning legally inappropriate application form content are provided by the Canadian Human Rights Commission. You can locate the guidelines on the CHRC site by searching A Guide to Screening and Selection in Employment at http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/sites/default/files/ screen_1.pdf. The Canadian Human Rights Reporter is a useful source for human rights cases and legal guidelines for recruitment, screening, and assessment.

Sometimes it is necessary to collect information on applicants concerning protected class status in order to monitor applicant flow as prescribed by the Employment Equity

Application blank A form completed by job candidates that provides a prospective employer with basic information concerning things such as applicant knowledge, skills, education, and previous work experience.

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Act. This should be done using a form and a process separate from screening, while assuring applicants that the information collected is a government requirement and will not be seen by persons making hiring decisions. Guidelines for collecting sensitive information of this nature are available from government employment equity officers.

For decisions concerning application form content, consider:

• What is the purpose of including the item and how will the information be used?

• Does the item conflict with provincial, territorial, or federal human rights guide- lines concerning questions that cannot be asked on an application form (see Chapter 3)?

• If the item-based information is used in the screening decision, is it likely to have an adverse impact on a protected minority group?

• Is it more appropriate to obtain the information only after making a job offer?

• Has the job-relatedness of the item been established?

Independently of legal considerations it is important to note that employers can put themselves at a disadvantage, in tight labour markets especially, by using a poorly designed application form. For example, candidates who complete forms containing dis- criminatory questions tend to view the employer as less attractive and less just; they also express higher litigation intentions than those who complete legally compliant forms, especially when the employer fails to provide an explanation of the screening process.5 Finally, candidates encountering application forms with discriminatory questions are less likely to pursue employment with the organization, less likely to accept a job offer, and less likely to recommend the organization to a friend.6

While respecting the rights and interests of job candidates, employers also need to protect their own interests by verifying the information applicants provide. Failure to do so can be embarrassing for all parties. For example, the former manager of the Toronto Blue Jays, Tim Johnson, was forced to resign during Spring training in 1999 when he admitted to falsely claiming that he had engaged in combat duty as a Marine during the Vietnam War, as well as being offered a basketball scholarship at UCLA.7 In anticipation that applicants may distort their credentials, it should be explicitly and visibly stated on the application form that the data provided will be checked thor- oughly for accuracy. For example: “I understand that providing any false, misleading, or incomplete information is grounds for immediate discharge from employment.”8 This will help discourage misrepresentation and provide grounds for dismissal should a candidate be hired and found subsequently to have embellished credentials.

Weighted ApplicAtion BlAnkS

Sometimes information concerning a single item on an application form is sufficient to screen out a candidate, such as when successful completion of a bar exam is essential for positions involving the practice of law. However, for many applicants and many posi- tions, a single piece of information on the application will not provide for a simple error- free determination. Instead, the screener must use personal judgment and experience to evaluate the entirety of the information the candidate provides, much like a person might review the voting record of a candidate for political office. Of course, for automated tracking and screening systems algorithms remove all personal judgment.

Whether personal judgment or algorithms filter applications, scoring keys typically bring fairness, objectivity, and standardization to the process. For example, lawyers who

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have not passed the bar exam might be given a score of 0, while those who have passed receive a 1. Similarly, weights are assigned to other item responses with the higher num- bers reflecting answers of applicants who subsequently proved to be successful in the target job. Summing all the assigned weights together produces a total score for each applicant. Such a formal scoring procedure is referred to as a weighted application blank (WAB) and is analogous to the process bank managers use to evaluate loan applications, as there are personal indicators, financial and otherwise, that reliably predict loan repay- ment. Of course, today, with online job application software, assignment and summing of weights is done effortlessly and instantaneously.

Like any selection instrument, the WAB must exhibit good psychometric properties. Scoring of WABs is developed against aspects of employee performance that matter to the employer. For example, low absenteeism may be so important for a security dispatcher’s position that the HR manager might use the maximum permissible days absent per year to divide the current and previous dispatchers into groups that fall above and below the acceptable number. The original application forms of these particular dispatchers would then be reviewed for the pattern of item responses that best differentiates between the low- and high-absenteeism groups. So, perhaps 80 percent of security dispatchers with only a high school education fall into the good attendance category, while the remaining 20 percent have poor attendance. The 60 percent difference (i.e., 80 20 602 5 ) is the basis of the “net weight” for “high school graduate.” Similarly, for university graduates, if 60 percent have a low absenteeism rate and 40 percent have a high rate, the 20 percent difference would be the “net weight” for “university graduate.” The net weight derived for each education level is then transformed into a specific score. For example, applicants with only a high school education would garner a higher score (e.g., 3) than university graduates (e.g., 1). Once again, today HR analytics systems do this work for us.

Note that there are a variety of outcomes in addition to absenteeism that are impor- tant to the employer and which might be used as the basis to separate employees into acceptable and unacceptable groups. Regardless of the specific outcome chosen, the variable used to form the groups is referred to as the criterion measure.

Because establishing weights and specific scores is complex, tables have been devel- oped to facilitate the process for the vertical percentage method (exemplified above), as well as for other approaches9,10 such as the correlational method.11

BeneFitS oF WABs

Well-constructed WABs are good predictors of certain aspects of work, such as absen- teeism and accidents. They also have been used to reduce employee turnover in the hospitality industry12,13 and among clerical employees.14 Once developed, they are both easy and economical to use especially when applications are collected digitally, such that computer algorithms can quickly and efficiently score them at low cost. Importantly, well-constructed WABs are unlikely to be considered intrusive or threatening, as most job applicants expect to complete one.

concernS ABout WABs

Some cautions are associated with WABs. First, scoring keys are typically derived to pre- dict one specific, often narrow, outcome (e.g., turnover, absenteeism, or accident rates) as opposed to broad multifaceted measures of performance. While there is evidence that WABs

Weighted application blank (WAB) A formal method for quantitatively combining information from appli- cation blank items by assigning weights that reflect the value of each item in the prediction of job success.

criterion measures Measures of employee job-related outcomes important to the employer (e.g., absenteeism, turnover, and supervisory ratings of performance) used to establish the validity (i.e., the appropriateness and meaningfulness) of screening and selection tools.

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NEL 297CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

can also predict success in training and overall job proficiency,15 application of WABs should not go beyond the purpose for which they are validated.

Second, WABs require data from a large number of employees to obtain percentages that are stable estimates of the targeted weights. For small to medium-sized organizations, this could mean that years of data collection are required to develop the algorithms, and changes in the job, applicants, or organization over time may produce weights that poorly reflect the first- and last-hired employees in the sample. Importantly, weights derived from the original sample should be applied to a second independent sample from the same population of workers (i.e., cross-validated) to ensure their stability. Generally, weights from biographical information have shown good stability.16

Finally, while WABs enable employers to predict certain work outcomes,17 often the reasons for the relationships found are not immediately evident, which is bother- some.18 This criticism is less of an issue when the WAB items are derived rationally from a job analysis. For example, it is well known that if people have realistic expectations for a job they are less likely to leave. Thus, a business looking to reduce turnover among its sales people could include items pertaining to prior experience working in sales and number of close friends or relatives in this occupation, reflecting familiarity with sales work (i.e., basis for developing realistic expectations).19 Nonetheless, and somewhat surprisingly, a purely statistical analysis of application blank items often results in better prediction of work outcomes than rationally (or quasi-rationally) derived approaches.20

When to uSe WABs

WABs are often used for quick, cost-effective screening and may also be used in combina- tion with other types of predictors (e.g., personality or cognitive ability; see Chapter 8) to improve selection decisions. This is especially appropriate when there are a large number of applicants for a single position,21 or when large numbers of applicants are hired for similar kinds of jobs, because the same item set is likely to be useful across the entire applicant group. Also, given their capability to predict turnover, WABs are often used for jobs requiring long and costly training where turnover costs are high.

BiogrAphicAl dAtA

A typical application form requires job candidates to provide information about their knowledge, skills, and education, as well as a narrow range of other verifiable job-related information. Use of biographical data, in contrast, addresses a wider range of content, for example, hobbies, family relationships, leisure-time pursuits, personal accomplish- ments, and early work experiences.22 Thus, as we detail later, aspects of biographical data collection may run afoul of privacy and human rights legislation.

Biographical data are synonymous with, or frequently referred to as, “autobiograph- ical data,” “personal or life history information,” “background data,” or more simply “biodata.” Such data can be collected in a relatively unstructured manner using, for example, interviews and life history essays. However, use of the biographical informa- tion blank (BIB) is the most common, wherein candidates are required to answer a series of multiple-choice or short-answer essay questions.23,24 BIBs, also known as life history or personal history inventories, are based on the assumption that past behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour. Thus, the intent of BIB content is to obtain job- related insights from the past that provide clues concerning applicants’ future interests

Biographical information blank (BiB) A pre-selection questionnaire that requires applicants to provide detailed job- related information concerning their personal background and life experiences.

Biodata Biographical data gathered from applicant BIBs, application blanks, or other sources.

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and capabilities. Recruitment and Selection Today 7.1 presents an example of a BIB devel- oped for applicants for a managerial position. As with the WAB, the scoring procedure developed for a BIB on an initial sample should be evaluated using a second independent group before it is used operationally. Relative to the WAB, a well-designed BIB provides greater insight into the type of individuals likely to experience success in the target job.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 7.1

ExAMpLE of A BIoGRApHICAL InfoRMATIon BLAnk

Personal information

name: ___________________________ __________________________ Last first

Mailing Address: ____________________________________________________ Street, City, province, postal Code

How long have you lived at your current address? __________ Do you consider your net worth to be low ____ moderate ____ or high ____? Have you ever been turned down for a loan? Yes ________ no ________ How many credit cards do you have? ________

Education and Training

Highest level of education completed: High School _______ Vocational _______ College _______ University _______ postgraduate _______ What educational degrees do you have? Diploma/Certificate _______ B.A. _______ B.Sc. _______ B.Comm. _______ M.B.A. _______ Master’s _______ other (Identify) _______ What subjects did you major in? ___________________ ___________________ What was your grade-point average in college or university? A ___ B ___ C ___ D ___ Did you graduate with honours? Yes ________ no ________ Did you receive any awards for academic excellence? Yes ________ no ________ Did you receive any scholarships? Yes ________ no ________ List the extracurricular activities you participated in during school: ________________________________________

information about you

Did you find school stimulating ______ boring ______? Did you hold a job while attending school? Yes ______ no ______ How did you pay for your post-high school training? (Check as many as appropriate) parents paid ______ Loans ______ Scholarships ______ paid own way ______ Have you ever held a job where you earned commissions on sales? Yes ______ no ______ If “Yes,” were your commissions low ______ moderate ______ high ______? five years from now, what do you expect your salary to be? _______________ Do you enjoy meeting new people? Yes ______ no ______ How many social phone calls do you receive a week? ______ Do people count on you to “cheer up” others? Yes ______ no ______ How many parties do you go to in a year? ______ Do you enjoy talking to people? Yes ______ no ______

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Rate your conversational skills: Excellent ______ Very Good ______ Good ______ fair ______ poor ______ How often do you introduce yourself to other people you don’t know? Always ______ Sometimes ______ never ______ Do you enjoy social gatherings? Yes ______ no ______ Do you go to social gatherings out of a sense of duty? Yes ______ no ______ How many times a year do you go out to dinner with friends? Do you enjoy talking to people you don’t know? Yes ______ no ______ What are your hobbies?______________________________________ What sports, recreational, or physical activities do you engage in?_____________ How confident are you in your ability to succeed? Very Confident ______ Confident ______ Somewhat Confident ______

concernS over the uSe oF BiodAtA

Despite evidence supporting the predictive validity of biodata there are some cautions associated with its use, including legality, invasiveness, fakability, and generalizability. With respect to legality and invasiveness, many BIB items may request personally sensi- tive information concerning family background and experiences that border on viola- tions of human rights legislation.25 Thus, items should be used only if the employer can demonstrate that they are job related—by, for example, showing that they predict relevant job-related outcomes. In the United States, each item must be shown to be free of adverse impact on members of protected groups.26 Importantly, differences in accessibility to the life experiences measured by biodata items may give rise to variation in how applicants from different groups (e.g., gender and race) respond to them even though they may not actually differ on the broader construct that underlie those items.27

Notwithstanding the above concerns, when biodata items are carefully devel- oped and systematically scored, they tend to have less adverse impact on women and other designated minority groups than many other types of selection measures.28 For example, the Canadian insurance industry adjusted its BIB to comply with human rights legislation without any loss in its usefulness; the Canadian biodata form devel- oped by LIMRA Inc. predicts both the retention of life insurance agents and their sales.29,30 LIMRA identifies clusters of homogeneous (highly correlated) biodata items, assigns them dimension descriptors, and uses them to predict sales agents’ performance. For an example of a candidate report generated by LIMRA see https:// salesbestpractices2.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/neil-mcevoy-sales-profile.pdf

Many other items on a BIB delve into areas not protected by legislation but raise issues of privacy. For example, job applicants may feel it inappropriate to share informa- tion about their financial status and the number of credit cards they have. This mat- ters because, as noted earlier, applicants form perceptions of the organization and its values based on the screening processes, which can influence a variety of their decisions including whether or not to accept a job offer.31

Both professionals and nonprofessionals view certain types of biodata items as inva- sive, such as those that are relatively less verifiable, less transparent in purpose, and relatively personal.32 Complicating matters is that the perceived acceptability of specific BIB items is somewhat context specific. For example, items concerning home, spousal,

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and parental situations, recreation and hobbies, as well as interest in travel and in new experiences were all perceived as more job relevant, fair, and appropriate when used to select applicants for international postings rather than for domestic positions.33 This is likely because the information was seen as relevant to coping with the demands of inter- national assignments.34 Relatedly, increasing the transparency concerning the purpose of biodata items improves their perceived acceptability.35

As with the WAB, the predictive validity of a BIB is typically initially established for a large pool of applicants for a specific job. Small to medium-sized organizations would likely need a consortium-based effort to gain access to a large enough sample for validation purposes.36 Their development also requires technical expertise in test valida- tion. These drawbacks likely account for the relatively infrequent use of BIBs in North America, despite good predictive validity and minimal adverse impact,37–39 though this could change with recent advances in HR analytics, with commercial firms providing BIBs with established predictive validities for particular job types, as derived from data collected across large numbers of organizations.

Research has already shown that a biodata instrument can be used outside the specific organization for which it was developed and remain useful for years.40 For example, the biodata component of the Manager Profile Record (MPR), which was developed in a single organization, predicted managerial progress (e.g., rate of promotion; r 0.53, SD 0.055 5 ) in 24 other organizations over an 11-year period.41 Similarly, a biodata instrument that proved helpful in selecting graduates into the accounting profession proved to have good predictive validity across a wide range of firms over a five-year period.42 Also, biodata scoring keys used in the insurance industry were uniformly applicable across the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland.43 Thus, some biodata items appear to have generic validity for a given job across organizations, assuming their content remains stable.44 Nonetheless, generic biodata instruments tend to have lower validities than those developed for specific jobs in specific organizations.45

predictive vAlidity oF BiodAtA

As noted above, BIBs can be an effective, noninvasive, and defensible means of improving HR selection decisions. They have shown comparable levels of predictive validity for similar jobs across organizations and over time. Similar to the findings concerning WABs, biodata can accurately predict various types of job behaviour, such as absenteeism, turn- over, job proficiency, supervisory effectiveness, and job training, in a wide range of occupations.46–57 On average, correlation population estimates between scores on biodata instruments and job-relevant criteria range from 0.30 to 0.40.58–60 Validity coefficients for biodata have sometimes exceeded 0.50.61 Validities for job performance and training performance are .35 and .30, respectively.62

The effectiveness of BIBs is grounded in the notion that past behaviours and experi- ences are indirect reflections of individuals’ preferences, values, personality, opportunities, constraints, and so forth, which can be matched to the needs of the job and to the culture of the employing organization.63 This indirect approach is appropriate to the screening stage, since use of more direct assessments (e.g., personality scales, preference/interest inventories, etc.; see Chapter 8) of the content thought to be reflected in biodata would be more costly and time consuming.

In addition to being predictive of a wide range of criteria,64 BIBs sometimes yield meaningful prediction beyond other types of assessments, such as cognitive ability and personality (see Chapter 8), that have also been collected during the screening

validity coefficient The correlation between assessment scores and job performance measures.

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NEL 301CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

The résumé is often the basis of the employer’s first impression of a candidate.

and selection effort.65–67 Moreover, biodata may be most valuable in complex versus non-skilled, simpler jobs,68 where the dollar gains associated with effective screening and selection are typically even more substantial. As noted earlier, compared to other screening and selection tools, biodata tends to have little or no adverse impact.69–71

When to uSe BiBs

Biodata has been used within and across a variety of contexts (e.g., work and education) and fields (clinical, developmental, and social psychology).72 As with WABs, BIBs are especially appropriate for organizations hiring large numbers of employees for similar kinds of jobs, and a low selection ratio.73

réSuméS

Résumés provide another source of biographical information. Of course, unlike with application forms and BIBs, here applicants typically decide what to provide and how to present it, as part of an effort to give a brief, written self-introduction to the employer. Not surprisingly, résumé information often overlaps with that requested by the employer on application blanks or BIBs. Employers often presume that résumé information is job related and will help them to determine if a candidate satisfies the MQs. However, applicants may inadvertently include information that the employer would rather not see (e.g., citizenship, national origin, age, and marital status); that, if used as part of selection, would violate employment laws. It is difficult for an employer to prove that prohibited information on a résumé did not influence decision making. To safeguard against this, and in the interest of standardization, some organizations require candidates to complete

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL302

preformatted résumé templates. While this could be more time consuming for applicants, it could serve as a screen in itself—with only those individuals especially motivated com- pleting a template specific to the organization.

FirSt impreSSionS

The résumé, including biographical information, is often the basis of the first impression an employer forms of the applicant. In addition to the content, the résumé’s style, neat- ness, organization, layout, vocabulary, and phrases used each convey candidate informa- tion. For example, when business professionals selected the two individuals they would invite for interviews from among seven sets of four résumés, one-page résumés fared better than two-page offerings; specific objective statements were better regarded than general ones; listing a 3.00 GPA was better than omitting GPA information; a 3.5 GPA was regarded as significantly better than a 2.75; listing relevant course work was better than not listing any; and listing accomplishments was better than omitting them.74 Simi- larly, listing relevant job experience and education enhanced business managers’ evalua- tions of résumés, as did candidate listings of concrete examples of their accomplishments.75 However, general impression-management tactics such as use of self-descriptive adjectives like “excellent,” “extremely hard working,” and “energetic” (e.g., not tied to specific accomplishments) led to negative impressions.76

Studies also suggest that HR managers consider résumé characteristics as reflections of different aspects of the applicant in much the same way as a projective personality test (see Chapter 8). For example, applicants’ résumé information as evaluated by recruiters may, to some extent, predict candidate cognitive ability and personality.77,78 Perhaps not surprisingly, recruiters who infer from résumé characteristics that candidates are conscien- tious consider them as especially suited to conventional jobs (e.g., accounting), whereas recruiters’ inferences of extraverted applicants resulted in perceived good matches to “enterprising” jobs (e.g., marketing).79 Nonetheless, while recruiters at times are able to draw moderately accurate inferences concerning candidates’ extraversion from résumé content, their ability to do so for other personality characteristics is poor.80 Moreover, there is little evidence of the empirical validity of the inferences recruiters make from résumé information (i.e., that the inferences can be corroborated). So then, it is not rec- ommended that an applicant’s personality be inferred from a résumé; instead, it should be assessed directly (see Chapter 8), which is now done easily, quickly and cheaply online. Still, inferences drawn from past achievements, hobbies, interests, and extracurricular activities will undoubtedly continue to be made, which is reasonable as a “first cut,” to be verified post-screening. So, for example, serving as a team captain, having served as president of student council, or having spearheaded charity drives, exemplify leadership; having been a member in social clubs or committees or an active volunteer in community initiatives suggest interpersonal skills.

To build a favourable first impression with a résumé, it should be accompanied by a well-written cover letter. In a survey of 100 senior executives from the largest Canadian companies, 93 percent indicated that cover letters are valuable in assessing job candidates. Executive Director Dave Willmer of OfficeTeam, a firm specializing in placing highly skilled professionals into administrative jobs, who contracted the survey, commented: “Submitting a résumé without a cover letter is like not shaking hands when meeting someone for the first time.” He notes that a cover letter should reveal the applicant’s knowledge of the company, highlight relevant skills and work experience, and explain

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NEL 303CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

résumé anomalies (e.g., extended employment gaps).81 Indeed, a representative survey of 140 U.S. and multinational firms revealed a preference (56 percent) for the inclusion of a cover letter.82 For tips on writing an effective cover letter, sample letters, and templates, see http://www.jobsearchjimmy.com/coverlettertips. A Google search yields many other websites that you are likely to find helpful.

Writing A réSumé

Many people have difficulty writing a good résumé. Vocational guidance and employ- ment counsellors often provide useful help in résumé writing as part of their services. Most libraries have references concerning résumé preparation as well, and, of course, there are many resources on the Internet. Résumés should include the applicant’s name, address, and phone number(s), education and training, employment history, and names of references with contact information. Information regarding hobbies and interests should be included as relevant to career goals. For example, a candidate for a forest ranger position could note an interest in hiking.

The résumé should be well organized and highlight key information. The typeface size (e.g., a 10-, 11-, or 12-point font) and style (e.g., Arial) should make for easy and quick reading. Use electronic delivery if possible (i.e., via email or the company’s website) rather than sending a scanned résumé.83 When hard copy résumés are required these should be generated using high-quality printers (of course!).

Using unusual fonts, small type, excessive italics, or too much single-line spacing (all of which make the résumé congested and difficult to read) should be avoided (i.e., ensure lots of “white space”). As electronic résumé submission has become common, some career and employment counsellors recommend listing a keyword summary at the start, using appropriate nouns reflective of words that HR software is likely to search for (i.e., required skills, knowledge, and abilities as contained in the job description). One particularly informative and helpful website providing clear instructions on pre- paring an effective résumé, as well as several examples of strong résumés and cover let- ters for various jobs is available on The Balance website https://www.thebalance.com/ best-resume-examples-a-z-list-2063587.). An Internet search will also provide samples of weak résumés (i.e., “what not to do”) (e.g., see http://www.craigkunce.com/job-search .bad_resumes.html).

Screening réSuméS

While many employers, especially smaller ones, manually screen résumés, increasing numbers of medium and large-sized organizations are using Applicant Tracking System (ATSs) to fulfill this task. ATSs are software applications that scan résumés to help match skills and experience with available positions, filtering through only those with the closest matches for further consideration by a recruiter (a quick Google Search will yield many commercial providers of ATSs). Accordingly, it serves the applicant well to employ tactics for getting through the filters. Consultants familiar with ATSs offer several such tactics, including repeatedly using key terms found in the job description (desired knowledge, skills, and abilities), attaching dates to all prior roles/positions, using simplified formatting (e.g., avoiding graphs and charts) and standard headlines, using acronyms where relevant to the position (e.g., CSR for customer service representative), avoiding having your name

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appear in all caps at the top of your résumé, using breaks to separate different kinds of information, submitting a MS Word document (not PDF), and describing (behavior- ally) how you demonstrated the key skills you list along with associated outcomes (e.g., leadership—“Directed a team of 12 in developing and executing a $2 million dollar mar- keting strategy with two external partners, resulting in a 20% increase in year-over-year sales”).84–86 Adrienne Tom, a résumé writer, interview coach, and employment strategist with Career Impressions in Calgary describes résumés as “branded, targeted, results- focused marketing tools,” and provides several examples of résumés that are likely to filter through ATSs and garner favourable attention when viewed directly by a recruiter (see http://careerimpressions.ca/samples.php).

Separately, your LinkedIn profile should mirror your résumé, as employers are likely to compare the two, often giving more weight to the LinkedIn profile (as candidates are less likely to exaggerate their credentials on a publicly accessible platform).

Advances in technology have also enabled the use of video résumés, wherein can- didates send employers a video self-presentation of their skills, experiences, credentials, and accomplishments. Much like the unwanted inclusion of certain types of infor- mation on traditional résumés, videos reveal cues concerning age, gender, ethnicity, religion (e.g., wearing a turban, hijab, sari), and disability (e.g., speech impediment) that could leave an employer open to allegations of discrimination. Moreover, not all candidates may have access to the technology required to produce their own videos and, when they do, the production quality may vary widely but have little to do with the suitability of the candidate. Analogous to the paper-based résumé, standardization of presentation structure, format, length, and content are lacking in video résumés, making a fair, objective comparison of applicants difficult. Given the potential for bias, many firms appear reluctant to embrace the video résumé.87 Relative to tradi- tional options, they can result in differing assessments of applicant traits and lower evaluations of their skills and abilities.88,89 It would be wise for employers to avoid them pending further study of their efficacy and fairness. Moreover, job candidates should not send video résumés unsolicited, nor, generally, should they refer potential employers to personal blogs.

honeSty And the réSumé

While striving to develop an effective résumé, honesty is an important consideration in avoiding overly exaggerated qualifications or accomplishments. There is often a fine line between presenting oneself in the “best possible light” and intentional misrepresenta- tion. As noted earlier, there have been embarrassingly high-profile job losses associated with exaggerated and/or untrue claims concerning job qualifications, achievements, and experiences. Yet, approximately one-third of job candidates exaggerate or fabricate résumé information related to educational credentials, grade-point averages, current or previous salaries, and past experiences and accomplishments.90,91

As stated previously, the likelihood of applicants fabricating or embellishing cre- dentials is lessened considerably when they believe that the information provided will be verified, so employers should include a statement to this effect in the application materials.92 Also, those conducting résumé screening must learn how to “read between the lines” (see Recruitment and Selection Today 7.2). Later phases of selection provide opportunities to probe the credibility of applicant information.

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NEL 305CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 7.2

WHAT To Look foR WHEn ExAMInInG A RéSUMé

• Unexplained gaps in work or education chronology

• Conflicting details or overlapping dates

• Career regression or “downward” trend

• Use of qualifiers such as “knowledge of,” and “assisted in” to describe work experience

• Listing of schools attended without indicating receipt of a degree or diploma

• failure to provide names of previous supervisors or references

• Inflated educational credentials (grades achieved, degrees obtained)

• Claims of work with firms that are now out of business

• Exaggerated claims of expertise and experience

• Vague details (e.g., non-complete address of former employers)

• Substantial periods in a candidate’s work history listed as “self-employed” or “consultant”

predictive vAlidity oF réSuméS

Information typically included in résumés has relatively low usefulness for predicting job success.93 Experience has the highest validity 0.18r( )5 , followed by academic achieve- ment 0.11r( )5 and education 0.10r( )5 . Nonetheless, a résumé and accompanying cover letter remain the primary means by which most job applicants introduce themselves to an employer and they are usually required before a person can receive serious consider- ation. Also, the relatively low predictive validities associated with the résumé information are not especially problematic as this typically represents only the initial stage of a more complete selection process.

reFerence checkS

Applicants are often asked to provide supporting references, including past or present colleagues and supervisors, who may be asked to verify information or comment on the candidate’s traits, characteristics, and behaviours. A reference check can be distinguished from employment verification, wherein the focus is on the accuracy of the job history information provided by the applicant (in the application, résumé, or verbally), including matters such as dates, salary, and job title.

Since reference checks are typically collected only for applicants who make it through earlier stages of screening, they tend to be conducted near the end of the screening pro- cess. This minimizes the time and costs and protects the confidentiality of candidates who prefer that their current employer is kept unaware of their job search. Although applicants implicitly grant their permission to contact those listed as references, the prospective employer should explicitly (in writing) secure such permission. Web-based tools are beginning to appear that make it easier for employers to obtain standardized references from multiple sources in a timely manner.94 Whether obtained on the phone or in writing, the credibility of the reference will, of course, likely vary with the length

reference check Information gathered about a job candidate from supervisors, coworkers, clients, or other people named as references by the candidate. The information is usually collected from the written references and/ or from contacts over the phone.

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of tenure and the degree of direct contact the party had in the employment relation- ship; and also with the extent to which the work completed in the past is similar to the target job.95

phone-BASed reFerence checkS

Many employers are reluctant to give references in writing, preferring instead to pro- vide them over the phone. As part of the late stages of the screening process, many employers directly contact those who have provided the written references. Since pro- spective employers should not be considering age, race, sex, family status, and disability (among other protected classifications) in their decisions, information concerning these matters should not be sought in reference checking. Further, a standard list of questions should be followed to help ensure that the same information is collected concerning all the candidates for a given position. Care should be taken to use questions that yield as much objective information as possible, while minimizing the need for the contact to make undue judgments and inferences. Typical questions include the following:

• How long, and in what capacity, have you known the applicant?

• What sort of employee is the applicant?

• Does the applicant show initiative? If so, how?

• How did the applicant get along with other employees, supervisors, and clients?

• Did the applicant meet deadlines? Get work done on time?

• Was the applicant punctual? Were there attendance problems?

• Were you satisfied with the applicant’s performance; if your worst employee is given a rating of 1 and your best a rating of 10, what rating would this candidate receive?

• Why did the applicant leave your company (if applicable)?

• Is there anything you feel I should know about this candidate?

• Would you rehire the applicant?

A reference check conducted over the phone provides an ideal opportunity to obtain confirmation of information provided by candidates that the prospective employer deems to be especially important. References should also be probed for more information when their answers sound overly qualified or overly general in nature. Ask for specifics that include behavioural examples—such as, “Describe a situation in which the candidate performed exceptionally well or exceptionally poorly.” Many of the techniques discussed in Chapter 9 for developing structured, behaviour-based interview questions can and should be adapted for use in reference checks. As is the case with interviewing for selec- tion, use of job-related, behaviour-based questions will increase the meaningfulness and appropriateness of information obtained.

Standardized, targeted questions aside, it is not a simple matter to use reference checks with previous employers to screen out applicants who lack work records because there is a hesitancy to make strong, negative statements about current or former employees. Consider the following situation:

You receive a call concerning an unproductive employee who has applied for a job with another company. You want to be honest and helpful, yet you do not want to say anything that will discourage another organization from taking a relatively poor

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employee off your hands; accordingly, you are truthful, but do not volunteer negative information. Still, you know that if you are asked about problem behaviours and you intentionally mislead the caller, or cover up the problems, you could be liable for economic losses or hardship suffered attributable to the hiring of this employee.96,97

To avoid the types of issues reflected in the above example, it is not uncommon for employers to have a policy of verifying name, position, and length of service only when speaking to others about former employees.98,99 On the other hand, this could be unfair to people with favourable performance records and, in the case of problematic employees, could result in harm to the future employer. Moreover, the failure to give a deserved favourable reference can present legal problems for Canadian employers if it is seen as having impeded a job search. For example, in a precedent-setting case in 1977, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that employers have an obligation to act in good faith when an employee is terminated: Jack Wallace, the plaintiff, was awarded 24 months of salary when it was found that his former employer, United Grain Growers, neglected to provide a reference letter within the timeframe required for him to secure a new job.100 Court awards such as this suggest that employers should provide honest written and oral references for their former employees.

Although the legal risks associated with providing references are real, as a practical matter in Canada it is extremely difficult for a former employee to win a suit for libel or slander due to a poor reference, even if it contains some inaccuracies. Specially, the Canadian courts have endowed employment reference providers with the protection of the law of “qualified privilege,” such that employers cannot be sued if the comments are “honestly made.” Thus, the former employee must prove that the referee did not believe the facts as asserted (e.g., that she knowingly fabricated information, acted maliciously, or in bad faith).101

While it is unlikely that Canadian employers will be sued for honestly providing unfavourable references, they are quite vulnerable in cases where they knowingly hold back unfavourable information, especially if the former employee causes harm to the new employer or its clientele. Under these circumstances, the new employer could sue for damages for “negligent misrepresentation.”102 The intent is to prevent cases like the one in the United States involving Charles Cullen, a nurse, who for 16 years was able to move from hospital to hospital, intentionally killing patients at each facility. Although Cullen had been under investigation in seven hospitals and been fired or forced to resign in several of them, none of these institutions provided a bad reference.103

negligent hiring

Negligent hiring refers to a circumstance wherein an employer places an employee in an employment situation that causes harm or injury to another person, with liability determined on the basis of whether the employer knew or should have known that the employee was unfit for the job at the time of hiring. Industries or jobs particularly susceptible to negligent hiring claims include those where clients are especially vulnerable, including caregiving (childcare, home health-care aides, con- valescent home workers), real estate agents (who have access to seller homes and possessions), delivery personnel, home maintenance contractors, and utility service workers.104

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 7.1

MEASURES ToWARD AVoIDInG nEGLIGEnT HIRInG CLAIMS

• Conduct thorough systematic selection interviews

• Verify work history, educational credentials, refer- ences, and reasons for candidate having left pre- vious job(s)

• probe gaps and other irregularities in job resume

• Conduct a criminal background check

• Carry out a complete medical for positions where good health of job incumbent is critically important

to safeguard welfare of others (e.g., locomotive engineer, transit operator, airline pilot).

• Screen for use of illicit drugs for jobs where health and welfare of others are especially at stake (e.g., airline pilot, transit operator), and where jurisdictionally permitted

• perform credit checks for some jobs where employee will be managing large assets (e.g., accountant, loans manager)

predictive vAlidity oF reFerenceS

Written references obtained from past supervisors, when scored, have a low to mod- erate association with job performance ratings of new hires.105,106 Their mean predic- tive validity against job performance criteria is 0.26, while incremental validity beyond general mental ability alone is 0.12.107 The range of validities for personal references ranges from a low of 0.16 (for promotion criteria) to a high of 0.26 (for supervisor rating criteria).108 Thus, the predictive validity of written references is low relative to biodata and many of the employment test alternatives discussed in Chapter 8. So, references and reference checks are generally best used to screen out especially weak or potentially problematic candidates (e.g., to avoid negligent hiring), not for hiring decisions.109,110

reASonS For poor vAlidity oF reFerenceS

In accounting for the relatively low validity of personal references, it is important to note that it is highly unlikely an applicant would knowingly offer the name of someone who would provide a bad reference. In fact, before listing someone as a reference, applicants should consider asking the potential referee if the reference would be a positive one. In any case, the tendency of references to be uniformly positive limits their usefulness in differentiating among candidates and explains why mention of the slightest negative in a reference often eliminates an applicant from further consideration.111 Thus, range restric- tion as discussed in Chapter 2 is in play, contributing to low validity.

One way to improve the predictive validity of reference information is to use stan- dardized reference forms. For example, the relative percentile method requires references to indicate the relative standing of candidates on a 100-point scale and has shown predictive validity on 520 recruits for the Canadian military.112

BAckground checkS

Background checks are conducted to obtain confirming evidence concerning information acquired from the applicant’s BIB, résumé, or interview, which are more comprehensive and in-depth than a typical phone reference. Especially thorough background checks,

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reserved for sensitive government positions, security-related jobs such as the RCMP, and top-level managerial appointments, are sometimes referred to as field investigations. Given their time-consuming nature and possible legal sensitivities, background checks and field investigations are typically contracted out to specialists.

One type of information often sought as part of a background check concerns the credit status of the applicant, often conducted for positions of financial responsibility (i.e., where people are dealing with, or responsible for managing, cash, such as in banking, accounting, and casinos). A candidate’s consent must be given to the employer to con- duct a credit check. The commonly held assumption is that people with more favourable credit scores are more conscientious, are higher in integrity, and are less likely to engage in deviant behaviour. Indeed, there is evidence that conscientiousness predicts favour- able credit score ratings, which in turn positively predicts both task performance and organizational citizenship.113 While there are few studies supporting the validity of the practice, credit score information will likely continue being used for screening, especially for positions that provide access to large sums of money and/or for jobs likely to attract bribes. Still, using credit scores in screening is likely to adversely impact certain protected minority groups,114 which could attract legal challenges.115 For this reason, employers should ensure that a pre-employment credit check is necessary to making an effective hiring decision given the job duties. In 2011 the Alberta Office of the Information and Privacy Commissioner ruled against Mark’s Warehouse Ltd., deeming collection of credit information was not “reasonably required to assess the applicant’s ability to perform the job or to determine whether he might have a tendency toward committing theft or fraud on the job.”116

Common résumé misrepresentations uncovered through background checks include listing family members as former supervisors, gaps in employment, errors concerning start and end dates, false academic credentials, and incorrect job titles.117 Employers who do not conduct background checks are at risk for negligent hiring. The Public Service Com- mission of Canada provides guidelines for conducting a thorough, legally defensible reference check (https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commission/services/public- service-hiring-guides/structured-reference-checks.html).

Work experience

In screening applicants using résumés, preliminary interviews, or reference checks the emphasis is on formal credentials, including formal training (e.g., license, diploma, or degree) and work experience. As most jobs involve a given level of education and/or formal training, some applicants are easily and appropriately screened out on this basis. Unfortunately, judgments concerning work experience are typically less straightforward.

Work experience refers to the applicant’s past employment, which can be evaluated for its relatedness to the target position using a wide variety of dimensions including its length; the number of employers and contexts involved; and, of course, the number and type of tasks performed.118–120

For many jobs, there are important quantitative indicators of work experience. In evaluating the past employment of a car salesperson, for example, length of time, types of dealerships worked for, number of vehicles sold, and annual dollar sales would be important considerations.

While the quantitative aspects noted above are important, they might be misleading without also considering a variety of qualitative factors concerning, for example, the level, diversity, and complexity of the job. Continuing with car sales, there can be variation in

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(a) the level of autonomy provided by agents in negotiating with customers; (b) the number and complexity of models for sale; (c) the level of staff assistance provided; and (d) the extent to which technology was available and used. Demographics of the target market (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status) are also important to evaluating the qualitative aspect of work experience. Qualitative assessments are typically made during a screening interview, though they can also be inferred to some degree from résumé content.

Accurate evaluation of work experience becomes more complex, but even more crucial, as the level and responsibilities associated with the position increase. Research has shown that the nature of experience accumulated by executives across roles, respon- sibilities, and work activities, combined with measures of their cognitive ability, proved highly predictive of their competency in strategic thinking.121

Poor screening decisions can occur if the focus is on years of experience only. Two applicants with equal job and organizational tenure can differ greatly in the level of challenge and complexity they encountered in their task assignments.122 Accordingly, screening interviews and reference checks should include some qualitative probing, for example with behavioural questions (see Chapter 9). Evaluation of work experience should align not only with that aspect of performance you wish to predict, but also with the context of the new work environment within which the successful applicant will be placed. For example, a highly regarded long-tenured employee, working mostly alone and independently in a static environment with a high level of hierarchical control, may not perform as well under the same job title in a team-based, profit-sharing, dynamic envi- ronment where empowerment is emphasized. Likewise, having worked as a supervisor in a non-unionized work environment may not provide the relevant experience for success as a supervisor in a unionized workplace. Contextual elements such as these can be easily missed in standard job descriptions, though they should be accounted for in recruiting, screening, selection, and development.

predictive vAlidity oF Work experience

Job tenure—the most widely used measure of experience—relates positively to job per- formance because it is usually a quantitative reflection of increased job knowledge and skill competency.123,124 For example, the length of time spent as an engine mechanic was predictive of performance on three different sets of job-related tasks.125 More broadly, the validity coefficients involving work experience (defined in terms of job tenure) pre- dicted job performance in the range of 0.18 to 0.32.126–128 The relationship is higher

0.41r( )5 when work experience is defined at the task (versus job) level (e.g., “number of times performing a task” or “level of task”) and with regard to performance measure type (e.g., standardized work samples .39r 5 or supervisory ratings, .24r 5 ).129 To assess work experience at the task level, some employers use standardized training and experi- ence evaluation forms, which list training and experiences directly related to the target job, requiring the applicant to check off (and provide details on) those that they have acquired. Both standardized training and experience evaluation forms show reasonable predictions of overall job performance.130

Besides its association with formally defined performance aspects of target jobs,131 work experience, defined by organizational tenure, associates positively with orga- nizational citizenship—that is, performance-related behaviours that are not formally required, but promote the smooth functioning of a unit (e.g., helping coworkers). These relationships endured when chronological age was controlled. Moreover, the positive

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Employers often access candidate information through social media platforms.

tenure–performance associations were higher for certain demographics, such as younger workers, including those of college age, women, and non-Caucasians. On the other hand, though the relationship between organizational tenure and job performance is positive in general, its strength decreases as tenure increases. That is, the performance- enhancing benefits of increasing organizational tenure, while remaining positive, appear to diminish over time.132 Finally, tenure with the organization is positively associated with some negative behaviour as well, such as non-sickness absences.133

Since most of the findings cited above are based on studies of employees at the same organization, much less is known about the degree to which experience in the same industry or occupation transfers between organizations. Most of the research here suggests that the experience—performance relationship is more complex than originally thought, such that work experience is associated with both potential benefits and potential costs to prospective employers.134 Specifically, task-relevant work experiences enhance task-relevant knowledge and skills that, in turn, positively predict effectiveness in similar tasks performed with a new employer. However, when the knowledge and skill advantage is controlled for, work experience relates negatively to performance. This may reflect experienced workers bringing into their new work environments old habits and established ways of doing things that often prove less effective in their new organization. Such negative effects, how- ever, were weaker among new hires who were rated as adaptable by their supervisors, and for employees who indicated that they were an especially “good fit” with their new employer. Overall, then, the positive effects of prior work experience are realized through acquiring task-relevant knowledge and skills, which enhance per- formance of similar tasks with a new employer. This advantage can compensate for the negative effects of work experience grounded in the bad habits or rigidi- ties employees may bring from their past employment. Accordingly, it appears that employers can enhance the organizational benefits of hiring experienced workers by selecting the most adaptive among them, while ensuring their past work experiences fit with their new workplace environment. This can be facilitated through well designed and executed selection, orientation, and mentorship programs.

SociAl mediA netWorkS

As use of social networking (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, and LinkedIn) has grown, employers are accessing these sites, mostly during the screening process,135 for information concerning the social, political, and leisure activities of applicants.136 For example, 45 percent of hiring managers in the United States indicated that they searched social network sites (SNSs) for information on job applicants; moreover, 35 percent of this same group made a decision “not to hire” based on this information.137 Simi- larly, a 2013 CareerBuilder survey conducted online in Canada and the United States (involving polling 5518 job seekers and 2775 hiring managers) revealed that 44 percent of the respondents reviewed applicant profiles on Facebook, while 27 percent monitored Twitter accounts.138 Of the employers that screened applicants online, 65 percent were interested in the “professionalism” of the candidate; 51 percent were assessing cultural

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fit; 45 percent were looking for information concerning qualifications; and 12 percent were looking for a reason not to hire.139

Caveats associated with using SNSs for screening are that (1) the available informa- tion typically varies across candidates, such that any review is necessarily incomplete and unstandardized; (2) the available information was not created for the purposes of employer screening or selection and is therefore likely of questionable job relevance; (3) information that is discovered on race/ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion, mar- ital status, pregnancy status, union membership, political affiliation, or disability status could inappropriately be used in screening and hiring decisions, leaving the employer vulnerable to legal liabilities; (4) a statistically meaningful relationship between SNS- based content and performance in an employment context has yet to be demonstrated; (5) a large segment of the population (i.e., potential applicant pools) do not use SNSs (e.g., those lacking ready access to a computer), and therefore may be subject to an inap- propriate disadvantage; and (6) employers alienate desirable candidates who object to companies accessing their sites (i.e., perceived invasion of privacy).140 Finally, the job- relatedness of SNS content can be compromised when people present “digital personas” that do not align with their true character (i.e., impression managing through their SNS).

In all, reliance on SNSs for candidate screening, especially relative to known effective alternatives, could easily result in erroneous judgments, abetted by the subjective, non- standardized, and nonstructured nature of cyber-profiling. In any case, applicants must be sensitive to the information they make accessible on SNSs. A Google search provides several firms that help both individual and business users assess and manage their online reputation and that of their business .

Since use of SNSs for screening is relatively recent, there have been few formal evalu- ations of the outcomes. When self-report measures of personality were compared to the ratings others provided of these same individuals from their evaluations of Facebook pages, the judgments were only modestly related, ranging from 0.3 to 0.5. However, even these modest correlations were obtained through aggregating across multiple judges, who were provided with clear definitions of each trait. In practice, of course, recruiters would typically make their judgments without the benefit of carefully developed and shared definitions of the traits evaluated.141 In another more promising study, the average rating of “overall hirability” from multiple raters of individuals’ Facebook pages correlated 0.28 with job performance ratings.142 Unfortunately, the sample size was small N 56)( 5 and the hypothetical position on which raters based their evaluations was distinctly different from the jobs the people being evaluated were actually performing. Physical attractiveness conveyed through personal pictures on SNSs has also been shown to positively influence hiring decisions.143

In one of the most rigorously designed and executed studies on the validity of SNS evaluations and job performance to date, recruiters from several employers rated informa- tion obtained from the Facebook profiles of 416 college students who were applying for full-time jobs. Recruiter ratings of applicants’ Facebook information were poor predictors of job performance correlations .13 to .04( )5 2 2 , turnover intentions (correlations .05 to .00), or actual turnover correlations .01 to.01( )5 2 post hire. Also, Facebook ratings favoured female and white applicants while not improving prediction of any of these criteria over and above cognitive ability, self-efficacy, and personality.144

In addition to the early indications of poor predictive validity and adverse impact associated with SNS-collected information when used for screening and selection, there are legislative actions that limit using SNSs for employment screening. For example, Maryland passed the Password Protection Act prohibiting employers from asking job candidates to provide them with usernames or passwords to their Facebook and other SNS accounts.145

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NEL 313CHAPTER 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening

The Information Privacy Commission of Ontario has published “Reference Check: Is Your Boss Watching? Privacy and Your Facebook Profile” (2012). It contains guidelines for protecting your SNS presence from abuse by employers (see https:// www.ipc.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/Resources/facebook-refcheck-e.pdf ). At the fed- eral level, the Privacy Commissioner of Canada issued the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), which provides rules governing how “private sector organizations can collect, use, or disclose personal information in the course of commercial activities.” It states that if organizations wish to collect, use, or disclose information about you, personal consent is required. Even where consent is given, the organization must disclose the purpose for which the personal information is being used, and how it is being used. As the targeted individual, you have the right to see what personal information is being used and must be given the opportunity to correct misinformation (see the PIPEDA at http://laws-lois.justice .gc.ca/eng/acts/P-8.6)

Clearly, organizations are rightfully being discouraged from using SNSs as part of their recruitment or selection processes, and applicants need not oblige employers that ask for access to their sites. If SNS-sourced information is eventually found to be helpful for employment screening, it is more likely to come from more structured sites, such as LinkedIn, which is intended to facilitate employment networking opportunities.146

virtuAl cAreer FAirS

Employers are increasingly turning to electronically administered career fairs to recruit and screen job candidates. Digital career fairs electronically match posi- tion openings to posted candidate profiles. Chat lines are often available to allow employers to share information about the hiring process and the company; any interested candidate can view the content and post follow-up questions. Within this infrastructure, separate and private one-to-one exchanges can be arranged online, to allow for further screening prior to any arranged in-person interviews. Indeed, many colleges and universities have adopted this relatively new technology-enabled plat- form as it efficiently and effectively services recruiter and applicant needs. You can read more about virtual career fairs at https://blogs.wsj.com/atwork/2014/04/03/ so-long-interview-suit-here-comes-the-virtual-career-fair

virtuAl JoB AuditionS

Another fairly recent development involving the application of technology to screening involves Select International (http://www.selectinternational.com) and Toyota Motor Engineering and Manufacturing of North America, which partnered to develop and use virtual job auditions.147 Specifically, applicants for assembly positions at the Toyota Tundra plant in San Antonio, Texas, must participate in an online work simulation requiring, for example, that candidates read dials and gauges, spot safety problems, and interactively engage in general problem-solving activities. Candidates passing this virtual simulation get invited to a hands-on tryout, involving the lifting of 23-kilogram car parts, bolting nuts with an air gun, and spray-painting vehicles. It is likely that the use of virtual reality technology in employee screening, selection, and development will grow exponen- tially over the next few years as the depth and richness of the software applications (e.g., virtual reality) continue to improve and the cost declines.

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314 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

// SummAry Organizations should be staffed with people capable of performing their assigned jobs well. The primary role of recruiting is to secure an adequate supply of job applicants, while screening identifies and eliminates applicants lacking minimal qualifications. The remaining applicants are then referred for additional assessments involving tools that are relatively more time consuming and costly.

Effective screening tools are (1) grounded in organization and job analysis, (2) rela- tively inexpensive to use, (3) predictive of job-relevant criteria, (4) legally defensible, and (5) perceived as acceptable (fair) by job candidates.

Information used for screening can be collected from various sources, including application forms, biographical information blanks, résumés, reference and/or back- ground checks, and the analysis of past work experience. Reliable, valid screening systems are rooted in job-relevant past behaviours, interests, and experiences being predictive of future performance criteria.

Professionally developed BIBs are among the most effective screening options, but they are typically applicable only in situations where there are large numbers of appli- cants and a large number of similar positions to be filled. Careful, critical analysis of the amount and type of past work experience is also among the more effective screening tools. Reference checks are among the least effective options in that they are useful only for screening out the most undesirable candidates.

Advancements in technology have resulted in some new screening options. Some employers now review social networking sites for information they perceive as useful, but research suggests that these reviews are unrelated to future job performance and leave employers vulnerable to legal liabilities. This is not especially surprising since most social networking sites are not intended for job screening purposes. More promising technology-enabled screening tools include applicant tracking systems, virtual career fairs, and virtual job auditions.

key termS

Application blank, p. 294 Biodata, p. 297 Biographical information blank (BIB), p. 297 Criterion measures, p. 296 Designated targeted groups, p. 292 False negatives, p. 292 False positives, p. 292 Minimum qualifications (MQs), p. 292 Reference check, p. 305 Screening, p. 292 Selection ratio, p. 292 Validity coefficient, p. 300 Weighted application blank (WAB), p. 296

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diScuSSion QueStionS

1. What are the differences between employee screening and selection?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the following screening devices?

a. biographical data

b. application forms

c. résumés

d. background reference checks

3. What is negligent hiring? Provide an example. What can employers do to guard against this?

4. How best can an employer avoid legal challenges arising against its use of screening procedures?

5. Describe an effective screening program that you could use to deal with a large number (over 1000) of job applications for the position of public bus operator.

6. What are applicant behaviours that give rise to positive (or negative) employer impressions of job applicants?

exerciSeS

1. Prepare your own personal résumé using the guidelines and references presented in this chapter. Exchange your résumé with one of your classmates. Critique each other’s document in terms of organization, clarity of information, style, and presen- tation. Write a short paragraph describing the impressions you formed from reading your classmate’s résumé.

2. Develop a set of questions based on the security dispatcher’s job description that can be used to screen applicants for that position.

3. Suppose that you are managing a Swiss Chalet franchise and must recruit table servers for your store. List in priority the three things you would be most inclined to screen for, how you would do the screening, and provide a rationale for each.

4. In reference to Exercise 3 above, develop a set of three questions that could be useful in your background reference checks on applicants for the Swiss Chalet table server position and explain their use.

5. Think of the key activities of a job that you have held (part time or full time). From these key activities, list biodata items that could be helpful in predicting success in this job. A brief rationale should accompany each item. Develop a one-page biodata questionnaire by phrasing each item in question format.

6. With respect to the vignette that opens this chapter, Glen, the HR director, rec- ommended several interventions concerning recruitment, screening, selection, and retention. Drawing on your reading of the current chapter, recommend specific procedures/tools likely to be effective in these areas and argue your case. In forming your recommendations, be sure to consider the different jobs involved (i.e., store manager versus salespeople), the implications of LHI’s growth, and the degree to which various decisions should be made at the store level and at the company level.

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316 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

CAsE sTudy in sEARCH Of A COmmuniCATiOns diRECTOR AT AbC gLAss, inC.

ABC Glass, a Canadian-based manufacturer of glass with a dominant share of the international market, seeks to fill a newly created position of “director of commu- nications.” This person will be responsible for both internal and external commu- nications of the company, including writing corporate newsletters, communicating with the press in a public relations function, coaching senior officers on ways to improve their presentation skills, communicating orally and in writing the corpo- rate directions (mission statements) and policies to employees, and soliciting news from employees for reporting in corporate newsletters to enhance cohesiveness and morale following the merger of French- and English-speaking companies. The presi- dent of the merged company has hired you to recruit and screen for this position, referring to him the top three candidates. He, along with the HR director, will select their top candidate from among these three, using one or more focused assessments. The position requirements for this appointment, developed from the job analysis workshop, include:

• fluency in both written and spoken French and English;

• excellent oral and written communication skills;

• ability to manage interpersonal conflict;

• ability to work under tight timelines, with multiple conflicting demands;

• ability to plan and organize;

• ability to remain calm when demands considered unreasonable are being made by one’s boss;

• ability to solicit information and cooperation from others and over- come personal obstacles;

• ability to extract relevant information from an abundance of reports and summarize it;

• ability to present relatively difficult material in an easily understand- able way;

• ability to provide effective coaching to senior officers for improving their presentation skills;

• ability to motivate others to embrace and execute corporate policies; and

• willingness to “go above and beyond the call of duty.”

The president has contracted you to (1) establish a recruitment plan, specifying the specific recruitment outlets; (2) propose a screening strategy, outlining each stage of screening and the tools to be used; (3) describe a post-screening selection assess- ment; and (4) speak to the merits of your proposal. Finally, develop biodata items that are likely to be useful for screening for this position and provide your rationale for each. (Of course, before using such items, you would need to determine empiri- cally whether they are appropriate.)

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// endnoteS 1. Levine, E.L., D.M. Maye, A. Ulm, and T.R. Gordon. 2006. “A Methodology

for Developing and Validating Minimum Qualifications (MQs).” Personnel Psychology 50: 1009–1023.

2. Ibid.

3. Kethley, B.R., and D.E. Terpstra. 2005. “An Analysis of Litigation Associated with Use of the Application Form in the Selection Process.” Public Personnel Management 34(4): 357–376.

4. Wallace, C.J., and S.J. Vodanovich. 2004. “Personnel Application Blanks: Persistence and Knowledge of Legally Inadvisable Application Blank Items.” Public Personnel Management 33(3): 331–349.

5. Wallace, C.J., E.E. Page, and M. Lippstreu. 2006. “Applicant Reactions to Pre- Employment Application Blanks: A Legal and Procedural Justice Perspective.” Journal of Business and Psychology 20(4): 467–488.

6. Saks, A.M., J.D. Leck, and D.M. Saunders. 1995. “Effects of Application Blanks and Employment Equity on Applicant Reactions and Job Pursuit Intentions.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 16: 415–430.

QueStionS

1. Should background checks be mandatory for all jobs or only for certain jobs? Explain your reasoning.

2. Describe a procedure that could be used for doing background checks in a tight labour market.

3. Should background checks be made before a candidate receives a job offer? If so, how do you avoid obtaining information that may be used to discriminate against the candidate (see Table 3.1).

4. How can the Internet be used to do background checks and to speed up the process? Are there any risks in this process?

5. Explain why background checks may be an invasion of a job applicant’s right to privacy.

6. If you discover that a job applicant has a criminal record, can you dis- qualify the candidate solely on that ground and without fear of violating the candidate’s human rights?

7. What is the value of a degree from a prestigious university on a résumé? Would such a degree influence your hiring decision if everything else were equal among candidates? Should it? Why or why not?

8. What should you do if you discover someone has fudged her application form information or résumé or lied during the screening interview? Does it matter how big the lie is? Explain and argue your case.

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7. Chass, M. “Baseball; False War Tales Lead Jays to Drop Johnson.” The New York Times (March 18, 1999). Retrieved July 14, 2017, from http://www. nytimes.com/1999/03/18/sports/baseball-false-war-tales-lead-jays-to-drop- johnson.html

8. Solomon, B., 1998. “Too Good to Be True?” Management Review 87(4) (April): 27.

9. Owens, W.A. 1976. “Biographical Data.” In M.D. Dunnette, ed., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1st ed. (pp. 609–650). Chicago: Rand-McNally.

10. Telenson, P.A., R.A. Alexander, and G.V. Barrett. 1983. “Scoring the Biographical Information Blank: A Comparison of Three Weighting Techniques.” Applied Psychological Measurement 7: 73–80.

11. Hogan, J.B. 1994. “Empirical Keying of Background Data Measures.” In G.A. Stokes, M.D. Mumford, and W.A. Owens, eds., Biodata Handbook (pp. 109–107). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

12. La Lopa, J.M., J. Beck, and R. Ghiselli. 2009. “The Role of Biodata and Career Anchors on Turnover Intentions among Hospitality and Tourism Educators.” Journal of Culinary Science and Technology 7(2): 196–206.

13. Kaak, S.R., H.S. Feild, W. F. Giles, and D.R. Norris. 1998. “The Weighted Application Blank: A Cost Effective Tool That Can Reduce Employee Turnover.” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 39: 18.

14. Lee, R., and J.M. Booth. 1974. “A Utility Analysis of a Weighted Application Blank Designed to Predict Turnover for Clerical Employees.” Journal of Applied Psychology 59: 516–518.

15. Ghiselli, E.E. 1966. The Validity of Occupational Aptitude Tests. New York: Wiley.

16. Rothstein, H.R., F.L. Schmidt, F.W. Erwin, W.A. Owens, and C.P. Sparks. 1990. “Biographical Data in Employment Selection: Can Validities Be Made Generalizable?” Journal of Applied Psychology 75: 175–184.

17. Mitchell, T.W., and R.J. Klimoski. 1982. “Is It Rational to Be Empirical? A Test of Methods for Scoring Biographical Data.” Journal of Applied Psychology 67: 411–418.

18. Guion, R.M. 1998. Assessment, Measurement and Prediction for Personnel Decisions. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

19. Barrick, M.R., and R.D. Zimmerman. 2005. “Reducing Voluntary, Avoidable Turnover through Selection.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90: 159–166.

20. Cucina, J.M., P.M. Caputo, H.F. Thibodeaux, C.N. MacLane, and J.M. Bayless. 2013. “Scoring Biodata: Is It Rational to Be Quasi-Rational?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 21(2): 226–232.

21. England, G.W. 1971. Development and Use of Weighted Application Blanks, rev. ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Industrial Relations Center.

22. Gunter, B., A Furnham, and R. Drakeley. 2016. Biodata: Biographical Indicators of Business Performance. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York.

23. Owens, W.A., and L.F. Schoenfeldt. 1979. “Toward a Classification of Persons.” Journal of Applied Psychology 65: 569–607.

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24. Owens, W.A. 1976.

25. Mael, F.A., M. Connerley, and R.A. Morath. 1996. “None of Your Business: Parameters of Biodata Invasiveness.” Personnel Psychology 49: 613–650.

26. State of Connecticut v. Teal. 457 U.S. 440, 1981.

27. Imus, A. et al. 2011. “Differential Item Functioning in Biodata: Opportunity Access as an Explanation of Gender- and Race-related DIF.” Applied Measurement in Education 24(1): 71–94.

28. Mitchell, T.W. 1994. “The Utility of Biodata.” In Garnett S. Stokes, Michael D. Mumford, and William A. Owens, eds., Biodata Handbook (pp. 492–493). Palo Alto, CA: CPP Books.

29. McManus, M.A., and M.L. Kelly. 2006. “Personality Measures and Biodata: Evidence Regarding Their Incremental Predictive Value in the Life Insurance Industry.” Personnel Psychology 52(1): 137–148.

30. McManus, M.A., and S.H. Brown. 2006. “Adjusting Sales Results Measures for Use as Criteria.” Personnel Psychology 48(2): 391–400.

31. Saks, A.M., J.D. Leck, and D.M. Saunders. 1995.

32. Mael, F.A., M. Connerley, and R.A. Morath. 1996.

33. Elkins, T.J., and J.S. Phillips. 2000. “Job Context, Selection Decision Outcome, and Perceived Fairness of Selection Tests: Biodata as an Illustrative Case.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85(3): 479–484.

34. Elkins, T.J., and J.S. Phillips. 2000.

35. Mael, F.A., M. Connerley, and R.A. Morath. 1996.

36. Harvey-Cook, J.E., and R.J. Taffler. 2000. “Biodata in Professional Entry-Level Selection: Statistical Scoring of Common Format Applications.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 73(1): 631–664.

37. Donovan, J.J., S.A. Dwight, and G.M. Hurtz. 2003.

38. Hammer, E.G., and L.S. Kleiman. 1988. “Getting to Know You.” Personnel Administrator 34: 86–92.

39. Terpstra, D.E., and E.J. Rozell. 1993. “The Relationship of Staffing Practices to Organizational Level Measures of Performance.” Personnel Psychology 46: 27–48.

40. Thacker, J.W., and R.J. Cattaneo. 1992. “Survey of Personnel Practices in Canadian Organizations: A Summary Report to Respondents.” Working Paper W92-04, Faculty of Business, University of Windsor.

41. Carlson, K.D., S.E. Scullen, F.L. Schmidt, H. Rothstein, and F. Erwin. 1999. “Generalizable Biographical Data Validity Can Be Achieved Without Multi- Organizational Development and Keying.” Personnel Psychology 52(3): 731–755.

42. Harvey-Cook, J.E., and R.J. Taffler. 2000.

43. Dalessio, A.T., M.M. Crosby, and M.A. McManus. 1996. “Stability of Biodata Keys and Dimensions across English-speaking Countries: A Test of the Cross- situational Hypothesis.” Journal of Business and Psychology 10(3): 289–296.

44. Breaugh, J.A. 2009. “The Use of Biodata for Employee Selection: Past Research and Future Directions.” Human Resource Management Review 19: 219–231.

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45. Bleisener, T. 1996. “Methodological Moderators in Validating Biographical Data in Personnel Selection.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 69: 107–120.

46. Asher, J.J. 1972. “The Biographical Item: Can It Be Improved?” Personnel Psychology 25: 251–269.

47. Ghiselli, E.E. 1966.

48. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984. “Validity and Utility of Alternative Predictors of Job Performance.” Psychological Bulletin 96: 72–98.

49. Maertz, C.P., Jr. 1999. “Biographical Predictors of Turnover among Mexican Workers: An Empirical Study.” International Journal of Management 16(1): 112–119.

50. Rothstein, H.R., F.L. Schmidt, F.W. Erwin, W.A. Owens, and C.P. Sparks. 1990.

51. Stokes, G.S., and L.A. Cooper. 1994. “Selection Using Biodata: Old Notions Revisited.” In G.S. Stokes, M.D. Mumford, and W.A. Owens, eds., Biodata Handbook (pp.103–138). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

52. Vinchur, A.J., J.S. Schippmann, F.S. Switzer, III, and P.L. Roth. 1998. “A Meta- Analytic Review of Predictors of Job Performance for Salespeople.” Journal of Applied Psychology 83(4): 586–597.

53. Breaugh, J. et al. 2014. “The Value of Biodata for Selecting Employees: Comparable Results for Job Incumbent and Job Applicant Samples?” Journal of Organizational Psychology 14(1): 40–51.

54. Becton, J.B. 2012. “Using Biodata as a Predictor of Errors, Tardiness, Policy Violations, Overall Job Performance, and Turnover among Nurses.” Journal of Management and Organization 18(5): 714–727.

55. Rothstein, H.R., F.L. Schmidt, F.W. Erwin, W.A. Owens, and C.P. Sparks. 1990.

56. Breaugh, J. et al. 2014.

57. Gunter, B., Furnham, A., and Drakeley, R., 2016. Biodata: Biographical Indicators of Business Performance. London & New York: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.

58. Reilly, R.R., and G.T. Chao. 1982. “Validity and Fairness of Some Alternative Employee Selection Procedures.” Personnel Psychology 35: 1–62.

59. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984.

60. Schmitt, N., R.Z. Gooding, R.A. Noe, and M. Kirsch. 1984. “Meta-Analysis of Validity Studies Published between 1964 and 1982 and the Investigation of Study Characteristics.” Personnel Psychology 37: 407–422.

61. Asher, J.J., and J.A. Sciarrino. 1974. “Realistic Work Samples Tests: A Review.” Personnel Psychology 27: 519–523.

62. Schmidt, F.L., and J.E. Hunter. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin 124: 262–274.

63. Breaugh, J.A. 2009. “The Use of Biodata for Employee Selection: Past Research and Future Directions.” Human Resource Management Review 19: 209–213.

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64. Becton, J.B., M.C. Matthews, D.L. Hartley, and D.H. Whitaker. 2009. “Using Biodata to Predict Turnover, Organizational Commitment, and Job Performance in Healthcare.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 17: 189–202.

65. Mount, M.K., L.A. Witt, and M.R. Barrick. 2000. “Variance in Faking across Noncognitive Measures.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85: 812–821.

66. Allworth, E., and B. Hesketh. 2000. “Job Requirements Biodata as a Predictor of Performance in Customer Service Roles.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 8: 137–147.

67. Dean, M.A. 2004. “An Assessment of Biodata Predictive Ability across Multiple Performance Criteria.” Applied H.R.M. 9: 1–12.

68. Becton, J.B., M.C. Matthews, D.L. Hartley, and D.H. Whitaker. 2009.

69. Ibid.

70. Hough, L.M., F.L. Oswald, and R.E. Ployhart. 2001. “Determinants, Detection and Amelioration of Adverse Impact in Personnel Selection Procedures: Issues, Evidence and Lessons Learned.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 9: 152–194.

71. Barrick, M.R., and R.D. Zimmerman. 2005. “Reducing Voluntary, Avoidable Turnover through Selection.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90: 159–166.

72. Schmitt, N., and J. Golubovich. 2013. “Biographical Information.” In K.F. Geisinger et al., APA Handbook of Testing and Assessment in Psychology, Vol.1: Test Theory and Testing and Assessment in Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 437–455). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

73. England, G.W. 1971.

74. Thoms, P., R. McMasters, M.R. Roberts, and D.A Dombkowski. 1999. “Résumé Characteristics as Predictors of an Invitation to Interview.” Journal of Business and Psychology 13(3): 339–356.

75. Knouse, S.B. 1994. “Impressions of the Résumé: The Effects of Applicant Education, Experience and Impression Management.” Journal of Business and Psychology 9: 33–45.

76. Knouse, S.B., R.A. Giacalone, and P. Hinda. 1988. “Impression Management in the Résumé and Its Cover Letter.” Journal of Business and Psychology 3: 242–249.

77. Cole, M.S., H.S. Feild, and W.F. Giles. 2003. “What Can We Uncover about Applicants Based on Their Résumés? A Field Study.” Applied HRM Research 8(2): 51–62.

78. Cole, M.S., H.S. Feild, and W. Giles. 2003. “Using Recruiter Assessments of Applicants’ Résumé Content to Predict Applicant Mental Ability and Big Five Personality Dimensions.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 11(1): 78–88.

79. Cole, M.S., H.S. Feild, W.F Giles, and S.G. Harris. 2004. “Job Type and Recruiters’ Inferences of Applicant Personality Drawn from Résumé Biodata: Their Relationships with Hiring Recommendations.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 12(4): 363–367.

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80. Cole, M.S., H.S. Field, W.F. Giles, and S.G. Harris. 2009. “Recruiters’ Inferences of Applicant Personality Based on Resume Screening: Do Paper People Have a Personality?” Journal of Business and Psychology 24: 5–18.

81. “Cover Letters Still Play a Valuable Role in Hiring Decisions, Survey Suggests.” 2008. CNW Group. Retrieved July 17, 2017, from http://www.newswire.ca/en/ releases/archive/June2008/26/c8058.html

82. Schullery, N.M., L. Ickes, and S.E. Schullery. 2009. “Employer Preferences for Résumés and Cover Letters.” Business Communication Quarterly 72(2): 163–176.

83. Schullery, N.M., L. Ickes, and S.E. Schullery. 2009.

84. Eichler, L. 2015. “The Future of Work: Frustrated by the Modern Job Hunt? Know How to Beat the Bots.” The Globe and Mail, (November 20). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https://www.theglobe- andmail.com/report-on-business/careers/career-advice/life-at-work/ frustrated-by-the-modern-job-hunt-know-how-to-beat-the-bots/article27399679

85. Bowness, S. 2014. “Job Applications: How to Get Your Résumé Past the Electronic Gatekeepers.” The Globe and Mail (May 2). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/ career-advice/how-to-get-your-resume-past-the-electronic-gatekeepers/ article18811375

86. Kare, C.H. 2017. “Resume Tips for the Modern Job Search” (May 11). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from http://www.kare11.com/money/ hows-you-resume-tips-for-the-modern-job-search/438563402

87. Cywinski, M. 2008, August. “Video Résumés: To Use or Not to Use?” CanadaOne. Retrieved July 18, 2017, from http://www.canadaone.com/ezine/ briefs.html?StoryID=08Aug16_1

88. Waung, M., R.W. Hymes, and J.E. Beatty. 2014. “The Effects of Video and Paper Resumes on Assessments of Personality, Applied Social Skills, Mental Capability, and Resume Outcomes.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 36(3): 238–251.

89. Waung, M., R. Hymes, J.E. Beatty, J.E. and P. McAuslan. 2015. “Self- Promotion Statements in Video Resumes: Frequency, Intensity, and Gender Effects on Job Applicant Evaluation.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 23: 4, 345–360.

90. Akkad, O.E. 2006. “Confronting the Fib No Easy Task for Boards.” The Globe and Mail (February 20): B12.

91. Luciw, R. 2007. “In Résumés, Cutting the Fiction Reduces the Friction: It’s Okay to Sell Your Strengths (and Admit Your Weaknesses), But Recruiters Prefer You Back It Up with Hard Facts.” The Globe and Mail (February 24): B10.

92. Donovan, J.J., S.A. Dwight, and G.M. Hurtz. 2003.

93. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984.

94. Hedricks, C.A., C. Robie, and F.L. Oswald. 2013. “Web-Based Multisource Reference Checking: An Investigation of Psychometric Integrity and Applied Benefits.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 21: 99–110.

95. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and B. Murray. 2008.

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96. Leavitt, H. 1992. “Should Companies Be Hesitant to Give Ex-Employees References?” The Toronto Star (July 20): C3.

97. Clark, L., and P. Snitzer. 2005. “‘Speak No Evil’ Is a Risky Policy: Reference Checks on Former Workers Can Be Tricky for Healthcare Employers.” Modern Healthcare 35: 49.

98. Ibid.

99. Hutton, D. 2008. “Job Reference Chill Grows Icier: Employers’ Growing Reluctance to Talk about Former Employees Frustrates Both Those Doing the Hiring and Those Trying to Get Hired.” The Globe and Mail (June 18): C1.

100. Hutton, D. 2008.

101. Ibid.

102. “The Legalities of Providing a Reference Check on a Former Employee.” 2007. AXIOM International Reference Checking Service. http://www.axiom-int.com/ survey_legalities.htm

103. Clark, L., and P. Snitzer. 2005.

104. Heathfield, S.M. 2017 (March 23). What Are Negligent Hiring Claims? Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https://www.thebalance.com/ what-are-negligent-hiring-claims-1918018

105. Mosel, J.N., and H.W. Goheen. 1958. “The Validity of the Employment Recommendation Questionnaire in Personnel Selection: I. Skilled Traders.” Personnel Psychology 11: 481–490.

106. Mosel, J.N., and H.W. Goheen. 1959. “The Validity of the Employment Recommendation Questionnaire: III. Validity of Different Types of References.” Personnel Psychology 12: 469–477.

107. Schmidt, F.L., and Hunter, J.E. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 Years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin 124: 262–274.

108. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984.

109. Solomon, B., 1998.

110. Kabay, M. 1993. “It Pays to Be Paranoid When You’re Hiring.” Computing Canada (April 26): 21.

111. Knouse, S.B. 1983. “The Letter of Recommendation: Specificity and Favorability of Information.” Personnel Psychology 36: 331–342.

112. McCarthy, J.M., and R.D. Goffin. 2001. “Improving the Validity of Letters of Recommendation: An Investigation of Three Standardized Reference Forms.” Military Psychology 13(4): 199–222.

113. Bernerth, J.B., S.G. Taylor, H.J. Walker, and D.S. Whitman. 2012. “An Empirical Investigation of Dispositional Antecedents and Performance-related Outcomes of Credit Scores.” Journal of Applied Psychology 97(2): 469–478.

114. Gallagher, K. 2006. “Rethinking the Fair Credit Reporting Act: When Requesting Credit Reports for Employment Purposes Goes Too Far.” Iowa Law Review 91: 1593–1621.

115. Smith, A. 2007. “Unnecessary Credit Checks Challenges.” HRM Magazine 52(5): 22–24.

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116. Johne, M. 2012. “Do Credit Checks Really Prove Your Job Worthiness?” The Globe and Mail (August 23). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https://www. theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/small-business/sb-managing/ do-credit-checks-really-prove-your-job-worthiness/article567813/

117. Humber, T. 2003. “Name, Rank and Serial Number.” Canadian Human Rights Reporter 16(10): G1, G7.

118. Quinones, M.A., J.K. Ford, and M.S.Teachout. 1995. “The Experience between Work Experience and Job Performance: A Conceptual and Meta- Analytic Review.” Personnel Psychology 48: 887–910.

119. Rowe, P.M. 1988. “The Nature of Work Experience.” Canadian Psychology 29: 109–115.

120. Tesluk, P.E., and R.R. Jacobs. 1998. “Toward an Integrated Model of Work Experience.” Personnel Psychology 51: 321–355.

121. Dragoni, L., I-S Oh, P. Vankatwyk, and P.E. Tesluk. 2011. “Developing Executive Leaders: The Relative Contribution of Cognitive Ability, Personality, and the Accumulation of Work Experience in Predicting Strategic Thinking Competency.” Personnel Psychology 64: 829–864.

122. Ford, J.K., M.A. Quinones, D.J. Sego, and J. Speer-Sorra. 1992. “Factors Affecting the Opportunity to Perform Trained Tasks on the Job.” Personnel Psychology 45: 511–527.

123. Schmidt, F.L., J.E. Hunter, and A.N. Outerbridge. 1986. “Impact of Job Experience and Ability on Job Knowledge, Work Sample Performance, and Supervisory Ratings of Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 71: 432–439.

124. Borman, W.C., M.A. Hanson, S.H. Oppler, E.D. Pulakos, and L.A. Whilte. 1991. “Job Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd ed. (pp. 271–326). San Diego: Consulting Psychologists Press.

125. Vance, R.L., M.D. Coovert, R.C. MacCallum, and J.W. Hedge. 1989. “Construct Models of Task Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 447–455.

126. Hunter, J.E., and R.F. Hunter. 1984.

127. Quinones, M.A., J.K. Ford, and M.S. Teachout. 1995.

128. McDaniel, M.A., F.L. Schmidt, and J.E. Hunter. 1988. “Job Experience Correlates of Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 73: 327–330.

129. Quinones, M.A., J.K. Ford, and M.S. Teachout. 1995.

130. McDaniel, M., F.L. Schmidt, and J.E. Hunter. 2006. “A Meta-Analysis of the Validity of Methods for Rating Training and Experience in Personnel Selection. “ Personnel Psychology, 41: 283–309.

131. Ng, T.W.H., and D.C. Feldman. 2010. “Organizational Tenure and Job Performance.” Journal of Management 36(5): 1220–1250.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. Ibid.

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135. Bohnert, D., and H.R. Ross. 2010. “The Influence of Social Networking Web Sites on the Evaluation of Job Candidates.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 13: 341–347.

136. Olzak, T. 2009. “Cyber-Profiling: Benefits and Pitfalls, Olzak on Business Continuity.” Retrieved January 12, 2012, from http://blogs.csoonline.com/ cyber_profiling

137. Stamper, C. 2010. “Common Mistakes Companies Make Using Social Media Tools in Recruiting Efforts.” CMA Management 84(2): 12–14.

138. Grasz, J. 2013. “New CareerBuilder Study Reveals Nine Lessons for Job Seekers and Recruiters That May Surprise You.” Career Builder Press Release.

139. Nguyen, N.T. 2014. “Employer’s Use of Social Networking Sites in Applicant Screening: An Unethical and Potentially Illegal Practice.” Business & Financial Affairs. 3:e138 doi:10.4172/2167-0234.1000e138

140. Stoughton, J.W., L.F. Thompson, and A.W. Meade. In Press. “Examining Applicant Reactions to the Use of Social Networking Websites in Pre- Employment Screening.” Journal of Business and Psychology. doi:10.1007/ s10869-013-9333-6

141. Kluemper, D.H., and P.A. Rosen. 2009. “Future Employment Selection Methods: Evaluating Social Networking Web Sites.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 24: 567–580.

142. Kluemper, D.H., P.A. Rosen, and K. Mossholder. 2012. “Social Networking Websites, Personality Ratings, and the Organizational Context: More Than Meets the Eye.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42: 1143–1172.

143. Tews, M.J., K. Stafford, and J. Zhu. 2009. “Beauty Revisited: The Impact of Attractiveness, Ability, and Personality in the Assessment of Employment Suitability.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 17: 92–100.

144. Van Iddekinge, C.H., Lanivich, S.E. P.L. Roth, and E. Junco. 2016. “Social Media for Selection? Validity and Adverse Impact Potential of a Facebook- based Assessment.” Journal of Management, 42:7: 1811–1835.

145. Goemann, M.C. 2012. “Maryland Passes Nation’s First Social Media Privacy Protection Bill.” ACLU (May 4). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https://www. aclu.org/blog/maryland-passes-nations-first-social-media-privacy-protection-bill

146. Van Iddekinge, C.H., S.E. Lanivich, P.L. Roth, and E. Junco. 2016.

147. Winkler, C. 2006. “Job Tryouts Go Virtual: Online Job Simulations Provide Sophisticated Candidate Assessments.” HR Magazine 51(9): 131–133.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter describes testing and other assessments in HR selection, providing informa- tion on the technical, ethical, and legal requirements governing their use.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• identify commonly used assessments in HR selection;

• describe the advantages and disadvantages of using these assessments;

• explain the importance of the validity and utility of HR assessments;

• discuss how people undergoing these assessments view them and how these views impact their perceptions of the organization’s attractiveness; and

• summarize the legal issues surrounding the use of HR assessments.

sELECTiOn ii: TEsTing And OTHER AssEssmEnTs

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NEL 327CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

My name is Aaron. I am the HR director for a large CD retail operation. Tyler, the CEO, said he couldn’t understand why we had to spend so much time and money on our selec- tion procedures. He felt that our computer software and electronics retail business had to hire people in the 19–34 age group, about the same demographic as most of our customers. He wanted to hire people who are likely to have hands-on experience with the latest computer software and electronics rather than sales knowledge alone.

He kept showing me all these articles he read on the airplane; you know the ones, where the newest manage- ment guru has the quick fix to all your problems (for a small fee). He brought in this one guy he read about to give us a seminar on the best way to hire people. The guru had a method that was guaranteed to work. It involved hiring only those applicants who had a high “developmental quotient,” or DQ. You brought the candidate in, sat the person down in a quiet room, and asked a series of questions about his childhood and adolescence.

The guru claimed that most people were stuck in the adolescent stage and your goal was to find candidates who had progressed to the adult level, which was difficult to do since very few people had attained that level. You could hire people who were at the pre-adult stage if you sent them to his training seminar to learn how to advance to the next stage. He trained people to identify a person’s “developmental quotient” based on the person’s answers to the interview questions.

After the seminar, Tyler pulled me aside and said he wanted to change our selection procedures to the “DQ” method. I laughed and told him what I thought of the proce- dure. He said I would either implement the “DQ” selection system and a training program to increase “DQ” levels or look for a new job. I knew I should have stood up for what was right and for what I believed in, but I couldn’t afford to lose my job at my age with a mortgage to pay.

I convinced myself that the new system met the selection standards outlined by my professional associa- tion and decided to give it a try.

I now spend most of my time preparing for court and tribunal hearings. Some of our job candidates found out we were hiring only people between the ages of 19 and 34. They filed a complaint with the human rights tribunal that we were discriminating against them. We also had another problem with the “DQ” system when some female appli- cants thought some of the questions about their adolescent experiences were too intimate and suggestive. They filed a sexual harassment suit.

These cases became so costly we had to hire two lawyers to deal with them. We wound up paying these people hundreds of thousands of dollars when our lawyers brought in external consultants who told us there was no way we could legally defend the “DQ” test as a valid and reliable selection instrument. The lawyers told us to cut our losses and settle the suits. Of course, as the HR director, I took the fall for all these problems and was fired by Tyler.

LisTEning TO THE AiRPORT guRu

// What Do You KnoW about EmploYmEnt tEsting? Many of you will be aiming to become an HR professional. HR professionals are respon- sible for improving organizational effectiveness through the recruitment, selection, devel- opment, and motivation of organizational members. Yet, many organizations do not employ evidenced-based practices.1,2

Rynes, Colbert, and Brown surveyed 5000 HR professionals who were members of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM).3 Each HR professional was asked to answer 39 true-or-false questions from different HR content areas, including staffing, which included personnel selection. How did the HR professionals do? Their average score was 57 percent. How well will you do on the following sample of true-or-false

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL328

questions from the survey? Write your answers (T or F) beside each question. We will then present you with the correct answers (don’t peek!).

1. Despite the popularity of drug testing, there is no clear evidence that applicants who score positive on drug tests are less reliable or productive employees.

2. There are only four basic dimensions of personality as captured by the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

3. High intelligence is actually a disadvantage in a low-skilled job.

4. There is little difference among personality inventories in predicting job performance.

5. Integrity tests that try to predict whether employees will steal, be absent, or otherwise take advantage of an employer don’t work well in practice because so many people lie on them or fake their answers.

6. Employees of companies that screen job applicants for values perform better than do employees screened for intelligence.

7. On average, conscientiousness is a better predictor of job performance than is intelligence.4

So, how did you do? Only the first of the above items is “true.” Fewer than 50 per- cent of HR professionals passed the section on HR staffing. After having mastered the material in this chapter, you will know more about HR assessment than many of today’s practising HR professionals. So, do not be discouraged if you did not score well.

EmploYmEnt tEsting

A major function in recruitment and selection is to find the best job candidate. When there are many applicants, organizations typically use a variety of assessments to inform their selection decision. The best and most legally defensible HR assessments are stan- dardized and satisfy professional standards concerning their psychometric properties and predictive validities (e.g., demonstrated ability to predict important work-related criteria, including job performance), as noted in Chapter 2.

In most hiring situations, there are more applicants than there are positions to be filled. The goal is to select those candidates who best possess the knowledge, skills, abili- ties, or other attributes and competencies (KSAOs) that bring value to the organization. To demonstrate their value, the KSAOs must be shown to predict important work-related criteria (e.g., success in training, job performance, tenure, organizational citizenship behaviour, and promotion through the ranks). Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.1 presents information on the use of employment tests.

Choosing a tEst

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.2 presents some points that should be considered in selecting commercially available employment tests. These points reflect the technical considerations discussed above. Anyone who has the responsibility for choosing employ- ment tests should be knowledgeable about the various standards and technical documents related to their use. Goffin states that there is a tendency for HR professionals to choose

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NEL 329CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 8.1

USE Of EMplOYMEnT TESTS

The central requirement for assessments used in selection is that they accurately assess an individual’s capacity to per- form the essential components of the target job safely, effi- ciently, and reliably, without discriminating against protected group members except where the KSAO can be established as a bona fide occupational requirement (BfOR). The use of employment tests must comply with the following:

Testing standards

Employment assessments must be reliable, valid, unbi- ased, and fair. The psychometric properties of the test must be established before it is used for decision-making purposes.

Professional guidelines

professional bodies have developed guidelines for the development and use of tests. Employment testing should adhere to the guidelines from the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, published by the American psy- chological Association and two other organizations. These standards have been adopted by the Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational psychology as contained in the Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (http://www.siop.org/_principles/ principlesdefault.aspx).

Who Can Test?

The availability of employment tests and computerized scoring and interpretation systems often tempts unquali- fied people to administer tests and to interpret results from them. However, proficiency in employment testing requires a considerable degree of training and experience. Reputable test publishers require purchasers to establish their expertise in using a test before allowing its purchase. These safeguards help protect the public against misuse of

tests and information collected through testing. The CpHR national Code of Ethics requires HR professionals to rec- ognize their own limits and to practise within the limits of their competence, culture, and experience.

Cautions in using Employment Tests

1. Informed consent. Job applicants must be told why they are being tested; they must be informed in clear language that the test results may be provided to a prospective employer and that those results may be used in making employment decisions.

2. Access to test results. Whenever possible and fea- sible, job applicants should receive feedback on their test performance and on any decisions that are based on those tests, unless this right has been waived by the applicant or if it is prohibited by law or court order.

3. Privacy and confidentiality. Job applicants reveal information about themselves during the job selection process, but there is no justification for obtaining any information that is not job related. Applicants have a right to privacy, so information that is provided by job applicants must be held in confidence.

4. Language and culture. Job applicants have the right to be tested in a language in which they are fluent. Administering a test to applicants who do not have good command of the language in which the test is written will lead to test bias; the test results will be confounded by incomprehension of the language.

5. Accommodation. Employers are expected to make reasonable accommodation to meet the needs of employees or applicants with disabilities who meet job requirements. Employment tests should be given to an applicant in a way that accommodates the applicant’s disability, even at the expense of changing standardized testing procedures.

“the flavour of the month” when it comes to pre-employment tests rather than taking a serious look at actual job requirements and the demonstrated ability of the test to assess candidates against these requirements.5

Information on thousands of employment tests can be found on the Internet. A credible source is the Buros Center for Testing (http://buros.org). This site presents

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL330

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 8.2

pOInTS TO COnSIDER In SElECTIng A TEST

1. Do a job analysis to determine the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other qualities that have been related to job success.

2. Consult an information resource on testing to iden- tify tests that are relevant to your job needs. Obtain information from several sources including test pub- lishers or developers and human resources consul- tants knowledgeable about testing.

3. Obtain information on several tests related to what you want to measure. Read through the materials provided by the test developers. Reject out of hand any test for which the publisher or developer presents unclear or incomplete information.

4. Read the technical documentation to become familiar with how and when the test was developed and used. Does the technical documentation provide information on the test’s reliability and validity? Does it address the issue of test fairness? Does it include normative data based on sex, age, and ethnicity that are com- parable to your intended test takers? Does it include references for independent investigations of the test’s psychometric properties? Eliminate from consider- ation any tests whose documentation does not allow you to answer “yes” to these questions.

5. Read independent evaluations of the tests that you are considering adopting. Does the independent evidence

support the claims of the test developers? Is the test valid and reliable? Eliminate those tests that are not supported by this evidence.

6. Examine a specimen set from each of the remaining tests. Most publishers will sell a package that includes a copy of the test, instructions, test manual, answer sheets, and sample score report at a rea- sonable cost. Is the test format and reading level appropriate for the intended test takers? Is the test available in languages other than English? Can the test accommodate test takers with special needs? Is the content of the test appropriate for the intended test takers? Eliminate those tests that you do not feel are appropriate.

7. Determine the skill level needed to purchase the test, to administer the test, and to interpret test scores correctly. Do you have the appropriate level of expertise? Does someone else in your organiza- tion meet the test’s requirements? If not, can you contract out for the services of a qualified psy- chologist or human resources professional who does?

8. Select and use only those tests that are psychometri- cally sound, that meet the needs of your intended test takers, and that you have the necessary skills to administer, score, and interpret correctly.

expert reviews of an extensive list of tests. The remainder of this chapter introduces a wide variety of commonly used employment assessments; See Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.3. There are several sample scales of cognitive ability, personality, and emo- tional intelligence assessments that you can complete online at http://www.queendom. com and receive instant feedback, although without information on their psychometric properties it is uncertain whether they would be suitable for use in employee selection.

abilitY anD aptituDE tEsts

As we have seen in earlier chapters, job-related KSAOs play an important role in suc- cessful job performance. For example, applicants for a position of electronic repair tech- nician might be expected to have a high degree of finger dexterity (to perform repairs

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NEL 331CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 8.3

ExAMplES Of pSYCHOlOgICAl ASSESSMEnTS USED TO SElECT EMplOYEES

Personality inventories

California psychological Inventory

guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey

Hogan personality Inventory

Jackson personality Inventory

nEO-ffI and nEO-pI-R

personal Characteristics Inventory (pCI)

Sixteen personality factor Questionnaire (16pf)

Work personality Index (WpI)

Work profile Questionnaire (WpQ)

Honesty/integrity inventories

Hogan personality Inventory–Reliability Scale

Inwald personality Test

london House personnel Selection Inventory

pDI Employment Inventory

Reid Report

Stanton Survey

Tests of Emotional intelligence

Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi)

Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI)

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

Work profile Questionnaire–emotional intelligence (WpQei)

Vocational interest inventories

Jackson Vocational Interest Survey

Kuder preference and Interest Scales

Occupational preference Inventory

Self-Directed Search

Strong Interest Inventory

Vocational preference Inventory

Cognitive Ability Tests

Otis-lennon Mental Ability Test

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Watson-glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Wonderlic personnel Test

Aptitude Tests

Comprehensive Ability Battery (CAB)

Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)

general Aptitude Test Battery (gATB)

Multidimensional Aptitude Battery–II

Psychomotor Tests

general Aptitude Test Battery (gATB)

• Subtest 8—Motor Coordination

• Subtests 9 and 10—Manual Dexterity

• Subtests 11 and 12—Finger Dexterity

O’Connor Tweezer Dexterity Test

purdue pegboard Test

Stromberg Dexterity Test

Physical Ability and sensory/Perceptual Ability Tests

Dynamometer grip Strength Test

Ishihara Test for Colour Blindness

Visual Skills Test

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL332

on circuit boards), colour vision (to tell the difference between different wires), and potential for acquiring knowledge related to electronics (to achieve an understanding of basic circuit theory).

Selection programs seek to predict the degree to which job applicants possess the KSAOs related to the job. Many different tests have been developed to measure specific human abilities and aptitudes. In the case of electronic repair technicians, we would seek to employ those applicants with the highest levels of finger dexterity and colour vision, and the most aptitude for learning electronics.

abilitY tEsts

Abilities are attributes that an applicant brings to the employment situation—the enduring, general traits or characteristics on which people differ. It is of no importance whether ability has been acquired through experience or inheritance. Abilities are simply general traits that people possess and bring with them to the new work situation. For example, finger dexterity is the ability to carry out quick, coordinated movements of fingers on one or both hands and to grasp, place, or move very small objects.6

Ability can underlie performance on a number of specific tasks; finger dexterity might be required to operate a computer keyboard and to assemble electronic compo- nents. One keyboard operator may have taken several months of practice to develop the finger dexterity needed to type 100 words per minute; another may have come by that ability naturally. Both have the same ability, regardless of how it was acquired. Ability exists in individuals at the time they first begin to perform a task, whether that task is operating a keyboard or assembling electronic components.

Skill, in contrast, refers to an individual’s degree of proficiency or competency on a given task, based on both ability and practice, which has developed through performing the task. For example, a keyboard operator and an electronics assembler might have the same level of finger dexterity (ability), with the keyboard operator more skilled at word processing and the assembler more skilled at wiring circuit boards.

Aptitude can be thought of as a specific, narrow ability or skill. Measurements or tests of different aptitudes are used to predict whether an individual will do well in future job-related performance that requires the ability or skill being measured.

Based on a test of finger dexterity, a human resources manager might predict that a job applicant has an aptitude for operating a keyboard, or for assembling electronic components. Over the years, Fleishman and his associates7 have identified 52 distinct human abilities, which can be grouped into four broad categories: cognitive, psycho- motor, physical, and sensory/perceptual abilities. Over time, many psychometrically sound tests have been developed to assess these different abilities.

CognitivE abilitY tEsts

Cognitive abilities are related to intelligence or intellectual ability. These abilities include verbal and numerical, reasoning, memory, problem solving, and processing informa- tion, among others. The first wide-scale, systematic use of cognitive ability testing took place during World War I, when a group of industrial psychologists developed the U.S. Army Alpha Intelligence Test. This was a paper-and-pencil test that could be efficiently administered to groups of army recruits to determine how those recruits could best be employed. The Army Alpha test sought to measure intellectual or basic mental abilities that were thought to be essential to performing military duties.

abilities Enduring, general traits or characteristics on which people differ and which they bring to a work situation.

skill An individual’s degree of proficiency or competency on a given task, which develops through performing the task.

aptitude A specific, narrow ability or skill that may be used to predict job performance.

Cognitive abilities Intelligence, general mental ability, or intellectual ability.

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NEL 333CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

Today, an extensive array of tests is available to measure specific cognitive abilities. Most likely you have taken one or more of them. The Personnel Psychology Centre (PPC) of the Public Service Commission of Canada (PSC) offers federal government depart- ments and agencies a range of professional assessment products and services that can be used for recruitment and selection or personnel development. These include “general competency tests,” a form of cognitive ability testing that assesses verbal and quantitative abilities, spatial relations, and analytical and logical reasoning. Sample test questions from the Commission’s General Competency Test Level 1 (GTC2-207) and General Compe- tency Test Level 2 (GCT2-314) are available online on the Government of Canada website (search General Competency Test Level 2 (GCT2)—Practice Test). See also Recruitment and Selection Today 8.1 for sample items from the General Competency Test GCT1.

More common than measuring specific abilities among job applicants is measuring general cognitive ability. General cognitive ability (or general mental ability, abbreviated as g, GCA, or GMA) is thought to be the primary ability underlying intellectual capacity. GMA is believed to promote effective learning, efficient and accurate problem solving, and clear communications. It can be thought of as a manager of other, specific cognitive abili- ties, similar to a computer’s operating system managing software programs. It is essentially the ability to learn.8 GMA positively predicts job performance in many different types of occupations.9 It predicts how easily people can be trained to perform job tasks, how well they can adjust and solve problems on the job, and their satisfaction with job demands.10

A test of GMA can provide a quick and efficient basis for selecting applicants for more extensive, and costly, testing. The National Football League (NFL) has given the Wonderlic Personnel Test, a test of general cognitive ability, to potential recruits since 1968. According to Charles Wonderlic, president of the testing company, “The test measures a person’s ability to learn, solve problems and adapt to new situations.”11 Wonderlic test scores, along with information on the candidate’s physical prowess and ability, are available to each NFL team for use in drafting players (i.e., making selection decisions).

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL334

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 8.1

gEnERAl COMpETEnCY TEST: lEVEl 1

gCT 1 sample Questions

The general Competency Test: Level 1 (gCT1) contains three types of questions: understanding written material, solving numerical problems, and drawing logical conclusions.

A sample question of each type is provided below.

Type i—understanding Written material

This type of question involves reading a short passage, which is usually in memorandum format, and answering a question about the information in the text.

QuEsTiOn 1

government of Canada MEMORAnDUM

gouvernement du Canada nOTE DE SERVICE

TO: All employees

fROM: Manager

please note that the answer sheets currently being used will be replaced with new ones next year. The existing supply of answer sheets should be used from now until the end of the year. It is important that the new sheets are used next year because they will enable the collection of additional information that will be required at this time.

The main purpose of this memorandum is to:

(1) Indicate the need for new answer sheets.

(2) Notify employees that new answer sheets will replace the existing ones.

(3) notify employees that the current answer sheets are inadequate.

(4) Indicate the need for additional information.

Type ii—solving numerical Problems

This type of question involves choosing the correct answer to a practical numerical problem.

QuEsTiOn 2

You are in charge of financial services and must calculate overtime pay for employees in your division. Due to a heavy workload, an employee had to work 35 hours of overtime in two weeks. For 28 of these hours, the employee was paid at one and one-half times the hourly rate. for the remaining hours, the employee was paid at twice the usual hourly pay. The employee’s hourly pay is $10. How much overtime money should the employee be paid for the two- week period?

(1) $340

(2) $420

(3) $560

(4) $760

Type iii—drawing Logical Conclusions

In this type of question, the task is to choose the correct answer to a practical problem.

QuEsTiOn 3

One of your duties is the selection and disposal of boxes of obsolete files. According to regulations, ordinary files become obsolete after 24 months, protected files after 36 months, and classified files after 48 months. Which of the following boxes of files can be discarded?

(A) A box containing ordinary files dated 26 months ago and classified files dated 34 months ago.

(B) A box containing ordinary files dated 38 months ago and protected files dated 28 months ago.

(1) A only

(2) B only

(3) Both A and B

(4) neither A nor B

Answers

(2)

(3)

(4)

Source: General Competency Test Level 1. http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/ppc-cpp/psc-tests-cfp/gct1-ecg1-q-eng.htm. public Service Commission of Canada, 2011. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2014.

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NEL 335CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

The Wonderlic has a maximum possible score of 50. The average score for factory workers is 17; for lawyers, 30; and for NFL prospects, 21—which is the overall average for the test. A low score on the test does not eliminate an NFL prospect but red-flags him as someone who may not be able to meet the demands of a game that is becoming ever more cog- nitively complex. How do you compare to NFL players on the Wonderlic? Determine for yourself by taking an on-line version of the test here at http://footballiqscore.com

Measurements of GMA, which have an average validity coefficient of 0.50, are among the best predictors of success in training and job performance for a variety of occupational groups, ranging from retail clerks to skilled workers to managers and execu- tives.12–14 Further, though some research has reported GMA to be a stronger predictor of performance for high-versus low-complexity jobs,15–17 other studies have not supported these findings,18,19 but regardless of job complexity, GMA is a primary predictor of per- formance in training and on the job across many occupations,20,21 and across countries varying in language, culture, religion, and social values.22,23 GMA is also a positive pre- dictor of career progression and success (e.g., income and occupational prestige), physical health, wealth, and subjective well-being.24

Using GMA for informing selection decisions is not without controversy, however. This is because there are mean performance differences between majority and minority group members. For example, within the United States, blacks and Hispanics tend to score lower than their white Caucasian counterparts. In Canada, mean GMA differences in favour of whites (relative to visible minorities) were uncovered among applicants for police officers,25 municipal bus operators,26 and police services recruits.27 Further, a Canadian survey found that an organization’s reported use of GMA testing in selection was associated with lower levels of minority group representation in the organization as a whole, including within the management ranks.28 This same survey found that firms covered under Canadian Employment Equity legislation were less likely to use GMA tests than were organizations not covered by this legislation.

Importantly, however, differences between subgroups in mean GMA scores alone do not mean the test is biased. Test bias occurs only where there is either over- or under- prediction of performance of the minority group relative to the majority group. Bias that is disadvantageous to minority group members is seldom found. That is, differences in test scores between minority and majority group members accurately and equally predict differences in their job performance. Moreover, in the few cases where bias is found, it tends to benefit minority group members (i.e., test scores over-predict for minori- ties).29 Another study showed that predictive validity for GMA was lower for U.S. blacks compared to their Caucasian counterparts for subjective measures of performance (e.g., supervisory ratings) but not for objective measures (e.g., actual outcome measures), sug- gesting potential bias in the criterion (i.e., supervisory ratings of performance), and not in the predictor (i.e., GMA).30 Others argue that despite decades of research to the contrary that it is premature to dismiss, on empirical grounds, that GMA testing is not negatively biased against racial and ethnic groups.31

The growing demands on workers in today’s digital- and knowledge-based economy to adapt quickly to rapidly changing demands within an increasingly competitive land- scape bodes favourably for an even greater role of GMA testing in employee selection. Moreover, GMA testing is highly cost-effective, can be administered online or in paper- and-pencil format, and has held up well in court challenges in both Canada and the United States.32–34

In light of the above, should GMA be used in high-stakes selection? The abundance of empirical evidence weighs heavily in favour of using such testing to inform selec- tion decisions. At the same time, efforts should be made to reduce its potential adverse

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL336

impact, which can be accomplished by including GMA among a battery of other assess- ments predictive of performance with no adverse impact (e.g., personality).35–38 A recent effort to replace traditional measures of GMA with other measures of cognitive func- tioning (i.e., executive attention) with similar predictive ability and less adverse impact is promising.39 With the growing importance of GMA for today’s workplace, employers are best to continue having this assessment as a key component of their employee selection system. Rather than dismissing the use of GMA testing in employee selection, we need to better understand and address sources of the lower GMA test performance among minority groups for whom adverse impact has been shown.

multiplE aptituDE tEst battEriEs

Over the years, a number of specific cognitive abilities have been identified; for example, verbal and numerical ability and inductive and deductive reasoning (see Fleishman and Reilly40 for a comprehensive list). Psychometrically sound tests are available for these specific cognitive abilities. However, will assessing specific abilities provide improvement in prediction over GMA? One line of research downplays the importance of specific abilities in prediction, suggesting that they add only marginally to predictions based on GMA alone.41 Others argue for measuring specific abilities, noting that such tests provide statistically significant, though small, increases in prediction beyond general cognitive ability.42,43 As well, tests of specific abilities (e.g., verbal, numerical, and reasoning) have at times provided validity coefficients in the same range as GMA.44 Proponents of GMA suggest that the validities of specific ability tests occur because they, and GMA, measure the same construct.45

Different theories exist as to why measurements of specific abilities may provide better prediction than that offered by GMA. Carroll46 proposed a hierarchical model in which GMA, at the apex, is the most general level of cognitive ability and underlies performance across a broad spectrum of cognitively demanding tasks. The next level down contains broad abilities that apply to performance on clusters of tasks. These broad abilities include visual perception, auditory perception, and cognitive speediness, among others. Specific abilities lie at the lowest level in the hierarchy and are more homogeneous and narrower than those at higher levels. For example, spatial relations, sound discrimi- nation, and perceptual speed, respectively, would relate to the broader abilities of visual perception, auditory perception, and cognitive speediness.

Other researchers47 have proposed a nonhierarchical model of general mental ability, one referred to as the “nested-factors model.” At the risk of oversimplifying, this model does not assume that GMA alone explains one’s standing on each of a number of more specific cognitive abilities. Rather, it assumes (1) that both GMA and the narrower cog- nitive abilities directly (and uniquely) explain differences in performance on cognitive ability tests; and (2) GMA has no causal effect on cognitive abilities, and therefore, GMA is not a “higher order factor” as is presumed in the hierarchical model described above. With respect to this nested model, then, specific cognitive abilities develop to varying strengths, depending less on GMA and more on genetic and environmental differences among people. Where one person, either through genetics or environmental exposure, has high capacity for memory processes, another may have high capacity for spatial rela- tions, and during development such capacity advantages facilitate development of other cognitive capacities. This means that people with different types of initial capacity advan- tages will develop high performance on a broad variety of cognitive abilities, whereas others without such initial capacity advantage will not. For a more complete explanation

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NEL 337CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

of the differences between the hierarchical and nested-factors model of cognitive abilities see Lang, Kersting, Hulsheger, and Lang.48

Whether one subscribes to the hierarchical or the nested-factors model will decide the data analytic strategy most appropriate for determining the relative importance of GMA and specific cognitive abilities as predictors of job performance. In using a data analytic approach most suited to the nested-factors model (relative importance analysis), Jonas et al. found49 that GMA accounted for between 10.9 percent and 28.6 percent of the total variance explained in job performance and, importantly, though GMA was an important predictor, so was verbal comprehension (a specific ability). Their analyses drew from a meta-analytic inter-correlation matrix they constructed from a large body of studies that used a German ability test battery (the Wilde Intelligence Test), suggesting their results to be quite robust (i.e., reliable).

On the face of it, it seems reasonable that job applicants who do well on GMA may not possess the narrower abilities particularly important to performance. If a set of spe- cific abilities is likely essential for successful performance, then inclusion of predictors related to those abilities in selection systems should lead to improved validity.

The Canadian Forces uses a multiple aptitude test battery as part of its selection pro- cess. Potential recruits into the Forces complete the Canadian Forces Aptitude Test (CFAT), which validly predicts performance in a wide range of military occupations. (For sample of the CFAT, see http://cdn.forces.ca/_PDF2010/preparing_for_aptitude_test_en.pdf ).

Is the small increase in validity that testing specific abilities may provide over GMA worth the time and money spent in assessing them, particularly since they tend to be highly correlated with measurements of GMA?50 Although the bulk of evidence supports the view that in most instances measuring specific abilities will not provide much in improved prediction over GMA alone,51 it appears that in some cases measuring specific abilities in addition to GMA could prove helpful. Such cases could include those where specific abilities are of particular importance to task performance (i.e., non-substitutable or non- compensable)52,53 such as vigilance and spatial relations for air-traffic controllers, or figural reasoning and spatial relations for architects (or students applying to advanced studies in architecture). Likewise, some basic level of numerical ability is likely required for bank customer service representatives (i.e., “tellers”). Of course, multiple aptitude test batteries, such as the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), provide specific aptitude scores that are used in deriving an overall GMA score, allowing HR practitioners to ensure that job candi- dates score “well” on the specific cognitive abilities deemed most relevant to the target job.

When considering which assessments to include in employee selection, costs, appli- cant reactions, perceived fairness, organizational goals, managerial acceptance, and legal concerns all need to be considered.54 Some selection experts have suggested that using measures of specific cognitive abilities rather than a GMA test may improve applicant reactions, in that specific measures are often more transparently related to what appli- cants, managers, and other stakeholders deem job relevant.55,56 Also, selecting for specific abilities (in lieu of reliance on GMA) may offer another way in which potential adverse impact of cognitive ability tests could be reduced. These considerations strengthen the case for measuring specific cognitive abilities in employee selection.

praCtiCal intElligEnCE anD Job KnoWlEDgE

Sternberg and his associates57,58 distinguish practical intelligence from intellectual or aca- demic ability. The distinction between academic intelligence and practical intelligence is similar to the difference between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge

practical intelligence The ability to apply ideas in “real world” contexts.

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described in Chapter 5. Practical knowledge is related to knowing how to get things done. Some characterize it as “street smarts” or “common sense” in contrast to academic intel- ligence or “book smarts.”59 For example, consider two department managers competing to increase their respective budgets. Both have the intellectual ability to put together a rational proposal based on facts and figures to support their positions. The manager with the proposal most likely to be supported is the one who not only crafts a strong submis- sion that links the requested budget increase to important organizational goals, but also lobbies the most influential people to garner support.

Tacit knowledge is an important component of practical knowledge or procedural knowledge that is used to solve practical, everyday problems. It is knowledge that is derived from experience when learning is not the primary objective, and is typically dif- ficult to “codify” in order to teach others. It is knowledge about how to perform tasks in different situations and knowledge that an individual uses to help attain specific goals.60 Tacit knowledge is typically measured through situational judgment tests (SJTs, discussed later in this chapter) that consist of a series of questions and response options on how best to behave in a number and variety of situations representative of the sorts of situations one is likely to encounter if hired and placed in the job.61

Measurements of tacit knowledge or practical intelligence have predicted perfor- mance of bank managers, salespeople, and military personnel.62–64 Other research, how- ever, does not provide support for practical intelligence as a uniquely valuable predictor to job success.65 For example, in one study comparing measures of GMA and practical intelligence as predictors of success (academic performance) among university students, practical intelligence did no better than GMA,66 and in another study practical intelli- gence failed to improve the prediction of job performance of entry-level telecommunica- tions managers beyond GMA.67

Some researchers argue that measurements of practical intelligence include SJTs that measure multiple constructs, mostly GMA and personality, and have a long history of successfully predicting job performance.68 Practical intelligence remains an intriguing concept, and tests measuring it are likely most appropriate where new hires are expected to be “up and running” relatively quickly, with little mentoring or socialization. Such tests, however, do not substitute for GMA. In addition, tests of practical intelligence are prone to candidates challenging the “right” answers, because what is deemed correct is determined by a panel of people experienced in the job, unlike a test of GMA for which there is a definitive indisputable answer to each question.

A concept related to practical intelligence or tacit knowledge is job knowledge. Some argue that practical intelligence is a narrow, specialized case of job knowledge.69 However, others disagree, arguing that practical knowledge is broader in that it includes procedural knowledge (i.e., the how to), whereas job knowledge typically refers to knowledge of facts and procedures (i.e., declarative knowledge).70 Once again, knowing how to diagnose a patient as a medical intern is different than actually conducting a diagnosis. “How to” draws on “book knowledge” concerning linking symptoms to diagnoses, and standard- ized procedures. Success in actually deriving an accurate diagnosis, however, depends on procedural knowledge, which comes with experience, such as how to draw out from a non-cooperative, stressed, or incoherent patient the symptoms on which an accurate diagnosis depends (hard to codify and include within a standard procedures manual, and learned mostly from direct experience). Hence, entry into many professions requires passing a certification exam (assessing depth and breadth of disciplinary knowledge) and ability to perform (e.g., passing a practicum placement).

Job knowledge tests have validities that average 0.45 with job performance. These types of tests tend to have higher validity when used to select people for high-complexity

Job knowledge Knowledgeable of issues and/or procedures deemed essential for successful job performance.

tacit knowledge Knowledge that is derived from experience when learning is not the primary objective.

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jobs. Clearly, they are most appropriate for use in selection where job knowledge is not already guaranteed through educational and credentialling requirements, as is the case with many professions, or where knowledge is not expected to be learned on the job. As an entry requirement for practising as a certified human resource professional (CHRP) candidates must pass the Comprehensive Knowledge Exam (CKE) adminis- tered in Ontario by the Human Resources Professionals Association (HRPA). It is not uncommon for job knowledge tests to be used to aid internal selection decisions, such as in lateral moves or promotions. Finally, these tests are more effective when they are job-, occupation-, or competency specific.71

Emotional intElligEnCE

The definition in the sidebar treats EQ as an ability; one of several intelligences. It is also multifaceted, in that it encompasses (1) the ability to perceive emotions; (2) the ability to use emotions to facilitate thought; (3) the ability to understand emotions; (4) and the ability to manage emotions.72,73 This four-component ability-based model of EQ empha- sizes information processing (consistent with the notion of EQ as reflecting an underlying intelligence). The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT)74,75 was developed to capture this conceptualization of EQ. A sample report generated from the MSCEIT can be found at http://romania.testcentral.ro/media/msceit-m-en-pdf-CMY- TYYWY.pdf

Another popular EQ scale is the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On EQ-i). It was intended as a broader ability-based measure than the MSCEIT, assessing both emotional and social intelligence across four main components (ability to be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; the ability to be aware of, to understand, and relate to others; the ability to deal with strong emotions and control one’s impulses; and the ability to adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or social nature).76,77

The advantage of the MSCEIT over the EQ-i is that it has respondents complete a number of performance-based tasks reflecting its component parts (e.g., rating emotional facial expressions; choosing the most appropriate emotional responses in a variety of social situations presented in a series of vignettes). The EQ-i, on the other hand, is a self- report instrument, consisting of items of the sort you would see on a personality inven- tory, and more susceptible to “faking.” There is considerable and compelling literature showing that people are biased when evaluating their own abilities.78 It is for this reason that HR professionals do not ask job candidates to self-report on their GMA.

Many of the EQ-i factors themselves fall outside Mayer and Salovey’s conceptions of EQ and are not much different from traditional personality factors. Indeed, there are moderate to high correlations between the EQ-i subscales and the five primary person- ality factors (known as the Big Five—conscientiousness, extraversion, openness to experi- ence, agreeableness, and emotional stability).79,80 However, the EQ-i appears to measure a mix of constructs, including non-cognitive capability, competency, or skill,81 emotionally and socially intelligent behaviour,82 as well as personality dispositions.83,84 A quantitative review of the EQ literature showed that measures reflecting mixed models of EQ overlap more with personality than with ability-based measures, while ability-based measures of EQ relate more highly to cognitive ability than to measures of mixed models.85 Accord- ingly, if treating EQ as ability, the MSCEIT is recommended over the EQ-i. A sample of the EQ-i can be found on The Emotional Intelligence Training Company, Inc. site at https://www.eitrainingcompany.com/eq-i-certifications2-0/sample-reports. A review and guide to several other measures of EQ is provided by Mayer et al.86

Emotional intelligence The ability to accurately perceive and appraise emotion in oneself and others, and to appro- priately regulate and express emotion.

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The usefulness of EQ measures in predicting job performance is best assessed through meta-analysis, which provides a quantitative assessment of the mean correlation between two or more variables derived from all independently executed studies. There have been three such meta-analyses.87–89 Together, they show that the content of mixed EQ measures overlaps considerably with other well-established psychological constructs, such as ability EQ, self-efficacy, self-rated performance, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, and GMA. Importantly, while the most robust estimate of the relationship between mixed measures of EQ and supervisory job performance ratings is 0.29, it becomes nil after the overlapping constructs above are statistically controlled. It is well established now that mixed EQ instruments assess a combination of ability EQ and self-perceptions, in addition to personality and cognitive ability.

Joseph and Newman offer insights into the processes by which EQ impacts job performance.90 Specifically, they found empirical support for a cascading (progressive) causal model, wherein accurate perceptions of one’s own and others’ emotion facilitates emotion understanding. Emotion understanding helps with emotion regulation, which in turn positively predicts job performance. Also, within their model, conscientiousness, cognitive ability, and emotional stability positively predicted perception of emotions, emotion understanding, and emotion regulation, respectively, which may help explain the predictive validity of mixed measures of EQ (as GMA, conscientiousness, and emo- tional stability are robust predictors of job performance).

The above research focuses on work-related benefits of EQ. Other research, however, has considered the potential negative side of EQ. Specifically, it has been suggested that individuals high in EQ are likely better able to disguise and express emotions for personal gain, to stir and shape the emotions of others, and to control the flow of emotion-laden communication in ways that are detrimental to other employees and the organization overall.91 This, of course, suggests that whether EQ is likely to be used to the detriment or benefit of the organization or others may depend on other factors (e.g., personality disposition, personal virtues, and motives).

So, what conclusions can be drawn about using EQ for human resource selection? First, ability performance-based assessments of EQ best align with an ability/intelligence conceptualization of EQ, and are less prone to faking or impression management than is the case with mixed model measures of EQ. Self-reports of EQ, those that are designed to measure a mix of personality, motivation, and social competencies, may be more difficult to defend when used in high-stakes decisions, as in selection. This is because of the con- struct ambiguity surrounding these assessments. Construct measurements used in selection must relate clearly to job requirements. This is very difficult to show for a measure of EQ that is so heterogeneous and ill-defined. Second, the cascading model of EQ presented by Joseph and Newman suggests that emotion regulation is the component of EQ most directly related to job performance—that it is through the regulation of emotions that the other components of EQ influence performance.92 This suggests that, for selection purposes, a measure of emotional regulation itself may be more efficient and effective in predicting performance than a broader EQ measure. There are ability-based assessments of emotion regulation, including situational judgment tests, either written or video based.93

Overall, the empirical literature is not yet at the point where measuring EQ to inform selection decisions can be confidently endorsed. Social and emotional compe- tencies deemed relevant to a job, as determined through job analysis, can and should be mapped onto selection tools designed specifically to measure those competencies (including paper and pencil assessments, behavioural interviewing, situational judgment tests), rather than relying on measures of a heterogeneous ill-defined measure of EQ. Ability-based measures of EQ may add value for assessing candidates for jobs in cases

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where personality and GMA are not measured, and especially for high emotion labour jobs (i.e., jobs requiring strong demands for positive affect and regulating emotions, such as in sales, flight attendants, counsellors, and call service workers).94–96

psYChomotor abilitY tEsts

Psychomotor abilities involve controlled muscle movements that are necessary to com- plete a task. Examples of psychomotor abilities include finger dexterity, multi-limb coor- dination, reaction time, arm–hand steadiness, and manual dexterity. Many tasks, from simple to complex, require coordinated movements for their success. Psychomotor abili- ties are often overlooked in selecting people for jobs. Consider a drummer who must independently move all four limbs and exercise hand–wrist agility, all in a coordinated fashion; imagine an orchestra whose drummer had an extensive knowledge of music theory but little psychomotor ability. While GMA might predict ability to learn to read and understand music, it would not predict the level of motor coordination.

Canadian dental schools use tests of finger and manual dexterity as part of their selection process; applicants are required to carve a tooth from a block of soap, which is then judged by a panel of dentists. The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) includes tests that involve apparatus that measure psychomotor ability in addition to cognitive and perceptual aptitudes (e.g., the Manual Dexterity and Finger Dexterity scales).

Although psychomotor tests can be quite successful in predicting performance in a number of jobs,97–99 they are not as popular as tests of GMA. They involve individual testing on a specialized piece of equipment, and require more time and expense to administer. Nonetheless, they can improve predictions that are based only on cognitive ability. Johnston and Catano showed that the addition of psychomotor measures from the GATB significantly improved predictions of training success for mechanical jobs in the Canadian Forces by 5 percent when added to a cognitive ability measure.100

phYsiCal anD sEnsorY/pErCEptual abilitY tEsts

Physical abilities are involved in the physical performance of a job or task. They gener- ally involve use or application of muscle force over varying periods, either alone or in conjunction with an ability to maintain balance or gross body coordination. Physical abilities include both static and dynamic strength, body flexibility, balance, and stamina. Physical requirements for occupational tasks generally fall into three broad physical ability categories: strength, endurance, and quality of movement.101

Sensory/perceptual abilities involve different aspects of vision and audition. They include near and far vision, colour discrimination, sound localization, and speech recog- nition, among others.102 Physical abilities and sensory/perceptual abilities are very similar in their relationship to job performance and in how they are assessed.

The performance of many jobs or tasks may require workers to possess one or more physical or sensory/perceptual abilities. A firefighter may need the strength to carry a body out of a burning building; a pilot may need adequate near and far vision to fly a plane; a soldier may need the strength and stamina to carry 100 kilograms of equipment for a long period of time and still be ready for combat; a construction worker may need strength to lift material and balance to keep from falling off a roof. People who possess greater amounts of these sensory/perceptual abilities perform better in jobs where such abilities are important.103 Physical tests of strength and endurance are routinely used in

psychomotor abilities Traits or characteristics that involve the control of muscle movements.

sensory/perceptual abilities Traits or characteristics that involve different aspects of vision and audition, as well as the other senses.

physical abilities Traits or characteristics that involve the use or application of muscle force over varying periods, either alone or in conjunction with an ability to maintain balance or gross body coordination.

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selecting individuals for police officers and other protective services personnel such as firefighters.104 As part of its comprehensive selection procedures, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) tests all applicants for physical ability.

Statistics from the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health in the United States indicate that workers are three times more likely to be injured while per- forming jobs for which they have not demonstrated the required strength capabilities. Although medical and physical fitness exams (which are discussed later in this chapter) provide a measurement of wellness, they do not give sufficient indication of whether the candidate can perform the task requirements safely. Thus, more job-specific physical ability testing can help employers select workers capable of performing strenuous tasks, leading to fewer accidents, injuries, and associated costs, and increases in productivity.105

Tests of physical ability are quite varied but involve physical activity on the part of the applicant. Only a few physical ability tests require equipment. For example, a hand dynamometer is used to measure static strength. The hand dynamometer resembles the handgrips used in most gyms. The applicant squeezes the grips with full strength and the resultant force is measured by an attached scale. Pull-ups or push-ups are used to measure dynamic strength, sit-ups are used to assess body trunk strength, and 1500-metre runs, step tests, and treadmill tests are used to measure stamina and endurance.

Establishing cutoff scores on physical tests often leads to litigation, with unsuccessful applicants challenging the appropriateness of the scores that were chosen. This was pre- cisely the situation that led to the Supreme Court’s Meiorin decision we discussed in Recruitment and Selection Today 3.7, in which an employed forest firefighter lost her job because she failed to complete a 2.5-kilometre run in the required time, even though she had passed the other physical ability tests. The court upheld a labour arbitrator’s decision to reinstate the dismissed firefighter. It held that the established cutoff had not taken into account differences in aerobic capacity between men and women and that most women could not raise their aerobic capacity to the required level even with training. The court found that the employer had not shown that the cutoff was reasonably necessary to iden- tify individuals who could perform in a satisfactory manner as firefighters. Neither did the employer demonstrate that accommodating women would cause undue hardship.106

In some cases, physical standards, rather than physical ability or sensory/perceptual ability tests, are used for selection. A police department may require all applicants to meet certain height and weight requirements and to have uncorrected 20/20 vision. The physical standards are used as a substitute for actual physical testing. It is assumed that people who fall within the specified range should have the physical abilities required for successful job performance. It is often very difficult to justify that the physical standards in use meet legitimate job requirements. Indeed, many physical standards were set in the past to exclude members of certain groups, particularly women. When physical standards are set in an arbitrary fashion, they are open to challenge before human rights tribunals, with employers subject to severe penalties. It is fine to set physical requirements for jobs if they are job related and nondiscriminatory. In its Meiorin decision, the Supreme Court upheld this position and set a series of important questions that must be answered in establishing physical or sensory/perceptual standards.

phYsiCal FitnEss anD mEDiCal Examinations

Many employers routinely administer physical fitness tests as part of their hiring pro- cess. Their intent is not to identify job-related physical abilities, but rather to screen out unhealthy or unfit individuals. The employer is concerned that placing physically non-fit

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people in jobs requiring some physical effort could lead to injury or illness, or that the work will be carried out in an unsafe manner. From the employer’s view, hiring physically non-fit workers means lost pro- ductivity, replacement costs, and legal damages from coworkers and customers who have been injured through their actions.

The intent of physical fitness tests is to ensure that an appli- cant meets minimum standards of health to cope with the physical demands of the job. Canadian federal regulations also require phys- ical or medical testing of applicants for certain dangerous occupa- tions (e.g., deep-sea diver), or for jobs that may bring them into contact with dangerous chemical substances such as lead or asbestos. In addition to identifying any health problems, medical examina- tions provide baseline data for comparison of any job-related changes in the applicant’s health that may be covered through Workers’ Com- pensation or other insurance programs.

WhEn shoulD phYsiCal/mEDiCal Exams bE givEn?

Fitness testing, physical, or medical examinations should be administered only after an offer of employment, which is made conditional on the applicant’s passing the test. The physical or medical exam is generally the last step in selection. The employer must dem- onstrate that the health or fitness requirement is related to performing the job safely, reli- ably, and efficiently. Physical fitness testing is no different from any other assessment and must meet the same technical standards. In Canada, human rights acts require medical or physical examinations of job candidates to be job related.

pEoplE With DisabilitiEs

Requiring physical examinations before any offer of employment raises issues of privacy and leaves the prospective employer open to charges of discrimination. This last con- cern is a major issue in hiring people who may have a disability. Canada was the first country to include equality rights for persons with mental or physical disabilities in its Constitution. Section 15.1 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides for equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination based on mental or physical disability. Every human rights act in Canada now includes protection against discrimination on the grounds of disability or handicap.

In Canada, the duty to accommodate people with disabilities in the workplace is strong. After the Meiorin decision, which we discussed in Chapter 3, there is a legal requirement for employers to work proactively, to the point of undue hardship, to elim- inate policies, work rules, standards, or practices that discriminate against groups or individuals on the basis of physical or mental disability or handicap (there is no legal distinction between the terms “disability” and “handicap”). An employer, for example, could not refuse to hire an applicant with the strongest computer programming skills within the applicant pool for computer programmer based on that person requiring special provisions because she uses a wheelchair. Reasonable accommodation short of “undue hardship” to the employer is necessary. The only exception is if the employer can establish that the mobility of the employee is a bona fide occupational requirement under the stringent test laid out in the Meiorin decision. The legal precedent established

Medical and physical fitness is critically important for many jobs.

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in Meiorin has been reinforced through many decisions rendered by human rights tri- bunals and the judiciary since then. Criteria for establishing a bona fide occupational requirement were presented in Chapter 3. Procedures following Meiorin for establishing reasonable accommodation were presented in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 3.4. The Canadian Human Rights Commission provides a template for developing organiza- tional policy on workplace accommodation, which is available at http://www.chrc-ccdp. ca/eng/content/template-developing-workplace-accommodation-policy

gEnEtiC tEsting

The Health Law Institute at the University of Alberta reported that 24 percent of genetic specialists believed that employers should have access to an employee’s confidential medical records to determine whether the employee is likely to develop a genetic disease that could be costly to the employer.107 Undoubtedly, many employers agree. Genetic testing is a controversial issue entailing job applicants. Genetic monitoring is used to detect exposure to workplace toxins or as an alert to workplace hazards. Genetic screening is also used to detect hereditary susceptibility to workplace toxins. The genetic screen could be used as a pre-employment test to reduce the risk of hiring someone likely to develop heredity-based adverse reactions to workplace toxins.108 For example, applicants who have an inherited sensitivity to lead would not be hired for work in a lead battery plant. However, genetic testing also raises concerns that employers could use the results to avoid hiring people they believe are likely to have a high risk of absenteeism, take a stress leave, resign early for medical reasons, file workers’ compensation claims, require workplace accommodation, or make excessive use of health-care benefits.

Genetic screening raises many ethical and legal considerations as it is an invasion of privacy, while subjecting employees to a range of tests they are likely to have dif- ficulty interpreting. The Human Genome Project, a $4 billion international effort to map all genetic material, has the potential to have a profound effect on how workers and their employers look at health hazards, privacy, and medical information. Until 2017, prohibition of workplace discrimination based on genetic information is likely to have been covered under existing provisions of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the various provincial human rights acts. However, workplace genetic testing is now directly and explicitly prohibited under Bill S-201, which received Royal Assent in 2017. Specifically, Bill S-201 “prohibits any person from requiring an individual to undergo a genetic test or disclose the results of a genetic test as a condition of providing goods or services to, entering into or continuing a contract or agreement with, or offering specific conditions in a contract or agreement with, the individual.” Exceptions are provided for health-care practitioners and researchers. The Bill amends the Canada Labour Code to protect employees from being required to undergo or to disclose the results of genetic testing; and provides employees with other protections related to genetic testing and test results. It also amends the Canadian Human Rights Act to now explicitly prohibit dis- crimination on the ground of genetic characteristics. The full text of the Bill is available at http://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/bill/S-201/royal-assent.

rEquirEmEnt to aCCommoDatE

Canadian employers cannot discriminate because of a medical, genetic, or physical condi- tion unless that condition poses a serious and demonstrable impediment to the conduct of the work or poses serious threats to the health and safety of people. Employers must accommodate workers with medical or physical conditions on an individual basis. As

genetic testing The testing or monitoring of genetic material to determine a genetic propensity or susceptibility to illness resulting from various workplace chemicals or substances.

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stated by the Supreme Court of Canada in its Meiorin decision, “The legislatures have determined that the standards governing the performance of work should be designed to reflect all members of society, in so far as this is reasonably possible.” The Court rein- forced the need for accommodation by noting:

Courts and tribunals should be sensitive to the various ways in which indi- vidual capabilities may be accommodated. Apart from individual testing to deter- mine whether the person has the aptitude or qualification that is necessary to perform the work, the possibility that there may be different ways to perform the job while still accomplishing the employer’s legitimate work-related purpose should be considered in appropriate cases. The skills, capabilities and potential contributions of the individual claimants and others like them must be respected as much as possible. Employers, courts and tribunals should be innovative yet practical when considering how this accommodation may best be done in particular circumstances.109

prE-EmploYmEnt Drug anD alCohol tEsting

Inevitably, societal changes find their way into the workplace. One of the most profound changes in North American society has been the increased use of drugs as a recreational activity that may carry over into the workplace. Employers often believe that workplace drug and alcohol use is an added expense through costs associated with employee acci- dents, absenteeism, turnover, and tardiness. Additionally, there may be costs associated with reduced product quality and productivity on the part of employees who use drugs and alcohol while at work. In some cases, drug or alcohol use by employees when at work may result in threats to the safety of self, the public, and coworkers.

For these reasons, many employers, with support from both their employees and the public, believe that employee screening for drug and alcohol use is warranted. The screening is then sometimes applied to all employees and job applicants, not just those in safety-sensitive positions. The intent is to deter individuals with substance abuse prob- lems from applying for a position with the company.

Are employer concerns justified? Studies show that self-reports of on- and off-the-job use of illicit drugs and/or alcohol is associated with lower job performance, increased accidents, injuries, absences, involuntary turnover, job withdrawal behaviours (such as taking too many breaks and sleeping on the job) and disciplinary measures taken.110–114 Importantly, however, associations between drug and alcohol use and job-related out- comes are not necessarily linear, inasmuch as the same amount of consumption may have differing effects depending on the individual, with some people habituating to intake over time (i.e., increasing levels of tolerance). A valid assessment of the impact of drug and alcohol use on workplace health, safety, and performance requires systematic observation pre- and post-use at work, which is impractical. Also, because researchers rely on self-reports of frequency, amounts and types of drug use, much drug and alcohol use is likely underreported. This could mean that the “non-usage” group to which the “user” group is compared (on performance and workplace health and safety metrics) will contain actual users, thereby lowering differences in these comparisons.

lEgalitY oF prE-EmploYmEnt Drug tEsting in CanaDa

Workplace drug and alcohol testing is a highly contentious contemporary issue in Canadian labour and employment law, and will continue to be with the imminent legalization of recreational use of marijuana in Canada. While research suggests that use of alcohol

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and certain drugs can impair a person’s ability to work safely, and in some situations can lead to serious injury, property damage and related liabilities, there are very narrow con- ditions under which pre-employment drug and alcohol testing in Canada is permitted. In essence, for many jurisdictions in Canada, testing for alcohol or drugs is a form of medical examination and must be linked directly to establishing an individual’s ability to perform the essential requirements of the job. According to the Canadian Human Rights Commission (CHRC), testing positive for alcohol or illicit drugs pre-hire may not predict use and impairment while on the job.115 As noted in the CHRC Policy on Alcohol and Drug Testing (2009):

Pre-employment drug or alcohol testing is permitted only in limited circum- stances, such as when the individual has disclosed an existing or recent history or drug or alcohol abuse, or where a pre-employment medical exam provides the physi- cian with cause to believe that an individual may be abusing drugs or alcohol and therefore may become impaired on the job. In addition, commercial bus and truck operations can subject their drivers to pre-employment testing.116

Importantly, the drug or alcohol test, as with any medical test, can be administered only following a conditional offer of employment, which typically cannot be withdrawn because of a failed drug or alcohol test before addressing the issue of accommodation.117 Such accommodation could take the form of sending the individual for rehabilitation counselling, with job placement only after successful treatment. While the CHRC’s policy applies to only federally regulated organizations (which includes federal govern- ment departments and agencies, Crown corporations, and private-sector organizations such as banks, airlines, and transportation and telecommunication companies), it is founded on earlier decisions of arbitration boards and courts.

A decision by the Supreme Court of Canada on random drug and alcohol testing in the workplace, Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada, Local 30 v. Irving Pulp & Paper Ltd., 2013, SCC34, is proving influential on other court decisions. Irving implemented a mandatory random alcohol testing policy targeted for employees working in “safety sensitive” positions at its paper mill. Under this policy, 10 percent of these employees were randomly selected for unannounced breathalyzer testing over the course of a year. Positive tests lead to disciplinary action, including dismissal. The union submitted a grievance to the Arbitration Board, which ruled that the policy was unjustified because Irving had not established that there was an existing problem with alcohol in the workplace. However, the New Brunswick Court of Appeal set aside the Arbitration Board’s ruling, concluding that the policy represented a reasonable balance of employer and employee interests in a workplace that is inherently dangerous. How- ever, this decision was then overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada, largely on the absence of evidence that alcohol use was causing a health and/or safety problem at the paper mill, noting: “… even in a non-unionized workplace, an employer must justify the intrusion on privacy resulting from random testing by reference to the particular risks in a particular workplace.”118

While this Supreme Court case applied to random alcohol testing in the workplace, the principles of this case have been applied to pre-employment testing. For example, in Re Mechanical Contractors Association Sarnia v UA Local 663, 2014 ONSC 6909, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice upheld an arbitration award, applying principles from Irving Pulp & Paper to conclude that the employer did not have the right to require pre-employment alcohol or drug testing. Specifically, while being free of the influence of drugs and/or alcohol was accepted as a bona-fide occupational requirement (BFOR) for the safety-sensitivity of the workplace, a failed pre-employment test was not accepted

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as indication of use and damaging impact of drugs/alcohol while on the job. The court underscored that the employer must show evidence of an actual substance abuse problem at the specific worksite in question, and that such a problem, when established, gives rise to real and significant performance, health, and/or safety events.

Notwithstanding the above, the Alberta Court of Appeal, in a landmark case, ruled that enactment of a pre-employment drug testing policy at a safety-sensitive Syncrude Oilsands project was justified for safety reasons, noting that because casual users of rec- reational drugs are not addicts, they do not qualify for protection under the disability clause of human rights legislation.119 Moreover, the court opined that such a policy “perceives that persons who use drugs at all are a safety risk in an already dangerous workplace” (at para. 34). Following from this decision, the City of Calgary introduced a mandatory pre-employment drug-testing policy for “safety sensitive” jobs, including transit drivers, operators of heavy machinery, and water treatment plant workers. As of 2015, job applicants are required to pass a pre-employment drug test before a final offer of employment can be made.120

Clearly, the legalities of workplace drug and alcohol testing by employers within Canada are evolving and complex. Accordingly, employers should become familiar with the human rights legislation of their jurisdiction, and seek legal counsel when developing a drug and alcohol testing policy. For a thorough review of the status of drug testing in Canada, see “Drug and Alcohol Testing: Recent Developments in the Law (May 2013), prepared by Blake, Cassels & Graydon LLP, Vancouver and Calgary.121

WorK samplEs anD simulation tEsts

Work samples and simulations are commonly used in selection to assess skills and com- petencies that are less amenable to traditional cognitive ability and personality testing. For example, written communication skills are best assessed by obtaining written samples from the candidate; oral communication skills may be assessed through an oral presenta- tion; leadership and influence within teams can be assessed by observing the candidate participate in a simulated, unstructured group problem-solving task.

Work samples and simulations require candidates to produce behaviours related to job performance under controlled conditions that approximate those found in the actual job. The candidate is not asked to perform the actual job for several reasons. Actual job performance is affected by many factors (e.g., work-team assignment, specific project, resources provided, and time pressures) in addition to the applicant’s proficiency or aptitude for the job; these factors could affect candidates differentially, so that two applicants with the same proficiency might not perform equally. Placing the applicant in the actual job may also be highly disruptive, costly, time consuming, and dangerous.

Work samples reflect key tasks of the target position the candidate is asked to per- form, and are standardized in administration and scoring. Work samples can include both motor and verbal behaviours.122 The former require applicants to physically manipu- late machinery or tools; verbal work samples require the applicants to solve problems involving communication or interpersonal skills.

For example, an administrative assistant’s job might include using a computer and related software to type letters and reports, to manage the office budget, to track pur- chases, to send data files electronically to other people, as well as operating the phone and voice-mail systems, scheduling appointments, and receiving people who visit the office. A work sample test given to applicants for this position might include both a motor work sample, using a computer to type and electronically transmit a standardized letter,

Work samples and simulations Testing procedures that require job candidates to produce behaviours related to job perfor- mance under controlled conditions that approxi- mate those found in the job.

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and a verbal work sample, handling a message from the boss requesting the candidate to reschedule important appointments. A work sample may be given to the candidate in the actual place of employment, in an off-site setting, or online.

Recall our discussion of typical versus maximum performance in Chapter 5; com- pleting a work sample in a competitive and monitored situation is clearly a case of maximum performance, where the applicant’s motivation is likely very high. Because work samples are essentially “cuts” from the actual job they attain relatively high levels of validity and garner positive applicant reactions.123–126 Work samples that draw heavily on GMA and job knowledge, however, favour white Caucasians over blacks.127 Females tend to outperform males on work samples weighted heavily on social and writing skills, whereas males tend to outperform females on work samples weighted heavily on technical skills.128

This research suggests that work sample content and design figures importantly in potential adverse impact on racial, ethnic, and gender groups. Therefore, where the target job has key cognitive and non-cognitive elements, and key social and technical elements, the work samples should ideally incorporate some balance among them. Of course, as work samples are “cuts” from the actual job, it is easy to establish that they tap a bona- fide occupational requirement (i.e., are job related); and because of their transparent job relevance, they tend to be widely accepted among candidates. Finally, work samples have less adverse impact on blacks and Hispanics than does GMA testing. For this (and other) reasons, work samples offer an attractive alternative to GMA tests, despite the greater costs in developing, administering, and scoring them.129

Simulations, like work samples, attempt to duplicate salient features of the job. Candidates perform a set of designated tasks and are given an objective score based on their performance. Unlike work samples, however, the tasks and the setting in which they are performed often represent less of an approximation of the job. That is, simulations typically involve a more artificial environment than work samples.

The most distinguishing feature of a simulation is its fidelity, the degree to which it represents the real environment. Simulations can range from those with lower fidelity (e.g., a computer simulation of an air-traffic controller’s task; try one at http://www.atc- sim.com) to those with higher fidelity (e.g., an actual air flight simulator that authenti- cally replicates a cockpit). Of course, high-fidelity simulations can be very expensive, but in some cases, there may be no alternative. They provide a type of hands-on performance in a contextually rich environment while offering greater safety and significant cost ben- efits compared to trial-running the candidate through a job placement (think airline pilot, air-traffic controller, astronaut, and combat mission preparation).

The Canadian Forces uses a flight simulator to select candidates for flight school, and performance on this simulator is superior in predicting the flying success of future pilots compared with a battery of cognitive and psychomotor tests.130 Generally, the savings from reductions in training failures and training time more than offset the ini- tial cost of the simulator. Highly interactive multimedia simulations are increasingly used in employee selection, given their ease of administration and cost-effectiveness. For example, custom-developed interactive multimedia simulations for the call centre employee have shown substantial predictive validity, and have contributed prediction beyond that offered by non-cognitive measures (e.g., biodata, personality).131

Situational exercises are a form of work sample testing used in selecting managers or professionals. They attempt to assess aptitude or proficiency in performing important job tasks, but do so by using tasks that are typically more abstract and less realistic than those performed on the job. Largely, situational exercises represent a form of low-fidelity simulation involving types of skills called on by a job.

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NEL 349CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

Situational exercises have been designed to assess problem-solving ability, leadership potential, and communication skills. For example, at the women’s prison in Kitchener, Ontario, a professional actor was hired to play the part of an inmate to assess a prospec- tive prison guard’s handling of difficult interpersonal situations.132

Situational judgment tests (SJTs), also known as job situation exercises, are a special type of situational exercise designed to measure an applicant’s judgment in workplace or professional situations. They are normally paper-and-pencil tests that ask candidates how they would respond to various job relevant situations as described in each of a number of SJT items.133,134 However, a variety of video-based (multimedia) SJTs have been developed for use in several occupations.135–137 Following the description of a situation (i.e., stem), candidates choose (or rate, or prioritize) one or more behavioural responses from the response set presented.

The situations are developed through interviews with subject-matter experts (people well versed in the target job). These SMEs share with the SJT developer critical incidents (CIs) reflecting actually observed critical aspects (i.e., behavioural incidences) of the target job. You may recall that the CI technique was described in Chapter 4. These CIs are then used to develop the SJT items, with each item capturing a realistic snippet (scenario) of the target job. These SJT items are then presented to a second panel of SMEs who generate what, in their collective judgment, captures a range of behavioural responses to each situation/scenario, from least to most effective. This then provides the basis for developing an objective, content valid, and standardized SJT scoring template.

The number of items on any given SJT varies. Once again, each question includes several response alternatives from which an applicant must choose. Commonly, the can- didate is asked to identify the “best” alternative course(s) of action in the situation pre- sented; that is the one the candidate “should do.” Recruitment and Selection Today 8.2 presents a sample item on an SJT given to candidates for a managerial position.

Some SJTs ask candidates what they “would do” in each scenario, versus what they “should do.” A “should do” instruction primes a normative response, which may not match what the candidate actually “would do.” One study showed that “should do” responses produce SJT scores of lower variability, reliability, and predictive validity.138 Clearly, the instructions for completing the responses to an SJT should be carefully con- sidered and match the purpose of the test administration.

In addition to “should do” and “would do” response formats, some SJTs ask respon- dents to rate the degree of appropriateness of a particular action; others ask for the “best” and “worst” of the actions listed, while still others ask for a ranking of actions from “best” to “worse.” Research involving 31,194 applicants showed that the “rate response” format, as compared to the other response formats, yielded SJT score correlations with both per- sonality and non-cognitive measures that best aligned with a priori expectations, and the lowest correlations with GMA.139 Low correlations with GMA are typically considered good because this suggests that the SJT will provide unique incremental prediction of performance beyond GMA.

A lesser used SJT response format is to have applicants simply indicate how they would respond (e.g., “open-ended responses”) to a series of vignettes, with trained raters scoring their responses. For example, in a field experiment 208 applicants for entry- level police officer jobs provided written and behavioural responses to multimedia vignettes.140 The behavioural responses entailed verbalizing, as if communicating directly with the actor who was presented on screen as if speaking directly to the candidate. Trained raters used behaviourally anchored rating scales to assess both the written and the videotaped behavioural candidate responses. Behavioural responses: (1) provided higher predictive validity of police trainee performance assessed one year later; (2) were

situational judgment test Type of situational exercise designed to measure an applicant’s judgment in work- place or professional situations.

situational exercises Assess aptitude or proficiency in performing important job tasks by using tasks that are abstract and less realistic than those performed on the actual job.

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less cognitively saturated; (3) were more personality saturated (extraversion); and (4) were perceived more positively in terms of media richness. Open-ended responses to SJTs have also been assessed in distinguishing situational judgment from response judgment, with the former entailing appraisal of the situation (e.g., “what are your thoughts, feelings and intentions of the people in the vignette?”), and the latter entailing judging what to do (e.g., “what would you do given the situation as presented?”).141 In this study, situational judgment predicted time-lagged, peer-rated task performance and interpersonal citizen- ship, beyond response judgment and other established predictors.

Meta-analyses show SJTs predict job performance r 0.34( )5 , and associate positively with GMA r 0.36( )5 .142 That SJTs relate positively to GMA is not surprising because they require candidates to make judgments (i.e., a cognitive task). Still, SJTs clearly mea- sure something distinct from both GMA and personality.143 A series of meta-analyses report moderate to strong positive correlations between SJTs and cognitive ability, agree- ableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion.144–146 SJTs seem to be especially strong predictors of managerial performance when designed to assess teamwork and leadership skills, and predictive validities are highest when the construct for which the SJT is developed (e.g., interpersonal skills) matches the performance facet predicted (e.g., contextual performance), and are higher for video-based versus paper-and-pencil- administered SJTs.147 SJTs predict various measures of performance, including task, con- textual, managerial, overall, and organizational citizenship behaviour.148 Other research shows that SJTs with a high GMA component best predict task performance, while SJTs with a low GMA component best predict contextual performance.149–151 Moreover, an

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 8.2

A SAMplE SITUATIOnAl JUDgMEnT TEST ITEM

You are the new supervisor of a 22-member department. The department is organized into two working groups of 10 members, plus a group leader. You have been on the job for less than a month but members from one working group have been dropping by your office to complain about their leader, Jane. They claim that she has been absent, on average, almost two days a week for the last three months and is not there to provide advice and help when they need it. Even when she is physically present, they claim that she is “not there.” As a result, they believe that their own work is suffering. They demand that you take action to ensure that their group leader is performing her job.

Of the following options, which is the best course of action to take?

A. Inform Jane of the complaints made against her and encourage her to meet with her work group to resolve the problems between them.

B. Call Jane to a meeting and inform her that you have reviewed her absence record and that she has been missing two days a week for the last three months. Tell her that this must stop immediately and that any further missed time must be accompanied by a doc- tor’s medical excuse or else she will be suspended.

C. Consult with your boss on how to handle the problem. find out if Jane is “well connected” to minimize any problems for you in case you have to take action against her.

D. Review Jane’s absence record to verify her work group’s claims. Review her absence and perfor- mance record prior to the recent poor record of absence. Once you have completed the informa- tion, call Jane to a meeting, lay out your concerns, and try to determine the causes for her poor atten- dance. Help formulate a plan to help her overcome the obstacles to her attendance.

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SJT has been shown to add incremental validity in predicting job performance beyond a job knowledge test, and to be equally predictive as Assessment Centre scores (hence providing a cost-effective substitute if the purpose is selection).152 SJTs show incremental prediction (over the combined predictive validity of conscientiousness, job experience and job knowledge) of federal investigator officers’ job performance.153 They have, how- ever, a slight adverse impact on black applicants, though less than GMA and less with interpersonal skills–targeted SJTs than with more cognitive-heavy SJTs (e.g., application of technical knowledge).154

There is widespread adoption of SJTs by medical schools to assist with program admission decisions.155–157 Medical schools have turned to SJTs primarily to assess inter- personal skills, and disposition to treating coworkers, nurses, and patients with respect and compassion. One study, for example, reported that applicant scores on an interper- sonal skill–focused SJT (e.g., social sensitivity, relationship building, working with others, listening, and communications) predicted supervisory doctors’ ratings of performance in internships seven years later, and job performance nine years later!158 Another study examined 28 different methods of scoring an integrity-based SJT measure administered to 931 medical school applicants. All methods yielded higher scores for the ethnic majority than for non-Western minorities.159 In yet another study involving an integrity-based SJT used for medical school admission decisions, SJT scores correlated (.22 to .53) with self-report measures of honesty-humility (integrity), conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness. SJT scores also correlated quite highly r .47( )5 with performance on the Multi-Mini-Interview (MMI—consisting of a sequence of short scenario-based, problem- solving, role-playing simulation exercise stations), and showed no statistically significant correlation with United Kingdom Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT) scores. In light of these results, the authors suggest that SJTs presents an attractive cost-effective alternative to the MMI.160

Despite the many positive attributes of SJTs, more elaborate digitalized hiring simu- lations are becoming increasingly available with advances in technology.161 In addition, there have been recent successful attempts to develop generic (non-job specific) SJTs focused on particular traits considered important to performance in a variety of jobs and occupations (e.g., inclination toward prosocial behaviour, helping others).162 Should you be interested in taking this SJT, it is provided in the Appendix of their study. For more extensive reviews of the SJT literature than are feasible to provide here, see Lievens, Peeters, and Schollaert,163 Ployhart and MacKenzie,164 and Whetzel and McDaniel.165 Finally, Lievens and Motowidlo offer a reconceptualization of SJTs, as measuring a form of “general domain knowledge,” defined as knowing the utility/effectiveness of expressing one or more traits (e.g., agreeableness) in a particular situation, and present a model of the knowledge determinants and antecedents of SJT performance.166

The two most prominent situational exercises are the leaderless group discussion and the in-basket test. In a leaderless group discussion, a group of candidates for a manage- rial position might be asked to develop and advocate for a position on a job-related topic or work through a business case. In all cases the group is not provided with any rules for conducting the discussions, nor is a structure imposed on the group. The primary pur- pose is to assess leadership emergence, and team-related skills such as communications, organization, conflict management, and inclusiveness.

The in-basket test seeks to assess the applicant’s organizational (e.g., planning, pri- oritizing, delegating, scheduling, appreciation for organizational hierarchy, and so on) and problem-solving skills. The Public Service Commission of Canada uses an in-basket test in selecting applicants for certain managerial and professional positions in the federal civil service. Each candidate is given a standardized set of short reports, notes, telephone

in-basket test A simulation exercise designed to assess organizational and problem-solving skills.

leaderless group discussion A simulation exercise designed to assess leadership, organizational, and communication skills.

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messages, and memos of the type that most managers must deal with on a daily basis. Applicants must role-play a manager, setting priorities for the various tasks, determining which can be deferred or delegated, and which must be dealt with immediately. They must also take action on each item, and manage different current and upcoming problems and issues as conveyed in the material. Panel judges provide a score of each candidate’s actions for each of the in-basket performance dimensions (e.g., delegation, tact, problem solving, and appreciation for organizational hierarchical structure), and an aggregate candidate score is provided by summing across these dimensions.

The in-basket exercise has a great intuitive appeal as a selection test for managers because it resembles what managers actually do; however, empirical evidence suggests that it does not have high validity as a selection instrument.167 This may be due to the lack of agreed-on scoring procedures for the in-basket test; successful managers who complete the in-basket do not always take the same actions (e.g., there are many different paths to achieving the same outcome). Also, those evaluating in-basket performance often fail to distinguish among various target abilities/dimensions that are supposed to be measured by the in-basket exercise, calling into question the accuracy of inferences of management potential that is inferred from in-basket scores.168

Most types of work samples and situational tests discussed here involve considerable time and cost to develop and administer. However, the importance of making the right selection decision increases when organizations expect more from fewer employees, and when the position to be filled is likely to have considerable influence on the success of the organization. Particularly for small businesses, selecting the right individual is critical to their success. Additionally, because the perceived job relevance of work samples and situational tests is so transparent, candidates from different gender and ethnic groups tend to rate them as fair and appropriate. This is highly desirable, given the growing minority segment of the workforce. For these reasons, the use of work samples and simulation tests is likely to grow in coming years, though they are increasingly likely to be delivered in digitalized form.

assEssmEnt CEntrEs

Although situational exercises can be used as stand-alone selection tool, they generally play a prominent role in testing that is part of an assessment centre. The term assess- ment centre (AC) is somewhat misleading in that it does not refer to a physical place. ACs evaluate individuals on a number of different performance dimensions (e.g., tact, written and oral fluency, decisiveness) over a sequence of different exercises (e.g., mock perfor- mance appraisal interview, leadership group discussion, in-basket), drawing on multiple raters (usually managers one level up from the position for which candidates are being considered). These assessments generally run over 1–3 days and involve 6–12 candidates at a time. Their strength, as originally envisioned, is that they provide for multiple assess- ments (across exercises) of each of a number of performance dimensions, by different raters, in hopes of increasing the reliability and objectivity of the assessments. Individuals run through an AC generally receive a profile of their strengths and weaknesses across tasks and performance dimensions deemed relevant to the target position. ACs are used for external screening, development, internal promotion, early identification of leader- ship or managerial potential, and certification of competence.

While ACs are used to select external applicants, they are administered mostly for internal selection (i.e., promotion). While some assessment exercises (e.g., an interview) may involve only one candidate, most entail group activities with candidates being

assessment centre A standardized procedure that involves the use of multiple measurement techniques and multiple assessors to evaluate candidates for selection, classification, and promotion.

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NEL 353CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

evaluated by a panel of trained assessors. Managers serving as assessors are trained in assessment techniques and scoring procedures and are typically quite familiar with the position for which the candidate is being evaluated (as they tend to be drawn from the level immediately above the target position).169

assEssmEnt CEntrE Evaluations

While the specific assessments may vary from one AC to another (depending on the aims of the AC), most comprise predominantly “hands on” situational exercises/work samples/simulations, complemented by psychometric assessments (personality, cogni- tive ability). After candidates complete all AC exercises the assessors come together to determine an overall dimension rating for each candidate on each performance dimension, drawing from the ratings given to each dimension from each of the several assessments. This then results in candidate profiles reflecting a score for each dimension (e.g., critical thinking, tact, problem solving, and delegation).170 Simulation exercises typically include a case/problem-solving leaderless group discussion, a mock perfor- mance appraisal interview, an “in-basket” exercise, and a formal presentation (e.g., sales pitch). When ACs are used for promotion or selection (rather than for development), performance dimension ratings are summed to yield a candidate overall assessment rating (OAR), which enables candidate rankings. International professional and ethical guidelines for developing and administering an AC are found at http://www.assess- mentcenters.org/Assessmentcenters/media/2014/International-AC- Guidelines-6th- Edition-2014.pdf

usE oF assEssmEnt CEntrEs in CanaDa

The Public Service Commission of Canada (PSC) uses ACs to select candidates for senior managerial positions in the federal civil service and as part of its executive development and education program. ACs are also used by Toyota, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, and Weyerhaeuser Canada, among many other organizations. The Canadian Forces use ACs to select applicants for training as naval officers and military police. Further information on the AC as used by the Public Service Commission of Canada is found at https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commission/services/staffing-assessment- tools-resources/human-resources-specialists-hiring-managers/human-resources-toolbox/ personnel-psychology-centre/assessment-counselling-services/assessment-centres. html?=undefined&wbdisable=true

loCation anD Cost oF thE assEssmEnt CEntrE

As ACs typically involve 1–3 days of assessment, several trained raters, development and administration of exercises, and coordination of schedules, they can be very expen- sive. Accordingly, they are often located on-site for large organizations that can afford developing and maintaining the necessary infrastructure because of the large number of individuals they process through the centre annually. Smaller organizations may opt for a mini-version of an AC, with fewer work samples and simulations tailored specifically to high-impact positions (e.g., senior management). One Canadian provider of such services is Hire Results Ltd.: www.hiringsimulation.com

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EFFECtivEnEss oF assEssmEnt CEntrEs

Meta-analyses have shown ACs to be quite effective predictors of job performance and career success (population correlations estimated at .28 to .36)171–173 though keep in mind that they are frequently used for developmental feedback purposes alone.

Variability in the mix and number of performance dimensions assessed across ACs, and differences in the way each dimension is defined and measured from one AC to the next, gives rise to variation in predictive validities. Research has now identified the six performance dimensions most commonly assessed across ACs: consideration or aware- ness of others, communication, drive, influencing others, organizing and planning, and problem solving, with dimension predictive validities ranging from 0.25 to 0.39.174

But what underlies the predictive validities of ACs? OARs correlate highly r .67( )5 with cognitive ability, and to a lesser extent with personality (.50 for extraversion; .35 for emotional stability; and .25 for openness to new experiences).175 In a meta-analysis of 17 samples in which both AC and cognitive ability assessments were collected from the same examinees and used to predict the same criterion, the mean predictive validity of AC OARs was higher than for cognitive ability r .44 versus .22( )5 .176 Importantly, OARs predict performance outcomes beyond cognitive ability and personality.177,178

The performance dimension scores most predictive of OARs are communication, influencing others, organizing and planning, and problem solving; and the exercises with greatest prediction are in-baskets, interviews, role-plays, case analysis, leaderless group discussions, and presentations.179 Moreover, the ratings derived from the exercises (e.g., in-basket score, mock performance review score, and leadership group discussion score) were more predictive of the OAR than were the performance dimension ratings. Recall that it is the OAR that is used to predict performance and promotion.

ACs provide a wealth of information of potential benefit to the candidate and to the organization over the lifespan of a career. They identify candidate strengths and weak- nesses, which is helpful to succession planning. Further, participants generally see ACs as fair and unbiased180 and job relevant and realistic.181 Indeed, several U.S. court decisions have recommended ACs as an alternative to measuring GMA testing.182 Organizations have also used ACs as a realistic job preview to job applicants.183

The “Achilles’ heel” of the AC method is that the ratings that candidates obtain on the different performance dimensions assessed within an exercise (e.g., influencing others, problem solving) correlate more highly with one another than do ratings obtained of the same dimension (e.g., influencing others) as measured by different exercises (e.g., in-basket and leaderless group discussion). This is found consistently across many AC studies, and is referred to as the “exercise effect,” suggesting perhaps that overall AC scores measure general managerial ability.184–186 This puts into ques- tion the value of individual performance dimension scores for feedback and develop- ment.187 But, perhaps exercises better predict OARs because some exercises better trigger an aspect of managerial performance than do other exercises.188 For example, decisiveness is more directly primed in an in-basket exercise that presents multiple conflicting tasks for the candidate to perform than does a leaderless group discussion where one ultimate, and shared, decision is made. In short, while ACs generally show reasonable predictive validity for managerial and professional jobs, there is little con- sensus on why they work.

If the AC is being used for selection alone, and not for development, organizations are likely best off simply using personality and cognitive ability assessments, along with a structured interview and a work simulation or two rather than a full-fledged AC.

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pErsonalitY invEntoriEs

In making hiring decisions, it is not unusual to hear a manager argue in support of one applicant over another because “she is the right type of assertive person we’re looking for to sell cars,” or “he is a very pleasant, outgoing person, the type that will do well as a receptionist.” Generally, these sorts of comments are made following a job interview, when the manager has formed an impression of what the applicant is like as a person. The manager is stating a personal opinion, or “gut feeling,” that the individual’s charac- teristics or traits qualify the applicant for the job. This is the belief that some aspects of personality predict job success. Indeed, given a choice, most managers want employees who are hardworking and motivated, have high initiative, fit into existing work groups, and are committed to the ongoing development of their skills. Managers and employees believe characteristics like these define the most effective employees.189 Although these traits may be very appealing, more often than not managers do not accurately assess them, and when they do, the person may not turn out as effective.

There are two reasons for these failures. First, the specific personality traits that formed the manager’s opinion of the applicant may not be job related; they may repre- sent only the manager’s opinion that they are necessary for effective job performance. Second, the manager’s assessment of the applicant’s personality may not be objective, reliable, or valid; it is only an opinion. In the next sections, we define personality, examine several measurement issues, and review personality as a predictor of job perfor- mance. As we go through this material, keep in mind the information in Recruitment and Selection Today 8.3. A psychometrically weak personality measure will not offer any more value than a gut feeling.

DEFining pErsonalitY

One of the major difficulties in using inventories for selection purposes is the lack of agreement on the definition of personality. Personality comprise a set of personal charac- teristics or properties that influence, or help to explain, a person’s behaviour.190

personality A set of characteristics or properties that influence, or help to explain, an individual’s behaviour.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 8.3

BUYER BEWARE

Many personality tests are commercially available and have been used in personnel selection. We listed some of the more commonly used personality tests in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.3, without comment on their validity or reliability. Many commercially available tests do not have credible supporting material on their reliability or validity or on how they assess faking and social desir- ability responding. Often, employers do not know where to begin in evaluating the merits of a personality test and in many cases end up paying large sums of money for no return. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.2

provides guidelines for choosing a test that should help an employer in making a choice among different person- ality tests.

Most important, before purchasing a personality test, have someone trained in testing issues review the test’s technical manual. The lack of a technical manual tells you that there are no supporting data on the test’s reli- ability and validity. It is not good enough to accept on faith testimonials from the test publisher that the supporting research has been done and is available. It is essential to ask for the technical manual.

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Different personality theories propose different ways in which people differ (e.g., aggressiveness, pleasantness). These variables are called personality traits, which are quite stable over time and measurable. Thus, if two people differ in aggressiveness or pleasant- ness, appropriate measurements can be developed to reflect those differences. Traits are distinct from states, which are more transitory. For example, an applicant may be very nervous (state) in a job interview but calm otherwise (trait).

Sets, collections, or patterns of traits and states define a personality type. A person whose behaviour reflects traits of extreme competitiveness, achievement, aggressiveness, haste, impatience, restlessness, hyper-alertness, explosiveness of speech, tenseness of facial musculature, and feelings of being under constant time pressure with several competing responsibilities is described as having a Type A personality.191

Self-report inventories are the most frequently used technique for measuring per- sonality. A self-report inventory consists of sets of short, written statements related to various traits. For example, items such as “I constantly interrupt other people when they are speaking” or “I hate standing in line” might be used as part of an objective, self-report inventory to assess time urgency, a trait related to a Type A personality. The person responds by stating the extent to which they agree or disagree with each item using a rating scale much like those discussed in Chapter 5. Items included in the inven- tory relate to whatever trait is of interest and might include traits such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, and need for achievement, among others.

A self-report inventory may measure only one trait or it may include subscales related to several different traits. A score for each trait assessed is determined by combining the ratings for those items that belong to that trait. These scores can be compared with normative data for populations of special interest. Patterns of scores across the measured traits are used to derive statements about personality types. Self-report inventories are considered objective because of their scoring methodology.

One criticism of these self-report inventories is that they are prone to faking and social desirability responding. Faking occurs when individuals respond to inventory questions with answers that do not reflect their true beliefs or feelings. Social desirability responding is a form of faking, where individuals choose responses they believe will present them in a socially desirable way. For example, a person may endorse the item “I have never crossed a street on a red light” (or “told a lie”/“misrepresented the truth”) to avoid being assessed as “deviant” (or untruthful). There is no doubt that individuals can distort their responses on self-report personality inventories in intended directions.192,193 Less clear is the impact of such distortions on employment decisions.194

The major concern in using self-report inventories as part of employee selection is that job applicants who distort their responses in a socially desirable manner will improve their chances of being hired.195–197 Response distortion may cause a change in the rank-ordering of applicants at the upper end of a distribution of personality scores, such that the tip of the distribution may not contain only the best-qualified candidates.198 This is why some researchers199,200 argue that examining the effects of faking on predic- tive validity coefficients alone—the predominant method of investigating the effects of faking—is inappropriate for measuring its impact on actual hiring decisions.

Not everyone agrees that faking and social desirability responding have an impact on personality-based selection decisions.201,202 Meta-analyses have been presented that challenge the premise that social desirability responding affects the predictive validity of personality inventories when administered in the context of HR selection.203 The authors of this research argue that people respond to items in ways that present an identity consis- tent with the way they see themselves. Those viewing themselves as conscientious portray themselves in ways consistent with this trait on a personality inventory.

personality traits Stable, measurable characteristics that help explain ways in which people vary.

self-report inventory Short statements reflecting various per- sonality traits which individuals rate on the degree to which they are self-descriptive.

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However, another meta-analysis showed that respondents to self-report personality inventories could fake their way through a selection process, suggesting it is premature to make any conclusions on the impact of response distortion on self-report measures without further empirical evidence.204 Additional empirical evidence comes from a study in which repeated measures (pre- and post-hire) of personality were taken of individuals applying for a pharmaceutical sales position, with training performance measures and sales data collected five months later.205 It showed that faking occurred, and that it nega- tively impacted the psychometric properties of the selection measure and the quality of hiring decisions, with fakers performing less well than non-fakers.

On the other hand, a more recent study provides data that questions faking of personality in selection contexts. In this research over 5000 applicants who had been rejected for customer service positions with a large national U.S. company reapplied, so that there were two sets of personality scores for them. There was no significant change in personality scores between assessments, so the authors argue that it is reasonable to assume that the applicants would have tried to “improve” their performance on the second attempt (i.e., to create a more favourable impression) but they did not do so.206

It appears that people can distort their responses on self-report personality measures in laboratory settings when asked to do so. It remains less certain what impact intentional distortion or faking may have in real-life settings. Most of the research focusing on change in validity coefficients associated with faking in “real world” selection contexts suggests that faking is less serious a problem than laboratory experiments suggest. This is especially so when applicants are warned that faking is detectable and can have negative consequences for them.207 While there are strategies to “correct” for response distortion, such adjustments can introduce error into hiring decisions unless all scores are adjusted (i.e., including those without any evidence of faking), and such corrections may be difficult to defend in a court- room.208 Procedures that correct for faking have little, if any, impact on the validity of the selection test, but they may have a significant impact on individual selection decisions.209

Overall, job applicants should be advised that faking (dishonest responding, impres- sion management) can be detected and will be considered when making hiring deci- sions.210,211 It is also advisable to tell candidates that psychometric assessments attempt to improve the fit of the applicant to the requirements of the job and culture of the organization and that therefore they should not try to “second guess” what the employer is looking for as doing so could disadvantage them. Such disadvantage can take two forms—first, candidates might be wrong in what they believe is the “desired” personality profile, and, second, it is not in their best interest to be placed in a job for which they are ill suited.

Research suggests that faking while completing computer-administered personality tests can also be detected via eye-tracking technology,212 but using this technology needs to be non-intrusive. In the end, personality assessments predict work relevant outcomes beyond GMA and other assessments, and so should be part of any selection battery, though they need to be considered carefully against all information collected on the candidate.213 Any “red flags” emerging from personality assessments can be probed in a structured behavioural interview, or when following up on the candidate references.

pErsonalitY as a prEDiCtor oF Job pErFormanCE

A large and compelling empirical literature shows that personality measures can predict a number of job-related criteria, including performance. This research has grouped related personality characteristics into a smaller number of broad dimensions, and empirically

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL358

linked them to job performance. Accumulated research now shows that personality dimensions deemed important to demands of a job, as determined through job analyses, moderately predict job perfor- mance.214–219 Further, the strength of the personality–performance relationship is stronger for jobs in which the process by which the work is done represent “weak situations”—where work is unstructured and employees have autonomy and decision-making discretion, in contrast to “strong situations” (e.g., jobs highly structured, little autonomy and decision-making discretion).220 Likewise, personality better pre- dicts performance in job contexts that activate specific traits (e.g., extraversion is a stronger predictor of performance in jobs requiring social skills, such as real estate agent, or public relations officer).221 Accordingly, as the authors conclude, the situation exerts both gen- eral and specific effects on the magnitude of personality–performance relationships.

thE big FivE

So what are the key dimensions of personality? Personality traits cluster into five main categories, referred to as the Big Five: conscientiousness, emotional stability (also known as neuroticism), openness to experience, agreeableness, and extraversion.222 Definitions for each of these five dimensions, along with their associated traits, are presented in Recruit- ment and Selection Notebook 8.4. While not everyone agrees with the Big Five model as the best way to categorize personality (though most do!), it has become the most widely subscribed classification scheme in summarizing relationships between personality and job performance variables.223

Barrick and Mount found that each of the Big Five dimensions could predict at least one aspect of job performance with some degree of accuracy, while conscientiousness predicted several different aspects of job or training performance at moderate levels.224 Recall that Campbell225 believed that “demonstrating effort” and “maintaining personal discipline” were major performance components of every job (see Chapter 5). It is quite easy to see (from the definition given in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.4) how conscientiousness predicts these two job dimensions. Of the Big Five personality dimen- sions, it is the strongest and most consistent predictor of job performance across a wide range of jobs r 0.31( )5 .226

Other of the Big Five factors vary by occupational group in their ability to predict job success. For example, extraversion predicts performance in occupations demanding social interaction, such as sales,227 while openness to experience predicts training readiness and training success.228 Moreover, conscientiousness and extraversion together predict job performance for managers in highly autonomous positions.229 Agreeableness and emotional stability, in addition to conscientiousness, predict performance in jobs high in interpersonal interactions.230

Hough and Furnham231 report the validity coefficients, based on meta-analytic studies, for each of the Big Five measures and overall job performance, contextual per- formance, and counterproductive behaviours. The validities varied over the different criteria, with conscientiousness correlating most highly with overall job performance for many jobs; but extraversion, openness to experience, and emotional stability correlating most highly with leadership in business settings. A more recent meta-analysis has shown emotional stability, extraversion, and openness to predict organizational citizenship

The Big Five personality traits.

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NEL 359CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

behaviour beyond conscientiousness and agreeableness. Whereas conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion predict task performance and citizenship behaviour equally well, openness and agreeableness have stronger relationships with citizenship behaviour than with task performance.232

Personality measures, while predictive of performance, are not as predictive as is cog- nitive ability. Even conscientiousness, the most stable and generalizable predictor among the Big Five, is less predictive of performance with r 0.31( )5 than is cognitive ability r 0.51( )5 . However, Oh and Christopher,233 show that meta-analysis may underestimate

the predictive validity of personality because many of the primary studies used deficient criterion measures (relying entirely on ratings of overall performance provided by a single source—supervisors). The researchers examined personality as a predictor of managerial performance (task and contextual) assessed through a 360-degree performance review (including ratings from peers and subordinates) and showed improvements in prediction ranging from 50 to 70 percent across the Big Five factors.

The best use of a personality measurement may be as a supplement to cognitive ability testing. Conscientiousness when added to cognitive ability will improve the accu- racy of predicting job performance by 18 percent.234 Also, unlike GMA tests, personality

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 8.4

THE BIg fIVE pERSOnAlITY DIMEnSIOnS

Conscientiousness is a general tendency to work hard and to be loyal, to give a full day’s work each day, and to do one’s best to perform well—following instructions and accepting organization goals, policies, and rules—even with little or no supervision. It is an approach to work char- acterized by industriousness, purposiveness, persistence, consistency, and punctuality. It also includes paying atten- tion to every aspect of a task, including attention to details that might easily be overlooked.

Emotional stability reflects a calm, relaxed approach to situations, events, or people. It includes an emotionally controlled response to changes in the work environment or to emergency situations. It is an emotionally mature approach to potentially stressful situations, reflecting toler- ance, optimism, a general sense of challenge rather than of crisis, and maturity in considering advice or criticism from others. (note: “Emotional stability” is used in place of the older term “neuroticism” to describe this factor.)

Openness to experience reflects a preference for situ- ations in which one can develop new things, ideas, or solu- tions to problems through creativity or insight. It includes trying new or innovative approaches to tasks or situations. It

is a preference for original or unique ways of thinking about things. It is concerned with newness, originality, or creativity.

Agreeableness reflects a desire or willingness to work with others to achieve a common purpose and to be part of a group. It also includes a tendency to be a caring person in relation to other people, to be considerate and under- standing, and to have genuine concern for the well-being of others; it is an awareness of the feelings and interests of others. It is the ability to work cooperatively and col- laboratively either as part of a group or in the service of others. It is involved in assisting clients and customers as a regular function of one’s work, or assisting coworkers to meet deadlines or to achieve work goals.

Extraversion reflects a tendency to be outgoing in association with other people, to seek and enjoy the com- pany of others, to be gregarious, to interact easily and well with others, and to be likable and warmly approachable. It involves enjoying the company of others and a concern for their interests; it implies sociableness whether work is involved or not. Extraversion refers to being comfort- able and friendly in virtually any sort of situation involving others.

Sources: M.R. Barrick and M.K. Mount. 1991. “The Big five personality Dimensions and Job performance: A Meta-Analysis.”Personnel Psychology, 44: 1–26; J.M. Digman. 1990.“Personality Structure: Emergence of the Five Factor Model.” Annual Review of Psychology 41: 417–440.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL360

measures have little to no adverse impact on protected groups.235,236 Adding a person- ality measure to a GMA assessment may weaken the adverse impact associated with the latter.237 Oswald and Hough provide a summary table of predictive validities of personality measures across criteria, including leadership and career success, job perfor- mance outcomes, contextual performance, counterproductive work behaviours, training outcomes, team performance, and job satisfaction.238

More recently, a sixth factor of personality has received much research attention, referred to as “Honesty-Humility” (H-H). This factor reflects individual differences in concern for fairness, greed avoidance, and modesty. For example, H-H scores correlate positively with supervisor ratings of overall job performance, and uniquely predict per- formance ratings beyond the Big Five.239 A more in-depth coverage of honesty-integrity testing will be provided later in this chapter.

The personality inventories listed in Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.3 are well established and widely used. For others, you can obtain objective reviews from sources such as the Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook series. As noted earlier, you should also ask the commercial provider of the assessment tool for a technical manual.

broaD vErsus narroW traits

Some argue that narrower, more specific personality traits best predict specific facets of job performance.240–242 For example “achievement,” a narrow facet of conscientiousness, might be a better predictor of specific achievement outcomes than an overall measure of conscientiousness. Paunonen and Nicol point out that the relationship between a Big Five personality measure and job performance could be attributed to only one of the many facets defining that Big Five dimension.243 Others have argued, and provided empirical sup- port for, the Big Five personality measure offering better prediction of job performance than the more specific traits that define it.244,245 In any event, individual purposeful workplace behaviour can be viewed as resulting from personality attributes being primed (i.e., stimu- lated into behavioural expression) by facilitating and motivating features of the work envi- ronment.246 While some jobs or work environments provide for considerable autonomy and discretion, allowing for a fuller expression of one’s personality (e.g., Dean of a Business School), others are more controlled and constraining, providing less opportunity for such expression (e.g., assembly line operation). The degree to which the work environment pro- vides for trait expression interacts with personality to predict voluntary work behaviour.247

Hough and Furnham248 argue that whether Big Five measures, or the facets defining them, best predict performance depends on the nature of the criteria being predicted. If the criterion is narrow (e.g., “whistle blowing”—making public the wrongdoings of one’s organization), then a narrow trait may be best (e.g., the assertiveness facet of extraver- sion); however, if the focus is on broad workplace behaviours, such as overall job perfor- mance, then broad personality traits may be best (e.g., conscientiousness).

FuturE DirECtions on thE big FivE anD sElECtion

Penney, David, and Witt249 reviewed empirical literature linking the Big Five to the three primary dimensions of overall job performance: task performance, contextual per- formance, and counterproductive work behaviour. In so doing, they underscore the importance of validating measures of the Big Five against each of these criteria. They also reviewed the emerging literature that has examined interactions among the Big Five

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NEL 361CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

as predictors of performance and call for more research of this kind. Interaction means that the relationship of one variable (e.g., conscientiousness) on another (e.g., job perfor- mance) depends on the value of a third variable (e.g., agreeableness). For example, Witt250 found that conscientiousness related positively to job performance for individuals high in emotional stability but related negatively to job performance for individuals low in emotional stability. Personality also interacts with prior related work experience in pre- dicting job performance,251 and conscientiousness, openness to experience, and political skill interacted to predict performance, especially in highly complex jobs.252 Another study showed that conscientiousness interacted with agreeableness to predict the job performance of bank employees in South Korea,253 and another reported a curvilinear relationship between personality and performance, moderated by job complexity.254

Clearly, many possible interaction effects involving personality traits are emerging as predictors of job performance, and so this research needs an overarching guiding theoretical framing. Penney et al. provide a rationale in proposing predictive validi- ties for various personality–performance combinations (i.e., extraversion × emotional stability; agreeableness × emotional stability; conscientiousness × agreeableness; and conscientiousness × extraversion).255 They also identify moderators (e.g., task, social, and organizational demands) for both main and interactive effects, and call for research to develop typologies linking effect sizes across performance measures, particularly for those of growing importance (e.g., adaptability, taking initiative).

Finally, studies are also emerging showing that the predictive validity of personality assessments can be enhanced by contextualizing the items to the specific performance set- ting.256 So, for example, rather than an item referring to general tendencies or preferences in one’s life (e.g., prefer reading a book over going to a party), one would contextualize the item (e.g., prefer working alone than in teams).

thE big FivE anD hr sElECtion: What’s thE praCtitionEr to Do?

Personality assessment involving the Big Five and its facets should be considered as part of the HR selection toolkit for most jobs. It should supplement measures of GMA, a behavioural interview, one or more work samples, and perhaps EQ where practically and economically feasible. Generally speaking, the empirical evidence suggests that high con- scientiousness and high emotional stability will be beneficial for most jobs. Add to these traits the importance of extraversion and agreeableness for service providers and for jobs with high teamwork demands. For leadership, extraversion, emotional stability, openness, and some components of conscientiousness (e.g., achievement orientation, goal setting, persevering against adversity) are likely to improve selection decisions.

There are two special journal issues on the importance of personality to the world of work we recommend: Human Resource Management Review 21(4), December 2011, and Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1(3), September 2008. A 2014 comprehensive review of the literature on personality and cognitive ability as predictors of work perfor- mance is provided by Schmitt.257

FairnEss anD aDvErsE impaCt

Fairness does not appear to be an issue concerning psychometrically sound personality inventories.258 As noted earlier, adding personality scales to a selection system that includes measures of cognitive ability can reduce adverse impact.259

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polYgraph tEsting

In many cases, organizational effectiveness may be limited by employee theft or misuse of an organization’s property or proprietary information, or other forms of dishonesty. This is one type of counterproductive work behaviour discussed in Chapter 5. Associated costs can run into many millions of dollars. Accordingly, many retailers have established “loss prevention” departments; they have emphasized employee training and workplace improvements as well as implementing procedures for controlling inventory. Several organizations have also initiated programs designed to select people who not only are capable of doing the job but also are honest, reliable, and of high integrity.

Polygraph testing, otherwise known as using a “lie detector,” was once used exten- sively to check on employee honesty and to screen job applicants. It is based on the assumption that measurable, physiological changes (e.g., heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure) occur when people lie even if they try to suppress these responses.

Although polygraphs enjoy a reputation for being able to detect lies, empirical evi- dence shows that there are many unresolved issues concerning both their reliability and validity, and they are especially likely to yield high “false positive” rates (identify people as lying when in fact they are not).260,261 Polygraph results are mostly related to the skill of the polygraph operator, many of whom are poorly trained. Relatively few jurisdictions in Canada have licensing requirements for polygraph operators. In the United States the 1988 Employee Polygraph Protection Act262 bans the use of polygraph testing as part of most pre-employment screening procedures.263 Subject to restrictions and strict standards for their use, the Act does allow employers to use polygraphs on applicants for security service firms and pharmaceutical-related industries. In Canada, Ontario and New Brunswick, under their Employment Standards Acts, have taken the lead in prohibiting the use of mandatory polygraph testing in the workplace, including in pre-employment assessment. However, many Canadian law-enforcement agencies, including the RCMP, and federal government jobs that have “top secret” security clearance, require job can- didates to take a polygraph. Employers are advised to check the Labour Standards Act of their jurisdiction, and seek legal counsel, on the legal permissibility of implementing polygraph testing as an aid in pre-employment assessment.

honEstY/intEgritY tEsting

Restrictions on polygraph testing have led to an increase in the use of paper-and-pencil or computer-administered honesty or integrity tests.264 They can easily be incorporated into a selection system, and they are inexpensive and inoffensive to most applicants. There are no legislative restrictions on their use; however, they must meet the same professional and scientific standards as any other type of employment test.

There are two general types of integrity tests. Covert tests are subtests or scales that are included in a general personality inventory; for example, the Reliability Scale of the Hogan Personality Inventory265 is commonly used to assess employee honesty and reli- ability. Overt honesty tests, such as the Reid Report, ask very direct questions about the individual’s attitude toward theft and other forms of dishonesty, as well as the person’s prior involvement in theft or other illegal activities. With covert personality tests appli- cants may not be aware that their integrity is being assessed, in contrast to overt tests, which makes the later much more susceptible to faking.266

Dishonest applicants may be discouraged from applying for jobs when they know they will be tested for honesty. In the case of white-collar crime, personality-based

honesty or integrity tests Self-report inventories designed to assess employee honesty and reliability.

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NEL 363CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

integrity tests may be the best measure of psychological differences between white-collar criminals and honest employees.267 After a chain of home improvement centres in Great Britain started using an honesty test as part of its selection procedures, inventory shrinkage dropped from 4 percent to less than 2.5 percent.268

In a review of over 180 studies involving 25 different measures of honesty or integrity tests and a wide range of performance measures, integrity tests were found to predict a wide range of dysfunctional job behaviours, including absenteeism, tardiness, violence, and substance abuse.269 Further, there is no evidence that integrity tests produce adverse impact. Ones and Viswesvaran270 found trivial differences on integrity test outcomes when comparisons were made among whites, Asians, Native Americans, and blacks. Drawing on data from 2456 Israeli job applicants, Fine found scores on an overt integrity test correlated with self-reported counterproductive work behaviours across eight different industries (overall mean r, corrected for criterionunreliability = 32; ranging from .21 to .38), with no evidence of adverse impact by gender, age, or national origin.271 The lack of adverse impact is also supported by a meta-analysis showing negligible race differences on integrity test scores.272 Sturman and Sherwyn reported data from a large hotel chain associating integrity testing use in employee selection with significant savings in workers’ compensation claims.273 They estimated that the company experienced a 50 percent one- year return on investment from the test, and it had no adverse impact across a variety of protected groups.274 Table 8.1 presents a summary of criterion-related validity data for both overt and covert integrity tests.275,276

A striking aspect of Table 8.1 is that integrity tests are more successful in predicting certain types of negative behaviours. They are much more successful at predicting prop- erty damage than theft, although the latter is one of the main reasons for administering them. More recent and exhaustive reviews of psychological studies, law review articles,

CRiTERiOn TyPE Of inTEgRiTy TEsT mEAn ObsERVEd VALidiTy COEf- fiCiEnT, r

CORRECTEd VALidiTy COEffiCiEnT, r*

Detected theft Overt 0.09 0.13

Admitted theft Overt 0.30 0.42

property damage Overt and personality-based 0.50 0.69

Accidents on job Overt and personality-based 0.37 0.52

Broad counterproduc- tive behaviours

Overt 0.27 0.39

Broad counterproduc- tive behaviours

personality-based 0.20 0.29

*The mean observed validity coefficient, r, has been corrected for range restriction and unreliability in the criterion measure.

Source: Table 1 adapted from J.E. Wanek. 1999. “Integrity and Honesty Testing: What Do We Know? How Do We Use It?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 7: 183–95. Reproduced with permission from Blackwell Publishing Ltd. via Copyright Clearance Center.

TAbLE 8.1

summARy Of mETA-AnALyTiC inTEgRiTy TEsT CRiTERiOn-RELATEd VALidiTiEs

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL364

and professional and legislative investigations of integrity tests came to similar conclu- sions: that such tests provide valid information about an applicant’s potential to engage in certain types of dysfunctional job behaviours.277,278

Despite the accumulated empirical evidence for their predictive validity, research showing that integrity tests add meaningful prediction of counterproductive work behav- iour beyond personality alone is scant. In one study in which four different overt and personality-based integrity tests and the HEXACO-Personality Inventory were related to counterproductive work behaviour, integrity accounted for practically significant incre- mental variance beyond personality across all integrity tests, and these effects dropped significantly when the Honesty-Humility scale from the HEXACO was added to the Big Five dimensions.279 Integrity measures correlate positively with agreeableness, emotional stability, and especially conscientiousness; on their own they better predict counterpro- ductive work behaviours than do the Big Five personality factors, and the Big Five do not explain all the variance in integrity test scores.280

While integrity tests were developed specifically to predict theft and other counter- productive behaviours, they also predict overall job performance corrected .41r( )5 . In fact, measures of integrity offer the greatest incremental predication over cognitive ability tests than any other commonly used predictors of job performance.281

Furthermore, when statistically controlling for the effect of conscientiousness in the relationship between integrity and job performance there is only a small downward effect on the predictive validity of integrity, but when statistically controlling for the effect of integrity on the relationship between conscientiousness and job performance, the predictive validity of conscientiousness falls to nearly zero.282 As expected, the Big Five Personality Factors best predict covert (personality-based) versus overt measures of integrity.283 Part of the variance in overt measures not predicted by the Big Five can be predicted by scores from the Honesty-Humility scale of the HEXACO-Personality Inventory (reflecting honesty, fairness, sincerity, and loyalty versus greed, conceit, pre- tentiousness, and slyness).284 Also, there appear to be some facets of integrity that are predicted by cognitive ability.285 Clearly, integrity is a multifaceted compound construct.

Some caveats exist in using integrity testing in HR selection (see Recruitment and Selection Today 8.4). Test scores from some honesty tests, like those from any personality measure, are open to misinterpretation and may constitute an invasion of the applicant’s privacy. There is some evidence that job applicants do not hold favourable views of personality measures as selection instruments.286 Studies examining applicant reactions to a wide range of selection devices suggest integrity tests fall somewhere close to the middle of the pack relative to other selection tools in garnering negative applicant reac- tions.287 Data do suggest that honesty tests may have a high number of false positives; that is, they may tend to screen out a large number of applicants who are truly honest but do poorly on the test.288 An applicant who is falsely rejected may feel stigmatized and take legal action.289 Also, different measures of integrity show only low to moderate correlations with other measures of integrity, suggesting that these tests are not always substitutable.290 Accordingly, such tests should be used only where their psychometric properties and predictive validities are established.

One procedure that might reduce the “false positives” problem of integrity testing is to follow the practice used in drug testing. When an integrity test suggests that the job candidate is prone to engaging in counterproductive work behaviours, the can- didate should be given a second, and different, integrity test before any decision is made. Failing both integrity tests would reduce the probability that the results are false

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NEL 365CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 8.4

InTEgRITY AT THE CHECKOUT COUnTER

Sobeys operates a chain of food stores throughout Canada under several names. Sobeys’ use of the Reid Report illus- trates some of the pitfalls and negative publicity that may accompany integrity testing. The case involves a job appli- cant who failed the Reid Report. This applicant had worked for Sobeys for six years and had resigned her job to stay home and take care of her children for a year.

When she applied for a position with the company again, she was required to take the Reid Report, which had been introduced during her absence. She failed the integrity test. Since Sobeys’ policy was to hire only those applicants who passed the test, her job application was rejected. The applicant questioned how she could have been rejected for failing the integrity test when she had worked without complaint for Sobeys for six years. The incident made local and national headlines and was the subject of a television feature on CBC. It also led to a great deal of discussion about the worth of integrity tests.

Sobeys was not alone in sharing the media spotlight over its use of integrity tests. A few years earlier, one of its main competitors, loblaw’s Real Canadian Superstore subsidiary, began using the Reid Report in its Vancouver operations. The British Columbia Civil liberties Union

became aware of the practice and publicly denounced the use of the test. It also called for legislation banning the practice as an invasion of privacy.

Even successful applicants may react negatively to an integrity test and the company using it.291 David lindsay wrote about his experience with an integrity test in This Magazine. He found the experience invasive and insulting, and failed to see the relevance of questions that involved statements such as “I like to take chances” and “I am afraid of fire.” neither did he see the value of answering questions such as “What drugs have you taken and how often?” He claims that he and his coworkers had all lied to achieve high “honesty” ratings: “Each of us had falsified a low-risk profile, feigning caution, docility, obedience, and inviolable, angelic truthfulness. We had denied all illegal activity, labour sympathies, and feelings of bitterness and alienation.”292

lindsay doubts that a quality such as honesty can be measured quantitatively. Sobeys, on the other hand, con- tinues to see the merit in integrity testing and has not been deterred by the negative publicity arising from its assessing the honesty of job applicants. Sobeys continues to use the Reid Report in its hiring process. What do you think?

positive. Although this procedure may be time consuming and expensive, it may spare an employer bad publicity and legal fees.

A practical problem with integrity tests is that most publishers require the completed proprietary testing forms to be returned to them for scoring and interpretation.293 In such incidences the HR specialist is unable to review the correctness of the responses, relying instead on the publisher, which also holds the normative data.294

Should integrity tests be used to select employees? Table 8.1 shows that integrity tests are valid for a number of criteria. An HR practitioner must first decide on the negative behaviour that is of concern and then select an integrity test that predicts the behaviour with acceptable reliability and validity.

Catano and Prosser295 reviewed the psychometric properties of some of the most popular integrity tests. Table 8.2 summarizes these data, which should be considered when selecting an integrity test. Evaluate the test against the criteria presented in Recruit- ment and Selection Notebook 8.2. Never use an integrity test as the sole selection test. Integrity testing is especially recommended for jobs in retail, banking, security/police services, and where safety is of paramount importance. The test should be used in con- junction with another test that is a valid predictor of job performance; for example, an

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL366

TEsT RELiAbiLiTy VALidiTy fAKing POTEnTiAL

AVAiLAbLE in fREnCH

COmmEnTs

london House personnel Selection Inventory

0.85 need for local validation studies

High Yes no technical data in manual. Only the Canadian version of the pSI that excludes drug avoidance scales can be used in Canada.

Reid Report 0.92 0.33 High Yes Uses category scoring that violates ApA recommendations. Arbitrary cut points used to establish categories. Confusion over how scores are generated. Includes drug-use scale but that can be deleted in the abbreviated form.

Stanton Survey new Edition

0.92 Weakness in validation data

High no new edition presents percentile scores grouped into categories. Includes a Social desirability check. Cannot be used with current employees; only applicants.

Employee Reliability Inventory

not technically well supported

need for local validation studies

Moderate no no compelling evidence of validity. Uses category scoring that violates ApA recommendations.

personnel Reaction Blank

0.73 0.25/0.40 with work quality

High no not recommended for use as it does not meet Standards for Educational and Psy- chological Testing.

personnel Decisions Incorporated Employment Inventory

0.74 0.20–0.40 job performance and turnover

low no Social desirability check. Evidence of dimensionality, reliability, and validity is weak. Many variables represented in the global score. not good enough to warrant uncritical use.

Inwald personality

0.92 0.41 with general performance

Moderate no Developed on obsolete procedures; no theoretical basis; does not measure conscientiousness.

Hogan per- sonality Inven- tory–Revised

0.80 0.40 (based on correlation of prudence scale with absence criteria)

low Yes Theoretically sound, carefully conceptual- ized, and well validated.

*All reliability and validity data were taken from reviews of the tests in Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook. Almost all of these tests are available in a variety of formats: paper-and-pencil, computer-administered, telephone-administered, and Internet-administered. While the tests may be

administered by anyone, all of the proprietary tests require scoring by the test publisher. The report from the publisher may vary considerably in detail; however, all of these tests require a master’s level person trained in assessment to score and/or interpret the results, even though some test manuals do not make this clear.

Source: Adapted from V.M. Catano and M.A. Prosser. 2007. “A Review of Integrity Tests and Their Implications for Selection of Security Personnel in a Canadian Context.”The , 5: 1–18. Reprinted with permission of V.M. Catano.

TAbLE 8.2

COmPARisOn Of inTEgRiTy TEsTs*

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NEL 367CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

integrity test added to a test of cognitive ability can raise the validity of the selection decisions from 0.51 to 0.65.296 Because of their high false positive error rates, the integrity test should be given as the last hurdle in the selection procedure.297 Finally, given lower correlations between overt (versus covert) measures of integrity and the Big Five, adding overt (versus covert) measures to a selection battery that includes personality will provide the greatest improvement in prediction of job performance.298 However, for many mea- sures of counterproductive work behaviours, there is little evidence of covert measures providing practically meaningful prediction over and above a composite measure of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability.

Evaluating EFFECtivEnEss oF hr assEssmEnts

Throughout this chapter, we have emphasized that HR assessments used as part of selec- tion procedures must exhibit sound psychometric properties, particularly reliability and validity. They must be constructed and used in accordance with accepted professional standards and meet legal requirements that govern their use. HR assessment systems involve the expenditure of time and money, especially for assessment centres. Therefore, it is not sufficient to demonstrate that a selection test or procedure has acceptable psycho- metric properties. A more important question is whether the new selection assessments improve on the ones the organization already uses.

Comparing sElECtion prEDiCtors

With the exception of the employment interview, which will be discussed in Chapter 9, we have reviewed the most commonly used predictors (knowledge, skills, abilities, traits, and methods) that are used in HR selection. Which, if any of these, work best? Which should be adopted as part of a selection system? In large part, the answers to these ques- tions depend on the specific information being sought, as determined through a full understanding of the requirements of a job. Each predictor has different strengths and weaknesses and may be more suited to specific uses. Consideration must also be given to what you are trying to predict (e.g., training performance, job tenure, task performance, citizenship behaviour, counterproductive work behaviour, and promotion). Table 8.3 has been compiled from meta-analytic studies that have reviewed the validity of different selection measures. The validities reported here are averaged across job performance criteria and are presented in descending order based on their mean, corrected validity coefficient. Table 8.3 also presents data on the increase in validity expected from adding a second predictor to cognitive ability. Also, information is provided on the degree to which the selection tool is susceptible to producing adverse impact (noted by the index D). The greater the positive value of d, the greater the likelihood of adverse impact; a nega- tive d value means the protected group has an advantage over the majority group on the selection device.299 Data are not available for all of the selection predictors we have discussed. As can be seen, however, adding a second predictor can provide a substantial increase in predictive validity.

The second point to note from Table 8.3 is that some of the most valid predictors, such as cognitive ability, have the most adverse impact on minorities. Accordingly, we must balance validity and diversity to obtain qualified employees who are representa- tive of the general population. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.5 provides some guidelines for how organizations can minimize the validity–diversity dilemma.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL368

PREdiCTOR mEAn VALidiTy

WHEn usEd by iTsELf

mEAn VALidiTy WHEn usEd TO suPPLEmEnT

COgniTiVE AbiLiTy TEsT*

subgROuP dif- fEREnCEs (Da)

Cognitive abilitya

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.51 —

0.99

–0.20

0.00

Work samples/SJTsb

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.54 0.63

0.40

0.49

–0.12

Interview —structuredb

White–Black

0.51 0.63

0.23

Job knowledge tests

White–Black

0.48 0.58

0.48

Integrity testsb

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.41 0.65 — .66

Interview—unstructuredb 0.38 0.55 —

Assessment centreb

White–Black

0.37 0.53 0.37

Biographical datab

White–Black

0.35 0.52 —

0.33

psychomotor abilityc

White–Black

Male–female

0.35 — —

0.72

–1.06

perceptual abilityc

White–Black

0.34 — —

physical abilityd

Male–female

0.32 — —

1.02 to 2.10

Conscientiousnessb

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.31 0.60 —

0.06

0.08

–0.08

TAbLE 8.3

mEAn VALidiTiEs fOR PREdiCTORs usEd in sELECTiOn WiTH OVERALL JOb PERfORmAnCE As THE CRiTERiOn

Continued

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NEL 369CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments

PREdiCTOR mEAn VALidiTy

WHEn usEd by iTsELf

mEAn VALidiTy WHEn usEd TO suPPLEmEnT

COgniTiVE AbiLiTy TEsT*

subgROuP dif- fEREnCEs (Da)

Reference checksb 0.26 0.57 —

Emotional stabilitye

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.12 — —

–0.04

–0.01

0.24

Extraversione

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.12 —

0.10

0.08

.09

Agreeablenesse

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.10 — —

0.02

0.01

–0.39

Openness to experiencee

White–Black

White–Asian

Male–female

0.05 — —

0.21

0.18

0.07

Résumé components

grade point averagef

Job experienceb

Years of educationb

0.32

0.18

0.10

—

0.52

—

graphologyb 0.02 0.51 —

(Note: The validity coefficients have been corrected for range restriction and unreliability in the criterion measures. The d values are uncorrected.)

Sources:

aR.E. Ployhart and B.C. Holtz. 2008. “The Diversity-Validity Dilemma: Strategies for Reducing Racioethnic and Sex Subgroup Differences and Adverse Impact in Selection.” Personnel Psychology, 6: 153–72. bF.L Schmidt and J.E. Hunter. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Impli- cations of 85 Years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin, 124: 262–74. cJ.E. Hunter and R.F. Hunter. 1984. “Validity and Utility of Alternative Predictors of Job Performance.” Psychological Bulletin, 96: 72–98. dN.A. Schmitt, R.Z. Gooding, R.D. Noe, and M. Kirsch. 1984. “Meta-Analyses of Validity Studies Published between 1964 and 1982 and Ives- tigation of Study Characteristics.” Personnel Psychology, 37: 407–22. eM.R. Barrick and M.K. Mount. 1991. “The Big five personality Dimensions and Job performance: A Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology, 44: 1–26. fp.l. Roth, C.A. BeVier, f.S. Switzer, III, and J.S. Schippmann. 1996. “Meta-Analyzing the Relationship between grades and Job perfor- mance.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 548–56.

TAbLE 8.3

ContInueD

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL370

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 8.5

gUIDElInES fOR BAlAnCIng VAlIDITY AnD DIVERSITY In SElECTIOn

1. Use job analysis to define carefully the nature of per- formance on the job, being sure to recognize both technical and nontechnical aspects of performance.

2. Use cognitive and noncognitive predictors to measure the full range of relevant cognitive and noncognitive KSAOs, as much as practically realistic.

3. Use alternative predictor measurement methods (interviews, SJTs, biodata, accomplishment record, assessment centres) when feasible. Supplementing a cognitive predictor with alternative predictor mea- surement methods can produce sizable reductions of adverse impact (if they are not too highly corre- lated), but the specific reductions are variable. Using alternative predictor measurement methods is costly but effective because they measure multiple KSAOs, reduce reading requirements, and have higher face validity. Among the best alternative predictor mea- sures are interviews, SJTs, and assessment centres.

4. Decrease the cognitive loading of predictors and mini- mize verbal ability and reading requirements to the extent supported by a job analysis. for example, if a job analysis indicates the need for a high school

reading level, ensure the predictors do not require a postsecondary reading level. Doing so may involve lowering the reading level of instructions and items, allowing constructed response options, or using video formats (but again, only if consistent with the job anal- ysis findings).

5. Enhance applicant reactions. Although this strategy has only a minimal effect on subgroup differences, it does not reduce validity and is almost invariably bene- ficial from a public relations perspective. Simply using face valid predictors (such as interviews and assess- ment centres) goes a long way toward enhancing these perceptions. And some approaches are free (e.g., giving explanations for why the selection pro- cedure is being used). Sensitivity review panels may help ensure content validity and legal defensibility.

6. Consider banding. We emphasize the word “consider” because this remains a controversial strategy among IO psychologists and will substantially reduce sub- group differences only when there is explicit racio- ethnic minority or female preference in final hiring decisions. [See Chapter 10 of this text.]

Source: R.E. Ployhart and B.C. Holtz. 2008. “The Diversity-Validity Dilemma: Strategies for Reducing Racioethnic and Sex Subgroup Differences and Adverse Impact in Selection,” Personnel Psychology, 61: 153–72. Reproduced with permission from Blackwell Publishing Ltd. via Copyright Clearance Center.

appliCant rEaCtions

Recall from Chapter 2 that test fairness includes the reaction of applicants to selection procedures. Adverse reactions to selection tests and procedures may impair the ability of an organization to recruit and hire the best. It may also lead to costly litigation. The most recent and comprehensive meta-analysis of applicant reactions to selection proce- dures, and the cross-cultural generalizability of these reactions show that applicant overall reactions are quite similar across 17 countries (though some differences were found on dimension-specific perceptions of favorability).300 This analysis also showed that appli- cant favorability ratings of selection tools clustered into three groups: most favoured were work samples and interviews; the second most favoured were résumés, cognitive tests, references, biodata, and personality inventories; and the least favoured were honesty tests, personal contacts, and graphology.301 Encouragingly, the highest favorability ratings are positively associated with the tools that are most predictive of performance and are most widely adopted internationally.

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371CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments NEL

Overall, then, applicant reactions appear to be quite similar across countries. Accord- ingly, organizations engaged in international and expatriate selection should expect similar reactions from candidates to selection tools as reported in Table 8.4. While data for Canadian applicants are not available, there is no reason to believe that they would be much different. Canadian employers that are considering using integrity tests, gra- phology, and personal contacts in their hiring should consider the possible negative con- sequences on their ability to recruit and hire the best available people. Finally, explaining to job candidates the nature of, and reason for, the assessments they undergo improves fairness perceptions and enhances test-taking motivation.302

RATing by APPLiCAnTs

sELECTiOn mETHOd u.s. fREnCH

Interview good good

Résumé good good

Work samples good good

Biodata good Medium

Ability tests Medium Medium–good

Reference checking Medium Medium

personality tests Medium Medium–good

Honesty/integrity tests poor poor

personal contacts poor poor

graphology poor poor

Source: Adapted from D.D. Steiner and S.W. Gilliland. 2001. “Procedural Justice in Personnel Selection: International and Cross-Cultural perspectives,” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9: 124–37. Reproduced with permission from Blackwell Publishing Ltd. via Copyright Clearance Center.

TAbLE 8.4

APPLiCAnT fAVOuRAbiLiTy PERCEPTiOns Of sELECTiOn mETHOds

// summarY Psychological assessments can be carried out for many purposes, including employee selection. It is important that they meet acceptable professional and legal standards and not only be administered fairly, but also be seen as fair. The rights of job appli- cants, including the right to privacy, must be respected at all times and balanced against employer needs. A fundamental issue is whether the pre-employment assessments pro- vide job-relevant information, offering predictive validity. Cognitive ability tests are among the strongest and most robust predictors of training and job performance. The

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372 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

addition of specific ability tests to GMA may increase the overall predictive validity in some instances. As tests of GMA may disadvantage members of some minority groups they should be supplemented with assessments known not to have adverse impact.

Work samples, simulations, and SJTs assess applicants’ actual performance on impor- tant aspects of the job. Work samples have validity coefficients in the same range as cognitive ability tests and may be very appropriate to use in cases where tests of cognitive ability are likely to provoke a negative reaction; for example, in the selection of senior management and executives. Assessment centres are helpful in selecting and developing managers and professionals. Before adopting any specific tests, employers need to con- sider cost, practicality, validity, perceived fairness, and utility.

Adding personality tests to a selection system can improve overall validity and reduce adverse impact associated with assessing cognitive ability alone. Honesty and integrity tests are commonly used for jobs employing people responsible for managing cash and inventory and predict (negatively) counterproductive work behaviours and overall job performance.

Employers are increasingly seeking information on applicants’ use of drugs and alcohol. As collecting this information threatens privacy, such testing must conform to human rights codes, labour law, and professional and ethical standards. Pre-employment polygraph testing yields high rates of “false positives,” which should be considered when used, though most Canadian jurisdictions prohibit such testing, with exceptions granted to law enforcement agencies (e.g., RCMP) and high-security clearance jobs.

Overall, the use of state-of-the art selection tools and processes can enhance organi- zational efficiencies and effectiveness, as the quality of an organization’s hires impacts the quality of services and products it provides, core to its very survival.303

KEY tErms

Abilities, p. 332 Aptitude, p. 332 Assessment centre, p. 352 Cognitive abilities, p. 332 Emotional intelligence, p. 339 Genetic testing, p. 344 Honesty or integrity tests, p. 362 In-basket test, p. 351 Job knowledge, p. 338 Leaderless group discussion, p. 351 Personality, p. 355 Personality traits, p. 356 Physical abilities, p. 341 Practical intelligence, p. 337 Psychomotor abilities, p. 341 Self-report inventory, p. 356 Sensory/perceptual abilities, p. 341 Situational exercises, p. 349 Situational judgment test, p. 349 Skill, p. 332 Tacit knowledge, p. 338 Work samples and simulations, p. 347

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373CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments NEL

DisCussion quEstions

1. Why must anyone working in the area of HR be familiar with the professional and legal standards that govern the use of employment tests?

2. What are the limitations of cognitive ability testing? Do these limitations outweigh the advantages of selecting employees based on cognitive ability?

3. What is the Big Five model of personality and what is its relationship to employ- ment testing?

4. If you planned to use a personality test as part of a selection program, what charac- teristics should the test have?

5. Why is honesty or integrity testing controversial? When and how should these tests be used?

6. Is an employer free to test for physical fitness or drug use before making a job offer? Explain your answer.

7. What is an assessment centre?

8. What is more important: the reliability and validity of a test or the applicant’s per- ception of the test?

ExErCisEs

1. Consult the government agency responsible for monitoring the use of selection tests, including physical fitness and drug testing, in your locality. This may be a human rights agency or other government body. Determine whether that agency has a policy on the use of selection tests. Compare that policy with the principles and standards identified in this chapter.

2. Survey 10 companies or organizations in your community to determine whether they use selection tests as part of their hiring procedures. List the tests that are used. Did any organization report using honesty, fitness, or drug tests? If the company did not use any type of testing, report the procedures it used and its reasons, if any, for not using selection tests.

3. Recruitment and Selection Today 8.2 presented a sample item from a situational judgment test for use in hiring a manager. We intentionally did not indicate which of the responses was the best course of action. Assume that you and some of your classmates are a group of subject-matter experts who have been brought together to develop the responses to items on an SJT, including the best option. In conjunction with your other SMEs, identify which of the four options a manager should do in the Recruitment and Selection Today 8.2 example. What do you think a manager would do in that situation? What do you think would be the worst thing for the manager to do in the situation?

4. Design an assessment centre that could be used to select teachers. Describe the rationale for selecting the various procedures that would be included in the centre. Could your centre be replaced by a cognitive ability test and a personality measure?

5. Your workplace, by the nature of the work performed there, has a high level of airborne dust particles. You are concerned about hiring people with environmental sensitivities. Assume that there is an accurate genetic screening device to identify

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374 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

people who might be susceptible to the dust particles. Under what circumstances should you institute the test as part of your hiring procedures? Should it be voluntary or mandatory? How would you implement the test? Who would have access to the results? What would you tell applicants who tested positive?

6. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.3 identified a number of tests for cognitive ability, personality, integrity, and so on. We also identified several Internet resources that could be used to obtain more information about a particular test. There are many more resources available on the Web from which you could obtain this infor- mation. All you need to do is enter the name of the test into your favourite search engine to find them. In the course of this chapter, we identified two measures of emotional intelligence: the MSCEIT and the Bar-On EQ-i measure.

Choose either one of the two emotional intelligence measures and one of the personality tests from Recruitment and Selection Notebook 8.3 and answer the fol- lowing questions:

a. What is the reliability and validity of your two measures?

b. What is known about the use of your two measures in making employment decisions?

c. Have the tests ever been the focus of legal proceedings?

d. Are the tests defensible with respect to human rights issues?

7. Evaluate the two tests you chose in Exercise 6 against the criteria listed in Recruit- ment and Selection Notebook 8.2. If you were an HR manager and were asked to choose one of your two tests for use in selecting employees, which one would you recommend, and why?

CAsE sTudy APPLiCAnT TEsTing AT THE RCmP

Applicants to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police must pass a written examination, an interview, and a physical ability test before being accepted for basic training at the RCMP’s training centre in Regina. As a federally regulated agency, the RCMP falls under the jurisdiction of the Employment Equity Act, designed to further the employment of women, visible minorities, and other designated groups. The RCMP has had difficulty meeting recruiting targets of 20 percent women, 4.5 per- cent Aboriginal people, and 8.3 percent visible minorities that were set in compli- ance with the objectives of the Act. A review of testing data showed that Aboriginal peoples and visible minorities scored slightly lower than other groups on the written tests and that 40–50 percent of women applicants fail the physical ability test, a rate considerably higher than that for men.

In response to concerns over failing to meet its recruiting objectives, the RCMP undertook a revision of the examination, which assesses cognitive ability. The new

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375CHAPTER 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments NEL

test retains “academic” items related to composition and computation, but it also has new items in the form of scenarios that are directed at problem solving. The new questions are more job directed and operational in nature. Test items were rewritten to minimize the impact of different regional language styles to ensure that the ques- tions are fair and equitable for all applicants.

With respect to the physical ability test, women had particular difficulty with the upper-body strength requirements. To deal with this problem, the RCMP insti- tuted a six-week pre-training fitness program to help women prepare for the fitness test. It also revised the evaluation procedure. The following document provides information on the new physical ability requirements and provides information on how to prepare for the test. https://www.gprc.ab.ca/files/forms_documents/ PAREinfo.pdf

quEstions

1. Did the RCMP do the right thing in revising its written examination and fitness test? Did the RCMP reduce the rigour of its entrance require- ments? Base your response on what you have learned in this chapter.

2. It appears that the RCMP is trying to incorporate a “practical intelli- gence” component into its examinations. Is this appropriate? What type of “job knowledge” should be assessed of applicants?

3. If physical ability is a job requirement for police officers, is it appropriate to have different standards for male and female applicants to the RCMP? Argue your point.

4. Is the existing test fair and equitable for all candidates?

5. Design and describe a recruiting campaign to attract more women and visible-minority applicants to the RCMP.

6. Chapter 10 looks at another method that can be used to improve the number of minority applicants: banding. This procedure is also contro- versial. You may want to read that section now and discuss this as an option. How would the public likely react to using banding?

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58. Sternberg, R.J. 2002. “Practical Intelligence, g, and Work Psychology.” Human Performance 15: 142–160.

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.

61. McDaniel, M.A., and D.L. Whetzel. 2005. “Situational Judgment Test Research: Informing the Debate on Practical Intelligence Theory.” Intelligence 33: 515–525.

62. Wagner, R.K., and R.J. Sternberg. 1985. “Practical Intelligence in Real-World Pursuits: The Role of Tacit Knowledge.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49: 436–458.

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68. McDaniel, M.A., and D.L. Whetzel. 2005.

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70. Sternberg, R.J. 2002.

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85. Van Rooy, D.L., C. Viswesvaran, and P. Pluta. 2005. “An Examination of Construct Validity: What Is This Thing Called Emotional Intelligence?” Human Performance 18: 445–462.

86. Mayer, J.D., R.D. Roberts, and S.G. Barsade. 2008. “Human Abilities: Emotional Intelligence.” Annual Review of Psychology 59: 507–536.

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89. Joseph, D.L., Jin, J., Newman, D.A., and O’Boyle, E.H. 2015. “Why Does Self-reported Emotional Intelligence Predict Job Performance? A Meta-analytic Investigation of Mixed EI.” Journal of Applied Psychology 100: 2, 298–342.

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123. Ibid.

124. Hausknecht, J.P., D.V. Day, and S.C. Thomas. 2004. “Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures: An Updated Model and Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology 57: 639–683.

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129. Ibid.

130. Spinner, B. 1990. Predicting Success in Basic Flying Training from the Canadian Automated Pilot Selection System (Working Paper 90-6). Willowdale, ON: Canadian Forces Personnel Applied Research Unit.

131. Fluckinger, C.D., N.M. Dudley, and M. Seeds. 2014. “Incremental Validity of Interactive Multimedia Simulations in Two Organizations.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 22(1): 108–112.

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133. McDaniel, M.A., and N.T. Nguyen. 2001. “Situational Judgment Tests: A Review of Practice and Constructs Assessed.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 9: 103–113.

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137. Chan, D., and N. Schmitt. 1997.

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144. McDaniel M.A., F.P. Morgeson, E.B. Finnegan, M.A. Campion, and E.P. Braverman. 2001.

145. McDaniel, M.A., and N.T. Nguyen. 2001. “Situational Judgment Tests: A Review of Practice and Constructs Assessed.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 9: 103–113.

146. McDaniel M.A., N.S. Hartman, D.L. Whetzel, and W.L. Grubb. 2007. “Situational Judgment Tests, Response Instructions, and Validity: A Meta- Analysis.” Personnel Psychology 60: 63–91.

147. Christian, M.S., B.D. Edwards, and J.C. Bradley. 2010. “Situational Judgment Tests: Constructs Assessed and a Meta-Analysis of Their Criterion-related Validities.” Personnel Psychology 63: 83–117.

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149. Drasgow, F. 2003.

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154. Roth, P., P. Bobko, and M.A. Buster. 2013, “Situational Judgment Tests: The Influence and Importance of Applicant Status and Targeted Constructs on Estimates of Black-White Subgroup Differences.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 86: 394–409.

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157. Patterson, F., et al. 2009. “New Machine-marked Tests for Selection into Core Medical Training: Evidence from Two Validation Studies.” Clinical Medicine 9: 5, 417–420.

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186. Ibid.

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188. Haaland, S., and N.D. Christiansen. 2002. “Implications of Trait-Activation Theory for Evaluating the Construct Validity of Assessment Center Ratings.” Personnel Psychology 55: 137–163.

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202. Ones, D., and C. Viswesvaran. 1998.

203. Ibid.

204. Alliger, G.M. and Dwight, S.A. 2000. “A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Susceptibility of Integrity Tests to Faking and Coaching. Educational and Psychological Measurement 60: 59–73.

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209. Schmitt, N., and F.L. Oswald. 2006. “The Impact of Corrections for Faking on the Validity of Noncognitive Measures in Selection Settings.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91: 613–621.

210. Fan, J., et al. 2012. “Testing the Efficacy of a New Procedure for Reducing Faking on Personality Tests within Selection Contexts.” Journal of Applied Psychology 97(4): 866–880.

211. Landers, R.N., P.R. Sackett, and K.A. Tuziniski. 2011. “Retesting after Initial Failure, Coaching Rumors, and Warnings against Faking in Online Personality Measures of Selection.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96(1): 2012–2010.

212. Van Hooft, E.A.J., and M.P. Born. 2012. “Intentional Response Distortion on Personality Tests: Using Eye-Tracking to Understand Response Processes when Faking.” Journal of Applied Psychology 97(2): 301–316.

213. Rosse, J.G., M.D. Steecher, J.L. Miller, and R.A Levin. 1998.

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221. Ibid.

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224. Barrick, M.R., and M.K. Mount. 1991.

225. Campbell, J.P. 1990. “Modeling the Performance Prediction Problem in Industrial and Organizational Psychology.” In M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, eds., The Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (pp. 687–632). San Diego: Consulting Psychologists Press.

226. Mount, M.K., and M.R. Barrick. 1995. “The Big Five Personality Dimensions: Implications for Research and Practice in Human Resources Management. In G.R. Ferris, ed., Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management Vol. 13 (pp. 153–200). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

227. McManus, M.A., and M.L. Kelly. 1999. “Personality Measures and Biodata: Evidence Regarding Their Incremental Predictive Value in the Life Insurance Industry.” Personnel Psychology 52: 137–148.

228. Barrick, M.R., and M.K. Mount. 1991.

229. Ibid.

230. Mount, M.K., M.R. Barrick, and G.L. Stewart. 1998. “Five-Factor Model of Personality and Performance in Jobs Involving Interpersonal Interactions.” Human Performance 11: 145–165.

231. Hough, L.M., and A. Furnham. 2003.

232. Chiaburu, D.S., O. In-Sue, C.M. Berry, L. Ning, and R.G. Gardner. 2011. “The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96(6): 1140–1166.

233. Oh, I-S, and B.M. Christopher. 2009. “The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Managerial Performance: Validity Gains through the Use of 360 Degree Performance Ratings.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94(6): 1498–513.

234. Schmidt, F.L., and J.E. Hunter. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 Years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin 124: 262–274.

235. Hogan, R., J. Hogan, and B.W. Roberts. 1996.

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236. Oswald, F.L., and L.M. Hough. 2010. “Personality and Its Assessment in Organizations: Theoretical and Empirical Developments.” In S. Zedeck, ed., APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol. 2, American Psychological Association.

237. Outtz, J.L. 2002.

238. Exhibit 5.1 in Oswald, F.L., and L.M. Hough. 2010.

239. Johnson, M.K., W.C. Rowatt, and L. Petrini. 2011. “A New Trait on the Market: Honesty-Humility as a Unique Predictor of Job Performance Ratings.” Personality and Individual Differences 50(6): 857–862.

240. Tett, R.P., D.N. Jackson, and M. Rothstein. 1991. “Personality Measures as Predictors of Job Performance: A Meta-analytic Review.” Personnel Psychology 44(4): 703–742.

241. Paunonen, S.V., M.G. Rothstein, and D.N. Jackson. 1999. “Narrow Reasoning about the Use of Broad Personality Measures for Personnel Selection.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 20: 389–405.

242. Ashton, M.C., S.V. Paunonen, and K. Lee. 2014. “On the Validity of Narrow and Broad Personality Traits: A Response to Salgado, Moscoso and Berges (2013).” Personality and Individual Differences 56: 24–28.

243. Paunonen, S.V., and A.A.A.M. Nicol. 2001. “The Personality Hierarchy and the Prediction of Work Behaviors.” In B. Roberts and R.T. Hogan, eds., Personality Psychology in the Workplace (pp. 161–191). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

244. Ones, D., and C. Viswesvaran. 1996. “Bandwidth-Fidelity Dilemma in Personality Measurement for Personnel Selection.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 17: 609–626.

245. Salgado, J.F., S. Moscoso, and A. Berges. 2013. “Conscientiousness, Its Facets, and the Prediction of Job Performance Ratings: Evidence against the Narrow Measures.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 21(1): 74–84.

246. Marick, M.R., M.K. Mount, and N. Li. 2013. “The Theory of Purposeful Work Behavior: The Role of Personality, Higher-Order Goals, and Job Characteristics.” Academy of Management Review 38(1): 132–153.

247. Dalal, R.S., I.J. Jose, R. Hermida, T.R. Chen, and R.P. Vega. 2014. “Measuring Job-related Situational Strength and Assessing Its Interactive Effects with Personality on Voluntary Work Behavior.” Journal of Management 40(4): 1010–1041.

248. Hough, L.M., and A. Furnham. 2003.

249. Penney, L.M., E. David, and L.A. Witt. 2011. “A Review of Personality and Performance: Identifying Boundaries, Contingencies, and Future Research Directions.” Human Resource Management Review 21: 297–310.

250. Witt, L.A. 2001, November. Emotional Stability and Conscientiousness as Interactive Predictors of Job Performance. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southern Management Association, New Orleans.

251. Uppal, N., S.K. Mishra, and N. Vohra. 2014. “Prior Related Work Experience and Job Performance: Role of Personality.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 22(1): 39–51.

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252. Blickle, G., et al. 2013. “The Interactive Effects of Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience, and Political Skill on Job Performance in Complex Jobs: The Importance of Context.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 34(8): 1145–1164.

253. Guay, R.P., et al. 2013. “The Interactive Effect of Conscientiousness and Agreeableness on Job Performance Dimensions in South Korea.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 21(2): 233–238.

254. Le, H., et al. 2011. “Too Much of a Good Thing: Curvilinear Relationships between Personality Traits and Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96(1): 113–133.

255. Penney, L.M., E. David, and L.A. Witt. 2011.

256. Bing, M.N., H.K. Davison, and J. Smothers. 2014. “Item-Level Frame-of- Reference Effects in Personality Testing: An Investigation of Incremental Validity in an Organizational Setting.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 22(2): 165–178.

257. Schmitt, N. 2014. “Personality and Cognitive Ability as Predictors of Effective Performance at Work.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 1: 45–65.

258. Ibid.

259. Ones, D., C. Viswesvaran, and F.L. Schmidt. 1993.

260. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Field, and M.R. Barric.l 2016. Human Resource Selection 8th ed. Boston: Cengage.

261. Nelson, R. 2016. “Testing the Limits of Evidence Based on Polygraph Practices.” Polygraph 45: 1, 74–85.

262. Employee Polygraph Protection Act (29 USC §2001 et seq.; 29 CFR 801).

263. Jones, J., ed. 1991. Pre-Employment Honesty Testing: Current Research and Future Directions. New York: Quorum Books.

264. Sackett, P.R., L.R. Burris, and C. Callahan. 1989. “Integrity Testing for Personnel Selection: An Update.” Personnel Psychology 42: 491–529.

265. Hogan, J., and R. Hogan. 1989. “How to Measure Employee Reliability.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 273–279.

266. Alliger, G.M., S.O. Lilienfeld, and K.E. Mitchell. 1996. “The Susceptibility of Overt and Covert Integrity Tests to Coaching and Faking.” Psychological Science 7: 32–39.

267. Collins, J.D., and F.L. Schmidt. 1993. “Personality, Integrity, and White-Collar Crime: A Construct Validity Study.” Personnel Psychology 46: 295–311.

268. Temple, W. 1992. “Counterproductive Behaviour Costs Millions.” British Journal of Administrative Management (April/May): 20–21.

269. Ones, D., C. Viswesvaran, and F.L. Schmidt. 1993. “Comprehensive Meta- Analysis of Integrity Test Validities: Findings and Implications for Personnel Selection and Theories of Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 78: 679–703.

270. Ones, D., and C. Viswesvaran. 1998.

271. Fine, S. 2010. “Pre-employment Integrity Testing across Multiple Industries.” Psychological Reports 107(2): 607–610.

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272. Ones, D.S., C. Viswesvaran, and F. Schmidt. 1993. “Comprehensive Meta- Analysis of Integrity Test Validities: Findings and Implications for Personnel Selection and Theories of Job Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph 78: 679–703.

273. Sturman, M.C., and D. Sherwyn. 2009. “The Utility of Integrity Testing for Controlling Workers’ Compensation Costs.” Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 50: 432–445.

274. Ibid.

275. Ones, D., C. Viswesvaran, and F.L. Schmidt. 1993.

276. Ones, D.S., and C. Viswesvaran. 1998. “Integrity Testing in Organizations.” In R.W. Griffin, A. O’Leary, and J.M. Collins, eds., Dysfunctional Behavior in Organizations: Vol. 2, Nonviolent Behaviors in Organizations (pp. 243–276). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

277. Sackett, P.R., and J.E. Wanek. 1996. “New Developments in the Use of Measures of Honesty, Integrity, Conscientiousness, Dependability, Trustworthiness, and Reliability for Personnel Selection.” Personnel Psychology 49: 787–827.

278. Berry, C.M., P.R. Sackett, and S. Wiemann. 2007. “A Review of Recent Developments in Integrity Test Research.” Personnel Psychology 60: 271–301.

279. Marcus, B., M.C. Ashton, and K. Lee. 2013. “A Note on the Incremental Validity of Integrity Tests beyond Standard Personality Inventories for the Criterion of Counterproductive Behaviour.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 30(1): 18–25.

280. Berry, C.M., P.R. Sackett, and S. Wiemann. 2007.

281. Schmidt, F.L., and Hunter, J.E. 1998. “The Validity and Utility of Personnel Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 Years of Research Findings.” Psychological Bulletin 124: 262–274.

282. Mumford, M.D., M.S. Connelly, W.B. Helton, J.M. Strange, and H.K. Osburn. 2001. “On the Construct Validity of Integrity Tests: Individual and Situational Factors as Predictors of Test Performance.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 9: 240–257.

283. See Marcus, B., K. Lee, and M.C. Ashton. 2007. “Personality Dimensions Explaining Relationships Between Integrity Tests and Counterproductive Behavior: Big Five, or One in Addition?” Personnel Psychology 60: 1–34.

284. Ibid.

285. Berry, C.M., P.R. Sackett, and S. Wiemann. 2007. “A Review of Recent Developments in Integrity Test Research.” Personnel Psychology 60: 271–301.

286. Steiner, D.D., and S.W. Gilliland. 1996. “Fairness Reactions to Personnel Selection Techniques in France and the United States.” Journal of Applied Psychology 81: 131–141.

287. Sackett, P.R., and J.E. Wanek. 1996. “New Developments in the Use of Measures of Honesty, Integrity, Conscientiousness, Dependability, Trustworthiness, and Reliability for Personnel Selection.” Personnel Psychology 49: 787–829.

288. Camara, W.J., and D.L. Schneider. 1994.

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289. Arnold, D.W. 1991. “To Test or Not to Test: Legal Issues in Integrity Testing.” Forensic Psychology 4: 62–67.

290. Berry, C.M., P.R. Sackett, and S. Wiemann. 2007.

291. Neuman, G.A., and R. Baudoun. 1998. “An Empirical Examination of Overt and Covert Integrity Tests.” Journal of Business and Psychology 13: 65–79.

292. D. Lindsay. 1998. “True Lies—An Applicant Writes an ‘Integrity’ Test.” This Magazine 31: 4.

293. Neuman, G.A., and R. Baudoun. 1998. “An Empirical Examination of Overt and Covert Integrity Tests.” Journal of Business and Psychology 13: 65–79.

294. Camara, W.J., and D.L. Schneider. 1994.

295. Catano, V.M., and M.A. Prosser. 2007. “A Review of Integrity Tests and Their Implications for Selection of Security Personnel in a Canadian Context.” The Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services 5: 1–18.

296. Ones, D.S., and C. Viswesvaran. 1998.

297. Wanek, J.E. 1999. “Integrity and Honesty Testing: What Do We Know? How Do We Use It?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 7: 183–95.

298. Ones, D.S., C. Viswesvaran, and F.L. Schmidt. 2003. “Personality and Absenteeism: A Meta-analysis of Integrity Tests.” European Journal of Personality 17: S19–38.

299. Ployhart, R.E., and B.C. Holtz. 2008. “The Diversity–Validity Dilemma: Strategies for Reducing Racioethnic and Sex Subgroup Differences and Adverse Impact in Selection.” Personnel Psychology 61: 153–172.

300. Anderson, N., J.F. Salgado, and U.R. Hulsheger. 2010. “Applicant Reactions in Selection: Comprehensive Meta-Analysis into Reaction Generalization versus Situational Specificity.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 18(3): 291–304.

301. Ibid.

302. Truxillo, D.M., T.E. Bodner, M. Bertolino, and T.N. Bauer. 2009. “Effects of Explanations on Applicant Reactions: A Meta-Analytic Review.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 17(4): 346–361.

303. Ryan, A.M., and R.E. Ployhart. 2014. “A Century of Selection.” Annual Review of Psychology 65: 693–717.

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter presents new and more effective alternatives to the traditional approaches to employment interviewing.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the purposes and uses of employment interviews;

• identify the multiple phases of the employment interview and the factors affecting employment interview decisions;

• describe the selection errors associated with traditional approaches to employ- ment interviewing;

• discuss the elements of employment interview structuring;

• identify different structured interviewing techniques and their relative advan- tages and disadvantages;

• explain the legal and predictive advantages of structured employment inter- viewing methods;

• develop competence in the design of effective interview questions and scoring guides;

• discuss innovations and future directions in interview research and practice; and

• recognize the role of employment interviews in the changing organizational environment.

sELECTiOn iii: inTERviEwing

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Production manager Jason Lee finished his third interview of the day and there were several more interviews left to do. He did not like having to spend an entire day conducting interviews. There were production issues that needed his attention and he felt uncomfortable about being unable to monitor the activities in the shop because he was stuck in his office with job applicants. However, he desperately needed to replace a couple of employees who had recently quit.

Jason didn’t have any particular plan for his interviews. He simply asked whatever occurred to him based on his review of the applicant’s résumé, though he often used a common set of questions such as, “What are your strengths?” “What are your weaknesses?” or “Tell me about yourself.” So far, the applicants were disappointing. Jason felt they either didn’t have the necessary skills or they lacked motivation. It seemed like a wasted morning. Jason asked the fourth applicant, Mia Grover, to step into his office and to have a seat.

Mia smiled as she sat down, “I’m so happy you invited me for an interview. I’ve heard a lot of good things about this company and I think I’d be perfect for this job.”

“Oh? Why do you think you’d be perfect for this job?” asked Jason.

Mia proceeded to tell Jason about how her skills and experiences were perfectly suited for the position and how highly motivated, energetic, and conscientious she was. She had done her homework and knew the company and the job requirements very well. Jason was very impressed but he thought he should probe just a bit further.

“Do you have any weaknesses?” he asked. “Well, the only thing I can think of is that maybe

sometimes I can be a bit too much of a perfectionist.” responded Mia, “I probably get a bit too involved in my work at times.”

Jason mumbled to himself, “Hmm … that sounds pretty good. I wish more of my employees cared about their work.” He added more audibly, “When can you start?”

“I could start on Monday” replied Mia. “You’re hired!” exclaimed Jason. He was enormously

pleased. The morning was not wasted after all. Now he needed just one more applicant like Mia.

THE HiRing inTERviEw

The kind of interview illustrated in the opening vignette is not unusual. You may well encounter this kind of interview in your own job search. From this interview, how much accurate and useful information would Jason Lee have been able to obtain from Mia Grover that would enable him to assess her ability to be an effective employee? Jason did not have a particular plan or strategy for his interviews that would enable him to accu- rately assess a candidate’s job-relevant KSAOs. In fact, Mia took charge of the interview and focused Jason’s attention on self-descriptions that made her look good. These self- descriptions might or might not have been accurate but they certainly reveal very little about Mia’s knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes and competencies (KSAOs), or other qualities that would be important for the position. Mia had prepared well for the interview and knew what Jason was looking for. She told Jason what he wanted to hear. Her approach reflects some of the advice for applicants found in numerous books and websites on how to perform well in employment interviews. However, after participating in three unsuccessful interviews, Jason was so impressed with her that he hired her on the spot. His impulsive decision reflected his desperation but ignored the possibility that future interviewees might have been preferable to Mia. Moreover, Jason’s hiring decision was based solely on his interview with Mia. In fact, as will be discussed in Chapter 10, the interview is just one component of a selection system, and interview scores should be considered along with the other components of the selection system to make a hiring decision. The selection decision should not be made on the basis of the interview alone. However, even as part of a larger selection system, the interview needs to be properly designed. The goal of this chapter is to provide insights into interviewing best practices that permit interviewers to be much more effective than the kind of interview illustrated in the opening vignette, which is used by far too many employers.

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The employment interview is one of the oldest and most widely used of all selec- tion procedures.1,2 Data from Statistics Canada’s Workplace and Employee Survey show that almost 80 percent of the firms that used pre-hiring selection relied on some type of interview.3 Moreover, when making selection decisions, recruiters tend to have more con- fidence in the interview than in information provided from application forms, references, test results, or any other source of information about the applicant.4–6 Given the inter- view’s importance in the employee selection process, it is worth devoting close attention to this selection technique, particularly to relatively recent improvements in interview methods. Modern interview techniques, if used properly, can significantly improve the effectiveness of the traditional interview as a selection tool.

// PurPoses and uses of the IntervIew Except for screening interviews, interviews are usually conducted near the end of the selec- tion process. Leaving the interview until the end allows the other selection instruments, such as tests, to screen out unqualified applicants and reduces the number of people who must be interviewed. It is usually desirable to reduce the number of interviewees because interviews are relatively expensive, compared with other selection instruments such as tests or the screening of résumés (i.e., the time spent by managers or supervisors interviewing applicants is one of the costs associated with the interview). However, inter- views are often also used as preliminary screening devices (e.g., in recruitment centres, by campus recruiters, and so on). Therefore, in this chapter, we will examine the interview as both a screening device and a selection tool.

When used for screening purposes, the interview is often used to confirm or explore information provided in résumés or application forms and is also used as a recruitment tool. However, when used later in the selection process, the interview is best used to obtain information that has not been provided in the résumé or application form. Inter- views are typically conducted by HR staff or by supervisors or line managers (who usu- ally have little interview training).7 They tend to have little time available for preparing interview questions and often use standard questions that they hear others using or that they remember having been asked when they were interviewees. In many organizations, applicants are interviewed by several interviewers, either simultaneously as part of panel or board interviews or in sequential or serial interviews.8,9

Although interviews can be and have been used to assess job knowledge and cogni- tive ability, they are probably best suited to the assessment of noncognitive attributes such

as interpersonal relationships or social skills, initiative, dependability, perseverance, teamwork, leadership skills, adaptability or flexibility, organizational citizenship behaviour, and organizational fit.10–16 As you may recognize from our discussion of personality in Chapter 8, several of these attributes are also measured by different personality inventories.

Interviews are also used to sell the job to the applicant. They provide applicants with an opportunity to ask questions about the job and the organization and to decide whether the job and the organiza- tion provide an appropriate fit. In fact, an interviewer’s friendliness, warmth, and humour, as well as job knowledge and general compe- tence, seem to increase applicant attraction to the organization and the likelihood that an applicant will accept a job offer.17,18 However, The job interview—getting to know each other.

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interviewers’ effects on applicant job choice are not as strong as factors such as pay, the job itself, promotion opportunities, or geographical location.19,20 Moreover, when recruiters put too much effort into selling the job, rather than focusing on the selection function, they may actually reduce the attractiveness of the job for applicants.21 It is pos- sible that applicants become suspicious and back away when they perceive the recruiter trying too hard to convince them of the merits of the job or organization.

Interviews have also been used in the termination of employees. As organizations restructure, downsize, or “rightsize” and jobs are eliminated, employees must compete for a smaller number of redesigned jobs. The interview serves to assist in identifying employees who have the necessary KSAOs to perform well or are able to meet the new standards in the redesigned jobs. Those who do not have the necessary KSAOs or do not meet the new standards are let go. Although there is considerable debate about the merits of downsizing as a cure for ailing organizations, such interviews have become commonplace.22

Interviews are commonly used to determine who is best qualified when several employees are being considered for a promotion. Often internal applicants (employees) compete with external applicants for such positions. In such circumstances there might be concerns about how internal applicants will react if an external applicant is chosen over them. Conversely, there might be concerns about how internal applicants will respond if one of them is promoted to be the new supervisor over the others. Such decisions are not without political ramifications (which we will discuss later in the chapter). If there are substantial changes in how a job is performed (e.g., computer systems are introduced to a job that used to be largely manual), interviews can be used to help determine whether incumbents can meet the new standards required for the job. If retraining is not feasible in such circumstances, the incumbents could be reassigned or, in the absence of alterna- tive positions, be let go. Interviews are also used to determine whether individuals who have been in a union job temporarily are able to meet the standards necessary to be hired into a permanent position.

the Cost of IntervIewIng

Interviews are a relatively expensive selection tool, even if they do not include travel. Costs include the time that supervisors or managers spend preparing for the interview and actually interviewing (as opposed to performing their usual tasks), time spent reflecting on interviewees’ answers and comparing interviewees after the interviews, time spent by clerical staff on interview-related tasks, the use and/or reorganization of office space for the interview, and the use of equipment such as telephones, fax machines, and copiers for interview-related functions, not to mention the time spent in developing interview questions and scoring guides.

When the interview involves travel, the costs can rise dramatically. If candidates fly in (or drive) from another city, costs typically include the flight (or mileage), airport parking, meals, and taxi fares or parking fees. If the candidate needs to stay overnight because of when the interview is scheduled, the distance travelled, or the availability of transporta- tion, costs include the hotel stay. Some organizations either make travel arrangements and pay for these expenses directly or reimburse the candidate for travel expenses related to the interview. When organizations shift these costs to the applicants, they risk losing many potential applicants because most applicants will be unwilling to incur travel costs given the risk of not getting a job offer, particularly as travel costs become high.

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If recruiters or managers need to travel to conduct interviews, similar expenses are incurred, including flight costs or mileage, airport parking, hotel stay, meals, and taxi fare or parking fees. Because of the relatively high costs of interviewing, formal interviews are usually conducted near the end of the selection process, after the pool of applicants has been reduced by other selection instruments such as a review of application forms or résumés, administration of tests, and the use of preliminary screening interviews.

// sCreenIng IntervIews In our discussion of recruitment in Chapter 6, we described how job applicants use their initial interview with a recruiter to obtain information about the organization. The inter- viewer takes the opportunity of this interview to find out information about the applicant that is not apparent from an application form or résumé. The interview has considerable value as a recruiting device and as a means of initiating a social relationship between a job applicant and an organization.23 A selection interview provides the applicant with information, mostly favourable, about the organization as an employer, in the hope of increasing the odds that a desired applicant will accept a forthcoming job offer. The job applicant uses the interview to learn more about the organization as an employer and to make inferences about its values and philosophy in deciding whether there is a fit.24

Without a doubt, interviewing that is done as part of the recruitment process serves as a screening mechanism. Job applicants who do not meet the recruiter’s standards do not proceed further. In fact, one of the main purposes of screening interviews is to narrow down the list of potential job applicants who proceed to subsequent stages of the selection system (such as testing and formal interviewing) and, therefore, help to increase the efficiency of the selection process.

The information obtained from screening interviews is usually best collected through a well-constructed application form. Skilful interviewees know how to give socially desir- able answers to many of these frequently asked questions. While some distortion is to be expected in the answers, there is no reason to believe these inaccuracies, intentional or otherwise, occur with greater frequency than do inaccuracies in biodata and résumé infor- mation. There is very little direct evidence on the rate or percentage of misinformation that takes place over the course of an interview. As with application forms and biodata, when interview questions focus on verifiable events related to past work or educational experiences, accuracy will likely increase.

sCreenIng IntervIew format

The interviewer often obtains better information from a screening interview by following an interview guide. Following a set of preplanned questions or topics during the interview in addition to having reviewed the applicant’s file before the interview begins will improve the reliability or consistency of information gathered.25 The format for a screening inter- view begins with some opening remarks by the recruiter to put the applicant at ease. This generally involves an exchange of pleasantries and personal information, including information on the purpose of the interview and how the information will be used. The applicant is also advised whether any information presented during the interview will be held in confidence or shared with others. In addition, the interviewer informs the inter- viewee whether any notes or recordings will be made during the interview.

screening interviews Preliminary interviews designed to fill gaps left on the candidate’s application form or résumé, sometimes serving recruitment as well as selection functions.

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Following these clarifications, questions typically focus on the applicant’s past work history, education and training, and general background. The interviewee is given an oppor- tunity to ask questions about the job and company, as well as about issues raised during the interview. In closing, the interviewer outlines the timeline for the decision process and when applicants are likely to hear the outcome. After the applicant leaves, the interviewer prepares a summary of the interview by completing either a written narrative or a rating form. Often, in order to reduce the costs of the interview (e.g., travel, time, scheduling office space), screening interviews are conducted by telephone rather than face-to-face (see Recruitment and Selection Today 9.1 and also the section on “Long-Distance Inter- views” in this chapter). However, an increasing number of organizations are turning to computer-assisted interviewing (see Recruitment and Selection Today 9.2). Computer- assisted interviews can involve online videos of scenarios to which the candidate responds or online interview questions to which candidates can respond by submitting a video of themselves answering the questions, typing and submitting the answers, or selecting the answer from multiple-choice options. The multiple-choice response format is the least labour-intensive because the answers can be computer scored. However, this format could signal the best answer by allowing the candidates to view options they might not have thought of on their own. Moreover, it does not permit elaboration and and does not allow applicants to provide potentially superior answers that are not among the choices offered.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.1

TeLePHONe ScreeNING INTervIeWS Are cOST-effecTIve

Bob Markey, director of talent acquisition at Day & Zimmermann, a construction and engineering company with 23 000 employees headquartered in Philadelphia, receives more than 50 résumés from candidates for mid- or senior-level positions.

“Obviously, we’re not going to bring them all in,” Markey says. “By selecting the top five candidates and talking with them by phone to assess their interest and overall fit, the company can be more efficient with [its] time and money.”

“Interviewing a candidate in person is a huge time com- mitment for our management team and the candidate,” says fran Peters, PHr, human resources manager at SWc Tech- nology Partners Inc., a 150-employee IT consulting company in Oak Brook, Ill. Peters prescreens top candidates by phone to winnow the field. “We disqualify approximately 75 percent of candidates based on that initial phone screen.”

A good initial phone screen can reveal a wealth of important information, including a candidate’s skills, experience, motivation, professionalism, and salary

expectations. Phone screens can also give under-the-radar applicants—those who might be overlooked if Hr were doing only in-person interviews—an opportunity to shine. “Oftentimes, a candidate you see on paper may not hit all of the bullets, but there is something intriguing,” according to Molly Brennan, managing partner at Koya Leadership Partners in Newburyport, Mass., a national recruiter for nonprofit organizations. “You don’t want to miss a poten- tially good candidate, but you have to be sure the person is worth the investment of time to meet in person.”

Pre-screenings can help Hr professionals develop a rapport with the candidate before the in-person inter- view, adds Kelly Smith, a corporate recruiter consultant and author of corporate recruiter reveals Who Gets Hired and Why (excellent enterprises LLc, 2013). Pre-screening also has the advantage of eliminating visual distractions. According to rick Baron, SPHr, senior manager of Hr operations for a global beverage company in Sarasota, fla., “The power of the telephone interview, when done properly, is you can focus on what is being said.”

Source: Originally published as “Be Well-Prepared to Pre-Screen Applicants by Telephone.” by Kathryn Tyler, HR Magazine, 59(4). © 2014, Society for Human resource Management, Alexandria, vA. Used with permission. All rights reserved.

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.2

cAN cOMPUTerS rePLAce recrUITerS?

Last week, Google played havoc with the lives of many busi- nesses by changing its algorithm to favour mobile-friendly sites, in an event mildly referred to as “mobilegeddon.”

considering that a top ranking on a Google search page can command 20 to 30 per cent of a site’s click- through rates, these rankings play an important role for many businesses. And considering that over 40 per cent of fortune 500 companies’ websites are not currently mobile friendly, their rankings may have dropped in one quick swoop.

The potential impact to branding and revenue aside, companies whose websites aren’t optimized for mobile devices may also be losing out on opportunities to recruit talent, as that’s increasingly the manner job seekers are choosing to search for new roles.

forty-seven per cent of millennials are using mobile devices to search for new roles, according to recruiting platform Jobvite’s 2015 Job Seeker Nation report, up from 43 per cent last year.

Not only are they using mobile devices to look for work, they are searching more frequently, with 45 per cent of job seekers saying they will search for new opportuni- ties even if they are happy in their current role. So a slight change in an algorithm can have big consequences.

But it’s not only job seekers who are relying on algo- rithms to find roles; recruiters and companies are increas- ingly turning to machines to determine whom they hire.

Two employees at software company SAP—Andrea Woolley, a project director and Matthew Jeffery, vice- president of global sourcing and employment branding— recently argued that the time for machine selection has arrived.

They explain that the traditional method of recruiting—building relationships with top universities in order to entice the best talent—is now an old-school approach. So when SAP started looking for candidates to join their sales academy, they decided to spread a wider net and rely on technology to filter the applicants.

candidates needed to first take a corporate culture test to determine whether they would be a good fit. If they passed, they needed to complete a “situational judgment” assessment, a test that typically measures candidates’

ability to handle situations they could be faced with at work. candidates who passed both could expect a call from a human recruiter to arrange a day-long assessment.

All candidates found out quickly, if not instantly, whether they got to keep going. The process was likely a better experience for many job seekers, who often wait for what can seem like an eternity for a recruiter or hiring manager to call back.

According to SAP, this screening method allowed them to process 50,000 applicants globally, leading to 500 new hires, with a projected cost saving of £250,000 ($462,000).

It remains to be seen how well those 500 fare in the company over the long-term. Still, data analytics is playing an increasing role in expediting and, in some cases, choosing who gets a job. But deciding the level of human- versus-computer input remains up for debate.

According to the Harvard Business review, humans are often fallible when it comes to evaluating who is a good candidate for a job. The article argues that mathematical equations trump humans 25 per cent of the time, since we can be distracted by facts that may only be “marginally relevant.”

That’s not only the case when hiring for entry-level roles; Korn ferry introduced technology that allows them to better determine who will succeed in c-Suite roles.

This evolution of machine-led hiring is opening up the doors for some very interesting partnerships, including one between job search site Simply Hired and dating site eHarmony. The new service will match job seekers to opportunities based on compatibility, values, culture and competence. The service launches in a test phase in June.

could this be a golden age of hiring, where computers handle the job more efficiently, effectively and fairly? chelsea Barabas, a research assistant at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s center for civic Media, is not convinced. As she wrote on an MIT blog post, algorithms rely on a specific set of rules that may unknowingly prejudice the results.

Gerry Purcell, founder of the Toronto hub of Internal consulting Group, also warns companies to tread carefully when relying on big data for hiring decisions.

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NEL 399CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

“While the engines are more powerful than they ever have been, and the buy-in is higher as the numbers can be crunched faster and easier, the underlying math is the same and, still susceptible to the same biases,” Mr. Purcell said.

He notes that the challenge with analytics is that the users who rely on it may lose sight of the assumptions that built the underlying data set. Since there is never “perfect data,” some human intervention is necessary. At least, for now.

Source: Leah eichler. 2015. “can computers replace recruiters?” The Globe and Mail, (May 1): http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/ careers/career-advice/life-at-work/can-computers-replace-recruiters/article24172529

deCIsIons Based on the sCreenIng IntervIew

The interviewer is frequently required to make inferences about an applicant’s personal qualities, motivation, overall ability, attitude toward work, and potential not only for doing the job but also for fitting into the organizational culture. Organizations that use screening interviews often require the interviewer to rate specific attributes or character- istics of the applicant either in addition to, or instead of, making an overall recommen- dation. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 9.1 presents a sample form used to rate applicants following a screening interview. The traits or attributes that interviewers are asked to rate vary among organizations. They range from the very specific (e.g., attitude toward working irregular hours) to the very general (e.g., initiative).

Microsoft Canada uses screening interviews to identify computer science graduates whose thinking is fast, flexible, and creative. The Microsoft interview includes questions related to computer science knowledge and brainteaser-type questions about balloons that move in mysterious ways. More than the right answer, Microsoft is looking for an ability to think creatively and an inquiring mind. Only about 25 percent of applicants from one of Canada’s leading computer science programs made it through the final stages of one of these screening interviews.26

aPPlICant BehavIours and IntervIewer ImPressIons

Interviewers use both verbal and nonverbal behaviour of job applicants to form an impression of interviewees.27,28 Similarly, applicants interpret the interviewer’s verbal and nonverbal behaviours to form an impression of the organization and to judge whether they will accept any potentially forthcoming job offer. Recruitment and Selection Today 9.3 lists common behaviours of interviewees that leave the interviewer with either positive or negative impressions. While presenting all positive behaviours and avoiding the negative ones will not guarantee that candidates will move on to the next step in the selection process, it should certainly improve their odds.

value of the sCreenIng IntervIew

Much research has investigated the effectiveness of the selection interview, but much less has examined the interview used for employment screening. This may be because traditional interviews are resource intense (considering the time and labour). Advanced

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL400

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 9.1

exAMPLe Of A POST-INTervIeW SUMMArY

Applicant’s Name _____________________________________________________ Date ___________________

Position _____________________________________ Interviewed By __________________________________

ratings: 0–Unacceptable; 1–Poor; 2–Satisfactory; 3–Good; 4–excellent

Total Score _______________

recommendation: ________ Unacceptable/Notify applicant of rejection __________ Applicant is acceptable for position

If acceptable, arrange for the following:

_______ employment Testing

_______ Selection Interview

RATing COmmEnTs

Previous experience 0 1 2 3 4

communicating 0 1 2 3 4

Interpersonal Skills 0 1 2 3 4

Adaptability 0 1 2 3 4

emotional Stability 0 1 2 3 4

Leadership Potential 0 1 2 3 4

Ability to Work with Others 0 1 2 3 4

Planning/Organizing 0 1 2 3 4

Attitude toward Work requirements 0 1 2 3 4

realistic expectations 0 1 2 3 4

Overall Impression 0 1 2 3 4

technology enables automatic administration and scoring of interview questions (e.g., interactive voice recognition), allowing for automatic assessment. There are, however, face-to-face screening interviews that can be cost-effective. For example, it is common for graduating Ph.D. students seeking employment as university professors to be invited for a screening interview at academic/professional conferences. This is ideal for the hiring universities in that they do not incur costs for candidates’ travel and accommodation, plus (in addition to the screening interview) they often have the opportunity to view candidates publicly presenting and defending their research (often a doctoral thesis)—a work sample of sorts, where the presentation and analytic skills of the aspiring professor

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NEL 401CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.3

INTervIeWee BeHAvIOUrS THAT INfLUeNce INTervIeWer IMPreSSIONS

• find out where you are going beforehand so you can be on time for the interview.

• Wear appropriate clothing, a slight step up from what people normally wear to work for the job for which you are interviewing.

• Be prepared for the interview by having done homework on the company and anticipating common interview questions.

• Think about how you would answer the questions you might be asked—if possible, rehearse with a friend. Think of examples from your past experi- ence that would illustrate your answers.

• Make direct eye contact with the interviewer.

• remain confident and determined throughout the interview, regardless of how the interviewer’s cues suggest the interview is going.

• Provide positive information about yourself when answering questions.

• Answer questions quickly and intelligently.

• Demonstrate interest in the position and organization.

Applicant behaviours That influence negative impressions

• Present a poor personal appearance or grooming.

• Display an overly aggressive, know-it-all attitude.

• fail to communicate clearly (e.g., mumbling, poor grammar, use of slang).

• Lack career goals or career planning.

• Overemphasize monetary issues.

• Be evasive or do not answer questions completely.

• Show a lack of maturity, tact, courtesy, or social skills.

can be assessed. Based on the screening interview (and research presentation), recruiters are then better positioned to determine whether (at their expense) to invite the candidate for an on-campus interview. Such pre-screening is quite common for other professional groups as well.

Speed interviewing is now being used by recruiters who need to fill several positions as quickly and cost-effectively as possible. Likened to speed dating, speed interviewing typically consists of a series of short (5–15 minute), consecutive interviews. For example, the University of Windsor hosted a recruitment fair for 14 law firms seeking to fill internship/articling positions. Candidates were processed through a four-hour circuit of 15-minute mini-interviews with firm representatives.29

Speed interviews typically last less than 12 minutes. One of the largest forums for speed interviewing was held in Montreal in 2005, hosted by Videotron, a subsidiary of Quebecor Media Inc. Videotron held a job fair to hire 300 new employees, ranging from systems architects to technicians, analysts, and sales representatives, for its new Internet telephone service. The event attracted more than 2000 applicants who had already been pre-screened on the basis of résumés that they had submitted online. Each candidate was assigned to a circuit of five seven-minute interviews with recruiters and company officials of different specialty backgrounds. About 1000 applicants were retained based on their interview performance and given a half-hour test. Those making the short list following this testing were then given a second interview, lasting 15 minutes to an hour. By the end of the day, 200 of the 300 positions posted had been filled.30

Critics of speed interviewing question whether a 5–15 minute interview is sufficient to ascertain a candidate’s fit with position requirements, while advocates argue that the

speed interviewing A series of short (5–15 minute), consecutive interviews.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL402

speed interview is typically used as only a screening process, then followed by other more extensive assessments. Still, the concern remains that potentially very capable candidates could be screened out early based on such a brief encounter. Unlike the job fair hosted by the University of Windsor for law firms, where each candidate was given a 15-minute interview with each firm, Videotron had each candidate assessed in a circuit of several separate speed interviews conducted by different company representatives. Accordingly, a total interview score could be calculated across the different interviewers. It is argued that potential biases of any one interviewer are “cancelled” when scores are cumulated across assessors and interview questions, thereby providing a robust and accurate assess- ment of the candidate’s job suitability. Another attractive attribute of the speed interview is that it enables recruiters to assess large number of candidates efficiently and cost- effectively. McMaster University uses a version of the speed interview, which it refers to as the Multiple Mini-Interview (MMI), to screen applicants to its medical school. This approach will be discussed later in the chapter.

PredICtIve valIdIty of sCreenIng IntervIews

There is considerable research on the validity of interviews in employee selection. Meta- analyses report the validity for unstructured employment interviews, which is the type mostly used in screening, as approximately 0.20 (when corrected for statistical artifacts such as criterion unreliability and range restriction).31,32 Even at 0.20, the validity of the screening interview is still low in comparison with other types of selection procedures. However, an interview will likely always play a role in hiring, regardless of its validity. Put simply, employers want to meet the prospective employee face-to-face before making a job offer. Later in the chapter we will examine ways of improving the interview by devel- oping it from job analysis information. The improvements to the interview discussed later in the chapter should be incorporated into screening interviews as well as selection interviews. Properly developed interview questions have the potential to provide value- added screening. The reality is that, as currently done (e.g., unstructured, ad hoc, not directly linked to position or organizational requirements), most screening interviews fall short of achieving their full potential value.

CautIons on usIng sCreenIng IntervIews

Using the interview as a screening device brings with it the potential for introducing discriminatory practices into the hiring process. Interviews, including those that are highly structured, are conversations between individuals. Something is said that pro- vokes a response. In opening an interview with small talk or chitchat, interviewers often delve into the personal background of the applicant. They may ask questions about marital status, child-care arrangements, birthplace or birth date, or the applicant’s name that relate to proscribed personal information and national or ethnic origin. Information of this type is clearly prohibited. If a job applicant who has been asked these questions is turned down, the onus will be on the employing organization to show that the reason was a lack of job-related requirements and not discriminatory hiring practices. Interview questions should follow the same rule of thumb as application blanks: Is the informa- tion obtained from this question job related? If the answer is “no,” the question should not be asked.

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NEL 403CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

a model of InformatIon ProCessIng and deCIsIon makIng In the IntervIew

Employment interviews are complex interactions between applicants and interviewers that occur in the context of a larger selection system. That is, in addition to conducting interviews, employers collect information about the applicant from other sources, such as application blanks, résumés, reference checks, and tests. This information from other sources creates pre-interview impressions, which may influence the interview process and interview outcomes.33–35 Moreover, the interviewee and interviewer generally have different objectives. The interviewee is motivated to create a positive impression with the objective of receiving a job offer. The interviewer, on the other hand, is motivated to get an accurate assessment of the interviewee in order to select the best candidate and avoid making a hiring mistake. In order to do this, the interviewer needs to process and make sense of a large amount of complex and often inconsistent or contradictory information.

Several models have been developed to help us better understand the information- processing and decision-making challenges faced by the interviewer. One such model, developed by Dipboye, is presented in Figure 9.1.36 The model describes the interaction between the applicant and the interviewer during the interview, as well as the information processing and decision making engaged in by both the interviewer and the applicant before, during, and after the interview. However, it is important to keep in mind that these processes occur in the context of an organization and its environment. Factors such as organizational culture, norms, strategy, market (e.g., supply of and demand for appli- cants), and government legislation will influence the interaction between the applicant and the interviewer and may affect the outcome of this interaction.37

PrIor InformatIon and IntervIewer and CandIdate exPeCtatIons

According to Dipboye’s model, both interviewers and applicants come to the interview with a variety of expectations, beliefs, needs, and intentions that not only influence the interview but also are affected by what happens in the interview. Interviewer expecta- tions can be influenced by having access to initial information on the applicant before the interview. This information usually comes from the application form or résumé; sometimes, interviewers also have access to references, test scores, and other information. This information, in combination with the interviewer’s knowledge about the job and organization, contributes to the interviewer’s initial impressions of the applicant’s qualifica- tions. That is, before the interview has begun, the interviewer already has an impression of the applicant and the degree to which the applicant appears to be suitable or unsuitable for the position.

An interviewer’s expectations can also be affected by other factors such as previous interviewing experience and knowledge of the job and the organization. For example, an interviewer comes to the interview with certain knowledge structures. These knowledge structures are the beliefs the interviewer holds about the requirements of the job and about the characteristics that applicants need to have in order to do the job. The interviewer develops such knowledge structures through formal training and previous experience. With respect to applicant characteristics, an interviewer might believe that good grades in school reflect hard work and conscientiousness, or that a firm handshake reveals assertiveness and confidence. Sometimes such beliefs can be reasonably accurate but, all too often, they are misleading and contribute to error in interviewer judgment. The information that an interviewer has about the job can also vary in detail and accuracy. The interviewer might

knowledge structures Interviewers’ beliefs about the requirements of the job and the characteristics of applicants.

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL404

figuRE 9.1

A mOdEL Of THE CORE PROCEssEs Of THE inTERviEw And iTs COnTExTs

Prior information on candidate, job, interviewer, organization, and labour market

Organizational environment: stakeholders, government, market, national culture

Organization: structure, culture, strategy, leadership

Human resource management function: strategy and practices

Interview task environment: overall selection process and interview structure

Candidate expectations, beliefs, needs, and intentions

Social interaction of interviewer and candidate

Interviewer expectations, beliefs, needs, and intentions

Processing and gathering of information

Candidate assessments of organization, job, and interviewer

Candidate attraction to the organization, job, and interviewer

Validity, reliability, and fairness of decisions

Interviewer assessments of candidate

Source: figure 1: Accuracy of Selection Methods (p. 3) in I.T. robertson and M. Smith. 2001. “Personnel Selection,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74: 441–472. reproduced with permission of British Psychological Society via copyright clearance center.

know some jobs well, particularly if he has worked at the job. However, for most jobs, interviewers are likely to rely, at least to some extent, on personal beliefs (e.g., this is a “male” job or this is a “female” job, or this job is tedious) and these beliefs might or might not be accurate.

The applicant pool or labour market can also influence interviewers’ expectations. When there is a tight labour market (i.e., there are few qualified applicants for the posi- tions available) employers tend to be less selective (i.e., have lower expectations), whereas when there is a slack labour market they can afford to be more selective (i.e., have higher expectations).38 Even an interviewer’s personality (e.g., introverted vs. extraverted) can affect interviewer expectations and, therefore, how she conducts the interview, which affects how the applicant is likely to respond.39

The applicant also brings a number of expectations to the interview. Applicants have expectations about how the interview will be conducted, what is appropriate behaviour

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NEL 405CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

in the interview, and what kinds of questions they will be asked. If these expectations are violated, applicants are likely to find the organization less attractive and are less likely to accept a job offer.40 Nevertheless, applicants who desperately need a job are likely to process what happens in the interview differently and to behave differently than those who have other options or are not interested in the position.41 A desperate applicant might thus accept a job despite negative impressions of the interview, the interviewer, or the organization. However, individuals who accept jobs under such conditions are likely to leave as soon as another job opportunity presents itself.

the soCIal InteraCtIon of IntervIewer and CandIdate

The expectations that both interviewers and applicants have can influence the social inter- action in the interview.42 An interviewer may be more attentive and supportive with appli- cants evaluated more positively than with applicants deemed to be unsuitable. Moreover, interviewers tend to seek information that will confirm their initial impressions; they will shape the interview with the kinds of questions they ask and how these questions are phrased. Thus, while interviewers’ initial impressions may be supplemented or modified by impressions gained during the interview, there is a strong tendency for interviewers to seek and to find support for their initial impressions. In addition, factors such as the applicant’s physical appearance and nonverbal behaviours during the interview, as well as responses to the interview questions, can affect the interviewer’s evaluation of the applicant and the interviewer’s responses to the applicant.

How the interviewer behaves can affect the applicant’s performance in the inter- view.43 Applicants who sense that the interview is not going well or that the interviewer has developed a negative impression of them may experience greater anxiety, which might negatively affect their performance. The applicants might come to believe that there is little likelihood of obtaining a job offer and, therefore, reduce their efforts in the interview. Conversely, an applicant who senses that things are going well or that the interviewer is interested and supportive is likely to respond in a more positive manner, with greater composure, enthusiasm, and effort. Thus, the applicant and interviewer continue to influence each other throughout the interview, so that there is a tendency to perpetuate, if not intensify, initial negative or positive impressions.

Applicant responses to the interviewer appear to be related to interview outcomes. Those applicants who end up receiving job offers tend to respond to interview questions more quickly or with less hesitancy. They spend more time in conversations unrelated to answering interview questions and are interrupted less frequently. They also have more positive nonverbal behaviour and less negative nonverbal behaviour.44 In other words, when the interviewer and applicant develop a positive relationship during the interview, the applicant is more likely to receive a job offer. Applicants can also take an active role during the interview by using impression management tactics such as self-promotion or ingratiation. These will be discussed later in the chapter.

IntervIewer and CandIdate InformatIon ProCessIng and assessments

Both the interviewer and the applicant gather and process information during the inter- view and continue to process information after the interview. The interviewer is collecting and processing information in order to assess the applicant’s qualifications for the job

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL406

and whether the applicant is a good fit for the organization. The applicant collects and processes information about the job and the organization (and the interviewer, as a representative of the organization) to determine whether they are sufficiently attrac- tive (and the interviewer sufficiently trustworthy and compatible) to accept a job offer. The interviewer’s processing of data from the interview is very much influenced by the knowledge structures, as well as by the initial impressions he has of the applicant. The knowledge structures assist the interviewer in categorizing or stereotyping applicants (e.g., as highly motivated but lacking common sense, as a homemaker who wishes to resume her career, as an elderly person who needs the money, and so on). Through the course of the interview, the interviewer may recategorize an applicant several times. The inter- viewer’s knowledge structures also influence the interviewer’s attributions of applicant behaviour. That is, the interviewer makes determinations as to the extent to which the behaviours described or exhibited by the applicant are caused by stable personal traits or by situational circumstances. For example, an interviewer might regard an applicant’s description of a successful accomplishment as indicative of the applicant’s capabilities and perseverance, while a similar description from another applicant might be attrib- uted to an easy task or luck or exaggeration on the part of the applicant. Interviewers may adjust their attributions several times during the interview as more information is obtained. Thus, the interviewer’s knowledge structures guide the interviewer in both shaping and interpreting the data collected in the interview.45

During the interview a number of factors that are considered unrelated to the appli- cant’s qualifications can influence the assessments made by the interviewer. These factors can include verbal expressiveness or speech style, nonverbal behaviours, race, ethnicity, sex, age, disability, attractiveness, and impression management tactics used by the appli- cant. These will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter. Similarly, the applicant’s assessment can be influenced by these same factors (e.g., the interviewer’s attractiveness) as well as by impression management tactics that might be used by the interviewer to make the job or organization sound more attractive. Although such factors are typi- cally considered biases that contribute to lower-quality assessments, Dipboye and others argue that they can sometimes be positively related to job performance (i.e., they can actually improve interview validity and reliability) and, therefore, should not necessarily be considered biases.46–49 However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that such results are likely because the same biases that can affect interview ratings (e.g., nonverbal behaviours or impression tactics) can also affect job performance ratings.50,51

IntervIewer and aPPlICant deCIsIons

After the interview, the interviewer evaluates the applicant’s qualifications and then makes a final assessment or decision about the applicant. In most situations, the interviewer needs to recall and compare the applicants who were interviewed and select the one(s) considered best qualified. In such situations, contrast effects come into play. Applicants may benefit or suffer in these comparisons, depending on whether their competitors are deemed more or less qualified than they are. In making comparisons, the interviewer may rely to some degree on a memory of what was said in the interview. Unfortunately, the interviewer’s memory can be faulty or biased.52 In fact, we have witnessed interviewers becoming confused as to which applicant said what after interviewing a series of appli- cants. This is not surprising, given the large amount of complex information interviewers must process and make sense of in making a selection decision. The interviewer’s deci- sions can be evaluated in terms of their validity, reliability, and fairness and in terms of

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NEL 407CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

success in attracting the desired applicants to accept job offers from the organization. Similarly, the applicants assess the organization, job, and interviewer to determine whether they are sufficiently attracted to accept a job offer. Applicants who have job offers from other organizations have the option of selecting the job they feel best meets their require- ments. Thus, there can often be a mismatch between the organization’s first choice and the applicant’s first choice.

the Context of the IntervIew

It’s important to keep in mind that selection interviews are conducted in the context of the overall selection process (i.e., along with tests, references, etc.) and how the interview is struc- tured; the strategy and practices of the Human Resources function; the structure, culture, strategy, and leadership of the organization; and, more broadly, the stakeholders, govern- ment legislation, labour market, and national culture. These contextual factors can influence and, in some instances, determine how the interview is conducted and how selection deci- sions are made. For example, in some organizations interviews are conducted by HR staff; in others, interviews are conducted by supervisors and/or line managers; and in still others, interviews are conducted by both. In some organizations, HR staff make the final hiring decision; in others, the supervisor or line manager has the final say. Thus, the interview can involve interactions among members of the organization as well as interactions between the applicant and the interviewer(s) and can sometimes be affected by authority structures, interdepartmental politics, and power games.53 On the other hand, the interview process and decisions can be affected by the supply of and demand for applicants. When unemploy- ment rates are low and it is more difficult to find suitable applicants, interviewers tend to be more lenient, whereas when applicants are plentiful, they can be more selective.54

The interviewer’s final selection decision is influenced by various factors, such as pressure to hire quickly, hiring quotas, as well as interdepartmental or intradepartmental politics. Concerns such as how internal candidates will respond if someone is hired from outside the organization, or whether an internal candidate will be accepted by individuals who used to be his peers if he is promoted to a supervisory position over them, can influ- ence the selection decision.55 Sometimes personal motivations influence an interviewer’s decisions, particularly when he or she knows one of the applicants (or one of the appli- cant’s referees), or has something in common with an applicant. Thus, a wide variety of contextual factors can influence both the interview processes and the selection decisions.

The model described in this section presents the difficult challenges faced by inter- viewers in trying to make accurate assessments of applicants in the interview. It very much reflects the processes taking place in traditional, unstructured approaches to employment interviewing. Over the last three decades efforts to structure employment interviews have substantially reduced the effects of the idiosyncratic interview processes described in this model and have improved the accuracy of interview assessments.56 However, because many employers continue to use unstructured interviews, it is worth examining these tra- ditional interviews before turning to the more valid, structured interviewing techniques.

unstruCtured IntervIews

The traditional approach to employment interviewing is one that has become known as an unstructured interview. In such interviews, the interviewer typically engages in an open-ended conversation with the interviewee. There are few constraints on the kinds of questions that may be asked, and furthermore, many of the questions used in the

unstructured interview A traditional method of interviewing that involves no constraints on the questions asked, no requirements for standardization, and a subjective assessment of the candidate.

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interview may not occur to the interviewer until partway through the interview. Most interviewers, however, appear to rely on a common set of questions, often ones that they have heard others use. Recruitment and Selection Today 9.4 presents a list of ques- tions often used by interviewers. These types of questions invite applicants to evaluate themselves or to describe the evaluations of others. Naturally, applicants who want to create a positive impression are likely to evaluate themselves much more favourably than perhaps they should.

Moreover, many interviewees have learned to respond to such questions with stan- dard answers. For example, common responses to the question, “What are your weak- nesses?” include “I get too involved in my work” and “I’m too much of a perfectionist.” Answers to such questions reveal very little useful information about the applicant. The interviewer is forced to take on the role of an amateur psychologist trying to read meaning into vague self-evaluations, verbal expressiveness, or body language. Sometimes, as Recruitment and Selection Today 9.5 shows, the questions that interviewers ask suggest that they may need to see a clinical psychologist for help!

Some interviewees are particularly skilled at impression management—that is, cre- ating a favourable impression of themselves by picking up cues from the interviewer

concerning what answers the interviewer wishes to hear. They are able to monitor and change their own responses and behaviours in order to align them with those they perceive to be desired by the interviewer. By artfully guiding the conversation and making effective use of nonverbal behaviours, the polished interviewee is able to impress the interviewer and obfuscate the true purpose of the interview.57,58 Thus, instead of hiring the best candidate, the interviewer is likely to hire the most skilful interviewee.

In fact, skilful interviewees can divert the conversation from rel- evant and important interview topics to topics that result in pleasant but uninformative conversations that cast themselves in a more favour- able light. For example, on noticing the golf trophy (or a painting of Algonquin Park) in an interviewer’s office, such an interviewee may

Impression management Attempts by applicants to create a favourable impression by monitoring interviewer reactions and responding accordingly.

Waiting to be interviewed—a good time to relax.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.4

cOMMONLY USeD INTervIeW QUeSTIONS

1. Why did you leave your last job? Why do you want to leave your current job?

2. What do you consider to be your strengths? What are your weaknesses?

3. What were your strongest/weakest subjects at school? What did you learn in school that you could use in this job?

4. How would other people [or someone who knows you or worked with you] describe you as an individual?

5. What is your greatest accomplishment [or most meaningful work experience]?

6. What were the most enjoyable aspects of your last job? What were the least enjoyable aspects?

7. Why do you want this job? What are you looking for from this job [or from us]?

8. Why should we hire you? What can you do for us? [or Why are you the best candidate for this position?]

9. What are your long-range plans or goals? [Where do you plan to be five years from now?]

10. Tell me about yourself.

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NEL 409CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.5

20 Off-THe-WALL/WILD cArD JOB INTervIeW PrAcTIce QUeSTIONS

Although not as common as the interview questions listed in recruitment and Selection Today 9.4, the questions or comments listed below must certainly rank among the most off-the-wall questions used in employment interviews:

1. If you could have dinner with anyone from history, who would it be, and why?

2. What did you want to be when you were 10 years old?

3. What would I find in your refrigerator?

4. List 3 words that describe your character.

5. List 3 positive character traits you DON’T have.

6. If you had the opportunity to switch to the opposite gender for just a week, would you do it? Why or why not?

7. If Hollywood made a movie about your life, whom would you like to see play the lead role as you?

8. If you could be a superhero, what would you want your superpowers to be?

9. If someone wrote a biography about you, what do you think the title should be?

10. If you had to be shipwrecked on a deserted island, but all your human needs—such as food and

water—were taken care of, what two items would you want to have with you?

11. If you had six months with no obligations or financial constraints, what would you do with the time?

12. If you could compare yourself with any animal, which would it be and why?

13. If you were a type of food, what type of food would you be?

14. If you won $20 million in the lottery, what would you do with the money?

15. If you were a car, what kind would you be?

16. Who do you admire the most and why?

17. In the news story about your life, what would the headline say?

18. If you could be a candy bar, what would you be and why?

19. If you were a Star Wars character, which one would it be?

20. If you could trade places with any other person for a week, famous or not famous, living or dead, real or fictional, with whom would you trade?

Source: Adapted from Dr. randall S. Hansen. “20 Off-the-Wall/Wild card Job Interview Practice Questions.” Quintessential careers: https://www .livecareer.com/quintessential/interview-question-database/off-the-wall-questions

engage the interviewer in an amiable conversation about the game of golf that lasts most of the interview. The interviewer, left with a good feeling about the applicant, is likely to hire the applicant without actually having obtained any job-relevant information during the interview (as illustrated in the opening vignette for this chapter).

Research suggests that up to 90 percent of applicants make use of impression man- agement tactics or “faking” during the interview, although there seem to be differences across cultures.59,60 However, most of them do not resort to outright invention or lying. Rather, most exaggerate slightly or tailor their answers to make their experiences seem more positive or relevant to the job. Many also try to ingratiate themselves with the interviewer by appearing to agree with the interviewer’s views or complimenting the interviewer or the organization. Good impression managers are somewhat more likely to get a job offer than applicants who do not engage in impression management or are less effective at impression management.61,62 However, research indicates that the kind of impression management that is likely to result in positive interview ratings and a job offer does not involve deception. It consists of self-promotion, which is defined as highlighting

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one’s job-relevant abilities, accomplishments, and experiences.63–65 In contrast, deceptive impression management tactics, which include tailoring or distorting answers to please the interviewer, exaggeration, and making up stories or lying, are likely to result in lower interview ratings and, therefore, reduce the likelihood of receiving a job offer.

As Recruitment and Selection Today 9.6 shows, however, not all job candidates are skilled at impression management and some behave in ways that guarantee they will not receive a job offer. Several websites provide interviewing tips for applicants, including http://www.quintcareers.com/intvres.html and http://www.ctdol.state.ct.us/progsupt/ jobsrvce/intervie.htm

Another characteristic typical of unstructured interviews is that no systematic rating procedure is used. Interviewers are free to interpret interviewee responses in any manner they choose, as there are no guidelines for evaluating the responses. Rather than evaluating responses or answers to interview questions, the interviewer often uses the interview to get a “feeling” or a “hunch” about the applicant. Such feelings or intuitive reactions (also referred to as Type 1 or System 1 frameworks) often combine with, but sometimes overshadow, more rational assessments (Type 2 or System 2 frameworks) in making a selection decision.66 The interviewer emerges from the interview with a global, subjective evaluation of the applicant, which is biased by personal views and preferences and likely to be inaccurate. In fact, many interviewers report that they rely on such “gut feelings” in making their hiring decisions. Worse yet, some writers are still recommending such practices.67,68

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 9.6

THe STrANGeST THINGS PeOPLe HAve DONe IN JOB INTervIeWS

Interviewers are not the only ones who mishandle interviews—applicants do their share of bungling as well. When asked to share the most unusual things job candi- dates have done during the interview process, employers and hiring managers recalled the following:

• candidate asked to step away to call his wife to ask her if the starting salary was enough before he agreed to continue with the interview.

• candidate asked where the nearest bar was located.

• candidate brought his childhood toys to the interview.

• candidate ate a pizza he brought with him (and didn’t offer to share).

• candidate asked interviewer why her aura didn’t like the candidate.

• candidate invited interviewer to dinner after- wards.

• candidate stated that if the interviewer wanted to get to heaven, she would hire him.

• candidate ate crumbs off the table.

• candidate said her hair was perfect when asked why she should become part of the team.

• candidate sang to a song on the radio playing overhead.

• candidate bragged about the fact that they were in the local newspaper for allegedly stealing a tread- mill from an older woman’s house.

• candidate put on and took off her sunglasses repeatedly.

Source: Adapted from careerBuilder, January 12, 2017. “careerBuilder releases Annual List of Strangest Interview and Body Language Mistakes.” retrieved July 17, 2017, from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/careerbuilder-releases-annual-list-of-strangest-interview-and-body- language-mistakes-300389439.html

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NEL 411CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

Webster69,70 and his colleagues at McGill University, along with Dipboye,71 Jelf,72 Posthuma,73 Macan,74 and others, have documented the numerous biases and percep- tual and information-processing errors that have plagued the unstructured employment interview (see Recruitment and Selection Notebook 9.2). For example, interviewers rate applicants more favourably if the applicants are perceived as being similar to them- selves.75,76 Moreover, interview ratings are susceptible to first impressions.77,78 That is, an interviewer’s initial impression of an applicant, such as might be formed upon reading the résumé, affects the way the interview is conducted, the questions asked, and the evaluation of the candidate’s answers. In addition, interview ratings are influenced by visual cues such as physical attractiveness of the applicant, eye contact, body orienta- tion, smiling, and hand gestures, as well as vocal cues such as rate of speaking, number and duration of pauses, variability in loudness, and pitch (e.g., lower voices tend to be rated more positively than higher voices for management positions).79,80 Recruitment and Selection Notebook 9.2 summarizes some of the research findings pertaining to the unstructured employment interview. (Descriptions of additional interview biases can be found at http://www.indiana.edu/~uhrs/employment/best.html) Such biases and errors contribute to the poor reliability and validity of unstructured interviews.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 9.2

SOMe reSeArcH fINDINGS ON THe UNSTrUcTUreD INTervIeW

interview decisions

• Interviewers tend to make a hire/not hire decision before completing the interview (i.e., before all the information has been collected).81,82

• Unfavourable information provided by the appli- cant tends to have greater impact on interview ratings than favourable information.83,84

• Once interviewers have formed an impression of an applicant, they tend to look for information that will confirm their impression.85,86

Order Effects

• Interviewers tend to remember information pro- vided at the beginning of the interview better than information provided in the middle (primacy effect).87,88

• Information provided at the end of the interview tends to be remembered better than information provided in the middle (recency effect).89,90

• An applicant’s interview rating can be affected by the preceding applicant (contrast effects); the

applicant tends to benefit if the preceding appli- cant was relatively poor but suffer if the preceding applicant was relatively good.91,92

Effects of information

• Impressions formed by the interviewer as a result of information obtained about the applicant prior to the interview (e.g., by reading the résumé) affect how the applicant is treated and rated in the interview.93,94

• Interviewers who have more information about the job tend to have a more accurate perception (template) of what the “ideal” applicant should look like.95,96

demographic Characteristics

• Minority applicants tend to receive lower interview ratings than nonminority applicants.97

• Interviewers tend to give higher ratings to appli- cants who are most like themselves (similar-to-me effect) in terms of demographic characteristics or in terms of attitudes.98,99

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// attemPts to ImProve IntervIew effeCtIveness Given the research on the biases and errors inherent in the unstructured interview, past reviews of employment interview research have, understandably, been rather pessimistic concerning the reliability and validity of the interview as a selection instrument.111 Nev- ertheless, the interview has remained popular among employers, who seem to have con- siderable confidence in its usefulness for employee selection. As well, developments in interview research over the last three decades will give those employers even more reason for confidence. In the early 1980s, a number of researchers, notably Janz and Latham, began working on new approaches to employment interviewing, which have become known as structured interviews.112–114

Reviews of the employment interview literature 30 or more years ago indicated that structuring an interview appeared to contribute to increased interview reliability and validity.115–117 In fact, more recent meta-analytic investigations of interview validity reveal that structured selection interviews do indeed have significantly greater reliability and predictive validity than traditional, unstructured interviews.118,119 In particular, the criterion-related validity of highly structured interviews is more than three times that of completely unstructured interviews. For example, Huffcutt and Arthur found that unstructured interviews have an average validity coefficient of 0.11 (0.20 when corrected for criterion unreliability and range restriction), whereas highly structured interviews have an average validity coefficient of 0.34 (0.57 when corrected for criterion unreli- ability and range restriction).120 More recently, Huffcutt, Culbertson, and Weyhrauch found corrected validity coefficients ranging from 0.20 for unstructured interviews to 0.71 for highly structured interviews.121

References to interview structure in selection interview literature tend to give the impression that structure is a dichotomous variable (i.e., that interviews are either struc- tured or unstructured). Interview structure, however, is a function of several factors and it can vary along a continuum, ranging from very unstructured to highly structured. In fact, Huffcutt and Arthur found that interview validity increases as the degree of interview structure increases so that even moderate levels of structure can contribute to relatively high interview validity.122 It is therefore useful to gain an understanding of what is meant by interview “structure.”

structured interviews Interviews consisting of a standardized set of job-relevant questions; a scoring guide is used.

verbal/nonverbal behaviour

• An applicant’s verbal skills and expressiveness and attractiveness of voice can affect interview ratings.100,101

• An applicant’s mannerisms can affect interview ratings.102,103

• An applicant’s appearance (e.g., physical attrac- tiveness, posture, age, and clothing) can affect interview ratings.104,105

Reliability and validity

• Agreement on ratings among interviewers inter- viewing the same applicants tends to be quite low (low reliability).106,107

• correlations between interview scores and job performance ratings (for those hired) tend to be fairly low (low criterion validity).108–110

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NEL 413CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

struCturIng emPloyment IntervIews

The development of structured employment interview techniques is due to the contribu- tions of numerous researchers over more than half a century. These researchers sought to address what were perceived as the shortcomings of the traditional, unstructured inter- view by applying psychometric principles to employment interview design. Over time, these researchers uncovered a number of structuring elements that seemed to contribute to interview reliability and validity. Although not all interviews referred to as “structured” make use of all elements, the more of these elements that are part of the interview, the more structured it is. In other words, employment interviews can be structured in a number of ways and to varying degrees. Below is a summary of components that can contribute to employment interview structure, extracted from a detailed review provided by Campion, Palmer, and Campion123:

1. Interview questions are derived from a job analysis (they are job related).

2. Interview questions are standardized (all applicants are asked the same questions).

3. Prompting, follow-up questioning, probing, and/or elaboration on questions are limited.

4. Interview questions focus on behaviours or work samples rather than opinions or self-evaluations.

5. Interviewer access to ancillary information (e.g., résumés, letters of reference, test scores, and transcripts) is controlled.

6. Questions from the candidate are not allowed until after the interview.

7. Each answer is rated during the interview using a rating scale tailored to the question (this is preferable to rating dimensions at the end of the interview and certainly preferable to making an overall rating or ranking at the end).

8. Rating scales are “anchored” with behavioural examples to illustrate scale points (e.g., examples of a “1,” “3,” or “5” answer).

9. Total interview score is obtained by summing across scores for each of the questions.

10. Detailed notes are taken during the interview (such notes should be a record of applicants’ actual words and behaviours as related in the interview rather than evaluations of applicants).124

In addition, Campion and his colleagues recommend using the same interviewer(s) across all candidates for greater standardization, not permitting interviewers to discuss candidates or answers between interviews, and providing interviewers with extensive training.125 Recruitment and Selection Notebook 9.3 provides some guidelines for building more structure into an interview. A more detailed discussion of how structured interviews are developed can be found in “Structured Employment Interview Techniques” later in this chapter.

Panel and serIal IntervIews

Among their recommendations, Campion and his colleagues126 advocate using panel or serial interviews. Panel interviews, also known as board interviews, are interviews con- ducted by two or more interviewers together at the same time. Although panel or board

Panel interviews Interviews conducted by two or more interviewers together at one time.

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 9.3

THe STrUcTUreD INTervIeWING PrOceSS

Preparing for the interview

1. Determine the amount of time available for the inter- view and how many questions you will be able to ask, without rushing, in that length of time.

2. Make a standardized list of interview questions so that all applicants are asked the same questions, in the same order. If possible, the questions should be based on a job analysis (such as the critical incident tech- nique). At very least, they should deal with situations or behaviours that are important to job performance.

3. Develop a scoring guide with benchmark or sample answers. Ideally, these answers should come from a job analysis. If that is not possible, meet with rele- vant subject-matter experts (i.e., employees, supervi- sors, and/or managers familiar with the job) and jointly determine what would be an ideal, an acceptable, and a poor answer for each question. Allow space in the guide or have a notepad for taking notes.

4. Use an office or arrange for an interview room where you can have privacy, freedom from distractions, and quiet. ensure good lighting and ventilation, a com- fortable temperature, and comfortable seating for yourself and the applicant (as well as any other inter- viewers who may be present).

5. Schedule the interviews with sufficient time for a brief break between interviews and to allow for some inter- views to run a little over. If more than one interviewer is involved, this time can be used to discuss the appli- cant’s answers and reach consensus on the ratings.

6. Arrange to hold all calls and prevent interruptions during the interview. If you are interrupted to attend to a critical matter, apologize to the applicant and resolve the matter as quickly as possible, delegating it if you can.

Conducting the interview

1. Spend a few minutes at the beginning of the interview putting the applicant at ease. Greet the applicant by name. Introduce yourself and other interview panel members (if there are others). Indicate where the applicant is to sit. Provide the applicant with an over- view of the interview process.

2. Ask each question in turn without omitting or skip- ping any. Let the candidate know she has lots of time to answer and you don’t mind her taking time to think. Allow silence. If the applicant seems confused or stuck, rephrase the question but don’t do so too quickly. If the applicant still has difficulty, indicate you will come back to the question later.

3. Take detailed notes of the applicant’s responses, focusing on recording what the applicant says. Your notes should not be evaluative (i.e., do not record your opinions or impressions; e.g., “the applicant seems unmotivated”). Use the scoring guide to score the answers to interview questions as soon as possible.

4. Allow the applicant to ask questions at the end of the interview and answer them to the best of your ability without committing to a decision or indicating any kind of preference.

5. follow the same procedures for each applicant and retain interview documentation for future reference.

Closing the interview

1. Tell the candidate when he should expect to hear from you, or someone else in your organization, and how you will communicate your decision (e.g., telephone, email, letter).

2. If you are likely to contact references or call the appli- cant back for a second interview, inform the applicant.

3. Thank the applicant for coming in for the interview. escort her to the door and take your leave.

4. review your notes and make your ratings (if you have not already done so). If the interview was conducted by a panel, briefly meet with the panel and compare your ratings. Discuss and resolve large discrepancies. either average the ratings (if discrepancies are not large) or arrive at a consensus rating.

5. Make sure you inform all candidates of your decision when you have made it. It’s a common practice to hold back on informing second- or third-choice candidates in case the first- and/or second-choice candidates turn down the offer. If you do so, inform the remaining candidates as soon as the offer has been accepted. Thank the candidates who were not accepted for their interest in the job and the organization.

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NEL 415CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

interviews appear to be most common in the public sector, notably for civil service jobs, police, and military positions,127 a survey of Canadian HR practitioners suggests that almost two-thirds of Canadian organizations use panel interviews.128 These interview panels operate in various ways. One member of the panel may ask all the questions or panel members may take turns asking questions. In some panels, one member is assigned the task of taking notes, while in other panels several or all members take notes. Some panels consist of only two members, while others may have many members.

Unfortunately, there has not been much research on the relative effectiveness of these different approaches and the little research that has been done has provided largely incon- clusive results.129,130 While panel interviews offer an efficient way for several interviewers to interview applicants, they require considerable coordination of schedules to permit all interviewers to attend, particularly as the number of interviewers increases. Moreover, panel interviews can be quite intimidating to applicants and may negatively affect their performance in the interview.

Serial interviews, also known as sequential interviews, are interviews conducted by two or more interviewers separately or in sequence. That is, the applicant is usually inter- viewed individually by the first interviewer, then by the second interviewer, and so on until all interviewers have interviewed the applicant. The applicant may move from office to office for each interview or stay in one interview room while each interviewer visits in turn. The interviewers usually get together, either after they have all interviewed each applicant or after they have interviewed all applicants, in order to discuss and evaluate the applicant(s) and make a decision.

Scheduling interviewers is less of a problem with serial interviews than with panel interviews as there is greater flexibility in scheduling a particular interviewer. Also, serial interviews are not as intimidating as panel interviews131 but they can be quite exhausting, as the applicant may spend many hours in a series of interviews. Moreover, the questions and answers can become somewhat repetitious from one interview to the next, and appli- cants may lose track of what they have or have not said by the fifth or sixth interview.

Despite their problems, panel and serial interviews should reduce the impact of biases held by an individual interviewer because interviewers are accountable to each other and provide a check on each other to ensure that irrelevant information does not enter the decision. Each interviewer contributes a different perspective that should increase accuracy, and the aggregation of multiple judgments should cancel out random errors. The recall of information should also be better with multiple interviewers.132

Conway, Jako, and Goodman133 found that panel interviews are more reliable than individual interviews, and Wiesner and Cronshaw134 found that panel interviews have greater validity than individual interviews when the interview is unstructured, but did not find a difference for structured interviews. However, other meta-analyses have produced inconsistent results with respect to the reliability and validity of panel versus individual interviews.135,136 These inconsistencies could be the result of factors such as inadequate controls for structure in the analyses, the fact that most panel interviews occur in public- sector settings, the possibility of group process losses in interview panels (e.g., confor- mity, conflict, loafing), differences in training of interviewers, and the type of interview questions used, all of which might reduce the advantages in some applications.137,138 Moreover, there is some evidence that there is a complex interaction of structure and the use of panel interviews that needs to be more fully explored in future research.139

Nevertheless, the use of panel or serial interviews appears to be viewed favour- ably by courts and, therefore, gives some measure of protection from discrimination suits.140,141 In addition, interview panels can include representation from different gender or ethnic groups, thus contributing to perceptions of fairness. More information on panel

serial interviews A series of interviews where the applicant is interviewed separately by each of two or more interviewers.

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interviews can be found at http://www.liscareer.com/peters_interviews.htm and http:// www.sciencemag.org/careers/2000/12/how-prepare-and-succeed-panel-interviews

struCtured emPloyment IntervIew teChnIques

the sItuatIonal IntervIew

One of the approaches to structured interviewing is the situational interview (SI) devel- oped by Latham and his colleagues.142,143 The interviewer describes to the applicant important or decisive situations that are likely to be encountered on the job and asks the applicant what he would do in the situations. Importantly, SI questions should be posed in the form of dilemmas (i.e., the applicant is placed in the position of choosing between two competing alternatives that appear equally desirable or undesirable).144 Thus, the “correct” answers should not be readily apparent to applicants and their answers should reflect their predominant behavioural tendencies or values. For example, a question might place applicants in a situation where they have to make a choice between showing up for work to complete a project with urgent deadlines and caring for their sick family.

The interviewer then uses a scoring guide consisting of sample answers to each question to evaluate and score the applicant’s answers. The scoring guide is designed using the critical incidents technique,145 in which examples of actual job-related behav- iours that varied in effectiveness in particular situations are collected and refined to serve as sample answers. Thus, numerical values on the scale are illustrated with examples of answers that would be worth a 1 or a 3 or a 5. An example of an SI question is provided in Table 9.1. Please note that the scoring guide is visible only to the interviewer(s), not to the interviewee. Cover up the scoring guide in Table 9.1 with your hand and try answering the question. Once you have answered the question, compare your answer with the scoring guide.

The scoring guide for an SI question should be based on behaviours that have been shown to be either effective or ineffective in that situation in the past. However, because organizations differ, what is an effective response in one organization might not be effec- tive in another. Thus, the scoring guide might differ from one company to another. In the example in Table 9.1, applicants who indicate that they would ignore the supervisor’s suggestion and insist on following through on the initial decision would be ignoring potentially important information. The result might be a serious mistake, which could cost the company considerable money. Such a response would not score well. Doing what the supervisor suggests or openly discussing the merits of the supervisor’s suggestion might result in a good decision being made. However, this course of action would likely undermine the new manager’s authority.

The ideal answer does not have to be given exactly as written in the scoring guide. However, the interviewer would be looking for evidence that the applicant recognizes the dynamics at play in the situation and understands basic principles of human behav- iour. First, it is important to recognize that there is the potential for a serious mistake if the manager persists in the original course of action. Second, the applicant should recognize that the manager’s authority is being undermined, whether intentionally or not. The fact that the supervisor raises the issue in front of the employees and some of them are smirking suggests that there might be a test of leadership going on. Thus, the manager needs to determine the validity of the supervisor’s suggestion but also to assert authority. Recognizing that these objectives would best be accomplished in a private

dilemma A choice in an interview question between two alternatives that appear equally desirable or undesirable.

scoring guide A behavioural rating scale consisting of sample answers to each question that is used by the interviewer to evaluate and score the applicant’s answers.

situational interview A highly structured interview in which important or decisive situations employees are likely to encounter on the job are described and applicants are asked what they would do in these situations.

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NEL 417CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

You have just been hired as the manager of our purchasing department and it’s your first day on the job. After carefully reviewing product and price information, you make a decision to purchase parts from a particular supplier. Your immediate subordinate, an experienced super- visor who is considerably older than you, questions your judgment in front of other employees and suggests that another supplier would be better. He seems quite convinced that you are making a mistake. The employees look to you for a response, some of them smirking. What would you do?

scoring guide

1— I would tell the supervisor that I’m in charge and I am going with my initial decision. 3— I would do what the supervisor suggests, as he knows the suppliers and materials

better than I do, or I would openly discuss the merits of his suggestion versus my own judgment.

5— I would take the supervisor to a private place, thank him for the information, but instruct him never to question me in front of the employees again. Then, after asking him for information on the best supplier and dismissing him, I would think about the options again and after a brief period announce my decision to go with the supplier suggested in our private conversation.

TAbLE 9.1

ExAmPLE Of A siTuATiOnAL inTERviEw QuEsTiOn

conversation reveals an understanding of human nature. Confronting the supervisor in public might make the supervisor defensive and evoke a need for him to “save face” in front of the employees. As much as possible, the manager needs to claim the final decision as his or her own.

The interviewer’s task is to compare the applicant’s answers with the examples on the scoring guides and to score the answers accordingly. There may be instances where an answer falls somewhere between two scoring guide examples (e.g., better than a 3 answer but not as good as a 5 answer). Under such circumstances, the interviewer has the discre- tion of assigning an intermediate score (e.g., a 4 or even a 4.5). However, there is some evidence that using rating scales where example answers are used for all five anchor points on the scoring guide might reduce interview bias more than when example answers are used for only three of the anchor points.146

The assumption underlying the SI approach is that intentions are related to subse- quent behaviours.147 Critics of this approach have argued that what applicants say they would do in a given situation and what they actually do may be quite different. How- ever, a convincing counterargument is that just knowing what the appropriate response should be can differentiate effective from ineffective performers. Several meta-analyses have obtained mean criterion validity coefficients for the SI ranging from 0.23 to 0.29 (between 0.32 and 0.47 with corrections for criterion unreliability and range restric- tion).148–151 One of these meta-analyses reported a mean inter-rater reliability of 0.79 for the SI. Although there is some disagreement among these meta-analyses as to the precise validity coefficient attributable to the SI, it is clear that the SI is a valid predictor of job performance. Additional information on SIs can be found at http://www.job-interview- site.com/situational-interview-questions-and-answers.html and https://na.theiia.org/iiarf/ Public%20Documents/Situational%20Interviewing%20-%20Chattanooga.pdf

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the BehavIoural IntervIew

Janz,152,153 following up on a suggestion made by Latham et al.154 and based on Ghiselli’s findings,155 used another approach, which he referred to as the patterned behaviour description interview. More recent variations of this approach are called behaviour description interview, past behaviour interview, or, simply, behavioural interview (BI). The interviewer is asked to predict the interviewee’s behaviours in a given job situation based on the interviewee’s descriptions of her behaviours in similar situations in the past. Table 9.2 provides an example of a BI question based on the same critical incidents, and thus the same dynamics, as were used in the development of the SI question in Table 9.1. However, because BI questions are concerned with past behaviours in a potentially wide variety of settings, their scope is more general. Therefore, one of the goals in designing BI questions is to make the questions apply to a wide variety of previous experiences or situations.

Comparison of the questions in Tables 9.1 and 9.2 suggests that the BI question is likely to generate responses with considerably broader scope than the SI question. Whereas the SI question relates to a very specific situation, the BI could elicit descriptions of a wide variety of situations, depending on the applicant’s experiences. In response to the same question, one applicant might relate an experience as the chair on the board of directors of an organization, whereas another applicant might discuss her experience as a member of a group working on an assignment at school.

The broad nature of BI questions and probable responses makes it likely that the interviewer will need to clarify the applicants’ answers in order to allow them to be scored accurately. Follow-up questions or probes are used to guide the applicant’s descriptions of situations or events until sufficient information is obtained to permit scoring. Some probes are written in advance, as in the example in Table 9.2, in anticipation of probable responses and with consideration of the information that will be required for scoring. However, the interviewer is permitted to supplement the list of probes with additional probes during the interview if the information obtained is insufficient to make a rating. Probing questions allow the interviewer to explore in more depth how the applicant responded to various situations in the past, the reasons or thinking behind his actions, how he interacted and communicated with others, his values or beliefs, and the outcomes of his behaviours. However, it is important for interviewers to keep the level of probing relatively consistent across applicants so that they do not introduce bias into the interview process. Probing to obtain required information without treating applicants differently or giving away the content of the ideal answer requires considerable skill on the part of the interviewer. The concern that unplanned, spontaneous probing could bias the interview has led some researchers to recommend that only preplanned, neutral probes should be used.156

The example in Table 9.2 contains a scoring guide similar to the one used for the SI question. Initial approaches to BI did not include the use of scoring guides but, rather, had interviewers rate applicants on various dimensions or traits (e.g., motivation, com- munication skills) based on their responses to interview questions.157 The process of translating answers to dimension ratings was a rather subjective one, for scores would be derived on the basis of impressions gained by interviewers listening to answers to various questions. There was no direct correspondence between any one question and any one dimension. Such an approach would be expected to compromise interview reliability and validity (this is discussed in the next section). More recent approaches to the BI have incorporated scoring guides.158–160

Behaviour description interview A structured interview in which the applicant is asked to describe what he did in given situations in the past.

Probes Follow-up questions or prompts used by the interviewer to guide the applicant’s descriptions of situations or events or to provide scorable elaboration of answers.

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NEL 419CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

We all encounter situations in which our judgment is challenged. Tell me about a time when you were not certain you had made the right decision and then someone openly challenged your decision. What did you do?

Probes:

What aspect of your decision were you uncertain about? Did the person who challenged you have essential information that you did not possess? could anyone overhear the person’s challenge? What issues and possible consequences did you consider in responding to this person’s challenge? What was your final decision and what was the outcome?

scoring guide

1—I told the person that I was in charge and I was sticking with my decision. 3— I changed my mind and did what the person suggested or I openly discussed the merits

of his/her suggestion (in front of others). 5— I took the person to a private place and thanked him for the advice but asked not to be

questioned in front of other people. Then, after asking the person for suggestions, I took some time to reconsider the options and consequences. I made the decision that had the greatest probability of success, regardless of where the ideas came from, but made it clear it was my decision.

TAbLE 9.2

ExAmPLE Of A bEHAviOuR inTERviEw QuEsTiOn

Note that the BI question in Table 9.2 requests information that the applicant might construe as negative and might thus be reluctant to provide. When asking questions that might be viewed as requesting negative information, it is helpful to begin the question with what is called a disarming statement. In the example, the disarming statement com- municates to the applicant that it is normal and perfectly acceptable to have had one’s judgment challenged. The disarming statement is intended to reduce the likelihood that the applicant will deny having experienced this situation and to set the applicant at ease about discussing it freely. Table 9.3 provides additional examples of BI questions that request both positive and negative information.

Like the SI, the BI is an attempt to apply Wernimont and Campbell’s suggestion that a predictor should sample behaviours that are representative of criterion behaviours (i.e., a work sample).161 However, in contrast to the SI, the BI approach is based on the premise that the best predictor of future behaviour is past behaviour. Critics of this approach have argued that people learn from past mistakes and that situational factors (e.g., relationships with supervisors, tasks, and organizational norms) constrain behaviour; therefore, past behaviours will not necessarily be repeated in the future, particularly if the situation is somewhat different or if learning has taken place. After describing negative experiences, applicants can be asked, however, to indicate if they would repeat the behaviour next time or to relate an experience where they were successful in a similar situation. Huffcutt, Culbertson, and Goebl suggest that the BI is likely to elicit examples of behaviours that portray the applicant in the best possible light and are therefore a measure of maximum

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These BI questions are based on the SI question in Table 9.1.

1. Sometimes we encounter individuals who seem to avoid us when we try to conduct personal or corporate business with them. Tell me about a time you were trying to contact an individual who seemed to be avoiding you or not answering your calls.

Probes:

What efforts did you make to contact this person? How long did you keep trying? Were you successful? What happened? If you were not successful, what did you do? What was the outcome?

1— I stopped calling or trying to make contact. There was no point in continuing because the individual was clearly not interested.

3— I continued trying to contact the individual. I left messages until I was successful. 5— I tried to contact the individual in person. I tried to discover what the problem was and why the individual was

avoiding me. I tried to rectify the situation, if possible.

2. Sometimes we find ourselves in situations where something is wrong or out of place, that nobody else seems to notice, and which could have serious consequences or hurt someone if not corrected. Tell me about a time where you experienced such a situation and tell me what you did.

Probes:

What about the situation seemed dangerous or potentially harmful? What steps did you take to ensure those nearby would be safe? What did you do to reduce the danger or resolve the situation? What was the outcome?

1— I left things well enough alone. Nobody else seemed concerned, so I wasn’t going to get involved. 3—I took some steps to fix the situation or I reported the situation to someone in authority. 5— I reported the situation to those nearby as well as to someone in authority. I recommended that appropriate action be

taken to keep everyone safe. I tried to fix the problem or assisted in trying to fix it to the extent possible.

3. Sometimes we are asked to settle disputes between conflicting parties concerning limited resources. In fact, sometimes the settlement has a personal cost for us. Tell me about a time when you were asked to help resolve a conflict over resources between two other individuals, especially one where there was some potential cost to you.

Probes:

Who were the participants in the conflict and what was the conflict about? What did you do to facilitate the discussion? How did you help the parties resolve the conflict? What potential cost was there to you in the process or the resolution? What was the outcome?

1—I refused to get involved. 3— I supported one of the sides (based on friendship, my sense of who had the stronger case, etc.) or I told them to work

it out between themselves. 5— I tried to help them resolve the issue by seeking a compromise. I tried to discover what the factors were and to con-

sider them as objectively as possible. If no solution was reached, I arbitrated based on the merits of each position.

TAbLE 9.3

AddiTiOnAL ExAmPLEs Of bEHAviOuR inTERviEw QuEsTiOns

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NEL 421CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

rather than typical performance.162 Asking applicants for examples of how they handled failures or had unsatisfactory outcomes should help to counter this effect.

An additional concern with the BI is that applicants could make up stories about events that never happened. However, this is very difficult to do convincingly, given the amount of detail solicited in the probes. Moreover, one approach that is very effective at maximizing accuracy in BIs is to indicate to applicants at the beginning of the interview that, after each answer, the interviewer will be asking for names and contact information of individuals who could verify the answer, and to alert the applicants that some of these individuals might be contacted after the interview for verification. Under such circum- stances, applicants are likely to endeavour to be as accurate as possible in their answers.

Three meta-analyses report a mean criterion validity coefficient for the BI ranging from 0.18 to 0.31 (between 0.25 and 0.63 with corrections for criterion unreliability and range restriction). It’s worth noting that the validity of the BI is higher when scoring guides are used.163–165 Inter-rater reliability was 0.73 without scoring guides and 0.77 with scoring guides.166 Clearly, the use of scoring guides has improved the reliability and validity of the BI. For more information on different aspects of the BI approach to interviewing, see http://www.jobinterviewquestions.org/types-of-interviews/behavioral-interview. Further information on both SI and BI interviews as well as on developing interview questions is provided at http://apps.opm.gov/ADT/ContentFiles/SIGuide09.08.08.pdf

the exPerIenCe-Based IntervIew

Campion and others have developed an approach now referred to as the experience- based interview (EBI).167,168 Experience-based interviews assess applicant qualifications such as work experience and education by asking questions about job knowledge or using work sample questions. Job knowledge questions assess the degree to which the applicant possesses relevant job knowledge (e.g., “When putting a piece of machinery back together after repairing it, why would you clean all the parts first?”). Work sample questions require the applicant to demonstrate a skill or competence (i.e., provide a work sample) during the interview (e.g., “If this item costs $5.67 and I give you $10, how much change should I get?” or “Show me how to wire these two three-way switches”). EBIs differ from SIs and BIs in that interviewers can choose questions from a predetermined set of questions instead of asking each applicant the exact same set of questions. This flexibility is necessary because different applicants are likely to bring somewhat different experience and knowledge to the interview.

Several approaches have been taken to EBIs, but they all involve assessing job knowledge and work experience.169–171 A related approach to work sample interviewing involves role-playing. One of the interviewers or an assistant plays a foil to the role played by the applicant, while the interviewer or others observe and evaluate. The Edmonton Police Service has used such role-play to assess assertiveness in candidates. For example, the applicant is asked to assume he has just set up a chair to watch a parade. The chair happens to be similar to ones set up by the city for public use. The applicant is told to assume that he has left the chair unattended in order to get a drink and returns to find the chair occupied (by the foil). The applicant’s task is to convince the foil to vacate the chair without resorting to aggressive behaviour (physical or verbal).

Another approach to the EBI is the walk-through interview used by Hedge and Teachout and also by Ree, Earles, and Teachout to select U.S. Air Force enlistees.172,173 The walk-through interview involves asking the interviewees to describe in detail, step by step, how they perform a job-related task while visualizing themselves performing the task.

experience-based interview Experience-based interview assesses applicant qualifications such as work experi- ence and education using job knowledge or work sample questions.

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Like the SI and BI, the EBI can be derived from critical incidents through focus- group sessions. Scoring guides should also be developed using the procedures described for the SI and BI. However, in some respects, the EBI may be a little more difficult to construct than either the SI or the BI. Care must be taken when simulating situations in the interview setting to ensure fidelity to the actual situation. Due to the length of time required to administer some of the EBI questions, fewer of them are likely to be usable in one session. They should therefore be selected judiciously to assess the most important performance domains. Nevertheless, the EBI offers an alternative approach for predicting job performance.

Campion and his associates were able to predict job performance as well using this approach (r 0.565 with corrections for criterion unreliability and range restriction, r 0.345 , uncorrected; reliability is estimated at 0.88).174 For more information on job knowledge questions, as well as SI and BI questions, see https://www.canada.ca/en/sr.h tml?cdn=canada&st=s&num=10&langs=en&st1rt=1&s5bm3ts21rch=x&q=structured+ interview&_charset_=UTF-8&wb-srch-sub.

ComParIson of the struCtured IntervIew aPProaChes

According to the research evidence available to date (see above), validity coefficients for the situational interview, experience-based interview, and behaviour description interview seem to be reasonably similar. However, these comparisons are indirect because, in most studies, researchers examined either the SI or the BI (there are very few studies of the EBI). A few competitive tests of the BI and SI approaches have been conducted.175–178 Unfortunately, the results of these studies are conflicting and inconclusive and, taken together, do not suggest that either approach has a strong advantage in terms of predictive validity.179 There is some evidence that the BI might be a bit better than the SI for highly complex jobs (e.g., management positions).180,181 However, there are also conflicting findings in this regard. That is, if the SI is properly designed with questions that contain a dilemma and are pilot tested to reduce the effects of impression management, it appears to be at least as effective as the BI for complex jobs.182

The conclusion that the SI and the BI are equally effective is evident in a comparative study. Day and Carroll used critical incidents to generate related SI and BI questions like those in Tables 9.1 and 9.3, with accompanying scoring guides.183 The resultant ques- tions were then used to interview undergraduate students for admission into a fictitious academic program. Two trained interviewers conducted the interviews. In some cases, the applicants had been given the interview questions to study prior to the interview. Day and Carroll also obtained the students’ grade point averages, their past academic experience, a measurement of cognitive ability, and their perceptions of the fairness of the questions.

Both types of structured interview questions predicted academic success and accounted for incremental validity over and above that provided by cognitive ability and experience. The researchers also found that knowing the interview questions before- hand led to significantly higher interview scores. Neither the SI nor the BI elicited dif- fering perceptions of fairness; however, interviews were perceived as more fair when the interview questions had been provided ahead of time to participants. Overall, Day and Carroll concluded that neither the SI nor the BI produced significantly different results in their ability to predict performance.184

Other research has addressed the question of whether there are differences in the constructs measured by SI and BI interviews. Berry, Sackett, and Landers found that

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NEL 423CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

BIs have a lower correlation with cognitive ability than SIs (0.12 for the BI and 0.26 for the SI, uncorrected) but Culbertson, Weyhrauch, and Huffcutt found no significant difference (0.11 for the BI and 0.09 for the SI, uncorrected).185,186 In fact, overall, the correlation of cognitive ability with structured interviews seems to be somewhat higher than with unstructured interviews, which suggests that structured interviews do measure cognitive ability to a moderate degree.187 However, structured interviews also have incre- mental validity over cognitive ability (see Chapter 10), which means that they have greater potential to predict components of job performance that are not predicted by cognitive ability and, therefore, increase the accuracy of our predictions of job performance.188

Correlations between structured interviews and personality measurements are also quite modest.189–192 Both the BI and the SI have modest correlations with Conscientious- ness (0.12 and 0.10, respectively), but the BI appears to also correlate with Extraversion (0.12), while the SI seems to correlate negatively with Neuroticism (–0.12).193

In fact, the constructs best measured by structured interviews, whether SI or BI, seem to be job experience, job knowledge, situational judgment, social skills, and organiza- tional fit.194,195 These constructs are multidimensional and it is likely that good interview questions are multidimensional as well. For example, answering the question in Table 9.1 (and behaving appropriately in such a situation) likely involves not just one but several constructs, such as motivation to lead, understanding human motivation and behav- iour, situational judgment, rational and analytical thinking, social skills, self-control, and self-confidence. Thus, it should not be surprising that interview questions often do not correlate highly with measurements of the single constructs they are supposed to assess or with other interview questions ostensibly measuring the same single construct.196 Recently, some researchers have suggested using multidimensional scoring guides in order to accommodate the multidimensional nature of responses to interview questions.197,198 However, having to rate several dimensions or constructs for each answer would be very cognitively demanding for interviewers and would likely disrupt the flow of the interview.

Some researchers have explored how applicants use impression management tactics in the SI and the BI. They found that applicants tend to use more ingratiation tactics (e.g., complimenting the interviewer or the organization) in the SI, while they tend to use more self-focused and defensive tactics (e.g., self-promotion, explaining mistakes or failures) in the BI.199,200 The latter finding should not be surprising, given that the BI requires applicants to discuss past situations where they have either been successful or encountered difficulty or failure. However, in another study, researchers found that applicants also used more ingratiation tactics in the BI than in the SI.201

Other researchers have compared BI questions with SI questions in terms of how much effect applicant impression management tactics actually have on interview ratings. Although some researchers found that SI questions are less susceptible to impression management behaviour,202 others found that BI questions are more resistant to faking,203 and still others found no difference.204 Thus, again, the evidence is inconclusive. Nev- ertheless, regardless of the type of questions used, it is clear that the more structured an interview becomes, the less effect impression management tactics will have on interview ratings.205,206

Validity and other issues notwithstanding, the BI might be more appropriate in some selection situations, whereas the SI might be more appropriate in others. In par- ticular, the BI seems best suited to the selection of candidates who have had prior work experience (especially in related areas of work) or have been engaged in relevant volunteer activities or hobbies. However, the SI is useful with both experienced and inexperienced applicants. Experienced applicants may still have some advantage over

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inexperienced applicants competing for the same job when situational questions are asked, but the difference would likely be reduced.

As noted above, interviewers appear to require a fair degree of skill in order to conduct the BI effectively. The SI might therefore be more foolproof in the hands of supervisors and line managers when they do the interviewing. The SI seems to require less skill or training because the interviewer simply reads the questions and compares the answers given with the scoring guide examples. Probing is not permitted. A thorough training program is highly recommended for all interviewers but it becomes particularly important if the BI is to be used.

It is important to recognize that the above discussion of the relative merits of the two approaches is somewhat speculative. More research is needed to investigate the relative merits of the BI and the SI in various situations and with varying degrees of interviewer training and experience. In addition to addressing the theoretical questions surrounding the relationships of past behaviour and behavioural intentions with subsequent behav- iour, such research would provide highly useful information for improving the design of structured interviews. In fact, researchers increasingly recommend using both SI and BI questions in the same interview sessions because they tend to measure somewhat different constructs and may complement each other.207 Culbertson, Weyhrauch, and Huffcutt208 found that BI and SI questions ostensibly measuring the same constructs correlate at only 0.40. The researchers therefore advise against viewing BI and SI questions as alternative ways of assessing the same attributes and suggest that these two approaches might provide incremental validity when used in combination. Clearly, more research is needed to gain a better understanding of how these different approaches to structured interviewing might be used most effectively. For more information on situational and behavioural questions, visit https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/corporate/about-health-canada/activities- responsibilities/careers-health-canada/how-apply-job/acing-interview.html

struCtured IntervIews In PraCtICe

sCorIng struCtured emPloyment IntervIews

As noted above, an interviewing best practice is for interviewers to score the answer to each interview question as soon as it is given.209 Normally, each interview question would take up between half a page to a full page, including the question and the scoring guide (as illustrated in Tables 9.1–9.3), as well as some space for recording notes. The interviewer’s task is to compare the applicant’s response to the scoring guide and assign an appropriate score (e.g., by circling the corresponding number on the scoring guide). The scores for each question should be combined at the end of the interview to yield a total interview score. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 9.4 provides an example of a scoring summary that could be used for this purpose (as well as providing additional examples of BI questions). Of course, in this example, the scores are purely hypothetical. In practice, these scores would come from the scoring guides that accompany each of the interview questions (see Tables 9.1–9.3).

IntervIewIng for organIzatIonal fIt

Structured interviews are particularly useful in assessing organizational fit.210,211 Rather than determining organizational fit by assessing an applicant’s stated attitudes or values, structured interviews can assess the applicant’s behaviours in situations or contexts that

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NEL 425CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOK 9.4

exAMPLe Of A STrUcTUreD INTervIeW ScOrING SUMMArY

inTERviEw QuEsTiOn sCORE

Question 1 When someone is in charge of others, he/she often has to delegate work to them and hope that they will do a good job. Tell me about the last time you asked someone to do a task for you and you personally got in trouble because this person messed up.

Question 2 When making difficult decisions it’s natural to ask others for information and advice but sometimes we just don’t have the time to do that because the decision has to be made quickly or sometimes there’s no one around whom we can ask. Tell me about the last time you had to make a very difficult decision quickly and you really couldn’t rely on anyone else for information or advice.

Question 3 Tell me about a time when you were working toward an important deadline and you started to realize, as the deadline approached, that you wouldn’t be able to meet the deadline by working as you had been up to that point.

Question 4 We all make mistakes at one time or another. Sometimes we’re in too much of a hurry, sometimes we’re tired, sometimes we haven’t got enough information or materials to do the job right, and sometimes others let us down. Tell me about the mistake you made that you would most like to have a second chance at doing right.

Question 5 Tell me about the last time you worked in a group with someone who was not doing his or her fair share of the work.

Question 6 Some people seem to find fault with just about everything we do. Tell me about the last time you worked with or for someone who was like that.

Question 7 Sometimes unanticipated events get in the way of our carefully laid plans. Tell me about a time when you had made some plans and something equally important that also required your time and attention came up unexpectedly.

Question 8 Tell me about a time when you were trying to explain something to someone and the person seemed to be having trouble understanding what you were telling him or her.

Question 9 Tell me about the last time you were in charge of a group and you and your group seemed to have an enormous amount of work to do in order to achieve a difficult goal or objective.

Question 10 In almost any group there are bound to be individuals who don’t get along with each other at one time or another. Tell me about a time when you were in a group in which two or more members were having a disagreement and it looked like their behaviour was having a negative effect on the whole group.

TOTAL INTervIeW ScOre 31

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL426

reflect organizational values or norms. Characteristics such as integrity, customer service orientation, teamwork orientation, tolerance for stress, initiative, openness to learning, flexibility/adaptability, and other characteristics that reflect organizational norms and values can all be assessed in both SI and BI interviews. For example, to assess integrity, the interviewer might ask a question such as, “Tell me about a time when your supervisor asked you to do something that you felt was inappropriate or unethical. Describe the situ- ation and tell me what you did. What did you learn from this event?” To assess customer service orientation, an interviewer might ask a question such as, “Tell me about a time you had to deal with a customer who was upset but, in this situation, you knew the customer was wrong. Describe the situation and tell me what you did. Has this experience changed how you respond in such situations? If so, how?” The answers to questions such as these can be compared with how employees in the organization are expected to behave in such situations and would, therefore, reflect the fit between the applicant and the organization.

emPloyer reaCtIons to IntervIew struCture

When employers were first exposed to structured interview methods a few decades ago, they tended to be somewhat suspicious of them. Most felt more comfortable with unstructured approaches that relied to a large extent on “gut feelings.” Moreover, many interviewers prefer the greater discretion, personal contact, and ease of preparation pro- vided by unstructured interviews.212,213 However, it appears that most employers have begun using interviews with at least moderate levels of structure.214–216

In the most recent survey by Simola, Tagger, and Smith, more than 48.2 percent of Canadian HR practitioners reported always using behaviour description questions, while another 37.5 percent reported using them most of the time.217 Situational questions were used less frequently, with 17.6 percent reporting always using them and another 26.6 percent reporting using them most of the time.218 However, it is not clear whether these interviews are being used appropriately. The survey suggests that most HR prac- titioners do not have a strong understanding of best practices concerning employment interviewing. Only 34.6 percent reported basing interview questions on a job analysis and more than 75 percent reported that they add questions during the interview.

These disturbing findings are supported by those of Chapman and Zweig, who found that interviewers tend not to use formal rating systems to rate applicant answers and generally do not even have an ideal response in mind with which to compare applicant answers. Moreover, they tend to use their global impressions of the applicant rather than combining scores statistically to come to a selection decision (see the following section and Chapter 10).219 Providing interviewers with training concerning structured interviewing techniques and strong organization support for the use of structured inter- views seem to be effective ways of increasing the likelihood that structured interviews will be used correctly.220–222 Holding them accountable for the interview process and their employment decisions is also instrumental in encouraging the use of structured interviews.223

aPPlICant reaCtIons to IntervIew struCture

Applicants seem to like interviews more than any other selection devices such as cog- nitive ability tests, personality tests, biodata inventories, or work samples, and consis- tently rate interviews very favourably.224–226 They perceive them to be fairer and more

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NEL 427CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

valid than other selection methods, and minority applicants in particular seem to prefer interviews to other selection methods.227 Nevertheless, applicant reactions to structured interviewing techniques have been mixed. Wagner found that using structured techniques did not affect applicants’ impressions of the company or the likelihood of accepting a job offer.228 Chapman and Zweig found that applicants perceive structured interview questions as more difficult than typical questions, but interview structure is not related to perceptions of interview fairness nor is it related to whether applicants are likely to accept a job offer.229 However, Seijts and Kyei-Poku found that applicants perceived the structured interview to be fairer than the unstructured interview in an organization that had adopted an employment equity program.230

On the other hand, Chapman and Rowe231 and Kohn and Dipboye232 found that applicants are most attracted to organizations that use less structured interviews. Kohn and Dipboye found that, when structured interviews were used, participants were less likely to accept a job offer and rated the organization as less attractive, less social, and more authoritarian, and the interviewer as less fair and less likable than when unstructured inter- views were used.233 Structuring an interview may reduce applicants’ perceptions of rapport with the interviewer and provide less opportunity to develop positive feelings about the interviewer and the organization. It also provides less opportunity for applicants to use impression management tactics and may, therefore, be frustrating for some applicants.234

Interviews serve as both a recruitment and a selection function. Unfortunately, these two purposes may conflict in that factors related to improved validity (e.g., interview structure) might result in negative applicant reactions. Kohn and Dipboye found that the negative effect of structure on applicant attraction to the organization could be reduced if the interviewer provided more information about the job and organization in the interview.235 Moreover, as pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, compared with factors such as pay, promotion opportunities, or geographical location, interviewers’ effects on applicant job choice are minimal.236 Nevertheless, some time should be taken during the interview to put the applicants at ease and build rapport.237 The nature of the questions and the interview process can be explained and opportunities should be given for the applicants to ask questions. These steps should not only reduce possible negative reactions but also contribute to a less stressful interview situation, which should allow interviewees to perform at their best when answering the questions.

IntervIew PraCtICe and human rIghts

As noted above, one of the hallmarks of structured interviews is the standardization of interview questions. When interviews are standardized, applicants can be compared on the basis of the same criteria and the interviewer obtains a better picture of the merits of each applicant relative to other applicants. In fact, a number of researchers have sug- gested that standardization is an important factor in increasing interview reliability and validity.238

Equally, if not more important, the standardized treatment of applicants is generally perceived as being fairer than non-standardized treatment. The likelihood of organiza- tions that use standardized interview questions becoming embroiled in selection-related litigation is therefore reduced. Moreover, when such organizations do go to court, the courts tend to rule in their favour.239–241 Standardization therefore gives the interviewer and the organization some measure of protection from discrimination suits.

Another aspect of structured interviews that appears to have a strong impact on the organization’s ability to defend itself against litigation is the exclusive use of job-related

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL428

questions (i.e., questions based on a formal job analysis). Questions that probe areas not directly relevant to the job run the risk of being interpreted as having discrimina- tory intent by the applicant and by the courts.242–244, In fact, structured interviews meet the requirements of federal and provincial privacy legislation because they collect only information that is directly relevant to the job. A question such as “Do you plan to have children?” which is frequently posed to female but not to male applicants, is not only unrelated to job requirements but treats male and female applicants differently (i.e., is not standardized). Such questions are particularly troublesome from a human rights perspec- tive. Such questions also result in negative applicant reactions to the interview and the interviewer and a decreased likelihood that they will accept a job offer or recommend the organization to others.245

The job relevance of interview questions has a significant impact on interview validity as well.246 Structured interviews may have greater predictive validity, in part, because structuring an interview increases its reliability and accuracy in differentiating between applicant competencies on job-relevant dimensions. Moreover, the greater job relevance of structured interview questions may direct the interviewer’s attention away from irrelevant information and focus it on job-relevant information. This focusing of interviewer attention may reduce the potential effects of the biases and processing errors inherent in the unstructured interview. Therefore, the degree to which structured inter- view questions are job relevant and interview ratings are reliable appears to contribute to the validity of the interview.

However, the job relevance of interview questions does not, by itself, guarantee the reli- ability of interview ratings. Interviewers often disagree in their ratings of the same dimen- sions or characteristics for a given applicant and even give different ratings for the same answer to an interview question. Therefore, some kind of job-relevant rating or scoring guide is essential if high reliability among raters is to be achieved and if the interview ratings are to be based on job-relevant criteria. In fact, such scoring guides appear to reduce the effects of bias and increase interview reliability, and therefore validity, particularly when they are used to assess the answers given by interviewees rather than trait dimensions.247–250 The use of a standardized, job-relevant scoring system for assessing and comparing can- didates may also contribute to an effective defence against litigation.251,252 The courts have been particularly concerned when there is evidence that applicants giving the same responses are treated differently on the basis of gender or race or any other grounds on which discrimination is forbidden. To build on a previous example, it is insufficient for an employer to standardize the interview by asking both male and female applicants whether they intend to have children if a male’s response to the question is irrelevant to the selec- tion decision whereas a female’s response might determine whether or not she is offered the job (i.e., the scoring of responses is not standardized).

Latham and his colleagues’ approach requires interviewers to sum the scores given for each individual question to give an overall interview score, rather than permitting interviewers to make global judgments.253 The final score can then be used to make the selection decision by ranking candidates or by determining cutoff scores, which must be exceeded by candidates if they are to qualify for the job. In essence, this approach relieves the interviewer of much of the decision-making function and isolates the selec- tion decision from the interviewer’s biases and stereotypes.254 The selection decision, then, is a statistical or actuarial process that has greater criterion-related validity than the error-prone judgmental processes typically engaged in by interviewers when they make overall ratings or recommendations.255

This advantage for the statistical combination of scores does not appear to hold, how- ever, when interview questions with low job relevance are used. Rather than evaluating

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NEL 429CHAPTER 9 Selection III: Interviewing

behaviours, interviewers using such questions make subjective judgments with respect to each answer given.256 The total interview score for such questions therefore represents the sum of several subjective judgments, which do not differ significantly from a single overall subjective rating.

Day and Carroll’s study also raises an important point about access to the interview questions.257 Knowing the questions in advance, whether they are SI or BI, will lead to higher interview scores. Strict control must be maintained of all questions or the inter- view questions must be given to all candidates beforehand to remove the possibility of some candidates having an advantage through prior knowledge of the questions. As Day and Carroll show, knowing the questions beforehand does not lead to every applicant giving brilliant answers; there is still a distribution of scores. All applicants must be treated fairly with respect to access to the interview questions.

It should be emphasized, with respect to the discussion above, that interview validity and reliability issues are very much related, in that reliability can place an upper limit on validity.258 Conditions that serve to make interviews more reliable should therefore be the same as those that make them more valid.259

Although unstructured interviews are vulnerable targets of potential litigation, there is comparatively little evidence of bias in structured interviews. Arvey and Campion found no evidence of age or gender bias in their semistructured interviews.260 Similarly, in their investigation of over 27 000 structured interviews for 18 different jobs, Blankenship and Cesare found no evidence of bias on the basis of age.261 Although Lin, Dobbins, and Farh also found no evidence of age bias in their structured interview, they found a very small effect for a same-race bias.262 More recent studies have also found no evidence of age or gender bias, although a very small same-race bias was found.263,264 In particular, interview panels or boards consisting of all black or mostly black interviewers were found to give slightly higher scores to black applicants than panels or boards made up of all white or mostly white interviewers (ratings did not differ for white or Hispanic applicants).265 How- ever, Lin, Dobbins, and Farh found less evidence of race bias when structured interviews were used than when unstructured interviews were used.266 Moreover, they note that the true performance levels of the applicants are unknown. Nevertheless, they recommended the use of mixed-race interview boards to reduce the potential for bias.

Paullin267 reviewed seven studies, including four conducted by Motowidlo et al.,268 and found no consistent trends for bias with respect to gender or race or ethnic group. Any differences that do exist tend to be less than half a standard deviation and do not consistently favour any group. Huffcutt and Roth conducted a meta-analysis of 31 studies to assess racial group differences in employment interview scores.269 Like Lin, Dobbins, and Farh,270 they found that differences in ratings were quite small for structured inter- views and much less than for unstructured interviews. The studies represent a variety of jobs including marketing, entry-level management, nonmanagerial telecommunications jobs, and firefighting. Finally, McCarthy, Van Iddekinge, and Campion, in a large study involving almost 20 000 applicants for a managerial-level position, found no evidence of gender or race bias or applicant–interviewer similarity effects with respect to gender or race when highly structured interviews were used.271

Brecher, Bragger, and Kutcher found that, compared to unstructured interviews, structured interviews reduce bias with respect to physical disability.272 In addition, Reilly and her colleagues found that using behaviourally anchored scoring guides is effective in removing bias with respect to disability in structured interviews.273 Not only are struc- tured interviews less vulnerable to bias than unstructured interviews, but applicants per- ceive them as more job related and, thus, fairer.274–276 Consequently, applicants are less likely to be concerned about decisions made on the basis of structured interviews.

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There is an important caveat that we have to make with respect to the defensibility of structured interviews. The improved reliability, validity, and lack of bias occur in struc- tured interviews that have been developed from the principles presented in this chapter. Too often we have seen HR practitioners use shortcuts to develop a set of structured interview questions or to simply choose questions off the shelf from books on structured interviews. In our practice, we have seen HR practitioners screen out candidates on answers to one question rather than the total score. They often fail to ensure that ques- tions were job related, fail to develop appropriate scoring keys, and fail to properly train those who will be doing the interviews. As with any tool, to get the best results, interviews must be properly used. Failure to follow the “best practices” with respect to structured interviews will undermine their defensibility. Information on structured interviewing and human rights concerns can be found at http://www.canadavisa.com/canada-immigration- employment-interviews.html

desIgnIng IntervIew questIons

Although a variety of job analysis methods can be used to develop structured interview questions, the most common is the critical incidents technique.277 The critical incidents technique has been the basis of both the SI and the BI. Examples of effective and ineffec- tive as well as typical behaviours that contributed to the success or failure of employees in particular job-related situations or tasks are collected. Each important task or situation is thus linked with several examples of typical, effective, and ineffective behaviours. This information can be obtained from incumbents and their supervisors through interviews, focus group sessions, and questionnaires.

Once the critical incidents have been collected, the situations on which they are based can be turned into EBI, BI, or SI questions. For SI questions, the situation should be described in sufficient detail to allow an applicant to visualize it accurately and should be followed by a “What would you do?” question. For each situation, the best critical inci- dents (i.e., most representative and most likely to be used as answers by interviewees) dem- onstrating effective, typical, and ineffective behaviours can serve as behavioural anchors for the scoring guide (i.e., poor, average, and good answer, respectively). Scores are typically assigned so that 1 represents the poor answer, 3 an average answer, and 5 a good answer.

Care should be taken to select situations and to phrase questions in a way that does not make the best answer readily apparent to the applicant. Situations where there is tension between competing demands or options are ideal if the options appear equally aversive or attractive to inexperienced individuals (i.e., there is a dilemma). Questions and scoring guides should be pre-tested on a group of applicants or recently hired employees to ensure that the questions are clear and elicit a range of responses. For example, if the poor answer is never given, the answers that are given should be examined to determine whether some of them reflect an alternative critical incident representing ineffective per- formance. Alternatively, the question should be reworked to create more tension.

BI questions are designed by examining each task or situation in order to identify the behavioural dimension underlying the situation (e.g., meeting deadlines). The dimen- sions are turned into BI questions, which retain the essence rather than the details of the original situation. In other words, the BI question applies to a variety of situations that share the underlying behavioural dimension (e.g., meeting deadlines in a job, at school, when sending birthday cards, and so on). As with the SI, critical incidents are used to develop a scoring guide. However, the scoring guide anchors also need to be rephrased

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to make them more generally applicable to a variety of situations. The underlying behav- ioural dimensions rather than the actual incidents serve as anchors (e.g., “planning ahead, setting up contingency plans, monitoring progress” instead of “working long hours at the last minute, asking for extensions, missing the deadline”).

Probes are developed by anticipating the kinds of responses that applicants from different backgrounds, or with different levels of experience, are likely to give to a BI question. For example, applicants with limited work experience might never have been in a situation where they disagreed with a superior. A probe might then focus on responses to a disagreement with parents or friends in a situation similar to the one of relevance to the job. The probes should provide a clear understanding of the situation, the behav- iour, and the outcome so that the applicant’s response can be accurately scored. General probes such as “What led up to the situation?” “What did you do?” “What happened?” “What was your reason for …?” or “Can you tell me more about …?” seem to apply in most circumstances.

Job knowledge or work sample questions can also be derived from critical incidents. The situations that led to ineffective or effective behaviours can be simulated during the interview. For example, if problems have occurred on the job because solvents have been mixed or used inappropriately and if a contributing factor is functional illiteracy, applicants could be asked to read the directions on a solvent container aloud and then to explain in their own words what the directions mean. Similarly, an applicant for a sales position could be asked to “sell” a product to interviewers playing the roles of the kinds of customers who have been challenging for salespeople in the past. Additional information on the development of structured interview questions and scoring guides can be found at https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commission/services/public-service- hiring- guides/appointment-processes-how-conduct-interviews.html

IntervIewer traInIng

Interviewer training has tended to focus on reducing common sources of bias and inac- curacy such as halo error, similar-to-me effects, contrast effects, and leniency and severity errors. Interviewers are also taught to put the applicant at ease, ask open-ended ques- tions, develop good listening skills, maintain control of the interview, take appropriate notes, and ignore or interpret correctly the nonverbal behaviours occurring in the inter- view. Unfortunately, such training efforts have achieved mixed results at best.278,279 Most studies report that interviewer training designed to eliminate halo and other rating biases has minimal effect on interviewer behaviour and interview outcomes, particularly when shorter training programs are examined.

Training interviewers to administer a structured interview is a considerably different endeavour than training them to avoid errors and biases or develop good listening skills. Although rapport building is an important skill, interviewers using structured interviews need to also learn how to ask questions, evaluate answers, and use scoring guides, as well as how to take notes.280 For example, interviewers require training on how to score an answer when it does not match the examples in the scoring guide. The training should provide interviewers with decision rules to use in such circumstances.

Interviewers using techniques that allow more discretion, such as the BI, might require more extensive training than those using more standardized approaches, such as the SI. When using their discretion, interviewers need to learn how to select ques- tions or probes and when to probe. They need to learn how to use probes effectively

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without giving away the ideal answer. Demonstrations, behavioural role modelling, and opportunities for active practice are likely to be essential training techniques in any such training program.281,282 Training that focuses on the evaluation and scoring of applicant answers has been found to contribute to higher interview reliability and validity.283,284 Frame-of-reference (FOR) training, which involves helping interviewers understand the performance dimensions they are assessing, defines and describes behavioural examples of different performance levels for each dimension or interview question, and provides opportunity for practice and feedback, has been found to contribute significantly to inter-rater reliability and rating accuracy.285

IntervIew CoaChIng for aPPlICants

Being interviewed for a job can be an anxiety-arousing situation for applicants.286,287 Interview anxiety is negatively related to interview performance and, as a result, anxious applicants are less likely to be hired, even though their interview anxiety might be unre- lated to job performance.288,289 Such applicants can benefit from training or coaching to help them handle employment interviews more effectively. In fact, most applicants can benefit from some interview coaching, but those who have not been interviewed for a long time, those who have not experienced structured approaches to interviewing, and those who have experienced ongoing difficulty doing well in interviews stand to gain the most from such coaching.

Coaching applicants for structured employment interviews generally involves explaining the purpose of the interview, suggestions and advice on how to do well in the interview, exposing applicants to different kinds of questions, discussing the nature of responses interviewers are looking for with illustrations of how to perform, providing opportunities for role-play or practice, providing feedback to applicants, and providing reinforcement for appropriate interview behaviours.290 Attributional retraining, which involves helping applicants perceive repeated failure in interviews as a temporary condition and encourages them to take control over their reactions to such events, can be effective in changing applicant motivations and behaviours.291 Providing applicants with inter- view coaching increases their interview self-efficacy (reducing their anxiety) and improves their performance in interviews.292–295 Coaching applicants to improve their interview performance might seem counterintuitive, given the interviewer’s objective of selecting the best job candidates rather than the most polished interviewees. However, the inter- view coaching described here appears to actually increase the validity of structured inter- views.296 This may be because coaching helps applicants to focus their answers, describing job-relevant behaviours more clearly, thus helping the interviewer obtain a more accurate perspective of the applicant’s capabilities. Additional information and tips about preparing for interviews as an applicant can be found at https://www.livecareer.com/quintessential/ intvres and http://www.ctdol.state.ct.us/progsupt/jobsrvce/intervie.htm

other aPProaChes to IntervIewIng

long-dIstanCe IntervIews

Many organizations recruit candidates across the country or internationally, necessitating the use of long-distance interviews. However, as discussed at the beginning of the chapter, the costs of flying candidates in for interviews and paying for their accommodations or,

long-distance interviews Interviews conducted over a long distance, including telephone interviews, videoconfer- ence interviews, Internet interviews, or computer- ized interviews, which serve as alternatives to face-to-face interviews.

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conversely, flying recruiters across the country or overseas can be pro- hibitive. Moreover, there has been an increased concern in recent years about the safety of air travel and associated inconveniences, such as additional time spent at airports, as well as concerns about invasion of privacy and health with the introduction of airport body scanners. As a result, some organizations have turned to telephone interviews, video- conference interviews, Internet interviews, or computerized interviews as alternatives to face-to-face interviews.297 Although preliminary evi- dence suggests that long-distance, structured interviews can be valid predictors of job performance,298 there is also evidence that the use of technology can, in some circumstances, make the interview an unsat- isfying, or even unpleasant, experience for both the applicant and the interviewer.299–301 Moreover, there are a number of obstacles, such as limited access to videoconferencing facilities, high costs, and technical limitations (e.g., picture and sound quality) that must be overcome if such technology is to be used effectively.302

Some preliminary research suggests that applicants interviewed using videoconfer- ence technology receive higher ratings than those interviewed face-to-face.303,304 How- ever, other researchers found the reverse.305 Although the research evidence to date is inconclusive concerning who receives higher ratings, any differences in ratings of applicants are of considerable concern if an organization interviews some applicants in face-to-face situations while others are interviewed using interview technology, because one group might be disadvantaged. There is also some evidence that interview tech- nology interacts with interview structure in complex ways.306,307 Clearly, more research is needed on applicant and interviewer reactions to interview technology, as well as on the validity of such technology-dependent interviews compared with face-to-face interviews.

Puzzle IntervIews

Puzzle interviews ask applicants to solve puzzles or unusual problems. These interviews require applicants to use their creativity and problem-solving skills, demonstrate quick thinking, and even show a sense of humour. Puzzle interviews are usually administered in an unstructured format and do not use formal scoring keys. The approach was popular- ized by Microsoft in the 1990s but has now spread to many other organizations, particu- larly those in the high-tech sector such as Google or IBM. Puzzle interviews can include questions that some applicants should be able to solve in the interview (e.g., “Why are manhole covers round?”, “How would you weigh an elephant without a scale?”, “How can four employees calculate the average of their salaries without knowing each other’s salary?”). However, they can also include questions that are not solvable in the context of an interview without access to the Internet (e.g., “How many gas stations are there in Canada?”, “How many golf balls can fit in a school bus?”, “How long would it take to move Mount Fuji?”). When the latter kind of questions are asked, interviewers are usu- ally looking for evidence in the applicant’s answer of logical thought and an awareness of the variables that need to be considered to solve the problem. Thus, the applicant is not expected to solve the problem accurately but, rather, to think aloud about the solu- tion to the problem, discuss the variables and the measurement methods that could be used, voice assumptions, and make estimates based on the information that the applicant does possess.

A Skype interview—talking to an image on a computer screen.

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Puzzle interviews Puzzle interviews are usually unstructured interviews that ask applicants to solve puzzles or unusual problems.

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NEL434 Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

To date, only two studies have investigated puzzle interviews, either using undergraduate students as interviewees participating in mock interviews or having undergraduate students watch and rate videotaped interviews.308,309 The puzzle questions used were of both the solvable and the non-solvable varieties. Although the researchers were not able to obtain data relating to the criterion validity of these interviews, the researchers in one of the studies found high levels of inter-rater reliability (.88 across five questions). They also found that the interview scores were moderately correlated with cognitive ability (.45).310 Interviewee reac- tions to the interviews in this study were mixed. Not surprisingly, those interviewees who did well, or perceived themselves as having done well, felt that the interview was fairer than those who did not do well or did not perceive themselves as having done well. In the other study, participants perceived the puzzle interviews less favourably than behavioural interviews.311 In particular, they believed that puzzle interviews had lower validity, were less fair, were less likely to result in them being hired, and were less transparent than behavioural interviews.

Given the scant amount of research available on the properties of puzzle interviews, we cannot recommend their use at this time. Their unstructured nature and the difficulty in scoring the less solvable problems give cause for concern. If organizations wish to measure general intelligence or problem-solving ability, they would be better off using established paper-and-pencil measures of cognitive ability or problem solving. Considerably more research needs to be done before puzzle interviews can be recommended for employee selection.

multIPle mInI-IntervIews

In 2002, to select applicants to its medical school, researchers at McMaster University pioneered a version of the speed interview that has become known as the Multiple Mini- Interview (MMI).312,313 Each spring, candidates pre-screened on the basis of their GPA and autobiographical profile are invited to participate in a circuit of 12 eight-minute MMIs. Each applicant visits an interviewing “station” where she is asked a single question by the inter- viewer. At the end of eight minutes a buzzer sounds and the applicant moves on to the second station where she is asked a second question by a different interviewer. This process continues until the applicant has visited all 12 stations. These MMIs, some consisting of role-playing exercises and simulations, assess a variety of attributes deemed essential for Canadian physi- cians, including communication, collaboration, critical thinking, ethics, personal statement, and understanding of the health-care system. The 12 ratings for each applicant, one from each station, are pooled at the end of the interview process to yield a total score for the interview. Admission decisions are then made based on a combination of scores from the MMI, auto- biographical profile, and GPA. Over the past several years, other Canadian, American, and international medical schools as well as schools of nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, and veterinary science have also begun using the MMI as part of their selection process.314

McMaster’s MMI was developed to better assess noncognitive (e.g., interpersonal) skills and to augment predictions afforded by GPA and SAT scores. Previously, pre- screened applicants were given one-on-one interviews, but this proved too resource intense, requiring an unsustainable commitment of labour hours and causing logistical difficulties and inconvenience to both interviewers and candidates. With the MMI, McMaster University is able to evaluate more than 500 applicants over two days.315 Although the MMI procedure requires considerable attention to organization and sched- uling, it is able to process hundreds of applicants much more efficiently than is possible with one-on-one interviews.

Research on the MMI indicates that the reliability of the MMI (generalizability coef- ficients) ranges from 0.69 to 0.79, with a mean of 0.73.316 This level of reliability is acceptable

multiple mini-Interview A version of the speed interview where applicants participate in a circuit of 12 eight- minute interviews with 12 different interviewers at 12 different interview stations.

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given that it reflects different interviewers asking different questions (or administering dif- ferent kinds of simulations) at different stations. The validity coefficients obtained range from 0.15 to 0.57, depending on the criterion used.317–319 However, MMI scores appear to correlate more highly with performance in clerkship rotations (supervised practice in the hospital) than with exams, exceeding correlations of 0.50. Given MMIs are designed to assess noncognitive (e.g., interpersonal) skills, higher correlations with medical practice than with exams are to be expected. This level of prediction is in line with the criterion validity of structured interviews.

In studies designed to assess the constructs measured by the MMI, researchers found that the MMI does not correlate significantly with undergraduate GPA, the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), measures of logical reasoning ability, or measures of nonverbal reasoning.320–322 Given the low correlations with the MCAT and the measures of reasoning ability, these results suggests that the MMI does not measure cognitive ability.323 However, the MMI does appear to be mod- erately correlated with some of the Big Five measures of personality, namely Extraversion mean r .26( )5 , Conscientiousness mean r .20( )5 , Agreeableness mean r .16( )5 , and Openness mean r .14( )5 ). In particular, the MMI is correlated

with the personality facets of Activity mean r .22( )5 , Friendliness mean r .21( )5 , Assertiveness mean r .20( )5 , Greg ariousness mean r .19( )5 , Achievement mean r .24( )5 , Self-discipline mean r .19( )5 , Cautiousness mean r .19( )5 , Altruism mean r .18( )5 , Sympathy mean r .16( )5 , and is negatively correlated with Self-

consciousness mean r .21( )5 2 .324 The MMI is also significantly correlated with a situa- tional judgment test of interpersonal understanding mean r .18( )5 , but is not correlated with a measure of emotional intelligence.325,326 Although the MMI appears to measure personality factors to a moderate degree, personality accounts for only about 10 percent of the variance in MMI scores.327 More research is needed to identify some of the other factors measured in the MMI. One recent study found fairly strong correlations between the MMI and the SI r .45, uncorrected( )5 and the BI r .57, uncorrected( )5 , suggesting considerable overlap in the constructs measured by these interviews.328

Although the MMI has been used almost exclusively for admission to schools for the health professions, it has potential usefulness for employee selection in organizations in general. This approach would most likely be useful when an organization needs to inter- view a large number of applicants in a short time. However, more research needs to be done on the effectiveness of the MMI for predicting job performance in organizational settings before any strong recommendations can be made.

researCh Issues

Although there is indisputable evidence that SIs are good predictors of job performance, we still do not have a clear understanding of why they predict.329,330 More research based on good theoretical models of the SI is needed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms responsible for interview effectiveness. Such research would contribute greatly to improvements in interview design and performance.

Despite the predictive validity of SIs, many employers and applicants have responded negatively to them. Some employers resist using SIs or modify them, possibly because these employees don’t fully understand how to use SIs or because they want more control of the interview process. Likewise, some applicants do not like SIs, possibly because they find them more difficult or because the applicants have less influence on the interview process. Research is needed to find ways of improving user reactions to structured inter- views and making them easier to use.

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// summary Employment interviews are the most popular selection procedure among employers and employees. Over the past two decades, many Canadian employers have abandoned traditional, unstructured approaches to interviewing in favour of structured interviews, notably behavioural interviews. However, most do not seem to be following best practices in implementing structured interview techniques. Moreover, many employers continue to use unstructured interviews, which have been plagued by poor reliability and validity and have placed the employers in a legally vulnerable position.

Dipboye’s model of information processing and decision making in the interview was presented in this chapter.331 This model is particularly relevant to unstructured inter- views, although it applies, to a lesser degree, to structured interviews as well. According to the model, interviewers and applicants bring expectations, beliefs, needs, intentions, and initial information to the interview situation. These expectations and the prelimi- nary information contribute to pre-interview impressions that can influence the inter- viewer’s attributions and behaviour in the interview. The interviewer’s behaviour, in turn, influences the applicant’s behaviour. The interviewer emerges from the interaction with global impressions of the applicant that are influenced by his expectations, an emotional response to the applicant (i.e., liking of the applicant), and the first impressions carried through the interview and sometimes intensified by the interview experience. Various factors, including time pressures, quotas, and politics, can affect the final decision.

Structured approaches to employment interviewing were developed to address the shortcomings of the unstructured interview. Structuring factors include standardization, job-relatedness of interview questions, and standardized scoring systems. Such interviews need to be based on a job analysis so that they assess only job-relevant attributes. Inter- view questions should be non-transparent and tend to be most effective when they centre on situations involving dilemmas or tension between competing demands. Appropriate scoring guides and rater training are essential to maintaining high rating accuracy.

Various approaches to constructing structured interviews are available, including situational interviews, behaviour description interviews, and experience-based interviews. Structured interviews provide improved reliability and predictive validity and are more legally defensible than unstructured interviews. However, interviewers should be trained in the proper administration and scoring of the interview. Although the evidence is not clear on whether panel or serial interviews contribute to interview reliability and validity, they do appear to provide some degree of protection from discrimination suits.

As job requirements change in response to the ever-changing workplace, organiza- tions are beginning to shift the focus of selection from specific job skills to organizational fit, transferable skills, and personality attributes. Structured employment interviews are well suited to assessing such attributes and will continue to play an important role in selection for the workplace of tomorrow. New approaches to interviewing involving the use of technology, such as videoconferencing and Internet interviews, puzzle interviews, and the Multiple Mini-Interview (MMI) are also being adopted by employers or, in the case of the MMI, schools for health professions. However, considerable research remains to be done to determine the effects of technology and other approaches to interviewing on interview validity, as well as on interviewer and applicant responses.

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key terms

Behaviour description interview, p. 418 Dilemma, p. 416 Experience-based interview, p. 421 Impression management, p. 408 Knowledge structures, p. 403 Long-distance interviews, p. 432 Multiple Mini-Interview, p. 434 Panel interviews, p. 413 Probes, p. 418 Puzzle interviews, p. 433 Scoring guide, p. 416 Screening interviews, p. 396 Serial interviews, p. 415 Situational interview, p. 416 Speed interviewing, p. 401 Structured interviews, p. 412 Unstructured interview, p. 407

dIsCussIon questIons

1. Describe the multiple phases of the employment interview.

2. What factors affect employment interview decisions?

3. What are the different errors or biases that commonly occur as part of a traditional employment interview?

4. What is a situational interview? What role does a critical incident play in formulating situational questions?

5. What is a behaviour description interview? What does it have in common with a situational interview? How does it differ?

6. What is an experience-based interview? How do experience-based interviews differ from behaviour description interviews?

7. How do structured interviews compare to traditional interviews in terms of reliability and validity?

8. Why is a scoring guide crucial to the success of a structured interview?

9. Why is a structured employment interview likely to be more defensible than other types of employment interviews?

10. Which is more effective—a situational interview or a behaviour description interview?

11. Why do many high-tech organizations use puzzle interviews? Are puzzle interviews effective for employee selection? Why or why not?

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12. How might Multiple Mini-Interviews be used effectively by employers? In what situations are they most likely to be most effective?

13. Why do many employers resist using structured interviews? How would you encourage more employers to use structured interview techniques?

exerCIses IntervIew ConstruCtIon

1. Several of the websites that are listed in this chapter provide guidance on how to write SI and BI questions (e.g., http://apps.opm.gov/ADT/ContentFiles/SIGuide09.08.08. pdf). You might find these sites helpful for the following exercises.

a. Select a job you have done or know well. Identify the five most important tasks for this job.

b. For each of the five tasks, think of examples of both effective and ineffective per- formance that you have observed or have been a part of (e.g., critical incidents).

c. For each task, write an SI or a BI question. Use the critical incidents to develop a three-point scoring guide (e.g., of a poor answer, a typical answer, and a good answer).

This exercise can be completed individually or in small groups of three to five. The product of the exercise is used in the role-play that follows below. An alterna- tive to selecting a job with which participants are familiar is to have participants develop an interview for the job of “Course Instructor.”

IntervIew questIon wrItIng

2. Are the following good interview questions? If not, how would you change them?

a. “How did you get along with your supervisor?”

b. “Do you follow policies, rules, and procedures carefully?”

3. “Are you an organized worker?” is obviously not a good interview question because it is transparent and requests a self-evaluation. Is the following wording satisfactory? If not, why not, and how would you change it? “Can you give me an example of how organized you are?”

4. Rewrite the following questions to make them more effective.

a. “Are you able to handle stress?”

b. “How are you at meeting deadlines?”

c. “Do you have problems working closely with others?”

d. “When you make a mistake, what do you do to fix it?”

e. “How are you at solving problems?”

f. “Do have any problems communicating with people?”

g. “How do you feel about staying late to finish a project?”

h. “Are you a good leader? Can you motivate others?”

i. “What do you do when you encounter obstacles to meeting your goals?”

j. “Are you a good planner?”

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PersonalIty CharaCterIstICs assessment

5. Organizations exist in an increasingly dynamic environment. As a result, jobs change and employees are required to move around the organization, to do a variety of tasks, to develop multiple skills, and to “retool” or upgrade themselves on an ongoing basis. Employees are being hired less for specific job skills and more for their abili- ties to fit themselves to the needs of the organization. Organizations are looking for employees who are innovative, flexible, willing to learn, and conscientious, and who fit into the organizational culture—in other words, those who are good organizational citizens. (You may want to review the sections “Job Performance as a Multidimen- sional Concept,” “A Multidimensional Model of Job Performance,” and “Predicting Task, Contextual, Adaptive, and Counterproductive Job Performance” in Chapter 5, which address these issues.)

a. Can the employment interview be used to assess such personality characteristics effectively? How?

b. Are there better selection tools than the interview for assessing these characteris- tics? If so, what are they and why are they superior? If not, why not?

c. Does the assessment of organizational fit and relevant personality attributes pose a danger to human rights? If so, how? If not, why not? How might you reduce the dangers of human rights violations while still pursuing employees who fit into the organizational culture?

IntervIew role-Play

6. a. Form small groups of between three and five. Assign the role of applicant to one group member and the role of interviewer to another. The remaining members of the group serve as observers. The applicant is to be interviewed for one of the jobs selected for the Interview Construction exercise (page 438).

b. As a group, select five self-evaluation questions from the list in Recruitment and Selection Today 9.5 (page 409). The interviewer is to use these questions to begin interviewing the applicant for the job.

c. Next, the interviewer is to use the five job-relevant questions developed in the Interview Construction exercise (page 438).

d. While the interviewer is conducting the interview, the observers should record their answers to the following questions:

i. How do the answers to the first five questions differ from the answers to the second five questions?

ii. Does one set of questions provide better information on which to base a selection decision? If so, which one?

iii. Is there a difference between the two question sets in terms of how much time the applicant spends talking? If so, which takes more time and why?

iv. Of the second set of questions, are there any questions that don’t seem to work as well as they should? If so, why? How would you improve these questions?

v. How useful is the scoring guide? Would you recommend any modifications to the scoring guide? If so, how would you change it?

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e. After the interview, the observers are to debrief the interviewer and the applicant. How did they perceive the relative effectiveness of the two sets of questions? Where did they experience difficulties? The observers should also provide feedback to both the interviewer and the applicant as to how they might improve their interview performance.

This role-play can be conducted as a class demonstration with one interviewer and one applicant as role-players and the remainder of the class as observers. A dis- cussion of the relative effectiveness of the two question sets and the effectiveness of the interviewer and applicant can be held with the entire class.

CAsE sTudy ATTRACTing And RETAining miLLEnniALs

Cango Distribution (not the actual name) is a large, rapidly growing, multinational transportation logistics and delivery company. The company has administrative offices in Toronto and New York with about 150 and 500 administrative employees, respectively. In addition, the company has delivery depots in over 200 cities in North America (as well as other depots around the world). There are about 1500 employees distributed in depots across Canada and another 6500 employees across the United States (and a total of about 30 000 employees worldwide). Hiring for field operations (e.g., linehaul drivers, couriers, dispatchers, customer service agents, data systems agents, customs brokerage agents, package handling/sorting, warehouse operations, and so on) is done at the local depots, although policies and procedures are developed at the head offices and recruitment is also centralized (e.g., websites, advertising, and posting jobs).

Job listings are up 186 percent in the transportation/logistics industry as a whole and, given the rapid growth of the company and industry demand, Cango will have strong competition from other organizations in recruiting new talent and the company expects the bulk of new hires to come from the “millennial” generation (i.e., those born between the early 1980s and the early 2000s). In addition to the recruitment challenge, Cango is concerned about maximizing retention. Retention is an important concern because preliminary research suggests that millennials are likely to be “job hoppers.” According to the U.S. Department of Labor statistics, most millennials will have 10 jobs by the time they turn 38. Expending resources to hire employees who stay only a short time is not cost-effective.

A related concern is the reputation millennials have as the “instant gratification generation.” According to a survey conducted by I Love Rewards,332 two-thirds of millennial responders indicated that they want to be rewarded early and often for their individual efforts. Razor Suleman, the chief executive and founder of I Love Rewards, indicates that the expectations of millennials will likely exceed the reality of entry-level jobs. That leaves recruiters with the challenge of getting potential hires excited about the company without painting too rosy a picture.

Until now Cango has left the hiring process to the local depots. However, the company is concerned that this has resulted in rather haphazard selection procedures which often result in poor hiring decisions. Cango wants to standardize selection procedures by implementing new testing procedures as well as structured interviews that would be used across all depots. The company hopes that the new selection procedures will not only improve its ability to select better performers but also reduce the likelihood of turnover among its employees.

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questIons

1. Do you agree with the findings of the I Love Rewards survey and the comments by the chief executive and founder of I Love Rewards, Razor Suleman, concerning the motivation and attitudes of millennials? Why or why not? In what other ways do you think millennials differ from older employees?

2. What measures can Cango take to maximize the likelihood of attracting and retaining millennial employees? What part would the selection system play in these measures?

3. Does the fact that millennials are a major recruitment target of Cango now and in the future have implications for how structured interviews should be developed and/or used with this cohort? If not, why not? If so, how might structured interviews be adapted for this group?

4. Select one of the occupations available at Cango (i.e., linehaul drivers, couriers, dispatchers, customer service agents, data systems agents, customs brokerage agents, package handling/sorting, and warehouse operations) and locate the summary report for the tasks performed and the KSAOs required for the occupation at http://www.onetonline.org. Develop five SI and five BI questions to assess some of the KSAOs rel- evant to the occupation you selected.

5. One of the concerns at Cango is employee retention. Develop two or three interview questions that would allow you to assess the likelihood that an applicant is likely to stay at Cango for a longer period of time. Do you believe the questions you developed will result in an honest answer from the applicants? If so, why? If not, why not? How might you assess the concern about employee retention in a less transparent way?

// endnotes 1. Rowe, P.M., M.C. Williams, and A.L. Day. 1994. “Selection Procedures in

North America.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 2: 74–79.

2. Levashina, J., C.J. Hartwell, F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2013. “The Structured Employment Interview: Narrative and Quantitative Review of the Research Literature.” Personnel Psychology 67: 241–293.

3. Mann, S.M., and J. Chowhan. 2011. “Selection Practices in Canadian Firms: An Empirical Investigation.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 19: 435–437.

4. Kinicki, A.J., C.A. Lockwood, P.W. Hom, and R.W. Griffeth. 1990. “Interviewer Predictions of Applicant Qualifications and Interviewer Validity: Aggregate and Individual Analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 75: 477–486.

5. Sanyal, R., and T. Guvenli. 2004. “Personnel Selection in a Comparative Setting: Evidence from Israel, Slovenia, and the USA.” Journal of East-West Business 10: 5–27.

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6. Macan, T. 2009. “The Employment Interview: A Review of Current Studies and Directions for Future Research.” Human Resource Management Review 19: 203–218.

7. Di Milia, L. 2004. “Australian Management Selection Practices: Closing the Gap between Research Findings and Practice.” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 42: 214–228.

8. Simola, S.K., S. Taggar, and G.W. Smith. 2007. “The Employment Selection Interview: Disparity among Research-based Recommendation, Current Practices and What Matters to Human Rights Tribunals.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 24: 30–44.

9. Dixon, M., S. Wang, J. Calvin, B. Dineen, and E. Tomlinson. 2002. “The Panel Interview: A Review of Empirical Research and Guidelines for Practice.” Public Personnel Management 31: 397–428.

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16. Maurer, S.D. 2006. “Using Situational Interviews to Assess Engineering Applicant Fit to Work Group, Job, and Organizational Requirements.” Engineering Management Journal 18: 27–35.

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18. McCarthy, J.M., and B.H. Cheng. 2015. “Through the Looking Glass: Employment Interviews from the Lens of Job Candidates.” In U.C. Klehe and E.A.J. van Hooft, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Job Loss and Job Search. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Retrieved July 18, 2017, from http://www. oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199764921.001.0001/ oxfordhb-9780199764921-e-015

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21. Ibid.

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23. Rowe, P.M., M.C. Williams, and A.L. Day. 1994. “Selection Procedures in North America.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 2: 74–79.

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30. Ibid.

31. Wiesner, W.H., and S.F. Cronshaw. 1988. “A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Impact of Interview Format and Degree of Structure on the Validity of the Employment Interview.” Journal of Occupational Psychology 61: 275–290.

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36. Dipboye, R.L. 2005. “The Selection/Recruitment Interview: Core Processes and Contexts.” In A. Evers, N. Anderson, and O. Voskuijl, eds., The Blackwell Handbook of Personnel Selection (pp. 121–142). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

37. Dipboye, R.L. 2005.

38. Latham, G.P., and Z. Millman. 2001. “Context and the Employment Interview.” In J.F. Gubrium and J.A. Holstein, eds., Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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41. Huffcutt, A.I., C.H. Van Iddekinge, and P.L. Roth. 2011.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Liden, R.C., C.L. Martin, and C.K. Parsons. 1993. “Interviewer and Applicant Behaviors in Employment Interviews.” Academy of Management Journal 36: 372–386.

45. Ibid.

46. Huffcutt, A.I., C.H. Van Iddekinge, and P.L. Roth. 2011.

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58. Barrick, M.R., J. Shaffer, and S.D. DeGrassi. 2009.

59. Levashina, J., and M.A. Campion. 2007. “Measuring Faking in the Employment Interview: Development and Validation on an Interview Faking Behavior Scale.” Journal of Applied Psychology 92: 1638–1656.

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120. Huffcutt, A.I., and W. Arthur, Jr. 1994.

121. Huffcutt, A.I., S.S. Culbertson, and W.S. Weyhrauch. 2014.

122. Ibid.

123. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

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126. Ibid.

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128. Simola, S.K., S. Taggar, and G.W. Smith. 2007.

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163. Taylor, P.J., and B. Small. 2002.

164. Huffcutt, A.I., J.M. Conway, P.L. Roth, and U.C. Klehe. 2004.

165. Culbertson, S.S., W.S. Weyhrauch, and A.I. Huffcutt. 2017.

166. Huffcutt, A.I., J.M. Conway, P.L. Roth, and U.C. Klehe. 2004.

167. Campion, M.A., E.D. Pursell, and B.K. Brown. 1988. “Structured Interviewing: Raising the Psychometric Properties of the Employment Interview.” Personnel Psychology 41: 25–42.

168. McCarthy, J.M., C.H. Van Iddekinge, and M.A Campion. 2010. “Are Highly Structured Job Interviews Resistant to Demographic Similarity Effects?” Personnel Psychology 63: 325–359.

169. Campion, M.A., E.D. Pursell, and B.K. Brown. 1988.

170. Wright, P.M., P.A. Lichtenfels, and E.D. Pursell. 1989. “The Structured Interview: Additional Studies and a Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Occupational Psychology 62: 191–199.

171. Kennedy, R. 1985. “Validation of Five Structured Interviews.” Unpublished master’s thesis. East Carolina University.

172. Hedge, J.W., and M.S. Teachout. 1992. “An Interview Approach to Work Sample Criterion Measurement.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 453–461.

173. Ree, M.J., J.A. Earles, and M.S. Teachout. 1994. “Predicting Job Performance: Not Much More Than g.” Journal of Applied Psychology 79: 518–524.

174. Campion, M.A., E.D. Pursell, and B.K. Brown. 1988.

175. Klehe, U.C., and G.P. Latham. 2006. “What Would You Do—Really or Ideally? Constructs Underlying the Behavior Description Interview and the Situational Interview in Predicting Typical Versus Maximum Performance.” Human Performance 19: 357–382.

176. Krajewski, H.T., R.D. Goffin, J.M. McCarthy, M.G. Rothstein, and N. Johnston. 2006. “Comparing the Validity of Structured Interviews for Managerial-Level Employees: Should We Look to the Past or Focus on the Future?” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 79: 411–432.

177. Taylor, P.J., and B. Small. 2002.

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178. Culbertson, S.S., W.S. Weyhrauch, and A.I. Huffcutt. 2017.

179. Levashina, J., C.J. Hartwell, F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2013.

180. Huffcutt, A.I., J. Weekley, W.H. Wiesner, T. DeGroot, and C. Jones. 2001. “Comparison of Situational and Behavior Description Interview Questions for Higher Level Positions.” Personnel Psychology 54: 619–644.

181. Huffcutt, A.I., J.M. Conway, P.L. Roth, and U.C. Klehe. 2004.

182. Klehe, U.C., and G.P. Latham. 2005. “The Predictive and Incremental Validity of the Situational and Patterned Behavior Description Interviews for Teamplaying Behavior.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 13: 108–115.

183. Day, A.L., and S.A. Carroll. 2003.

184. Ibid.

185. Berry, C.M., P.R. Sackett, and R.N. Landers. 2007. “Revisiting Interview– Cognitive Ability Relationships: Attending to Specific Range Restriction Mechanism in Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology 60: 837–874.

186. Culbertson, S.S., W.S. Weyhrauch, and A.I. Huffcutt. 2017.

187. Cortina, J.M., N.B. Goldstein, S.C. Payne, H.K. Davison, and S.W. Gilliland. 2000. “The Incremental Validity of Interview Scores Over and Above Cognitive Ability and Conscientiousness Scores.” Personnel Psychology 53: 325–351.

188. Ibid.

189. Huffcutt, A., J.M. Conway, J.P.I. Roth, and N.S. Stone. 2001.

190. Salgado, J.S., and S. Moscoso. 2002. “Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of the Construct Validity of the Employment Interview.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 11: 299–324.

191. Roth, P.L., C.H. Van Iddekinge, A.I. Huffcutt, and M.J. Schmit. 2005. “Personality Saturation in Structured Interviews.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 13: 261–273.

192. Van Iddekinge, C.H., P.H. Raymark, and P.L. Roth. 2005. “Assessing Personality with a Structured Employment Interview: Construct-related Validity and Susceptibility to Response Inflation.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90: 536–552.

193. Roth, P.L., C.H. Van Iddekinge, A.I. Huffcutt, and M.J. Schmit. 2005.

194. Huffcutt, A., J.M. Conway, J.P.I. Roth, and N.S. Stone. 2001.

195. Salgado, J.S., and S. Moscoso. 2002.

196. Huffcutt, A.I., J. Weekley, W.H. Wiesner, T. DeGroot, and C. Jones. 2001.

197. Huffcutt, A.I., S.S. Culbertson, and W.S. Weyhrauch. 2014.

198. Hamdani, M.R., S. Valcea, and M.R. Buckley. 2014. “The Relentless Pursuit of Construct Validity in the Design of Employment Interviews.” Human Resource Management Review 24: 160–176.

199. Ellis, A.P.J., B.J. West, A.M. Ryan, and R.P. DeShon. 2002. “The Use of Impression Management Tactics in Structured Interviews: A Function of Question Type.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87: 1200–1208.

200. Peeters, H., and F. Lievens. 2006. “Verbal and Nonverbal Impression Management Tactics in Behavior Description and Situational Interviews.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 14: 206–222.

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201. Kleinmann, M., and U.-C. Klehe. 2011. “Selling Oneself: Construct and Criterion-related Validity of Impression Management in Structured Interviews.” Human Performance 24: 29–46.

202. Van Iddekinge, C.H., L.A. McFarland, and P.H. Raymark. 2007. “Antecedents of Impression Management Use and Effectiveness in a Structured Interview.” Journal of Management 33: 752–773.

203. Levashina, J., and M.A. Campion. 2007.

204. Kleinmann, M., and U.-C. Klehe. 2011.

205. Tsai, W.C., C.C. Chen, and S.F. Chiu. 2005. “Exploring Boundaries of the Effects of Applicant Impression Management Tactics in Job Interviews.” Journal of Management 31: 108–125.

206. Barrick, M.R., J. Shaffer, and S.D. DeGrassi. 2009.

207. Levashina, J., C.J. Hartwell, F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2013.

208. Culbertson, S.S., W.S. Weyhrauch, and A.I. Huffcutt. 2017.

209. Ibid.

210. Huffcutt, A., J.M. Conway, J.P.I. Roth, and N.S. Stone. 2001.

211. Maurer, S.D. 2006.

212. Lievens, F., and A. De Paepe. 2004. “An Empirical Investigation of Interviewer-related Factors That Discourage the Use of High Structure Interviews.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 25: 29–46.

213. Miles, A., and E. Sadler-Smith. 2014. “‘With Recruitment I Always Feel I Need to Listen to My Gut’: The Role of Intuition in Employee Selection.” Personnel Review 43: 606–627.

214. Simola, S.K., S. Taggar, and G.W. Smith. 2007.

215. Lievens, F., and A. De Paepe. 2004.

216. Way, S.A., and J.W. Thacker. 1999. “Selection Practices: Where Are Canadian Organizations?” HR Professional 16: 33–37.

217. Simola, S.K., S. Taggar, and G.W. Smith. 2007.

218. Ibid.

219. Chapman, D.S., and D.I. Zweig. 2005. “Developing a Nomological Network for Interview Structure: Antecedents and Consequences of the Structured Selection Interview.” Personnel Psychology 58: 673–702.

220. Ibid.

221. Chen, Y.C., W.C. Tsai, and C. Hu. 2008. “The Influences of Interviewer-related and Situational Factors on Interviewer Reactions to High Structured Job Interviews.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 19: 1056–1071.

222. Lievens, F., and A. De Paepe. 2004.

223. Tsai, W., F.H. Chen, H. Chen, and K. Tseng. 2016. “When Will Interviewers Be Willing to Use High-structured Job Interviews? The Role of Personality.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 24: 93–105.

224. Posthuma, R.A., F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2002.

225. Hausknecht, J.P., D.V. Day, and S.C. Thomas. 2004. “Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures: An Updated Model and Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology 57: 639–683.

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226. Dipboye, R.L., T. Macan, and C. Shahani-Denning. 2012.

227. Becton, J.B., H.S. Feild, W.F. Giles, and A. Jones-Farmer. 2008. “Racial Differences in Promotion Candidate Performance and Reactions to Selection Procedures: A Field Study in a Diverse Top-Management Context.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 29: 265–285.

228. Cited in Posthuma, R.A., F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2002.

229. Chapman, D.S., and D.I. Zweig. 2005.

230. Seijts, G.H., and I. Kyei-Poku. 2010. “The Role of Situational Interviews in Fostering Positive Reactions to Selection Decisions.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 59: 431–453.

231. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2001. “The Impact of Videoconference Technology, Interview Structure, and Interviewer Gender on Interviewer Evaluations in the Employment Interview: A Field Experiment.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 74: 279–298.

232. Kohn, L.S., and R.L. Dipboye. 1998. “The Effects of Interview Structure on Recruiting Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28: 821–843.

233. Kohn, L.S., and R.L. Dipboye. 1998.

234. Tsai, W.C., C.C. Chen, and S.F. Chiu. 2005.

235. Kohn, L.S., and R.L. Dipboye. 1998.

236. Posthuma, R.A., F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2002.

237. Swider, B.W., M.R. Barrick, and T.B. Harris. 2016. “Initial Impressions: What They Are, What They Are Not, and How They Influence Structured Interview Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 101: 625–638.

238. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

239. Hackett, R.D., L.M. Lapierre, and H.P. Gardiner. 2004.

240. Hackett, R.D., J.B. Rose, and J. Pyper. 2000.

241. Williamson, L.G., J.E. Campion, S.B. Malos, M.V. Roehling, and M.A. Campion. 1997. “Employment Interview on Trial: Linking Interview Structure with Litigation Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82: 900–912.

242. Hackett, R.D., L.M. Lapierre, and H.P. Gardiner. 2004.

243. Hackett, R.D., J.B. Rose, and J. Pyper. 2000.

244. Williamson, L.G., J.E. Campion, S.B. Malos, M.V. Roehling, and M.A. Campion. 1997.

245. Saks, A.M., and J.M. McCarthy. 2006. “Effects of Discriminatory Interview Questions and Gender on Applicant Reactions.” Journal of Business and Psychology 21: 175–191.

246. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

247. Ibid.

248. Maurer, S.D. 2002. “A Practitioner-based Analysis of Interviewer Job Expertise and Scale Format as Contextual Factors in Situational Interviews.” Personnel Psychology 55: 307–327.

249. Reilly, N.P, S.P. Bocketti, S.A. Maser, and C.L. Wennet. 2006.

250. Melchers, K.G., N. Lienhardt, M. Von Aarburg, and M. Kleinmann. 2011. “Is More Structure Really Better? A Comparison of Frame-of-Reference Training

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and Descriptively Anchored Rating Scales to Improve Interviewers’ Rating Quality.” Personnel Psychology 64: 53–87.

251. Hackett, R.D., L.M. Lapierre, and H.P. Gardiner. 2004.

252. Hackett, R.D., J.B. Rose, and J. Pyper. 2000.

253. Latham, G.P., L.M. Saari, E.D. Pursell, and M.A. Campion. 1980.

254. Webster, E.C. 1964.

255. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

256. Wiesner, W.H. 1989. “The Contributions of Job Relevance, Timing, and Rating Scale to the Validity of the Employment Interview.” In S.F. Cronshaw, chair, Improving Interview Validity and Legal Defensibility through Structuring. Symposium conducted at the 50th Annual Convention of the Canadian Psychological Association.

257. Day, A.L., and S.A. Carroll. 2003.

258. Nunnally, J.C., and I.H. Bernstein. 1994. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

259. Schmidt, F.L., and R.D. Zimmerman. 2004. “A Counterintuitive Hypothesis about Employment Interview Validity and Some Supporting Evidence.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89: 553–561.

260. Arvey, R.D., and J.E. Campion. 1982.

261. Blankenship, M.H., and S.J. Cesare. 1993. “Age Fairness in the Employment Interview: A Field Study.” In R.D. Arvey, chair, Perceptions, Theories, and Issues of Fairness in the Employment Interview. Symposium presented at the 101st Annual Convention of the Psychological Association, Toronto.

262. Lin, T.R., G.H. Dobbins, and J.L. Farh. 1992. “A Field Study of Age and Race Similarity Effects on Interview Ratings in Conventional and Situational Interviews.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 363–371.

263. Buckley, M.R., K.A. Jackson, M.C. Bolino, J.G. Veres, III, and H.S. Feild. 2007. “The Influence of Relational Demography on Panel Interview Ratings: A Field Experiment.” Personnel Psychology 60: 627–646.

264. McFarland, L.A., A.M. Ryan, J.M. Sacco, and S.D. Kriska. 2004. “Examination of Structured Interview Ratings across Time: The Effects of Applicant Race, Rater Race, and Panel Composition.” Journal of Management 30: 435–452.

265. McFarland, L.A., A.M. Ryan, J.M. Sacco, and S.D. Kriska. 2004.

266. Lin, T.R., G.H. Dobbins, and J.L. Farh. 1992.

267. Paullin, C. 1993. “Features of Structured Interviews Which Enhance Perceptions of Fairness.” In R.D. Arvey, chair, Perceptions, Theories, and Issues of Fairness in the Employment Interview. Symposium presented at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

268. Motowidlo, S.J. et al. 1992.

269. Huffcutt, A.I., and P.L. Roth. 1998. “Racial and Group Differences in Employment Interview Evaluations.” Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 179–189.

270. Lin, T.R., G.H. Dobbins, and J.L. Farh. 1992.

271. McCarthy, J.M., C.H. Van Iddekinge, and M.A Campion. 2010.

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272. Brecher, E., J. Bragger, and E. Kutcher. 2006. “The Structured Interview: Reducing Bias toward Applicants with Disabilities.” Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 18: 155–170.

273. Reilly, N.P., S.P. Bocketti, S.A. Maser, and C.L. Wennet. 2006.

274. Harris, M.M. 1993. “Fair or Foul: How Interview Questions Are Perceived.” In R.D. Arvey, chair, Perceptions, Theories, and Issues of Fairness in the Employment Interview. Symposium presented at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

275. Williamson, L.G., J.E. Campion, S.B. Malos, M.V. Roehling, and M.A. Campion. 1997.

276. Seijts, G.H., and I. Kyei-Poku. 2010.

277. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

278. Dipboye, R.L. 1992.

279. Posthuma, R.A., F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2002.

280. Campion, M.A., D.K. Palmer, and J.E. Campion. 1997.

281. Ibid.

282. Dipboye, R.L. 1992.

283. Conway, J.M., R.A. Jako, and D.F. Goodman. 1995.

284. Huffcutt, A.I., and D.J. Woehr. 1999. “Further Analysis of Employment Interview Validity: A Quantitative Evaluation of Interviewer-related Structuring Methods.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 20: 549–560.

285. Melchers, K.G., N. Lienhardt, M. Von Aarburg, and M. Kleinmann. 2011.

286. Feeney, J.R., J.M. McCarthy, and R. Goffin. 2015. “Applicant Anxiety: Examining the Sex-linked Anxiety Coping Theory in Job Interview Contexts.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 23: 295–305.

287. McCarthy, J., and R. Goffin. 2004. “Measuring Job Interview Anxiety: Beyond Weak Knees and Sweaty Palms.” Personnel Psychology 57: 607–637.

288. Feeney, J.R., J.M. McCarthy, and R. Goffin. 2015.

289. Feiler, A.R., and D.M. Powell. 2016. “Behavioral Expression of Job Interview Anxiety.” Journal of Business and Psychology 31: 155–171.

290. Maurer, T.J., and J.M. Solamon. 2006. “The Science and Practice of a Structured Employment Interview Coaching Program.” Personnel Psychology 59: 433–456.

291. Jackson, S.E., P.M. Rowe, N.C. Hall, and L.M. Daniels. 2009. “Getting the Job: Attributional Retraining and the Employment Interview.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 39: 973–998.

292. Latham, G.P, and M.H. Budworth. 2006. “The Effect of Training in Verbal Self- Guidance on the Self-Efficacy and Performance of Native North Americans in the Selection Interview.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 68: 516–523.

293. Feiler, A.R., and D.M. Powell. 2016.

294. Jackson, S.E., P.M. Rowe, N.C. Hall, and L.M. Daniels. 2009.

295. Langer, M., C.J. König, P. Gebhard, and E. André. 2016. “Dear Computer, Teach Me Manners: Testing Virtual Employment Interview Training.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 24: 312–323.

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296. Maurer, T.J., J.M. Solamon, and M. Lippstreu. 2008. “How Does Coaching Interviewees Affect the Validity of a Structured Interview?” Journal of Organizational Behavior 29: 355–371.

297. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2001.

298. Schmidt, F.L., and M. Rader. 1999. “Exploring the Boundary Conditions for Interview Validity: Meta-Analytic Validity Findings for a New Interview Type.” Personnel Psychology 52: 445–464.

299. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2002.

300. Martin, C.L., and D.H. Nagao. 1989. “Some Effects of Computerized Interviews on Job Applicant Responses.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 72–80.

301. Sears, G.J., H. Zhang, W.H. Wiesner, R.D. Hackett, and Y. Yuan. 2013. “A Comparative Assessment of Videoconference and Face-to-Face Employment Interviews.” Management Decision 51(8): 1733–1752.

302. Meckenbach, G. 1997. “Your Next Job Interview Might Be at Home.” Computing Canada 16: 1–4.

303. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2001.

304. Van Iddekinge, C.H., P.H. Raymark, P.L. Roth, and H.S. Payne. 2006. “Comparing the Psychometric Characteristics of Ratings of Face-to-Face and Videotaped Structured Interviews.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 14: 347–359.

305. Sears, G.J., H. Zhang, W.H. Wiesner, R.D. Hackett, and Y. Yuan. 2013.

306. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2002.

307. Chapman, D.S., and P.M. Rowe. 2001.

308. Honer, J., C.W. Wright, and C.J. Sablynski. 2006. “Puzzle Interviews: What Are They and What Do They Measure?” Applied HRM Research 11: 79–96.

309. Wright, C.W., C.J. Sablynski, T.M. Manson, and S. Oshiro. 2012. “Why Are Manhole Covers Round? A Laboratory Study of Reactions to Puzzle Interviews.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42: 2834–2857.

310. Honer, J., C.W. Wright, and C.J. Sablynski. 2006.

311. Wright, C.W., C.J. Sablynski, T.M. Manson, and S. Oshiro. 2012.

312. Eva, K.W., H.I. Reiter, J. Rosenfeld, and G.R. Norman. 2004. “The Relationship between Interviewers’ Characteristics and Ratings Assigned during a Multiple Mini-Interview.” Academic Medicine 79: 602–609.

313. Reiter, H.I., J. Rosenfeld, and L. Giordano. 2004. “Selection of Medical Students at McMaster University: A Quarter Century Later.” McMaster University Medical Journal 2: 41–45.

314. Pau, A. et al. 2013. “The Multiple Mini-Interview (MMI) for Student Selection in Health Professions Training—A Systematic Review.” Medical Teacher 35: 1027–1041.

315. Kulasegaram, K., H.I. Reiter, W.H. Wiesner, R.D. Hackett, and G.R. Norman. 2010. “Non-association between Neo-5 Personality Tests and Multiple Mini- Interview.” Advances in Health Sciences Education 15: 415–423.

316. Eva, K.W., H.I. Reiter, K. Trinh, P. Wasi, J. Rosenfeld, and G.R. Norman. 2009. “Predictive Validity of the Multiple Mini-Interview for Selecting Medical Trainees.” Medical Education 43: 767–775.

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317. Hofmeister, M., J. Lockyer, and R. Crutcher. 2009. “The Multiple Mini- Interview for Selection of International Medical Graduates into Family Medicine Residency Education.” Medical Education 4: 573–579.

318. Reiter, H.I., K.W. Eva, J. Rosenfeld, and G.R. Norman. 2007. “Multiple Mini-Interviews Predict Clerkship and Licensing Examination Performance.” Medical Education 4: 378–384.

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324. Griffin, B., and I. Wilson. 2012.

325. Ibid.

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327. Jerant, A. et al. 2012.

328. Eva, K.W., and C. Macala. 2014. “Multiple Mini-Interview Test Characteristics: ‘Tis Better to Ask Candidates to Recall Than to Imagine.” Medical Education 48: 604–613.

329. Buckley, R.M., A.M. Norris, and D.S. Wiese. 2000. “A Brief History of the Selection Interview: May the Next 100 Years Be More Fruitful.” Journal of Management History 6: 113–126.

330. Levashina, J., C.J. Hartwell, F.P. Morgeson, and M.A. Campion. 2013.

331. Dipboye, R.L. 2005.

332. Covert, K. 2010, March 24. “Recruiting the Recruiter.” Financial Post. Retrieved from http://www2.canada.com/news/women+risk+averse+study+ finds/5331026/story.html?id=2718808&p=2

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NEL

CHAPTER

CHAPTER LEARning OuTCOmEs This chapter considers ways of reducing subjectivity and error in making selection deci- sions by using scientific methods that maximize selection effectiveness and efficiency. It also discusses statistical methods of accomplishing employment equity objectives while maintaining the validity of the selection system.

AfTER REAding THis CHAPTER, yOu sHOuLd bE AbLE TO:

• recognize the complexity of decision making in the employee selection context;

• identify the sources of common decision-making errors in employee selection;

• distinguish between judgmental and statistical approaches to the collection and combination of applicant information;

• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various decision-making models;

• identify issues involved with group decision making;

• describe the basic principles in the application of cutoff scores, banding, and top-down selection;

• summarize the factors that need to be considered in making a job offer;

• explain the role of letters of employment and employment contracts in the job offer process;

• analyze the issues and legal concerns, as well as potential dangers, that need to be considered in drafting and/or signing letters of employment or employment contracts; and

• discuss the benefits of using best practices in recruitment and selection.

dECisiOn mAking

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL458

Studies indicate that most leaders rely on their intuition when deciding whether to appoint someone. Should we trust our intuitions or are they betraying us?

Anyone who has interviewed a potential employee knows they get a “gut feeling” about the candidate in front of them. These senses can be difficult to define but also hard to ignore; often becoming the deciding factor.

What actually is a gut feeling/intuition?

Essentially intuitions are a result of a subconscious “matching process” between the information our senses have picked up and the existing neural pathways in our brains. This process elicits positive or negative “feelings” which act as a “mental shortcut” to help us make quick decisions.

(Whilst it seems gut feelings have nothing to do with our “gut”, it may be interesting to note that hunger levels do affect our decisions about people. Judges for example have been found to be significantly less likely to make posi- tive parole decisions the longer it is since their last meal break. If you’re going for an interview, it may pay to ensure it’s first thing in the morning or after lunch . . .)

do our intuitions help us make better selection decisions?

The available evidence suggests that selection decisions based on traditional interviews and intuitions are poor. Sometimes we get a gut feeling and it’s obvious that a can- didate is not a fit for the organisation, but intuition cannot help you with those who “look right but are wrong” or “look wrong but are right”. If you want to predict longer-term performance and fit, relying on your gut and a traditional unstructured interview is about as valid as flipping a coin.

Many people will cite examples of when their gut has been right and so believe in their “6th sense” passionately – however this is most likely to be explained by probability and a tendency to remember the times when you were right. There appears to be no correlation between confi- dence in gut decisions and outcomes over time.

It is also important to note that leaders with nega- tive intuitions about a candidate may create a self- fulfilling prophecy. These leaders subconsciously set new staff members up to fail by treating them in a manner that reflects their low expectations.

Why don’t our intuitions work?

Our gut feelings tend to be based upon whatever has grabbed our attention, we then attempt to justify that feeling logically in our minds after the decision has already been made – a form of confirmation bias.

It doesn’t work because the unconscious “gut feeling” typically stems from something that has little rel- evance to longer-term success in the role (that is unless “surface-level” factors such as appearance and cosmetic interpersonal skills are pivotal to the role). Psychopaths for example tend to excel at interviews due to heightened abilities to manipulate others’ feelings.

does experience help?

We often hear experienced leaders say they can “pick talent” based on surprisingly little information. Studies show that even experienced HR professionals and judges fail if they rely on their intuition to predict people outcomes. At executive levels, highly experienced leaders often believe that formal assessment is not necessary, prefer- ring to make appointment decisions based on track-record and a conversation. With executive turnover rates currently ranging from 20–60% in the first 18 months, it seems this is misguided.

Where experience does make a difference is when it’s applied to valid assessment methodologies. Psycholo- gists for example have higher rates of success compared to managers and supervisors.

i know this, what’s your point?

Most leaders and HR professionals report that they know structured assessment tools and methodologies are more effective than traditional interviews and gut feelings. The point is, when required to make a selection decision, they still rely on their intuitions even when there is structured assessment data that tells a different story.

For example, a few years ago we assessed two can- didates for a CEO role, both came highly recommended by the search firm and had impressive CVs. We used multiple valid assessment methods against an agreed success pro- file, and while one performed strongly, the other did not. The stronger candidate was rejected by the organisation because the chairman said something was “not quite right” about him. When pushed for further detail, the chairman

sHOuLd WE “TRusT OuR guT” On sELECTiOn dECisiOns?

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The purpose of selection is to discriminate. This statement may sound strange in the context of our discussion of human rights and employment equity in Chapter 3. However, the term “discrimination” has acquired a negative connotation because of its frequent association with the word “unfair.” In fact, we do not want to discriminate illegally or unfairly, but we do want to differentiate on the basis of applicants’ abilities to do the work. Just as we differentiate in the grocery store between the desirable fruit or vegetables and those we do not want, our task in employee selection is to differentiate between those applicants we believe will become effective employees and those who will not. Thus, selection involves making decisions about which applicants to hire and which not to hire, based on the information available.

Unfortunately, as indicated in article at the beginning of the chapter, although employers like to rely on their intuition in selection decisions, humans are imperfect decision makers.1 The use of phrases such as “I’m only human” as justification for having made mistakes reflects our common understanding of this principle. Factors other than logic typically enter into our HR decisions—emotional reactions to appli- cants or gut feelings, pressures to hire, political motives, and a variety of constraints.2–4 Decision makers often make decisions based on inadequate or erroneous information.

alluded to the candidate’s nervous posture and his weaker handshake. They hired the second candidate, even though he performed comparatively poorly on the assessment. Unsurprisingly, this turned out to be a poor decision – the new CEO then went on to halve the market value of the organisation and was forced out by the Board 18 months later. Meanwhile, the other candidate went on to deliver outstanding results at a competitor.

so what should we do?

One of the greatest achievements of organisational psy- chology is in developing valid assessment methodolo- gies that can predict performance over time; it seems its greatest failing is convincing people to use them and trust the results.

Our intuitions are difficult to ignore, and ultimately we kick ourselves when we go against them (and they turn out to be right). Statistically though, our “gut” is only likely to be right about half of the time. The consequences of picking someone who “seems right but isn’t” are signifi- cant, similarly it’s painful to miss out on talent when your gut “misfires”.

Take a step back and double-check your intuition with valid assessment methodologies, your gut might just be telling you it wants a sandwich . . .

References:

Aamodt, M (2005). The Case Against Unstructured Em- ployment Interviews. Technical Affairs, August 2005, Assessment Council News.

Danziger, S., Levav, J, Avnaim-Pesso, L (2011). Extra- neous factors in judicial decisions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; DOI: 10.1073/ pnas.1018033108

Erker, S, Buczynski, K (2009). Are you failing the inter- view? DDI whitepaper.

Highhouse, S (2008). Stubborn Reliance on Intuition and Subjectivity in Employee Selection. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 333–342.

Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2005). What we know about leadership. Review of General Psychology, 9, 169–180.

Miles, A; Sadler-Smith, E (2014), “With recruitment I always feel I need to listen to my gut”: the role of intuition in employee selection, Personnel Review, Vol. 43 Iss 4 pp. 606–627.

Tatton, J (2015). Executive Assessment – The Inconve- nient Truth. Mind Group whitepaper.

Woehr, DJ, Winfred A (2003). The Construct-Related Validity of Assessment Center Ratings: A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Role of Methodological Factors. Journal of Manage- ment, 29(2), 231–258.

Source: Julian Tatton, August 16, 2015. “Should we ‘trust our gut’ on selection decisions?” LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/ should-we-trust-our-gut-selection-decisions-julian-tatton

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As a result, employers frequently make poor hiring decisions. The purpose of this chapter is to provide information and tools that can assist employers in making better selection decisions.

The chapter-opening article highlights some of the issues that we will discuss here. It is not simply a case of using proper selection tools. HR professionals must know how to integrate data from the different assessments that they have obtained from job candi- dates. They must understand the advantages and limitations of the different procedures that they might use and recognize that the recommended list of candidates may change, depending on the method they used to integrate the information. Some organizations use computer software to help them integrate selection information to make selection decisions. Although such software can certainly be helpful, it is not necessary and, in fact, can sometimes have disadvantages such as employer acceptance and adverse impact against protected groups.5 HR managers or others involved in making selection deci- sions can make effective use of various statistically based methods of decision making, provided they have some mathematical background. In this chapter we advocate the use of statistically based decision-making models and illustrate how they are used to make selection decisions.

// The ConTexT of SeleCTion DeCiSionS Employers typically must contend with a number of constraints and competing demands when making selection decisions. Often, time pressures prevent them from making logical or objective choices. If they need to fill vacant positions quickly, they tend to satisfice.6 That is, rather than searching for the best candidates, they will select the first applicants they encounter who meet the minimum qualifications or levels of acceptability.7 Simi- larly, if an insufficient number of suitable applicants are available or if the level of appli- cant qualifications is quite low, employers’ standards of acceptability tend to drop.8 They will often accept less-qualified applicants rather than continue their recruitment efforts in order to generate applications from better-qualified candidates.

Often, rather than selecting for a specific job, employers select applicants for the organization. Their selection decisions are based on perceptions of the applicants’ overall suitability for the organization, or organizational fit, particularly during the interview stages of the selection process.9 In fact, according to Waterstone Human Capital’s 2011 Corporate Culture Study, 85 percent of Canadian managers feel cultural fit is more important than job-specific skills when hiring candidates for their organization.10 Often, organizations that hire for cultural or organizational fit do not concern themselves with which job a candidate should be placed in until after the hiring decision has been made. Such organizations tend to have promote-from-within policies, flexible job descriptions, or jobs that change rapidly, or they tend to practise job rotation or rapid promotion. Hiring for organizational fit is a reasonable strategy if, in a relatively short time, new employees end up doing considerably different work than what they were hired to do. However, organizations using such a strategy need to ensure that they accurately measure the orga- nization’s corporate culture, that they can accurately assess applicants’ fit to that culture, and that organization fit is predictive of performance or tenure in the organization or other criterion measures.11

Another form of selection involves promotion or transfer. Although promotions or transfers are often made on the basis of seniority or merit, they are most effective if treated as selection decisions. The candidates selected should be those most qualified

organizational fit Applicants’ overall suitability for the organization and its culture.

Satisficing Making an acceptable or adequate choice rather than the best or optimal choice.

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for the vacant positions. When candidates are selected on the basis of merit or good job performance, the selection decision is based on the assumption that good performance in one job is indicative of good performance in another. However, the best salesperson or machinist will not necessarily make the best sales manager or shop supervisor. In fact, that person might be quite incompetent in the new job. On the other hand, promotions based on seniority are based on the assumption that the most experienced employee would be most effective. But the most experienced salesperson might not even be the best salesperson, let alone the best sales manager. Therefore, just as in other selection deci- sions, candidates for promotion or transfer should be assessed in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies (KSAOs) they possess relevant to the positions for which they are being considered.

// SeleCTion errorS Many employers believe they have a knack for making good selection decisions. Some look for a firm handshake, unwavering eye contact, or upright posture in an applicant. Others look for confidence, enthusiasm, or personality (see Recruitment and Selection Today 10.1). Most employers hold implicit theories about how certain behaviours, man- nerisms, or personality characteristics go together.12 Implicit theories are personal beliefs

implicit theories Personal beliefs that are held about how people or things function, without objective evidence and often without conscious awareness.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 10.1

WHAT DO EMPLOyERS LOOK FOR IN AN APPLICANT?

Employers have long hired applicants for a variety of rea- sons that do not appear to be job related. you be the judge as to the merits of the selection techniques described below.

• One employer asked applicants to lunch in order to observe them eating. The employer believed that those who eat quickly are energetic workers, that they eat quickly in order to be able to get on with their work. Conversely, those who eat slowly are expected to take longer at lunch and coffee breaks, as well as to work more slowly. It appears the employer believed in a variation of the well-known maxim “you are how you eat.”

• Another employer looked for the same charac- teristic by observing how applicants walked into the office for their interviews. Those who had a spry, determined step were more likely to be hired than those who ambled into the office or those who seemed hesitant as they entered. The employer believed that an energetic, determined

walk is indicative of an energetic, determined worker.

• yet another employer didn’t like to hire applicants with a lot of hobbies or those involved in a lot of extracurricular activities. The employer reasoned that people who are active outside work or who have a lot of nonwork interests will be too distracted by their hobbies to sufficiently devote themselves to their work and that they might use some of their work time to pursue their own interests.

• Finally, one employer had a tendency to hire applicants who seemed to desperately need the job. It appears the applicants’ needs triggered the employer’s sense of social responsibility and compassion. The employer felt good about being able to help these needy individuals and reasoned that the more capable applicants can easily find employment elsewhere.

What advice would you have for each of these employers?

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that are held about how people or things function, without objective evidence and often without conscious awareness. For example, an employer might believe that unwavering eye contact reveals honesty, directness, and confidence. However, such an assumption is not necessarily warranted. Maintaining eye contact could be an interview tactic learned by the applicant or it could even reflect hostility. Moreover, in some cultures maintaining direct eye contact is considered rude and inappropriate behaviour. Applicants from these cultures would be disadvantaged if eye contact was a factor in the selection decision.

Many employers have implicit theories about what characteristics or qualities are important or necessary for particular kinds of work. For example, some employers might believe that someone who is extraverted or outgoing would not make a good accountant. Many employers believe certain jobs are best suited for males (e.g., construction work) whereas other jobs are best suited for females (e.g., secretary).13,14 In a study by Ng and Wiesner, even commerce students who had been exposed to lectures on human rights and employment equity issues expressed a preference for hiring male police officers and female nurses.15 Only when they were reminded of employment equity considerations did a relatively small majority of the students indicate they would be willing to hire female police officers or male nurses, although not under all conditions. Many of these students are likely to have carried their implicit theories about gender-appropriate jobs (or job sex-typing) into the workplace upon graduation and these theories are likely to influence their decisions should they be involved in employee selection.16

Many other employers make subjective decisions based on gut feelings about the applicant. They hire applicants simply because they like them or seem to get along well with them, at least based on the few minutes they spend together in an interview. Invari- ably, such gut feelings, as well as implicit theories, lead to poor selection decisions, as we discussed in Chapter 2.17

Although employers assess a considerable amount of often complex information about each candidate, they must simplify this information to produce a dichotomous decision. Candidates are classified as either acceptable or unacceptable and hired or not hired on the basis of this assessment. Sometimes these decisions turn out to be correct, and the applicant who is hired becomes a productive and valued employee. Other times (more often than many employers care to admit), employers make mistakes by hiring individuals who turn out to be unsuitable. The four possible outcomes of a selection decision are presented in Figure 10.1.

Two of the outcomes in Figure 10.1, the true positive and the true negative, are cor- rect decisions, or “hits.” In the true positive outcome, the employer has hired an applicant who turns out to be a successful employee. In the true negative outcome, the employer did not hire an applicant who would have been considered a failure as an employee if hired. Obviously, an employer would want to maximize both these “hits” or correct predictions but, as we will demonstrate later in this chapter, that can be quite difficult to accomplish. The two other outcomes represent selection errors or “misses.”

A false positive error occurs when an applicant is assessed favourably and is hired, but proves to be unsuccessful on the job. This is a costly error and may even be disastrous in some jobs. Productivity, profits, and the company’s reputation may suffer when such errors are made. It may be difficult to terminate the employees once hired, termination can be costly, and grievance proceedings could result from the termination. Moreover, a replacement for the unsuccessful employee must be recruited, selected, and trained, all at additional cost. Some organizations use probationary periods (e.g., between one and six months) for new employees in order to reduce the costs of false positive errors. In

false positive error Occurs when an appli- cant who is assessed favourably turns out to be a poor choice.

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NEL 463CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

False Negative

(Miss)

False Positive (Miss)

True Positive

(Hit) Success

Failure

Criterion Measures of Job Performance

True Negative

(Hit)

Not Hired

Selection Decision

Hired

figuRE 10.1

OuTCOmEs Of THE sELECTiOn PROCEss

fact, tenure for professors is really a probationary system—in this case, the probationary period is five or six years.

A false negative error is one in which the applicant is assessed unfavourably and is not hired but would have been successful if hired. Such errors tend to go unnoticed because there are usually no obvious negative consequences for the employer as there are with false positive errors. The employer rarely finds out about the quality of the applicant who was not hired. Only in high-profile occupations such as professional sports does a false negative error become readily apparent. When an athlete who is turned down by one team becomes a star pitcher, goalie, or fullback with a competing team, the first team is constantly faced with its mistake.

Even though false negative errors are rarely that obvious in most organizations, they can be costly. Applicants for key jobs (e.g., software designer) might develop highly successful products for the competing organization that did hire them. Furthermore, when an organization turns down a number of good candidates who are then hired by a competitor, even for non-key jobs, the competitor could gain a significant advantage in productivity. In addition, false negative errors might adversely affect minority applicants and could result in human rights litigation.

Although it is not possible to entirely avoid or even recognize all errors when making selection decisions, they can be minimized. Valid selection methods and systematic pro- cedures will serve to improve the probability of making correct selection decisions. One particular challenge faced by employers is how to make sense of the various, and some- times conflicting, sources of information about applicants in order to make an informed decision. The next section considers different ways of combining complex information and suggests some systematic procedures for making selection decisions.

false negative error Occurs when an applicant who is rejected would have been a good choice.

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// ColleCTion anD CombinaTion of informaTion Before a selection decision can be made, information about the applicants must be collected from various sources and combined in an effective way. Typically, employers collect this information on application forms or from résumés, in employment inter- views, and through reference checks. Many employers also administer ability, personality, and/or other tests; collect and score biographical information; or make use of assessment centres. These methods of collecting applicant information are discussed in detail in Chapters 7–9.

Sometimes all information is in agreement and the decision can be straightforward. Other times, the information is contradictory and the decision is more difficult. For example, if one applicant looks very good on paper (i.e., on the application form or résumé), has a high score on a cognitive ability test, and receives glowing recommenda- tions from the references, but does poorly in the interview, while another applicant does well on everything except the cognitive ability test, what is the appropriate decision? Unfortunately, in such circumstances employers tend to emphasize one of the sources of information, often the interview, while giving relatively little consideration to the other information available.18–20 The employer must find some way of making sense of all this information and combining it effectively so that the best possible selection decision can be made. We will therefore explore the effectiveness of different ways of collecting and combining selection information.

Information collected from some sources, such as test scores, tends to be more objective. A good test result provides a reliable and valid measurement of some attribute, which can be readily used to compare applicants on a numerical or statistical basis. That is, no (or very little) human judgment is involved in collecting this score. We will refer to these methods of collecting applicant information or data as statistical. Infor- mation collected from more subjective sources, such as unstructured interviews, relies much more, or even exclusively, on human judgment. We will refer to these methods of collecting applicant information or data as judgmental (some authors refer to these as “clinical” methods).

Just as applicant data can be collected statistically or judgmentally, the data can be combined using statistical and judgmental methods. Data combined mathematically, using a formula, have been synthesized in a more objective fashion, which we will call statistical combination. Combining data through human judgment or an overall impression is a more subjective process, which we will refer to as judgmental combina- tion. So, a number of permutations are possible. Judgmentally collected data can be combined in either a judgmental or a statistical manner, and statistically collected data can be combined in either a judgmental or a statistical manner. Moreover, it is pos- sible that some of the data are collected judgmentally (e.g., an unstructured interview), whereas other data are collected statistically (e.g., test scores). This composite of judg- mental and statistical data can also be combined in either a judgmental or a statistical manner. The possible permutations of methods of data collection and combination are presented in Table 10.1.

In the pure judgment approach, judgmental data are collected and combined in a judgmental manner. The decision maker forms an overall impression of the applicant based on gut feeling or implicit theories rather than explicit, objective criteria. In this approach, the decision maker both collects information and makes a decision about the

Pure judgment approach An approach in which judgmental data are combined in a judgmental manner.

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applicant. An employer making a selection decision based on an unstructured interview is representative of this approach. The employer who hires applicants because he feels sorry for them is using intuition or pure judgment to make his decisions.

The trait rating approach is one in which judgmental data are combined statistically. A number of judgmental ratings are made (e.g., based on interviews, application forms or résumés, or reference checks). The ratings are combined using a mathematical formula, which produces an overall score for each applicant. Although the decision makers collect the information and make ratings on each of the components, the decision is based on the overall score generated by the mathematical formula.

The profile interpretation strategy involves combining statistical data in a judg- mental manner. Data are collected from objective sources such as tests or biograph- ical inventories. The decision maker examines these data to form an overall, subjective impression of the applicant’s suitability for the job. The selection decision is based on this overall impression or gut feeling.

In the pure statistical approach, statistically collected data are combined statistically. Test scores or scores from other objective sources such as biographical inventories or weighted application blanks are fed into a formula or regression equation, which produces an overall combined score. Applicants are then selected in order of their scores (i.e., the top scorer, then the second-highest, and so on, until the desired number of applicants has been selected).

The judgmental composite involves collecting both judgmental and statistical data and then combining them judgmentally. A decision maker might conduct unstructured interviews and reference checks (judgmental data) and have access to test scores (statistical data). The decision maker then examines the test scores and considers the impressions of the applicants gained from the interviews and reference checks in order to form an overall impression and make a decision concerning who should be hired. This is probably the most common method used by employers to make selection decisions.

The statistical composite also involves collecting both judgmental and statistical data, but the data are combined statistically. Ratings or scores are given or obtained from each component, such as an interview, a reference check, a personality test, and a mental ability test. The ratings or scores are combined in a formula or regression equation to produce an overall score for each applicant. Selection decisions are thus based on the applicants’ scores.

Profile interpretation An approach in which statistical data are combined in a judg- mental manner.

Pure statistical approach An approach in which data are combined statistically.

Judgmental composite An approach in which judgmental and statis- tical data are combined in a judgmental manner.

Trait rating approach An approach in which judgmental data are combined statistically.

Statistical composite An approach in which judgmental and statis- tical data are combined statistically.

mETHOd Of COLLECTing dATA mETHOd Of COmbining dATA

JudgmEnTAL sTATisTiCAL

Judgmental Pure judgment Trait ratings

Statistical Profile interpretation Pure statistical

Both Judgmental composite Statistical composite

TAbLE 10.1

mETHOds Of COLLECTing And COmbining APPLiCAnT infORmATiOn

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Although all six of the basic decision-making approaches described above have been used in employee selection, they are not equally effective. A considerable body of research indicates that the pure statistical and the statistical composite approaches are generally superior to the other methods in predicting performance.21–23 Both of these approaches involve combining information in a statistical manner.

There are several possible explanations for the superiority of statistical methods over judgmental methods of combining information.24,25 First, as noted previously, implicit theories are more likely to bias evaluations and contribute to error when judgmental methods are used. Irrelevant factors such as the applicant’s appearance or mannerisms are likely to unduly influence the decision. Second, it is difficult for decision makers to take into account the complexity of all of the information available to them when they use judgmental processes to make decisions. Because the ability to remember and process information is easily overloaded, decision makers tend to oversimplify or inappropriately simplify information, resulting in applicant summaries that are inaccurate.26

Third, it is virtually impossible to assign appropriate weights to all of the selection instruments when judgmental procedures are used. How important should reference checks be in comparison to ability tests or interviews? It is difficult to give even equal weighting to all selection information in a subjective manner. Generally, particular appli- cant data, such as test scores, are largely ignored in favour of impressions based on other sources, such as the interview.27–29 Statistical approaches are likely to provide better decisions, even when scores from all of the selection instruments are weighted equally, because all applicant information is taken into consideration in a systematic manner.30 In fact, a recent meta-analysis reveals that, in comparison to judgmental methods, using statistical data combination improves the prediction of job performance by more than 50 percent.31

It is worth noting that statistical approaches are compromised when poor-quality information goes into the selection equation. The maxim “garbage in, garbage out” applies just as well to employee selection methods as it does to computer programming. Erroneous or irrelevant information, such as might be obtained from bad interview ques- tions, invalid tests, or inaccurate references, will contribute error variance to the equation and reduce the likelihood of making good selection decisions. It is therefore important to ensure that only data coming from reliable and valid selection measures are combined to yield an overall score for each applicant.

// Why Do emPloyerS reSiST USing STaTiSTiCal aPProaCheS? Although statistical approaches to decision making are clearly superior to judgmental approaches, employers tend to resist them.32,33 They prefer relying on gut feelings or instinct. There are probably several reasons that employers cling to judgmental approaches. Some employers might find it difficult to give up the personal control that judgmental approaches give them.34,35 They can choose to ignore or discount information that is at odds with gut feelings and they can emphasize or rely solely on information that is in accord with their feelings. When they use statistical approaches, their role becomes simply that of information collectors rather than decision makers.

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Employers also tend to be overconfident in their decision-making abilities.36,37 They generally believe that they are quite successful in selecting good job candidates.38 Unfor- tunately, few employers bother to keep track of their success or “hit” rates by reviewing the job performance of those they hired. If they did, they would become much more concerned about their abilities to judge applicant competence. Granted, there might be a very small minority of employers who are able to assess job applicants with reasonable accuracy,39 but even they are outperformed by statistical models based on their own decision rules (known as bootstrapping).40 Unfortunately, most employers are not very good judges of job applicant potential.

There is research evidence that not all employers respond the same way to statistical approaches. That is, employers differ in their preferences for using judgmental versus statistical approaches based on their decision style. In particular, employers who have a holistic, intuitive or decision-making style (i.e., like to make decisions quickly, based on hunches and emotions using a Type 1 framework—see Chapter 9) are more likely to prefer judgmental approaches than employers who have an analytical, rule-based deci- sion-making style (i.e., like to take time to use logic and step-by-step analysis using a Type 2 framework—see Chapter 9).41,42 Thus, the more intuitive decision makers might require more evidence and training to convince them to use statistical approaches.

Finally, some employers use judgmental approaches because they feel they can’t afford the time or money required to develop a statistical selection model. However, statistical models can be quite simple and need not be expensive. Moreover, any costs incurred can be more than recouped in savings generated by an effective selection system.

It is important to note that HR professionals are responsible for collection, man- agement, protection, and disposition of all HR information within the parameters of professional practice, organizational policy, and the applicable legislative and regulatory framework. They are responsible for the effective and efficient provision of HR informa- tion systems for the benefit of the organization or any other party that is legally entitled to that information. This involves the development, maintenance, and use of manual and/or automated systems.

Most organizations, even small businesses, have the capability to collect and inte- grate data through specialized or enterprise software. PeopleSoft, one of the more ubiq- uitous systems, has the capability for storing competency or other KSAO data for use in selection and promotion decisions. Amadeus is another example of such software. HR-Guide.com lists many software packages and consultants that can provide specialized selection software. These systems can assist in the efficient collection and integration of assessment data for statistical decision-making purposes.

One method the authors have used quite effectively in workshops to demon- strate to managers the inaccuracy of their judgments is to show them videotapes of actual employment interviews. In fact, the applicants appearing on the videotapes had been hired and we had obtained job performance ratings from their supervisors after they had been working at least half a year. We asked the managers attending the workshops to rate the applicants and predict their job performance. We were then able to compare the managers’ ratings and predictions with the applicants’ actual job performance ratings. It was quite a surprise for many of the managers at the workshops to discover how badly they had misjudged the applicants. The experience made them much more receptive to a statistical approach to decision making. Providing managers with limited autonomy can also be effective in making them receptive to statistical decision-making methods.43

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// groUP DeCiSion making Although most employee selection research has explored individual models of deci- sion making, several surveys indicate that in most organizations, selection decisions are made by groups. Some researchers suggest that groups can be poor decision makers. Power motives, politics, conformity to the group, and lack of information sharing serve to reduce the objectivity of group decisions.44,45 However, in spite of all of the poten- tial problems encountered in group decision making, many researchers conclude that groups are generally better at problem solving and decision making than the average individual.46

In most organizations, there appears to be an intuitive understanding that groups might make better selection decisions than individuals; thus, selection teams or panels are commonplace. For example, in a large company, the immediate supervisor, a member from the HR department, and a support staff person might all be involved in the hiring of a data entry clerk. In hiring the data entry clerk’s supervisor, the group charged with making the decision might include the supervisor’s manager, a more senior HR person, and an experienced data entry clerk. Having two or more individuals make the selection decision can reduce the effects of the biases that any one individual might have. Selec- tion team or panel members are more likely to be careful in their assessments when they have to justify their ratings to other team members. The fact that differences of opinion concerning an applicant must be resolved to everyone’s satisfaction will tend to reduce the impact of biases. Also, with more individuals examining applicant information, it is less likely that particular information will be overlooked or distorted.

A less commendable reason for organizations to use selection teams or panels is that such teams make it easier to share the blame for poor decisions. Individual mem- bers might be somewhat less conscientious than they should be because they can evade personal responsibility and consequences for their decisions. Nevertheless, based on the research evidence, it is advisable that any judgmental information be collected by a selection team or panel. In fact, numerous Canadian human rights tribunals have cited the use of selection panels as an important factor in defending against discrimi- nation suits.47,48

One recent development in the Canadian workplace is the increasing use of teams to do work. Selecting appropriate team members has thus become an important chal-

lenge and research focus.49–51 Not only job-related abilities but also personality and interpersonal factors must be taken into consideration when selecting for a team.

When teams or groups make selection decisions (see Recruitment and Selection Today 10.2 for a discussion of the benefits of team deci- sion making), there are often disagreements among team members as to appropriate ratings or who should be hired. It is important that such differences be resolved as objectively as possible. The easiest way to resolve differences is to average the team members’ individual scores to arrive at a combined score for each applicant (this is analogous to statistical combination).

However, as noted when we discussed the collection and com- bination of information, such combinations can be misleading if some of the team members submit erroneous or biased ratings. As a general rule, when there is close agreement among team members’ ratings, the individual ratings can be safely averaged. But when there Making decisions is not always easy.

St ua

rt M

ile s/

Sh ut

te rs

to ck

.c om

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 10.2

5 BENEFITS OF INVOLVINg yOUR TEAM IN THE HIRINg DECISION

you are making a big mistake if you aren’t involving your team members in the hiring decision of new employees.

Regular readers of my blog will know that over the last several weeks I have been knee-deep in the process of hiring a new team member (using my ten awesome inter- view questions as part of the process). Although I believe hiring a new employee is one responsibility a leader can’t delegate, I would be stupid not to lean on the incredible discernment and wisdom of my team members to help me make the decision.

I’ve found there are five key benefits of involving my team in the decision of hiring new employees:

1. It makes team members feel valued—Team mem- bers consistently tell me how much they appreciate being asked to participate in interviews and give their feedback on each of the candidates. By letting your team members have a voice in the hiring process, it signals that you value them, respect their feedback, and want the hiring decision to be a collaborative process.

2. It provides interviewing and decision-making expe- rience for future leaders—Some of your individual contributors today will be your supervisors/man- agers of tomorrow. Having them participate in the hiring process now gives them training in inter- viewing techniques, experience evaluating can- didates, and insight into how hiring decisions are made that will benefit them when they move into leadership roles. I’ve had it happen in my own team over the years and it has improved our success in hiring quality people.

3. It creates a sense of ownership in the success of the new employee—I’ve found team members take the responsibility of selecting a new teammate seriously. Because they are staking a bit of their reputation on the selection, they tend to be more invested in the

success of the new employee and will work extra hard to prove they made the right decision.

4. It gives you a broader perspective on candidates— Hiring people is risky business. No matter how exten- sive the interview process, there is only so much you can learn about a candidate prior to him/her joining your team. Having more people involved in the inter- view process gives you a broader perspective and more insight into the candidate. Inevitably some of my team members see things in people I don’t, and likewise, many times they confirm the positive/nega- tive qualities I’ve observed. Some of the worst hiring decisions I’ve seen in my career are those where the boss independently hired someone he/she was enamored with and didn’t seek the input of others. Leaders often aren’t aware of their blind spots, and getting more people involved helps prevent that problem.

5. It gives the candidate more insight into his/her future co-workers, team, organization, and culture—I view the hiring process as a two-way decision: I’m choosing a person to join my team and the candi- date is making a choice to join my team/organiza- tion. Having exposure to more teammates allows candidates to get a broader taste of the type of people they’ll be working with and the culture of our team and organization. Candidates need to make an informed decision when joining an organization and interviewing with their future teammates is invalu- able in that process.

I wouldn’t hire any new employee without the input of other people on my team. I pride myself on being a pretty good judge of character and talent, but I know better than to trust my opinion alone when making such a significant decision. I’ve found that involving my team in the hiring process has proven the truth of the adage that “no one of us is as smart as all of us.”

Source: Randy Conley. “5 Benefits of Involving your Team in the Hiring Decision.” Leading with Trust. Retrieved July 18, 2017, from https:// leadingwithtrust.com/2014/08/24/5-benefits-of-involving-your-team-in-the-hiring-decision

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is disagreement (e.g., a range of two or more points), team members should discuss the reasons for their ratings until they arrive at a consensus. By discussing their rationales for the ratings, team members are likely to uncover some of the misperceptions, biases, and errors in recollection that can contribute to differences in scores.

// inCremenTal ValiDiTy As pointed out earlier in this chapter, employers typically rely on various sources of information about applicants in making selection decisions. Sometimes each source of information (e.g., test score, interview, and reference check) provides unique informa- tion which, taken together, gives a more complete picture of the applicant’s capabilities. Often, different sources provide considerable redundant information and, therefore, do not add value to the selection process. For example, if an interview collected information only about where the applicant had worked, how long he worked for each employer, and what education he had received, the interview would be useless because all of this information could be found in the résumé or application form.

Predictors that are highly correlated with each other (e.g., measurements of cognitive ability and university admission test scores) provide considerable redundant information and, therefore, there is little value in using both. Instead, employers benefit by using predictors that have low intercorrelations. When predictors are used that are relatively uncorrelated with each other but that are correlated with the criterion (e.g., job perfor- mance), they assess different aspects of the KSAOs needed for the job and, therefore, each predictor provides incremental validity. That is, each predictor adds value to the selection system, and the validity of the system increases.

Figure 10.2 provides an illustration of incremental validity using hypothetical data. Each predictor is represented by a circle (P1 and P2, respectively) and the criterion is also represented by a circle (C). In Figure 10.2(a), the correlation between the two predictors is 0.8 and the correlation between each predictor and the criterion is 0.5. As the figure demonstrates, there is considerable overlap between the parts of the predictors (P1 and P2) that overlap with the criterion (C) and there is a relatively small area of unique overlap between P2 and C once the overlap between P1 and C is taken into account. As you can see, the second predictor provides relatively little incremental validity when two predic- tors are highly correlated.

In Figure 10.2(b), there is a zero correlation between the two predictors and the correlation between each predictor and the criterion is 0.5. Each predictor (P1 and P2) overlaps with a completely different part of the criterion (C) and provides incremental validity over the other predictor. In the example in Figure 10.2(b), P1 accounts for 25 percent of the variance in C and P2 accounts for an additional 25 percent of the vari- ance in C (variance is the square of the correlation). Thus, P1 and P2 together account for 50 percent of the variance in C.

When employers use selection instruments (predictors) that are uncorrelated or have low intercorrelations with each other but are correlated with job performance (the criterion), these selection instruments provide better prediction as a group than each instrument provides on its own (i.e., they have incremental validity). Often, scores are collected from each selection instrument and entered into a regression equation to pro- vide a composite score for each applicant that reflects the information provided by each of the components of the selection system (see the section on decision-making models in this chapter).

incremental validity The value in terms of increased validity of adding a particular predictor to an existing selection system.

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NEL 471CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

P1 (e.g., Ability Test)

P2 (e.g., IQ Test)

(a)

C (e.g., Job

Performance)

Correlation between P2 and C = 0.5

Correlation between P1 and C = 0.5

Correlation between P1 and P2 = 0.8

figuRE 10.2

An iLLusTRATiOn Of inCREmEnTAL VALidiTy: CORRELATEd And unCORRELATEd PREdiCTORs

P1 (e.g., Interview)

P2 (e.g., IQ Test)

C (e.g., Job

Performance)

Correlation between P1 and C = 0.5

Correlation between P2 and C = 0.5

Correlation between P1 and P2 = 0(b)

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL472

// SeTTing CUToff SCoreS In the next section we will consider different models of decision making. Several of these models make use of a cutoff score, so it is necessary to understand cutoff scores before we discuss the models. Cutoff scores serve as criteria or thresholds in selection decisions. Applicants who score below the cutoff on a given predictor (e.g., test, interview) are rejected. Thus, cutoff scores ensure that applicants meet some minimum level of ability or qualification to be considered for a job. In college or university, a grade of 50 percent often serves as a cutoff. A student whose mark is lower than 50 percent fails the course. This cutoff has been established by convention. In most organizations, cutoffs are established based on the predictor scores of individuals who are successful in the job being selected for, or based on expert judgments concerning the difficulty of the predictor items.52

One method of establishing cutoff scores involves identifying the proportion of applicants who are to be hired and determining how stringent the cutoff score should be to select only the desired number of applicants. First, the expected selection ratio is calculated (number of individuals to be hired divided by the expected number of applicants). Next, the distribution of the applicants’ scores on the predictor is estimated by examining the predictor score distributions of past groups of applicants or of current employees (i.e., predictive or concurrent validation data). Finally, the cutoff score is established by applying the selection ratio to the predictor score distribution in order to determine the score that only the top applicants (the proportion to be hired) would attain.

For example, if a fire department seeks to hire five firefighters and 150 people are expected to apply, the selection ratio will be 0.03 (5/150). About 3 percent of expected applicants will be accepted or, conversely, about 97 percent of expected applicants will have to be rejected. The cutoff score should therefore be set at the 97th percentile of the distribution of predictor scores (plus or minus one standard error of measurement). That is, the cutoff score is set so that only 3 percent of applicants would be expected to meet or exceed the score (or 97 percent would fall below it). This approach is limited to setting cutoffs for a single predictor. When more than one predictor is to be used, it is common to use expert judges, although compu- tational methods have been developed to facilitate the setting of multiple cutoffs.53

There are several ways in which expert judges can be used to establish cutoffs, but they differ only slightly in their methods. We will consider the general approach; consult Cascio and Aguinis54 or Gatewood, Feild, and Barrick55 for more detailed treatments of the various methods. Experienced employees, supervisors, or managers who know the job well, or industrial psychologists, typically serve as expert judges. Essentially, the expert judges are asked to rate the difficulty of test items (or interview questions) and to indicate what score on each item should be attained by a minimally competent applicant. These ratings are summed for all items to yield a pass threshold or cutoff score. Cutoff scores can be established in this manner for each of the predictors used in the selection process.

The procedures used by the Public Service Commission of Canada to establish cutoff scores can be found at https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commission/ services/staffing-assessment-tools-resources/human-resources-specialists-hiring-managers/ management-toolkit/assessing-competence-series/setting-off-scores-matter-judgement.html

// DeCiSion-making moDelS Several different decision-making models involve combining applicant information sta- tistically (regardless of how that information was collected). These models are unit and rational weighting, multiple regression, multiple cutoffs, multiple hurdle, combination,

Cutoff score A threshold; those scoring at or above the cutoff score pass, those scoring below fail.

Selection ratio The proportion of appli- cants for one or more positions who are hired.

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NEL 473CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

PREdiCTOR sCOREs

APPLiCAnT

COgniTiVE AbiLiTy

TEsT EXTRAVERsiOn

sCALE sTRuCTuREd inTERViEW

REfEREnCE CHECk

Mr. A 26 42 45 37

Ms. B 23 46 27 33

Mr. C 33 31 40 43

Ms. D 29 37 47 47

Maximum Possible Scores 50 50 50 50

Regression Weights 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.25

Cutoff Scores 20 33 30 33

Mean Scores 24 37 38 37

5 1Predicted job performance 1.1 0.5 Cognitive ability score + 0.1 Extraversion score + 0.5 Interview score + 0.25 Reference check score. A predicted job performance score can thus be calculated for each applicant.

TAbLE 10.2

EXAmPLEs Of sALEs APPLiCAnT dATA

and profile matching.56 We will consider the models in terms of their usefulness for different purposes and under different conditions.

UniT anD raTional WeighTing

The simplest way of combining applicant information is to simply add together the scores applicants received on the various selection tools that were used and give each score the same weighting (e.g., a value of 1.0). This approach is known as unit weighting. However, scores on different selection instruments likely reflect different scales of measurement. For example, let’s assume we’re going to use a cognitive ability test, an extraversion scale, a 12-question structured interview, and a reference check to select applicants for a retail sales position. The cognitive ability test might be out of 50 (i.e., the maximum score is 50), the extraversion scale out of 40, the interview out of 60 (e.g., 12 questions at 5 points per question), and the reference check out of 10. By simply adding applicant scores on these instruments, we would be giving the greatest weight to the interview score and the least weight to the reference check score by default. Thus, we would not actually be using unit weighting. If we wish to weight all of the scores equally, we need to standardize or convert all the scores to equal units (e.g., make them all out of 50).

Table 10.2 provides the hypothetical scores of four applicants for a retail sales posi- tion on each of four predictors—a cognitive ability test, an extraversion personality scale, a structured interview, and a reference check. Maximum scores, regression weights, cutoff scores, and mean (or average) scores for each predictor are also given. We have standard- ized all the scores in the table so they are all out of 50. We can now add each applicant’s

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scores to obtain a unit weighted total: 150 for Mr. A (26 + 42 + 45 + 37), 129 for Ms. B (23 + 36 + 27 + 33), 147 for Mr. C (33 + 31 + 40 + 43), and 160 for Ms. D (29 + 37 + 47 + 47). The applicants can now be ranked based on their total scores: (1) Ms. D, (2) Mr. A, (3) Mr. C, and (4) Ms. B. They can be selected on a top-down basis until the desired number of candidates has been obtained. If we needed to hire only two candidates, Ms. D and Mr. A would be selected.

Although unit weighting is simple and easy to use, the method assumes that each pre- dictor is equally important or contributes equally to predicting job performance. This is rarely the case. As you have discovered in this text, selection instruments vary in terms of criterion validity—some predict better than others. Therefore, in most instances, we need to weight the scores on the different predictors according to their importance or validity. The simplest way of doing this is to have managers or other subject-matter experts deter- mine the appropriate weights in a rational or logical way based on their experience. This approach is known as rational weighting. For example, the managers might decide they have the greatest confidence in the interview scores, slightly less confidence in reference checks, and the least confidence in the test scores. They might therefore assign a weight of 1 to the cognitive ability test as well as to the extraversion test, a weight of 3 to the interview, and a weight of 2 to the reference check. Applying these weights to the scores in Table 10.2 results in a score of 277 for Mr. A [(1 × 26) + (1 × 42) + (3 × 45) + (2 × 37)], 216 for Ms. B [(1 × 23) + (1 × 46) + (3 × 27) + (2 × 33)], 270 for Mr. C [(1 × 33) + (1 × 31) + (3 × 40) + ( 2 × 43)], and 301 for Ms. D [(1 × 29) + (1 × 37) + (3 × 47) + (2 × 47)]. Thus, the rankings would be: (1) Ms. D, (2) Mr. A, (3) Mr. C, and (4) Ms. B. In this example, the rankings are the same as for the unit weighting approach but the rankings can differ, depending on the obtained distribution of scores and the weightings applied.

The rational weighting approach requires managers to think about the relative impor- tance of each predictor and, therefore, makes the weighting process explicit. However, assigning weights in this manner is a fairly subjective process. For example, why would the managers assign a weight of 3 to the interview? Why not a weight of 2 or 4? Based on their different experiences and knowledge, managers are likely to disagree on what the appropriate weights should be. Moreover, the managers’ levels of confidence in the various predictors might be unjustified, particularly if their judgments are not based on research evidence. The multiple regression model provides a more scientific and defen- sible approach to weighting predictor scores.

mUlTiPle regreSSion moDel

In the multiple regression model, the applicant’s scores on each predictor (e.g., tests, interviews, and reference checks) are also weighted and summed to yield a total score (e.g., predicted job performance). However, unlike rational weighting, the appropriate regression weights or b values are determined through prior research, where the unique contribu- tions of each predictor (X) to predicting job performance (Y) are investigated. Although, over time and with a sufficiently large number of hires, an organization could collect enough data to determine the appropriate weights for each of the selection instruments, it is more efficient to use the validity coefficients obtained in meta-analytic studies of various predictors (see “Validity Generalization” on pages 50–51). That is, the validity coefficients from relevant meta-analyses can be used as regression weights or b values in the regression equation. For example, based on meta-analytic findings, measures of cognitive ability have an average validity coefficient of 0.50 (see Chapter 8). Therefore, a regression weight or b value of 0.50 can be applied to an applicant’s cognitive ability

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NEL 475CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

score. Similarly, validity coefficients from meta-analytic studies related to the other pre- dictors can be used to assign appropriate regression weights for those predictors.

Table 10.2 provides regression weights for each of the predictors roughly based on their respective validity coefficients. Thus, the regression weight (b1) for the cognitive ability test (X1) is 0.5, the regression weight (b2) for the extraversion scale (X2) is 0.1, the regression weight (b3) for the interview score (X3) is 0.5, and the regression weight (b4) for the reference check score (X4) is 0.25. The regression equation for predicting job performance in this case is:

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4Y a b X b X b X b X5 1 1 1 1

The “a” in the equation is the intercept, the point where the regression line intersects the Y-axis. We do not need to concern ourselves with the calculation of intercepts for purposes of this illustration. The intercept value will change the magnitude of all the scores equally, so it will not change their relative standing or ranking. In this example, the intercept has been arbitrarily set to 1.1.

Applying the regression equation to the data in Table 10.2 yields a total predicted score of 50.1 for Mr. A, 39.0 for Ms. B, 51.5 for Mr. C, and 54.6 for Ms. D. The applicants can now be ranked based on their total predicted scores: (1) Ms. D, (2) Mr. C, (3) Mr. A, and (4) Ms. B (see Table 10.3). If two candidates are needed, Ms. D and Mr. C would be selected. Although this result is different from the one obtained by rational weighting (and unit weighting), whether the different methods produce the same or different rak- ings depends on the distribution of scores and how large the differences in weightings are. However, given the regression weights are based on research findings rather than on subjective judgments or estimates (which are the basis of the rational weights), we should have more confidence in the regression weights than in subjective weighting methods.

The multiple regression model assumes that the predictors are linearly related to the criterion and that a low score on one predictor can be compensated for by a high score on another predictor. An applicant could do very poorly in the interview (e.g., receive a score of zero) and still do well if he or she received high scores on the tests and the reference check. However, the assumptions made by the multiple regression model are not necessarily warranted. First, very high scores on some predictors might be as undesirable as very low scores. For example, while an extreme introvert might have dif- ficulty relating to customers in a retail sales position, an extreme extravert might annoy them and drive them away.

Second, there might be a minimum level of competence required on each of the predictors for the individual to perform acceptably in the job. For example, a very low interview score might indicate that the applicant has such poor interpersonal and com- munication skills that she cannot function acceptably in retail sales, regardless of high cognitive ability and extraversion scores. The multiple regression approach also has the disadvantage of being expensive, particularly for large applicant pools, because all appli- cants must be assessed on all predictors.

Nevertheless, the multiple regression approach does have several advantages. It is an efficient method of combining multiple predictors in an optimal manner and it mini- mizes errors in prediction. Moreover, by assigning different weights, different regression equations can be produced for different jobs, even if the same predictors are used for all jobs. So, if applicants are being selected for more than one job, they can be placed in the job for which their total score is the highest or they can be placed in the job where their total score is the farthest above the minimum score necessary for acceptable job perfor- mance. The multiple regression approach is probably the most efficient decision-making approach if the assumptions underlying the model are not violated.57

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL476

muLTiPLE REgREssiOn mOdEL

APPLiCAnT RAnk

Mr. A Y 1.1 (0.5)26 (0.1)42 (0.5)45 (0.25)37 50.15 1 1 1 1 5 3

Ms. B Y 1.1 (0.5)23 (0.1)46 (0.5)27 (0.25)33 39.05 1 1 1 1 5 4

Mr. C Y 1.1 (0.5)33 (0.1)31 (0.5)40 (0.25)43 51.55 1 1 1 1 5 2

Ms. D Y 1.1 (0.5)29 (0.1)37 (0.5)47 (0.25)47 54.65 1 1 1 1 5 1

multiple Cutoff model

APPLiCAnT

COgniTiVE AbiLiTy

TEsT (CuTOff = 20)

EXTRAVERsiOn sCALE

(CuTOff = 33)

sTRuCTuREd inTERViEW (CuTOff

= 30)

REfEREnCE CHECk

(CuTOff = 33) dECisiOn

Mr. A 26 (above) 42 (above) 45 (above) 37 (above) accept

Ms. B 23 (above) 46 (above) 27 (below) 33 (at cutoff) reject

Mr. C 33 (above) 31 (below) 40 (above) 43 (above) reject

Ms. D 29 (above) 37 (above) 47 (above) 47 (above) accept

multiple Hurdle model

APPLiCAnT

sTAgE 1 COgniTiVE AbiLiTy TEsT (CuTOff = 20)

sTAgE 2 EXTRAVERsiOn

sCALE (CuTOff = 33)

sTAgE 3 sTRuCTuREd inTERViEW

(CuTOff = 30)

sTAgE 4 REfEREnCE CHECk

(CuTOff = 33) REsuLT

Mr. A 26 (pass) 42 (pass) 45 (pass) 37 (pass) pass

Ms. B 23 (pass) 46 (pass) 27 (fail) fail

Mr. C 33 (pass) 31 (fail) fail

Ms. D 29 (pass) 37 (pass) 47 (pass) 47 (pass) pass

multiple Cutoff Combination model Only Mr. A and Ms. D meet all cutoff requirements (see results for multiple hurdle model above). So, Ms. B and Mr. C are rejected.

APPLiCAnT RAnk

Mr. A Y 1.1 (0.5)26 (0.1)420 (0.5)45 (0.6)37 50.15 1 1 1 1 5 2

Ms. D Y 1.1 (0.5)29 (0.1)37 (0.5)47 (0.6)47 54.65 1 1 1 1 5 1

TAbLE 10.3

EXAmPLEs Of REsuLTs fOR sALEs APPLiCAnT dATA in TAbLE 10.2

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NEL 477CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

multiple Hurdle Combination model Mr. C does not meet the cutoff requirements for stages 1 and 2 so he is rejected (see results for multiple hurdle model above).

APPLiCAnT RAnk

Mr. A Y 1.1 (0.5)26 (0.1)420 (0.5)45 (0.6)37 50.15 1 1 1 1 5 2

Ms. B Y 1.1 (0.5)23 (0.1)46 (0.5)27 (0.25)33 39.05 1 1 1 1 5 3

Ms. D Y 1.1 (0.5)29 (0.1)37 (0.5)47 (0.6)47 54.65 1 1 1 1 5 1

Profile matching model

APPLiCAnT RAnk

Mr. A D (26 24) (42 37) (45 38) (37 37) 782 2 2 2 25 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 1

Ms. B D (23 24) (46 37) (27 38) (33 37) 2192 2 2 2 25 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 4

Mr. C D (33 24) (31 37) (40 38) (48 37) 1572 2 2 2 25 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 2

Ms. D D (29 24) (37 37) (47 38) (47 37) 2062 2 2 2 25 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 3

mUlTiPle CUToff moDel

In the multiple cutoff model, scores on all predictors are obtained for all applicants, just as in the multiple regression model. Using the data in Table 10.2, all applicants would write the cognitive ability and extraversion tests, all would be interviewed, and reference check information would be scored for all. However, in this model, applicants are rejected if their scores on any of the predictors fall below the cutoff scores. In our example, both Mr. A and Ms. D score above the cutoffs on all four predictors. Ms. B’s score falls below the cutoff on the structured interview, and Mr. C’s score falls below the cutoff on the extraversion scale. Ms. B and Mr. C would thus be rejected. Note that this is quite a dif- ferent result from the multiple regression approach, where Mr. C obtained the second- highest score and would have been selected (see Table 10.3).

The multiple cutoff model assumes that a minimum level is required on each of the attributes measured by the predictors for successful job performance (i.e., there is a non- linear relationship among the predictors and job performance). The model also assumes that the predictors are not compensatory—it is not possible to compensate for a low score on one predictor with a high score on another predictor.

A disadvantage of the multiple cutoff model is that, just like the multiple regression approach, it requires that all applicants be assessed on all procedures. This requirement makes it expensive to administer. Another disadvantage is that the model identifies only those applicants who have minimum qualifications for the job. There is no way of dis- tinguishing among those who have surpassed the minimum cutoffs. If 10 applicants have passed the cutoffs but the employer wants to select only five candidates, how would the employer decide which ones to select?

In spite of its disadvantages, the multiple cutoff model does serve to narrow the pool of applicants to a smaller set of minimally qualified candidates and it is an easy model

TAbLE 10.3

COnTinuEd

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Recruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e. NEL478

for managers to understand. It is probably most useful when minimum levels of certain physical abilities are required for job performance.58 For example, some occupations such as law enforcement, firefighting, or heavy manufacturing have minimum specifications for eyesight, colour vision, or strength.

mUlTiPle hUrDle moDel

In the multiple hurdle model, applicants must pass the minimum cutoff for each pre- dictor, in turn, before being assessed on the next predictor. As soon as an applicant has failed to meet the cutoff on a given predictor, the applicant ceases to be a candidate for the job and is not assessed on any of the remaining predictors. In Chapter 2, Recruit- ment and Selection Today 2.2 described the selection procedures used to hire Toronto police constables; this was an example of a multiple-hurdle procedure. Applicants had to pass the current step in the process before moving on to the next; those applicants who failed a step are screened out of the process (see http://www.torontopolice.on.ca/ careers/uni_become_officer.php). In our example in Table 10.2, all four applicants pass the cognitive ability test and go on to write the extraversion scale. Mr. C fails to meet the cutoff on the extraversion scale and is dropped from further consideration. Only Mr. A, Ms. B, and Ms. D go on to the structured interview, where Ms. B fails to meet the cutoff and is rejected. Reference checks are performed only for Mr. A and Ms. D, who both pass and become candidates for the job (see Table 10.3).

The result is identical to the one for the multiple cutoff model but the approach is less expensive because fewer applicants need to be assessed at each stage of the selection process. Both models make the same assumptions but differ in the procedure used for collecting predictor information. The multiple cutoff approach uses a nonsequential pro- cedure, whereas the multiple hurdle procedure is sequential (i.e., applicants must pass each predictor cutoff, in sequence, before going on to the next predictor). Like the multiple cutoff approach, the multiple hurdle model narrows the pool of applicants to a smaller set of candidates who meet minimum qualifications and is also an easy model to understand.

The multiple hurdle approach has the disadvantage of being more time consuming than the multiple regression or multiple cutoff approaches. Applicants need to be assessed and scored on one predictor before a decision can be made on whether to assess them on the next predictor. It also makes it difficult to estimate the validity of each procedure, particularly in later stages of the selection process. Relatively fewer applicants are being assessed on predictors toward the end of the sequence (e.g., interview and reference check, in our example), so restriction of range becomes a problem for estimating the validity of these predictors. One other disadvantage is that, like the multiple cutoff model, this model identifies only those applicants who have minimum qualifications for the job and does not distinguish among those who have surpassed all of the cutoffs.

Like the multiple cutoff approach, the multiple hurdle approach is most appropriate when minimum levels of particular KSAOs are necessary for job performance and cannot be compensated for by higher levels on other KSAOs. Moreover, the multiple hurdle approach is most useful when the applicant pool is large and some of the selection pro- cedures are expensive.59 In such circumstances, the less-expensive procedures (e.g., tests) can be used as hurdles at the beginning in order to screen out inappropriate applicants and reduce the applicant pool. Thus, the more expensive procedures (e.g., interviews) are used on a smaller pool of select applicants. More information on the multiple hurdles approach, as well as other methods for integrating selection data, can be found at http:// www.hr-guide.com/data/G366.htm

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NEL 479CHAPTER 10 Decision Making

CombinaTion moDelS

There are two possible combination models. One model involves a combination of the multiple cutoff approach and the multiple regression approach. We’ll refer to this as the multiple cutoff combination model. The other model involves a combination of the multiple hurdle approach and the regression approach, so we will refer to this as the multiple hurdle combination model.

In the multiple cutoff combination model, all applicants are measured on all pre- dictors and those falling below the cutoff on any of the predictors are rejected, just as in the multiple cutoff model. Then, multiple regression is used to calculate the total scores of those applicants who surpass the cutoff scores. The applicants are ranked by total score and selected on a top-down basis, as in the multiple regression method. The multiple cutoff combination model is therefore a mixture of the multiple cutoff and multiple regression approaches. If we apply this model to the data in Table 10.2, Ms. B and Mr. C would be rejected because they do not surpass all the cutoff scores. So far, this result is identical to the result for the multiple cutoff model. Now the regression equation is applied to the remaining applicants, Mr. A and Ms. D. Recall from our discussion of the multiple regression model that Mr. A’s total score is 50.1 and Ms. D’s total score is 54.6. Ms. D is therefore ranked first and Mr. A ranked second. If we were hiring only one candidate, Ms. D would be selected (see Table 10.3).

Like the multiple cutoff model, the multiple cutoff combination model assumes that a minimum level of each of the KSAOs is required for effective job performance. A further assumption is that, once minimum levels have been reached, high scores on one predictor can compensate for low scores on another predictor. As might be expected, the multiple cutoff combination model has the same advantages as the multiple cutoff model but has the additional advantage of providing a means of selecting from among those candidates who surpass all of the cutoff scores. However, the multiple cutoff combina- tion approach is just as expensive as the multiple cutoff approach because all applicants are assessed on all predictors.

Obviously, the multiple cutoff combination model is useful as long as the assump- tions underlying the approach hold. It is an appropriate model when selection instru- ments do not vary greatly in cost and is particularly useful when a considerable number of applicants tend to surpass all of the cutoffs. When more applicants than can be hired surpass the cutoff scores, the multiple cutoff combination model facilitates selection among those applicants.

In the multiple hurdle combination model, a multiple hurdle approach is used in the early stages of the selection process but then a multiple regression approach is used in the later stages of the selection process. Applicants must pass each of the minimum cutoffs, in turn, for predictors used early in the selection process, as in the multiple hurdle model. However, the regression approach is applied to predictors used later in the selection process. Normally, we would use the multiple hurdle approach with the less-expensive predictors at the beginning of the selection process to reduce the number of applicants, particularly if the number of applicants is large. For the relatively smaller number of applicants who proceed to the subsequent and, likely, more expensive predictors, the multiple regression method would be applied. More- over, the multiple hurdle component of this model should include predictors with minimum requirements or scores (e.g., evidence of appropriate certification, required levels of physical fitness, and so on) which cannot be compensated for by higher scores on other predictors. Thus, the regression component should include only compensatory predictors.60

multiple cutoff combination model A combination of multiple cutoff and regression approaches.

multiple hurdle combination model A combination of multiple hurdle and regression approaches.

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Let’s assume that we have applied the multiple hurdle approach to the cognitive ability test and the extraversion scale and the regression approach to the interview and reference check in our example in Table 10.3. Mr. C would be rejected because he does not pass the cutoff score on the extraversion scale at stage 2. So far, this result is iden- tical to the result for the multiple hurdle model. Now the regression equation is applied to the remaining applicants, Mr. A, Ms. B, and Ms. D. Based on the regression results, Ms. D would be ranked first (54.6), Mr. A would be ranked second (50.1), and Ms. B would be ranked third (39.0). If we were hiring two candidates, Ms. D and Mr. A would be selected (see Table 10.3). The result in this example is the same as that for the multiple hurdle approach, but it could have been different depending on the scores achieved in the stage 3 and 4 predictors.

The multiple hurdle combination model assumes that some of predictors are lin- early related to the criterion while other predictors do not have a linear relationship with the criterion (i.e., a minimum level is required on these predictors). The model also assumes that some predictors are compensatory while others are not. These assumptions are very reasonable in most selection contexts.61 Moreover, the multiple hurdle com- bination model combines some of the advantages and disadvantages of both multiple hurdle and the multiple regression models. It is less expensive than the regression or multiple cutoff models, though more expensive than the simple multiple hurdle model, because not all applicants need to be assessed on all predictors. This model is not as time consuming as the multiple hurdle model because there is no need to wait for the scoring of later stage predictors, but it is more time consuming than the multiple regression or multiple cutoff approaches. The model ensures that minimum qualifications are met while also permitting the combination of later stage predictors in regression equations, which provide for the rank ordering of finalists. In short, the multiple hurdle combina- tion model provides a good compromise with more nuanced and, likely, more realistic assumptions concerning the predictors used to select applicants than most of the other models.62

Profile maTChing moDel

In the profile matching model, current employees who are considered successful on the job are assessed on several predictors. Their average scores on each predictor are used to form an ideal profile of scores required for successful job performance. One should also try to obtain average predictor scores for current employees who are considered poor or marginal performers. Obtaining scores for poor or marginal employees is not always easy because such employees are often dismissed or leave of their own accord soon after being hired or, if a valid selection system is used, tend not to be hired in the first place. If it is possible to obtain scores for poor performers, their average predictor scores should be compared with the average predictor scores of good performers to ensure that the predictors differentiate between good and poor performers. Those predictors that do not differentiate should not be included in the ideal profile of scores.

Once an ideal profile of scores has been established, applicants’ predictor scores can be compared with the ideal profile. Those applicants whose profiles are most similar to the ideal profile can then be selected. One of two methods can be used to determine the degree of similarity between applicant profiles and the ideal profile: the correlation method and the 2D method. The correlation method involves correlating an applicant’s

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scores on the predictors with the predictor scores of the ideal profile. The higher the cor- relation, the greater the similarity between the applicant’s profile and the ideal profile. The 2D method involves calculating differences between an applicant’s scores and ideal profile scores on each predictor, squaring the differences, and summing the squared differences to yield 2D . The larger 2D is, the poorer the match is between the applicant’s profile and the ideal profile. The 2D method is preferred because it considers the mag- nitude of applicants’ mean scores across the predictors, the degree to which applicant scores differ from the ideal scores, and the pattern or shape of applicant scores relative to the ideal profile. The correlation method considers only the pattern or shape of the scores.63

In our example in Table 10.2, let’s assume that the mean scores across the predictors represent the ideal profile. These can be correlated with the applicants’ scores across the predictors to produce a correlation coefficient for each of the applicants. The resulting correlation coefficients are as follows: Mr. A (r 0.938)5 , Ms. B (r 0.571)5 , Mr. C (r 0.457)5 , and Ms. D (r 0.858)5 . Therefore, our applicants would be ranked accord- ingly: (1) Mr. A, (2) Ms. D, (3) Ms. B, and (4) Mr. C. Using the D2 method requires the subtraction of the mean score for each predictor from each applicant’s score on that predictor to obtain a difference. The resulting differences are squared and the squares summed across predictors for each applicant to obtain a D2 score. Our applicants in Table 10.2 obtained the following D2 scores: Mr. A 5D( 78)2 , Ms. B 5D( 219)2 , Mr. C 5D( 157)2 , and Ms. D 5D( 206)2 . Recall that the smaller the D2 score is, the better the match. Accordingly, the rankings would be (1) Mr. A, (2) Mr. C, (3) Ms. D, and (4) Ms. B (see Table 10.3). Thus, in this example, the rank orders for the correlation and D2 method are different. If we were hiring only two applicants, Mr. A and Ms. D would have been hired using the correlation method whereas Mr. A and Mr. C would have been hired using the D2 method.

Although the two methods produced different rank orders in this example, the resulting rank orders can sometimes be the same. Nevertheless, the correlation method often yields very high correlation coefficients, which barely differentiate applicants from each other. The D2 method can also produce misleading results. An applicant whose scores substantially exceed the mean scores will have a high D2 score and rank below an applicant whose scores fall close to the mean scores (whether slightly above or even below the means). Thus, this model is based on the assumption that scores that are higher than the ideal are as undesirable as scores that are lower than the ideal. In fact, the model assumes that there is one best profile, whereas there could be several profiles that predict success just as well.

As noted previously, the profile matching model cannot be implemented if the pre- dictors do not differentiate between employees who are poor performers and those who are good performers. Moreover, restriction of range can be a problem because truly poor performers are often difficult to find (i.e., they are asked to leave or are not hired in the first place). Also, because the profiles of successful employees could change over time, ideal profiles need to be checked periodically.

Profile matching does have the advantage of permitting the ranking of applicants based on their similarities to the ideal profile. It is an appropriate method to use when there is clearly a best profile for employees in a job and when it is known that poor employees tend to score higher as well as lower on the predictors than good employees (i.e., there is a curvilinear relationship between predictor scores and job performance). As these conditions rarely apply, multiple regression or multiple hurdle combination remain more appropriate approaches in virtually all circumstances.64,65

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// making SeleCTion DeCiSionS Regardless of which decision-making model is used, the eventual aim of the selection process is to decide which applicants to hire. The models described in the previous sec- tions lend themselves to one of two basic approaches: top-down selection and banding. Each method is based on particular assumptions and has certain advantages and disadvantages.

ToP-DoWn SeleCTion

Top-down selection involves ranking applicants on the basis of their total scores and selecting from the top down until the desired number of candidates has been selected. This approach is based on the assumption that individuals scoring higher on the predic- tors will be better performers on the job than individuals scoring lower on the predictors (i.e., there is a linear relationship between predictor scores and job performance). As long as this assumption is not violated, top-down selection is considered the best approach for maximizing organizational performance.66 Only those who are likely to be the top performers are hired.

One difficulty with using top-down selection is that it can have adverse impact on certain minority groups. For example, black applicants tend to have slightly lower average scores than white applicants on certain tests.67 Selecting from the top down could therefore result in disproportionately more white than black applicants being hired. Race norming or within-group scoring has been suggested as a method of preventing such adverse impact. Applicants can be ranked on their predictor scores within their relevant minority groups. For example, white applicants could be ranked on their predictor scores relative to other white applicants, and black applicants could be rank-ordered on their predictor scores relative to other black applicants. Then the top-ranking black candidate and the top-ranking white candidate could be selected, followed by the black and white candidates ranking second, and so on until the desired number of candidates is selected. Although top-down selection across all groups would result in the best-quality candidates being hired, on average, ranking within groups permits employers to achieve employment equity goals while still hiring high-quality applicants.68

Although the American Civil Rights Act of 1991 prohibits race norming (the adjust- ment of scores, or the use of different cutoff scores for different minority groups in the United States), there is no such legislation in Canada. Nevertheless, employment equity initiatives can be difficult to implement, as one Canadian fire department discovered. In Ontario, the Kitchener Fire Department attempted to increase minority representation in the department by reducing the cutoff score for women. Whereas male applicants needed a score of 85 to pass, the cutoff score for females was set at 70. The public outcry was so great that the department had to abandon this approach. Many individuals perceived this method as an example of reverse discrimination—discrimination against the white male applicants.

banDing

An alternative approach to accomplishing employment equity is banding. Banding involves grouping applicants based on ranges of scores. In fact, cutoff scores are actually a form of banding where there are two bands (i.e., those above the cutoff score are in

Top-down selection Ranking applicants on the basis of their total scores and selecting from the top down until the desired number of candidates has been selected.

banding Grouping applicants based on ranges of scores.

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one band and those below the cutoff score are in another band). Sometimes bands are devised in a subjective manner through expert or managerial judgment. For example, applicants can be grouped into “Top Choice,” Very Good,” “Acceptable,” and “Unaccept- able” candidates. However, the term “banding” usually refers to a grouping process that takes into account the concept of standard error of measurement (from classical test theory).

Essentially, the standard error of measurement (SEM) reflects the fact that almost any measurement contains an error. The SEM is calculated using the reliability and standard deviation of scores obtained on a test and is used to construct bands around the scores. Scores falling within a particular band are considered equivalent (just as the scores of two students receiving a B+ are considered equivalent, even though one student might have obtained 77 percent while the other 78 percent). Given scores falling within a band can be considered equivalent, employers are free to select individuals scoring in the same band on the basis of minority status. This approach has been found to increase the proportion of minority applicants who are selected.69

Although banding appears to be permissible in Canada, there has been considerable debate concerning the logic and psychometric soundness of SED-based banding. Given the concerns about banding, many researchers recommend other approaches to help achieve employment equity objectives.70–72 For example, greater effort can be made to recruit members of minority groups or to better prepare minority applicants for testing (e.g., through training on test taking). Also, selection tools such as structured interviews, personality scales, or biodata inventories, which have less adverse impact on minority applicants, should be used for this purpose.

PraCTiCal ConSiDeraTionS

A variety of decision-making models and methods are available for making selection decisions. Which model or method is best in a given situation depends on a number of factors. The number of applicants expected, the amount of time available before selec- tion decisions have to be made, and the costs associated with the selection instruments all have to be considered in making a choice. However, whenever they are feasible, linear models appear to outperform other approaches to decision making.

Many of the models discussed in this chapter assume large applicant pools or fre- quent and regular selection activity. Yet small businesses, which constitute a growing proportion of the Canadian economy, often hire small numbers of applicants on an infrequent basis. How can selection decisions in such small businesses be made more effectively?

Most of the rating procedures described in this chapter can be simplified to serve the needs of a small-business owner or manager.73 The owner or manager can conduct an “armchair” job analysis by considering what tasks the employee would be expected to perform and how job performance would be assessed. As well, the owner or manager could consult the NOC or O*NET (see Chapter 4) for tasks related to similar jobs and the stated job requirements for those jobs.

Next, the owner or manager should determine what behaviours related to these tasks could best be assessed in an interview and/or in simulations. Subjective weights could be attached, in advance, to each of the behaviours assessed, and the owner or manager should ensure that all applicants are evaluated systematically and fairly on the same criteria. Thus, although applicant information may be collected in a judgmental fashion or in a judgmental and statistical fashion, the information is combined statistically (i.e.,

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you’re hired! Welcome aboard.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOk 10.1

MAKINg THE SELECTION DECISION

1. Identify all of the sources of information about the applicant available to you (résumés, references, tests, interviews, etc.).

2. Use reliable, valid selection instruments whenever possible (e.g., structured interviews, reliable tests). Apply standardized criteria to the assessment of résumés, references, and other nonstandardized instruments so that they can be scored.

3. Determine which decision-making model you will use (taking into account the number of applicants, number and nature of predictors, cost factors, etc.).

4. If using the regression or combination models, collect and save data over a period of time for

all predictors as well as job performance data for those applicants who are hired. When sufficient data have been collected, compute a regression equation, regressing job performance on the pre- dictors. Determine the appropriate weights for each predictor.

5. If using multiple cutoff or multiple hurdle models, determine appropriate cutoff scores for each predictor.

6. Combine data from different predictors statistically to yield an overall score.

7. Offer the position(s) to the candidate(s) with the highest overall score(s).

trait rating or statistical composite) to yield a total score for each applicant. This total score can then be used to make the selection decisions.

Increasingly, small businesses are recognizing that they need to improve their human resources. Small-business associations have started to provide information on a vast array of topics, including the latest developments in human resources and how they can be adapted to a small-business environment. Many HR personnel now see the provision of HR services to small businesses on a consulting basis as a viable alternative to working in the HR department of a large firm.

Recruitment and Selection Notebook 10.1 provides guidelines that should help the HR professional in making a selection decision. Although the processes outlined here may seem intimidating, use of these procedures, with some practice, should lead to the selection of the best candidates who will, in turn, be more productive and effective.

making SeleCTion DeCiSionS: ConClUSionS

Although valid selection instruments are necessary for making good selection decisions, they are not sufficient. Good selection procedures must be used as well. Selection systems can be made more effective if some of the following recommendations are followed74:

1. Use valid selection instruments.

2. Dissuade managers from making selection decisions based on gut feelings or intuition.

3. Encourage managers to keep track of their own selection “hits” and “misses.”

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4. Train managers to make systematic selection decisions using one of the approaches described in this chapter.

5. Periodically evaluate or audit selection decisions in order to identify areas needing improvement.

// hiring SeleCTeD aPPliCanT(S) Once employers have decided which applicant(s) they wish to hire, they need to move as quickly as possible to make the job offer(s). Top applicants are often considering offers from other organizations and, even if a particular employer is their first choice, they will usually accept one of the other offers if they have reached the offer deadline and their preferred employer is not yet ready to make an offer.75,76 Therefore, any delay in con- tacting the selected applicants carries a high risk of losing them to competing organiza- tions. Nevertheless, employers need to ensure the hiring process is carried out carefully, with attention to detail, because errors made during the hiring process can result in very costly remediation once the applicant has been hired. In the following subsections we will discuss important factors employers need to consider in making a job offer.

PreParing To make a Job offer

Before a job offer can be made, a number of preparatory steps are needed. These steps should culminate in an employment letter or contract, which we will discuss later in this section. In most large organizations HR policies are in place that regulate the nature and content of employment offers. In smaller organizations offers are often constructed on an individual, case-by-case basis, though previous offers for the same or similar positions usually serve as templates. In essence, preparing to make a job offer involves ensuring that all the details of the offer have been approved by the ultimate decision maker(s) in the organization and are known by the individual who will be communicating the offer to the applicant. If individuals communicating the offer have some leeway for negotiating with the applicant, their limits in negotiating an agreement should be clearly spelled out in advance. The following are questions that need to be resolved before making the job offer:

1. What will be the compensation package (base pay, commission, bonuses, stock options, perks, etc.)? In large or unionized organizations, the answer to this question will usually be determined by HR policies or collective agreements. These policies or agreements typically take into consideration what competing organizations are paying for similar jobs. In small non-unionized organiza- tions, employers need to conduct a wage survey (which can be informal): what are competing organizations offering for similar skills? Both large and small organizations also need to determine whether they are able and willing to pay above, at, or below the average pay rate of competing organizations. This deci- sion is based on the organization’s budget but has implications for the organi- zation’s ability to attract top talent.

2. What will be the benefits package (medical, dental, vision, disability, life insurance, pension, etc.)? In most large or unionized organizations there is a standard benefits package for most employees or for particular subsets of employees, usually in accord with the benefits provided by competing

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organizations. Some large organizations are able to afford cafeteria-style ben- efits packages, which are an attractive feature because they better serve the needs of employees. Small organizations are well advised to also strive to offer competitive benefits packages that will attract top employees.

3. Is the job offer conditional and, if so, what conditions need to be met (verifica- tion of qualifications, health screening and drug tests, criminal record check, sat- isfactory references, proof of eligibility to work in Canada, etc.)? Of course, any conditions need to be bona fide occupational requirements and must not violate human rights or employment standards. Applicants will need to be informed when the offer is made that failure to meet the conditions will void the job offer.

4. Will there be a probationary period (if so, how long?), a termination and/or res- ignation clause, a non-competition agreement, or other restrictive agreements in the offer letter or contract that the applicant will be asked to sign (see the subsection on employment letters and contracts below for more information)? If so, these details need to be made known to the applicant at the time the offer is made. That allows the applicants to reject the offer if they cannot accept par- ticular clauses and if a mutually acceptable solution cannot be found. Failure to fully inform the applicants can make an employer liable for misleading them.

5. Does the individual making the job offer have authorization to negotiate with the applicant and, if so, what are the limits with respect to salary, perks, stock options, benefits, relocation costs, flexible work schedule, early salary review, bonuses/incentives, paid time off, work hours per week, vacation, educational assistance, start date, etc.? If there is some leeway in terms of the offer, it is most efficient to authorize the individual making the offer to negotiate with the applicant (within stated limits) to expedite the hiring process.

6. Does the individual making the job offer have authorization to proceed to the second- or third-choice candidate should the first-choice candidate turn down the offer? If the top-choice candidate turns down the offer it’s important to contact the next candidate as quickly as possible. Delays in moving down the list of acceptable candidates risk losing them to competing organizations.

making a Job offer

The selection process culminates in a two-way decision. The employers identify their pre- ferred candidates, but most top candidates are also in the position of being able to identify their preferred employers. Unfortunately, there is not always a match between employer and candidate preferences. Often an employer’s top-choice candidate identifies another organization as the top choice. In such circumstances, a timely, attractive job offer can often entice the candidate to accept, particularly if the competing organization is unable to match the offer or not yet ready to make an offer.77,78 In any case, the content of the offer and the manner in which it is made are important not only to increasing the likeli- hood that the candidate will accept, but also to establishing a positive relationship between the new employee and the organization. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 10.2 provides recommendations that will help to make the job offer a positive experience for the candidate and increase the likelihood of job acceptance.

So far, we have considered job offers from the perspective of the employer. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 10.3 provides advice for negotiating a job offer

from the perspective of the applicant.

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOk 10.2

MAKINg A JOB OFFER

1. Move quickly. The selected candidate should be contacted as soon as the selection decision has been made and approved. Delay in contacting the candidate risks losing the candidate to a competing organization.

2. Hold off on contacting the second-choice, third- choice, or possibly even fourth- or subsequent- choice candidates in case the first-choice candidate (or second-choice candidate) turns down the offer. Candidates will usually not appreciate knowing they are second or third choice and letting them know that can undermine their relationship with the organiza- tion. If these candidates inquire about the status of their applications, they can simply be told that the selection decisions are still being made.

3. Contact the top candidate by telephone rather than by email or surface mail. A telephone conversation is more personal and allows the employer to convey enthusiasm, gauge the candidate’s reaction, and respond accordingly.

4. Be enthusiastic and positive. Letting candidates know they are the organization’s top choice and conveying excitement will increase the attractiveness of the organization to the candidate and increase the likeli- hood of job offer acceptance.

5. Ensure the job offer is attractive. Providing an offer that is competitive with those that an applicant is likely to receive from competing organizations will enhance the likelihood of offer acceptance. To ensure that an applicant fully appreciates the offer, it is important to thoroughly explain the details of the offer, including pay, benefits, perks, moving allow- ance, etc. Employers should be enthusiastic in out- lining the offer but ensure that everything they say is accurate.

6. Try to get an oral commitment, even if it’s tentative. It’s normal for candidates to ask for time to consider a job offer but it can be very helpful for the employer to ask them what they think about the offer so that he can get a sense of any hesitation and try to answer any questions or concerns the candidate might have.

However, it’s important not to be too pushy in asking for the candidate’s feedback. If the applicant clearly does not wish to discuss the offer at this time, the employer should drop the topic.

7. Be ready to negotiate, if necessary, and be as flex- ible as possible. Usually employers are constrained in what they can offer, because of either budget limita- tions or the inequities that can result with existing employees if excessive concessions are made for new employees. However, within these constraints, anything an employer can do to satisfy a candidate’s requests will increase the likelihood of job accep- tance. Some concessions, such as reserving a partic- ular week for an already-booked vacation or altering the employment start date, need not be costly or ineq- uitable. In fact, research indicates that flexibility with start dates is significantly related to likelihood of offer acceptance.79

8. If the candidate will be leaving a current employer to accept your offer, provide support and advice, if needed. Leaving an employer for a new job can be intimidating and stressful for job candidates. Allowing them to express their feelings and concerns and to ask questions about the process can help them with the transition. Job candidates might seek advice on what to say to their current employer, how much notice they need to give, how to deal with possible gaps in income, etc. Providing advice and guidance on these questions can allay their concerns and ease the transition.

9. Follow up in writing as soon as you have completed your telephone conversation with the candidate. The written communication can take the form of an offer of employment letter or a formal contract. It should include all the elements of the job offer, including job title, pay, benefits, vacation, holidays, perks, moving expenses, start date of employment, etc. Whatever form the written document takes, the applicant should be asked to sign off on acceptance of the job offer and return the document. Applicants are well advised to retain a copy for their own records.

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10. Set a deadline for the candidate to accept the offer. Three days is a typical length of time given for can- didates to review the offer and make a decision. According to research, giving applicants a deadline does not result in negative reactions.80 However, sometimes candidates ask for deadline extensions. Often such requests signal that the applicants are negotiating competing offers or hoping to hear from a competing organization.

11. If the candidate drags out the decision for too long, tell her that you need an answer so you can inform some of the other excellent candidates whether the job has been filled. How much time is “too long” depends on how desperately the organization wants to hire a particular candidate and the quality of the other candidates. The employer must also take into consid- eration the likelihood that second- and third-choice candidates could accept job offers from other orga- nizations and would no longer be available, should the top-choice candidate eventually decline the offer.

12. If the candidate has a better offer from a competitor, make a counter-offer, if you are able. The extent of the counter-offer will depend on budgetary and other constraints, as noted above, and might be insufficient to sway the candidate but, if it is successful, it’s worth the effort.

13. Never push a candidate to renege on acceptance of an offer from another employer. It is unethical for an employer to undermine a commitment that a candi- date has made to another employer and no employers would want others to do that to them. However, if can- didates who have made commitments to an employer wish to be released from that commitment, it is better for that employer to let them go than have disgruntled employees working for him. Sometimes candidates will alert a prospective employer that they have received an offer from a competing organization and they have to make a decision by a certain deadline. If the prospective employer is not yet ready to make a decision, inform the candidate of that, and indicate when a decision is likely to be forthcoming. It is then up to the candidate to negotiate a new deadline with the competing organization or to accept or decline that company’s offer.

14. If you are unable to negotiate further (keeping in mind budgetary and other constraints), inform the candidate that this is your final offer and, if it is not acceptable, you will need to withdraw the offer. Some candidates will keep asking for concessions, even if they would accept the job offer without those concessions, simply because they want to get as much as they can from the employer. Such candidates will accept the offer at this point. It is best that candidates who are still not satisfied with everything the employer has to offer find employment elsewhere, and that the employer withdraw the offer.

15. If your final offer fails, move on to your second-choice candidate as quickly as possible (or to the third choice, if the second-choice candidate is no longer available). Depending on the job market, the size of the orga- nization, and the number of qualified candidates in the applicant pool, some organizations might have to restart the recruitment process at this point.81 That is a costly, time-consuming outcome of an exces- sively slow selection process, which can be avoided by streamlining the decision and job offer process and expanding the applicant pool as much as pos- sible. However, rather than restarting the recruitment process, some organizations settle for a mediocre or even poor candidate.82 This is a poor selection deci- sion, which is likely to be very costly to the organiza- tion in the end.

16. Once you have received a signed acceptance of the written offer, inform the remaining job candidates that the position has been filled. This can be done by telephone but is usually done by email or surface mail, particularly if there are a large number of can- didates to be contacted. In communicating with the candidates, the employer should acknowledge their strong job-related qualities and convey appreciation for their candidacy. It is important to leave a positive impression of the organization with these candidates because it’s quite possible that they will again become candidates in future job competitions and they will certainly communicate their opinions about the orga- nization, whether positive or negative, to others who might be customers or employees of the organization, or future job applicants.

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOk 10.3

FIFTEEN RULES FOR NEgOTIATINg A JOB OFFER

Job-offer negotiations are rarely easy. Consider three typical scenarios:

1. you’re in a third-round interview for a job at a company you like, but a firm you admire even more just invited you in. Suddenly the first hiring manager cuts to the chase: “As you know, we’re considering many candidates. We like you, and we hope the feeling is mutual. If we make you a competitive offer, will you accept it?”

2. you’ve received an offer for a job you’ll enjoy, but the salary is lower than you think you deserve. you ask your potential boss whether she has any flexibility. “We typically don’t hire people with your background, and we have a different culture here,” she responds. “This job isn’t just about the money. Are you saying you won’t take it unless we increase the pay?”

3. you’ve been working happily at your company for three years, but a recruiter has been calling, insisting that you could earn much more elsewhere. you don’t want to quit, but you expect to be compensated fairly, so you’d like to ask for a raise. Unfortunately, bud- gets are tight, and your boss doesn’t react well when people try to leverage outside offers. What do you do?

Each of these situations is difficult in its own way—and emblematic of how complex job negotiations can be. At many companies, compensation increasingly comes in the form of stock, options, and bonuses linked to both personal and group performance. In MBA recruitment, more companies are using “exploding” offers or sliding-scale signing bonuses based on when a candidate accepts the job, complicating attempts to compare offers. With executive mobility on the rise, people vying for similar positions often have vastly different back- grounds, strengths, and salary histories, making it hard for employers to set benchmarks or create standard packages.

In some industries a weak labour market has also left candidates with fewer options and less leverage, and employers better positioned to dictate terms. Those who are unemployed, or whose current job seems shaky, have seen their bargaining power further reduced.

But job market complexity creates opportunities for people who can skilfully negotiate the terms and conditions of employment. After all, negotiation matters most when there is a broad range of possible outcomes.

As a professor who studies and teaches the subject, I frequently advise current and former students on navi- gating this terrain. For several years I have been offering a presentation on the topic to current students. (To see a video of this talk, go to www.NegotiateyourOffer.com.) Every situation is unique, but some strategies, tactics, and principles can help you address many of the issues people face in negotiating with employers. Here are 15 rules to guide you in these discussions.

The Rules

1. Don’t underestimate the importance of likability. This sounds basic, but it’s crucial: People are going to fight for you only if they like you. Anything you do in a nego- tiation that makes you less likable reduces the chances that the other side will work to get you a better offer. This is about more than being polite; it’s about man- aging some inevitable tensions in negotiation, such as asking for what you deserve without seeming greedy, pointing out deficiencies in the offer without seeming petty, and being persistent without being a nuisance. Negotiators can typically avoid these pitfalls by evalu- ating (for example, in practice interviews with friends) how others are likely to perceive their approach.

2. Help them understand why you deserve what you’re requesting. It’s not enough for them to like you. They also have to believe you’re worth the offer you want. Never let your proposal speak for itself—always tell the story that goes with it. Don’t just state your desire (a 15% higher salary, say, or permission to work from home one day a week); explain precisely why it’s justified (the reasons you deserve more money than others they may have hired, or that your children come home from school early on Fridays). If you have no justification for a demand, it may be unwise to make it. Again, keep in mind the inherent tension between being likable and explaining why you deserve more: Suggesting that you’re especially valuable can make you sound arrogant if you haven’t thought through how best to communicate the message.

3. Make it clear they can get you. People won’t want to expend political or social capital to get approval for a strong or improved offer if they suspect that at the end

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of the day, you’re still going to say, “No, thanks.” Who wants to be the stalking horse for another company? If you intend to negotiate for a better package, make it clear that you’re serious about working for this employer. Sometimes you get people to want you by explaining that everybody wants you. But the more strongly you play that hand, the more they may think that they’re not going to get you anyway, so why bother jumping through hoops? If you’re planning to mention all the options you have as leverage, you should balance that by saying why—or under what conditions—you would be happy to forgo those options and accept an offer.

4. Understand the person across the table. Companies don’t negotiate; people do. And before you can influence the person sitting opposite you, you have to understand her. What are her interests and individual concerns? For example, negotiating with a prospective boss is very different from negotiating with an HR representative. you can perhaps afford to pepper the latter with questions regarding details of the offer, but you don’t want to annoy someone who may become your manager with seemingly petty demands. On the flip side, HR may be responsible for hiring 10 people and therefore reluctant to break precedent, whereas the boss, who will benefit more directly from your joining the company, may go to bat for you with a special request.

5. Understand their constraints. They may like you. They may think you deserve everything you want. But they still may not give it to you. Why? Because they may have certain ironclad constraints, such as salary caps, that no amount of negotiation can loosen. your job is to figure out where they’re flexible and where they’re not. If, for example, you’re talking to a large company that’s hiring 20 similar people at the same time, it probably can’t give you a higher salary than everyone else. But it may be flexible on start dates, vacation time, and signing bonuses. On the other hand, if you’re negotiating with a smaller company that has never hired someone in your role, there may be room to adjust the initial salary offer or job title but not other things. The better you under- stand the constraints, the more likely it is that you’ll be able to propose options that solve both sides’ problems.

6. Be prepared for tough questions. Many job candidates have been hit with difficult questions they were hoping not to face: Do you have any other offers? If we make you an offer tomorrow, will you say yes? Are we your top choice? If you’re unprepared, you might say something

inelegantly evasive or, worse, untrue. My advice is to never lie in a negotiation. It frequently comes back to harm you, but even if it doesn’t, it’s unethical. The other risk is that, faced with a tough question, you may try too hard to please and end up losing leverage. The point is this: you need to prepare for questions and issues that would put you on the defensive, make you feel uncomfortable, or expose your weaknesses. your goal is to answer honestly without looking like an unat- tractive candidate—and without giving up too much bargaining power. If you have thought in advance about how to answer difficult questions, you probably won’t forfeit one of those objectives.

7. Focus on the questioner’s intent, not on the question. If, despite your preparation, someone comes at you from an angle you didn’t expect, remember this simple rule: It’s not the question that matters but the questioner’s intent. Often the question is challenging but the questioner’s intent is benign. An employer who asks whether you would imme- diately accept an offer tomorrow may simply be interested in knowing if you are genuinely excited about the job, not trying to box you into a corner. A question about whether you have other offers may be designed not to expose your weak alternatives but simply to learn what type of job search you’re conducting and whether this company has a chance of getting you. If you don’t like the question, don’t assume the worst. Rather, answer in a way that addresses what you think is the intent, or ask for a clari- fication of the problem the interviewer is trying to solve. If you engage in a genuine conversation about what he’s after, and show a willingness to help him resolve whatever issue he has, both of you will be better off.

8. Consider the whole deal. Sadly, to many people, “nego- tiating a job offer” and “negotiating a salary” are syn- onymous. But much of your satisfaction from the job will come from other factors you can negotiate—per- haps even more easily than salary. Don’t get fixated on money. Focus on the value of the entire deal: responsi- bilities, location, travel, flexibility in work hours, oppor- tunities for growth and promotion, perks, support for continued education, and so forth. Think not just about how you’re willing to be rewarded but also when. you may decide to chart a course that pays less handsomely now but will put you in a stronger position later.

9. Negotiate multiple issues simultaneously, not serially. If someone makes you an offer and you’re legitimately

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concerned about parts of it, you’re usually better off proposing all your changes at once. Don’t say, “The salary is a bit low. Could you do something about it?” and then, once she’s worked on it, come back with “Thanks. Now here are two other things I’d like. . . .” If you ask for only one thing initially, she may assume that getting it will make you ready to accept the offer (or at least to make a decision). If you keep saying “and one more thing . . .,” she is unlikely to remain in a generous or understanding mood. Furthermore, if you have more than one request, don’t simply mention all the things you want—A, B, C, and D; also signal the relative importance of each to you. Otherwise, she may pick the two things you value least, because they’re pretty easy to give you, and feel she’s met you halfway. Then you’ll have an offer that’s not much better and a negotiating partner who thinks her job is done.

10. Don’t negotiate just to negotiate. Resist the temptation to prove that you are a great negotiator. MBA students who have just taken a class on negotiation are plagued by this problem: They go bargaining berserk the first chance they get, which is with a prospective employer. My advice: If something is important to you, absolutely nego- tiate. But don’t haggle over every little thing. Fighting to get just a bit more can rub people the wrong way—and can limit your ability to negotiate with the company later in your career, when it may matter more.

11. Think through the timing of offers. At the beginning of a job hunt, you often want to get at least one offer in order to feel secure. This is especially true for people finishing a degree program, when everyone is interviewing and some are celebrating early victories. Ironically, getting an early offer can be problematic: Once a company has made an offer, it will expect an answer reasonably soon. If you want to consider multiple jobs, it’s useful to have all your offers arrive close together. So don’t be afraid to slow down the process with one potential employer or to speed it up with another, in order to have all your options laid out at one time. This, too, is a balancing act: If you pull back too much—or push too hard—a company may lose interest and hire someone else. But there are subtle ways to solve such problems. For example, if you want to delay an offer, you might ask for a later second- or third-round interview.

12. Avoid, ignore, or downplay ultimatums of any kind. People don’t like being told “Do this or else.” So avoid

giving ultimatums. Sometimes we do so inadver- tently—we’re just trying to show strength, or we’re frustrated, and it comes off the wrong way. your coun- terpart may do the same. My personal approach when at the receiving end of an ultimatum is to simply ignore it, because at some point the person who gave it might realize that it could scuttle the deal and will want to take it back. He can do that much more easily without losing face if it’s never been discussed. If someone tells you, “We’ll never do this,” don’t dwell on it or make her repeat it. Instead you might say, “I can see how that might be difficult, given where we are today. Perhaps we can talk about X, y, and Z.” Pretend the ultimatum was never given and keep her from becoming wedded to it. If it’s real, she’ll make that clear over time.

13. Remember, they’re not out to get you. Tough salary negotiations or long delays in the confirmation of a formal offer can make it seem that potential employers have it in for you. But if you’re far enough along in the process, these people like you and want to continue liking you. Unwillingness to move on a particular issue may simply reflect constraints that you don’t fully appre- ciate. A delay in getting an offer letter may just mean that you’re not the only concern the hiring manager has in life. Stay in touch, but be patient. And if you can’t be patient, don’t call up in frustration or anger; better to start by asking for a clarification on timing and whether there’s anything you can do to help move things along.

14. Stay at the table. Remember: What’s not negotiable today may be negotiable tomorrow. Over time, interests and constraints change. When someone says no, what he’s saying is “No—given how I see the world today.” A month later that same person may be able to do some- thing he couldn’t do before, whether it’s extending an offer deadline or increasing your salary. Suppose a potential boss denies your request to work from home on Fridays. Maybe that’s because he has no flexibility on the issue. But it’s also possible that you haven’t yet built up the trust required to make him feel comfort- able with that arrangement. Six months in, you’ll prob- ably be in a better position to persuade him that you’ll work conscientiously away from the office. Be willing to continue the conversation and to encourage others to revisit issues that were left unaddressed or unresolved.

15. Maintain a sense of perspective. This is the final and most important point. you can negotiate like a pro and

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still lose out if the negotiation you’re in is the wrong one. Ultimately, your satisfaction hinges less on getting the negotiation right and more on getting the job right. Experience and research demonstrate that the industry and function in which you choose to work, your career trajectory, and the day-to-day influences on you (such as

bosses and coworkers) can be vastly more important to satisfaction than the particulars of an offer. These guide- lines should help you negotiate effectively and get the offer you deserve, but they should come into play only after a thoughtful, holistic job hunt designed to ensure that the path you’re choosing will lead you where you want to go.

Sources: Deepak Malhotra. “15 Rules for Negotiating a Job Offer.” Harvard Business Review (April 2014): Retrieved from http://hbr.org/ 2014/04/15-rules-for-negotiating-a-job-offer/ar/1. Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Copyright © 2014 by Harvard Business Publishing, all rights reserved.

emPloymenT leTTerS anD ConTraCTS

Offers of employment can be made verbally, by letter, or by contract. Letters and verbal offers of employment are typically used for lower-level employees and, generally, are less detailed than employment contracts. They serve to make a job offer and outline the basic terms of employ- ment, as well as to inform the candidates of the general expectations that the employer has of the candidates, should they accept the offer. In workplaces covered by a collective agreement with a union, the can- didate is usually given a letter setting out important clauses in the col- lective agreement that apply to their work along with a copy of the collective agreement. Verbal offers of employment are just as binding as written offers. However, it is in the interests of both employers and employees to have a signed written agreement as evidence in the event of disagreements about the employment relationship.

Employment contracts are much more detailed and formal than job offer letters and they are generally used for professionals, managers, and other high-level employees. These employees typically have access to corporate strategy, proprietary information, and clients and client lists. As a result, they pose potential risks to the organization, which the contracts seek to mitigate.

Regardless of whether the offer is made verbally, by letter, or by contract, there are certain requirements for an offer of employment to be legally valid and enforceable. There must be an offer and an acceptance of the offer of employment, in return for which the job candidate is promised some form of compensation. This promise of compensation is referred to as consideration by the courts. Moreover, the employment offer must not be unconscio- nable (e.g., exploitative, coercive, misleading, and so on) or illegal. All employment offers must comply with federal and provincial human rights legislation, workplace safety legisla- tion, and employment standards. Anything that is not specified in the employment agreement becomes subject to common law. That is, if a disagreement between an employer and a can- didate or employee is brought before the courts, the case would be decided based on legal precedent. The implications of common law for employment contracts will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Recruitment and Selection Today 10.3 and 10.4, respectively, provide examples of an offer of employment letter and a template for an employment contract.

Employment contracts can be for a definite term or for an indefinite term. Definite- term contracts pertain to a fixed period of employment (e.g., six months) or to the completion of a specific task. If an employer terminates an employee before the term or

Consideration A promise of compensation by the employer in return for the prospective employee’s services.

The employment contract—read it carefully before you sign.

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 10.3

EXAMPLE OF AN OFFER OF EMPLOyMENT LETTER

September 8, 2017 Ms. Leigh Vatip 456 Porterhouse Street, Angus, Ontario

Dear Ms. Vatip, I am pleased to offer you the position of waitress at Miss Steak ‘N Identity Restaurant effective September 25, 2017. We are proud of our restaurant and hope you will enjoy working with our team. your duties in our restaurant will include presenting menus to patrons, answering questions about menu items, and making recommendations upon request; taking orders from patrons for food or beverages; checking patrons’ identification to ensure that they meet minimum age requirements for consumption of alcoholic beverages; writing patrons’ food orders on order slips or memorizing orders, and entering orders into computers for transmittal to kitchen staff; serving food or beverages to patrons, and preparing or serving specialty dishes at tables as required; checking with customers to ensure that they are enjoying their meals and taking action to correct any problems; collecting payments from customers; and clearing and cleaning tables or counters after patrons have finished dining. you will be reporting to Ms. May Tredee, our head waitress, and your starting pay will be $11.75 per hour plus any tips you collect. your hours of work will vary from day-to-day, in accordance with our needs and the hours of operation of the restaurant, but they will amount to at least 40 hours per week, including evenings and weekends, as needed. Please note that our restaurant hours are 11 a.m. to 11 p.m., Tuesdays to Sundays (we are closed on Mondays). you are entitled to two weeks’ paid vacation effective September 25, 2018, as well as public holiday pay plus overtime pay for any public (statu- tory) holidays that you work. An optional benefits package is also available (please see the enclosed benefits information). your employment with us is subject to a probationary period of 3 months beginning September 25, 2017. This probationary period will be subject to the Ontario Employment Standards Act, 2000.

Please sign the enclosed copy of this letter and return it to me by September 15, 2017, to indicate your acceptance of this offer.

Sincerely,

Ms. Sally Sperry-Steak, Owner Miss Steak ‘N Identity Restaurant

I understand the terms of this agreement and accept the offer outlined above.

Name: ___________________________________________________ Date: ____________________ Signature: ________________________________________________

task is completed, the employee can sue for damages (such as loss of income) as a con- sequence of being prevented from fulfilling the contract. Employers need to be aware that stringing a series of short-term contracts together can be deemed by the courts to be indefinite employment. For example, the Ontario Employment Standards Act, 2000

Miss Steak ‘N Identity Restaurant 123 Porterhouse Street, Angus, Ontario

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RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn TOdAy 10.4

TEMPLATE FOR AN EMPLOyMENT CONTRACT

Employment agreements

The purpose of an employment agreement is to set out the terms and conditions of the relationship between an employer and an employee. It states the obligations they have to each other and the benefits they will receive from each other. Each agreement must be tailored to suit an individual employment relationship. Employment agreements do not need to repeat terms and conditions set out in the organization’s policies. Employment agreements may need to be more detailed if policies are not in place or if the particular position has specific requirements. For example, overtime rules may be specific to the position, or the employee may have access to confidential information because of the work they do. This template is a guide. It is not a substitute for information about the laws and standards of practice that apply in any specific situation.

sample content for an employment agreement

According to the terms of this agreement, (Organization) will employ (Individual) in the position (Title) beginning on (Start Date) OR from (Start Date) to (End Date).

Without an end date, the agreement will remain in effect until it is cancelled by one of the parties. Terms for cancelling the agreement are part of the agreement (see below).

A “fixed term” agreement should include terms for renewing it. For example, you can state that the agreement is automatically renewed at the end of each period unless one of the parties cancels it. If you opt for automatic renewal, you should also specify that neither party can refuse to renew; that is, the contract ends only when one of the parties cancel it.

duties and responsibilities

Duties and responsibilities can be described in an attached position description, which should be referred to as “part of this agreement.” Or a description of the duties and responsibilities can be incorporated into the body of this agreement.

Reporting lines

The (Title) reports to (Title of supervisor).

Compensation

sALARy:

The annual salary of the (Title) is $ ____ for the first year. The annual salary will be increased by ____% effective on (Date). OR Salary increases will be negotiated to take effect at the beginning of each renewal period.

gROuP insuRAnCE:

The (Title) is eligible for coverage under the organization’s group Insurance plan (refer to policy or description of plan). OR

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The (Title) will receive payment equivalent to ____% of salary in lieu of benefits. The cost of group insurance will be paid by the organization with the exception of the cost of the premium for Long Term Disability insurance, which will be deducted from the employee’s pay. OR The cost of group insurance will be shared; 50% will be paid by the organization and 50% will be deducted from the employee’s pay.

RETiREmEnT bEnEfiTs:

The organization will make a contribution on behalf of (employee) to (name of Retirement Savings Plan) equal to ____% of (employee)’s annual salary.

OTHER bEnEfiTs:

Mention any other benefits that apply to this position.

PAy sCHEduLE:

The (Title) will be paid according to organization’s established pay schedule. OR The (Title) will be paid as follows: Monthly direct deposit of salary and quarterly cheques for contribution to retirement savings plan.

Reimbursement of expenses

The employee will be reimbursed for travel and other expenses incurred while carrying out their responsibilities on behalf of (organization) provided these expenses are approved in advance by (Title of position with the authority to approve expenses).

The organization may also cover fees for membership in professional associations.

Allowances

For example, if the organization pays an allowance to the employee for use of the employee’s car for business purposes, the terms should be spelled out.

Work hours/schedule

The (organization)’s policies on standard hours, overtime and compensatory time, and other related topics apply to this position. OR The standard hours of work for (organization) are ______ hours per week. Employees are compensated for work time that exceeds standard hours with time off at a rate of 1.5 hours off per extra hour worked. OR The standard hours of work for (organization) are ______ hours per week. Employees are compensated for work time that exceeds standard hours at a rate of 1.5 times their regular hourly rate provided that overtime work is approved in advance by (Title of position with the authority to approve overtime).

Annual leave

(Title) is entitled to annual leave (vacation with pay) in accordance with (organization)’s policy.

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OR (Title) is entitled to annual leave (vacation with pay) as follows: (FOR EXAMPLE)

A national organization agreed to post this policy on www.hrcouncil.ca as part of the HR Toolkit. Sample policies are pro- vided for reference only. Always consult current legislation in your jurisdiction to create policies and procedures for your organization

Source: Courtesy of Community Foundations of Canada/HR Council of Canada.

yEARs Of sERViCE COmPLETEd AnnuAL LEAVE

1–3 years 3 weeks

4–6 years 4 weeks

7+ years 5 weeks

It is helpful to clarify vacation entitlements for the first year. Can vacation be taken as it accumulates? Or will the employee be entitled to vacation at the end of the first year?

Other leave

If the employee is entitled to other leave (for example, sabbatical or leave for personal reasons) mention it here.

Annual performance review

The performance of the (Title) will be reviewed annually by (Title of supervisor or manager with responsibility for conducting the review) based on criteria agreed upon by the (Employee’s Title) and (Supervisor, manager, or committee acting on behalf of the organization) at the beginning of the period subject to review.

settlement of disagreements

Describe the process or procedure that will be used to settle disagreements between the employer and the employee when they cannot resolve the disagreement themselves.

Cancellation of this agreement

This agreement can be cancelled only as follows: By the employer, in the event of the employee’s death or “with cause:” Under these circumstances, no compen- sation will be paid to the employee after the agreement is cancelled.

By the employer “without cause:” The employer will give weeks written notice to the employee and pay salary and benefits in respect of the notice period as agreed or negotiated.

By the employee: The employee will give weeks notice. The employer will pay salary and benefits in respect of the notice period as agreed or negotiated.

Other provisions

Some employment agreements also include provisions to deal with matters such as: Ownership of intellectual property, Confidentiality, Terms of departure, Non-competition in the period after employment ends, Non-solicitation of the organiza- tion’s employees, Indemnification of the employee or Limitations on other employment or activities with other organization

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indicates that a term or task agreement that exceeds 12 months (whether as one contract or a series of contracts) is deemed to be indefinite employment. Indefinite-term contracts have no fixed termination date or task. In an indefinite employment agreement, the employee is entitled to notice of termination or payment in lieu of notice in accordance with provincial employment standards, should the employee be terminated.

Employment contracts provide protection for both the employer and the job can- didate or employee. They are a written record of the employment agreement and are legally binding. However, the effectiveness of employment contracts is limited by what is and what is not included. Both employers and applicants need to be vigilant to ensure that the contract documents clearly all of their requirements, rights, and obligations. Many employers seek legal advice in drafting employment contracts and, particularly for complex contracts, it is advisable that applicants also seek legal advice before signing. Employment contracts can include just about anything deemed by either party to be important to the employment relationship and the contents can be negotiated. However, there are common elements in most employment contracts. These common elements are discussed below. Although these elements are discussed in the context of employment contracts, they apply equally to offer of employment letters.

emPloymenT DeTailS

The contract should include details of employment such as the start date, the position title, work location, reporting relationships, and hours of work, and be accompanied by a document detailing all rules and regulations. The starting date is important because it defines when the employment relationship begins and has implications for other aspects of the employment agreement such as the commencement of benefits and the conclu- sion of probationary periods. Normally the start date should permit the applicant to give a current employer at least two weeks’ notice of resignation (assuming that the applicant is currently employed). It is also advisable to provide employees with copies of an employee handbook, or collective agreement, containing all rules and regulations to clearly com- municate the expectations of the employer and reduce the likelihood of employees unknowingly committing infractions or injuring themselves in the first few days of work. Moreover, applicants who might object to particular regulations are forewarned and can choose to decline the offer if they feel they cannot adhere to the regulations.

ComPenSaTion anD benefiTS

The details of the compensation package (salaried, wage based, piece rate, or other) should be made clear, including components like bonuses, commissions, stock options, com- pany cars, etc. Contingencies should also be outlined. For example, if bonuses are part of the pay package, there should be an indication that a particular level of performance is required to obtain the bonus (i.e., the bonus is not guaranteed). If the compensation information is complex, it might be preferable to include a separate document outlining the compensation plan and to simply refer to it in the contract. Most employers who provide benefits have a brochure or document that outlines their benefits package (some- times with options). If the employer provides a benefits package, the relevant brochure or document should accompany the contract rather than attempt to summarize the benefits in the contract. By having the contract simply refer to the enclosed document, there is less risk of making inaccurate promises or inadvertently contradicting the benefits plan.

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The employer might also wish to include a clause in the contract reserving the right to modify or discontinue benefits plans, should the need arise (e.g., if a plan becomes too expensive), without any obligation to replace them or compensate affected employees.

hiring inCenTiVeS

Sometimes organizations provide special incentives to attract applicants and increase the likelihood of job offer acceptance. Hiring incentives can include hiring bonuses, accelerated promotion opportunities, relocation assistance, housing subsidies, and any other incentives of value to prospective employees. These hiring incentives should be specified in the contract but, if the related regulations or conditions are complex, it is advisable to provide the details in a separate document that accompanies the contract. Hiring bonuses are a way of attracting employees in tight job markets without incurring a permanent increase in an employee’s base pay and, thereby, potentially creating internal inequities. It’s advisable to pay the bonus in installments and to indicate in the contract that the employee will not receive the full bonus unless she remains with the organization a minimum length of time (e.g., one year) to prevent an employee from collecting the bonus and leaving within the first weeks of employment. Some organizations also make the bonus contingent on the employee meeting certain performance goals. If an applicant needs to move to another geographic location in order to work for an employer, the employer can provide relocation assistance. This can involve partially or totally defraying the applicant’s moving costs, arranging the applicant’s move, helping with house hunting, providing mortgage subsidies, guaranteeing the purchase of the applicant’s old house, and providing cost-of-living adjustments if the applicant is moving to a high-cost area. Some organizations simply provide new employees with a lump-sum relocation allowance and let the employee work out the details of her move. Conditions or regulations pertaining to relocation assistance should be also spelled out in the contract or in a separate docu- ment if they are complex.

ConDiTional offerS

If the job offer is conditional upon the fulfillment of particular requirements, such as completion of a degree, diploma, or other qualifications, health screening or drug tests, background checks, satisfactory references, or proof of eligibility to work in Canada, this should be specified in the contract. The contract should indicate that failure to meet any of the conditions to the employer’s satisfaction voids the job offer. If any of the checks require the employer to obtain information from third parties, a consent form should be included with the offer for the applicant’s signature. In all cases, the conditions must not violate human rights, workplace safety standards, or employment standards.

ProbaTionary PerioD

Contrary to popular misconception, employees are not automatically subject to a pro- bationary period. For example, although the Ontario Employment Standards Act, 2000 indicates that no minimum pay in lieu of notice is required for employees with less than three months of service, it does not specify that employees with less than three months of service have probationary status. Therefore, in the absence of a probationary clause in the

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contract, common law applies. Some employees with less than three months of service have been awarded significant pay in lieu of notice, sometimes amounting to more than the actual earnings of the employee during the period of employment (typically based on factors such as the employee’s age, managerial level, and probability of re-employment). Therefore, if an employer wishes to have a probationary period, a probationary clause must be included in the contract. Although it is common for employers to choose a three- month probationary period, the law does not impose a limit on how long a probationary period may be. Thus, an employer is free to have a probationary period of six months or longer (recall that, for university professors, tenure involves a probationary period that lasts five or six years). However, after three months the employer must provide notice or payment in lieu of notice at least in accordance with employment standards. In any case, it is advisable that the contract specify the applicability of the relevant employment standards to avoid appeals to common law.

TerminaTion

Termination of employment can occur for many reasons including just cause, without cause, resignation, and retirement. Termination with just cause involves the dismissal of an employee for an action or omission by the employee that has irreparably damaged the relationship between the employer and the employee. Just cause typically involves serious misconduct such as theft, workplace violence, breaches of confidentiality obliga- tions, conflict of interest, or any illegal activity, but can also involve poor performance that persists despite warnings and corrective efforts by the employer. It is prudent to specify in the contract that the employee can be terminated for just cause without notice or pay in lieu of notice. Providing a non-exhaustive list of examples of just cause in the contract is also advisable. Termination without cause involves reasons that are not related to misconduct such as layoffs, job redundancy, economic reorganization, and mergers but can also include poor performance. Termination without cause requires the employer to give the employee notice or pay in lieu of notice at least in accordance with employment standards. However, in certain circumstances (e.g., senior employees, a large number of employees laid off at the same time) terminated employees have suc- cessfully invoked common law to obtain substantially larger severance packages than specified by the employment standards. To protect themselves, employers can specify in the contract that, in case of dismissal without cause, the minimum payments required by employment standards legislation will apply. Resignation can occur for many reasons including a new job offer, a spouse’s transfer, a career change, or returning to school. Because resignations often leave employers scurrying to hire and train a replacement for the employee who leaves, it helps them to have some advance warning. Although, as a courtesy, most employees will provide at least two weeks’ notice if they are leaving, that is not always the case. Therefore, employers may wish to include in the contract a clause specifying that the employee agrees to give a specific amount of advance written notice (e.g., two weeks) when leaving. The employer might also reserve the right to pay the employee in lieu of the employee reporting to work for any part of the notice period. Whether the termination is for cause, without cause, or due to resignation or retirement, the contract should also specify when benefits, bonuses, commissions, and other compensation cease. For example, an employer might specify that the employee is not entitled to bonuses and commissions that might accrue beyond the end of the statutory notice period.

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reSTriCTiVe agreemenTS

Employers sometimes insert restrictive agreements into contracts to protect the interests of the organization. These restrictive agreements can include confidentiality clauses, non-solicitation clauses, and non-competition clauses. Confidentiality clauses usually prohibit current or departing employees from divulging confidential information such as secret formulas, manufacturing processes, client lists, or the business strategy of the organization. Non-solicitation clauses prohibit departing employees from soliciting or recruiting the organization’s employees or clients for their new employer. Non- competition clauses prohibit the departing employee from setting up a business that competes with the organization or from joining a competing organization. Generally, courts have struck down such clauses if they are overly restrictive because they could prohibit the employee from making a living. For example, software developers working for a software company are not likely to find work suited to their training and experi- ence except with another software company that develops similar software. Restrictive agreements are not likely to be enforceable unless it is clear that they protect legitimate proprietary interests of the organization, and even in those circumstances the organiza- tion needs to make a case by describing specifically why it needs protection (e.g., because it is new to the marketplace, because the marketplace is very competitive, because the organization is specialized, because the employee holds a critical role or has critical information). Moreover, the agreement needs to have reasonable limits in terms of the duration of the restriction, the geographic area of the restriction, and the level of the restriction (e.g., a non-solicitation clause might be more appropriate in most circum- stances than a non-competition clause).

Additional information about employment contracts is available at https://gowlingwlg. com/en/canada/insights-resources/employment-contracts-the-twelve-most-common- avoidable-drafting-errors, http://www.nelligan.ca/e/pdf/Employment_Contracts.pdf, and http://managingtheworkplace.com/materials/2013/introducing-and- enforcing- employment-contracts.pdf

aCCePTanCe anD imPlemenTaTion of emPloymenT leTTerS anD ConTraCTS

The offer letter or contract should specify the date when the offer will lapse to prevent applicants who have not responded from claiming a right to the job long after the offer was made. Applicants should signify their acceptance of the job offer by signing a copy of the offer letter or contract and returning it to the employer. If candidates wish to make changes to the contract, they cannot do so by modifying and signing the contract. A revised contract, including the requested changes, would need to be drawn up by the employer and signed by the applicant. If the employer does not accept the requested modifications, the applicant can either accept the original contract or reject the offer (or the offer expires).

If an applicant signs the offer letter or contract the day he starts work, or anytime thereafter, the contract is not enforceable because the applicant is already employed under an oral agreement at the time he signs the written contract. The contract should be signed and returned to the employer before the employee starts work. Moreover, the employee should be given sufficient time before the start date to review the contract and seek advice if desired. Also, the applicant should be given an opportunity to ask

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questions of the employer concerning the contract. Otherwise, the employee can make the claim that he did not understand parts of the contract and was not given an oppor- tunity to discover the implications of the contract before he signed. Once the signed contract has been received by the employer, a copy should be given to employees for their records.

Most of our discussion of offer letters and employment contracts has been from the perspective of the employer. Recruitment and Selection Notebook 10.4 provides advice for job candidates on reviewing employment contracts.

RECRuiTmEnT And sELECTiOn nOTEbOOk 10.4

WHAT yOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT EMPLOyMENT CONTRACTS

Congratulations. After countless interviews, you’ve finally been offered your dream job. All that’s left to do now, you’re told, is sign the company’s employment contract. you scan the document, and are quickly overwhelmed by the legalese. What to do? Do you sign now or risk losing the job if you don’t?

Such scenarios are playing out across Canadian workplaces. Written employment contracts are a standard practice for high-level executive positions, but experts say they are increasingly becoming a condition of hire for every level of worker. What’s more, such contracts are becoming more complex as employers seek to protect themselves from potential damages should the relationship go sour.

Blame it partly on the recession. A weak economy and the resulting layoffs had many companies paying out hefty severance packages, says Daniel Lublin, a workplace lawyer and partner with Whitten & Lublin LLP in Toronto who specializes in hiring and dismissals.

“It’s a factor of experience. They’re waking up to what can happen and they want to protect themselves and reduce the expense of terminations,” he says.

“It’s also just good employment hygiene,” says Janice Rubin, a partner with Rubin Thomlinson LLP in Toronto. “[A written employment contract] sets out clearly what the deal is. It may not eliminate misunderstandings, but it certainly reduces them.”

Typically an employment contract outlines both par- ty’s rights, duties and obligations. It can be a one-page offer or a 10-page tome, Ms. Rubin says.

Whatever form it takes, an employment contract can be intimidating. Here’s what you need to know before you sign on the dotted line:

Review, review, review

Employment contacts are by nature filled with legal jargon difficult for the average person to comprehend. “Never sign anything you don’t understand,” Ms. Rubin advises.

But when presented with a contract, people often feel they are under pressure to act quickly or perhaps lose the job. “It’s extremely hard to say no to a potential employer, because you want the job,” Mr. Lublin says. What you need to remember, he adds, is that the company spent a lot of time and resources wooing you. It’s unlikely that it will rescind the job offer if you ask for time to review the contract.

While there are no provisions in law that give you a grace period to examine the document, “it’s a reasonable request to ask for time to review a contract, and obtain legal advice,” Ms. Rubin notes. “If they say, ‘No, you must sign now,’ that should give you pause. That should tell you a lot about your prospective employer.”

What the contract should cover

Besides basic elements such as your starting date, job title and duties and responsibilities, all aspects of your financial compensation should be clearly documented, particularly if your salary structure is complex, Ms. Rubin says. This includes base salary, raises you’re promised, commissions, bonuses, stock options, profit sharing and how you will be compensated for overtime. “If you look at commission, for example, you want to know not just how much but when it’s triggered; is it upon payment or when the deal is signed?” she says.

Make sure that the contract includes any special promises or considerations made to you. If you are being

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orally promised a promotion six months down the road along with a pay increase, or perhaps a move to the firm’s New york office within the year, get it in writing. “Figure out what is important to you and make sure it’s in the contract,” Ms. Rubin says.

Other clauses that an employer will likely include are terms of termination, including severance and any post- employment restrictions.

negotiate for better terms

Employment contracts often don’t sufficiently protect an employee’s interests, Mr. Lublin says. Worse, a contract might reduce or remove rights you are entitled to under law. “Oftentimes employers will say, ‘This is the standard deal that everyone has to sign,’” he notes. But as with any con- tract, employment agreements can be negotiated, depending on the issue and whether you have leverage in the form of in-demand skills or experience or specialized knowledge. If there is something you don’t like or is missing in the contract, ask for changes, Mr. Lublin says. “It can never hurt to try.”

Red flags

One area to pay close attention to in a contract is the termination clause. Mr. Lublin says that many employers typically offer departing staff only the minimum severance required under the law. “However, without a contract, the vast majority of employees are entitled to more than the minimum and in some cases far greater than the min- imum,” he says.

Another area is post-employment restrictions, which can prevent you from competing with your former employer or soliciting customers, suppliers or former colleagues if your employment is terminated. Many employees unwit- tingly agree to unfavourable restrictions on their activities after they leave a company, Mr. Lublin says.

Alarm bells should also ring if you’re asked to sign a new contract mid-stream, Ms. Rubin says. “If your employer presents you with a new contract, whether it’s six months or a year later, be very careful to ensure that it doesn’t take away something you’re already entitled to.”

Ties that bind

How binding is an employment contract? That depends. generally, a written employment contract will be enforce- able by both parties if it is fair and properly drafted, Mr. Lublin says.

Not surprisingly, Ms. Rubin says, “the provisions that generate the most traffic are what employees are entitled to upon termination and restrictive covenants post-employment.”

Many factors can render a contract unenforceable by Canadian courts, she adds, including language deemed to be ambiguous or unclear, or if it can be shown that the employee signed the contract under duress.

If you’re unsure of, or uneasy about, the terms of a contract, seek appropriate advice. “Much of my work is dedicated to undoing a bad contract that someone unknowingly signed years earlier,” Mr. Lublin says.

Source: Jennifer Myers. 2011. “What you Need to Know About Employment Contracts.” The Globe and Mail (January 7): Retrieved from http://www .theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/career-advice/what-you-need-to-know-about-employment-contracts/article560882/. Reproduced with permission of the author.

// SUmmary Employers face a difficult task in trying to combine and make sense of complex appli- cant information in order to make selection decisions. They are vulnerable to numerous biases and errors and they often oversimplify information because their information- processing abilities are overloaded. Unfortunately, many employers prefer to rely on their gut instincts rather than on more objective sources of information.

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In many organizations, selection decisions are made by groups rather than by indi- viduals. There is some evidence that groups can make better decisions and the use of selection panels has been supported in Canadian human rights tribunals.

Although several approaches to making selection decisions can be used, methods that involve combining applicant information in a statistical manner are generally supe- rior to other methods in reducing errors and predicting job performance.

Various decision-making models, such as multiple regression, multiple cutoff, mul- tiple hurdle, combination, and profile matching, can help in making effective selection decisions when used under appropriate conditions. The multiple regression and multiple hurdle combination approaches are probably the most efficient decision-making models if the assumptions underlying the models are not violated. These models produce a total score, which can be used to rank candidates and select them from the top down until the desired number of candidates has been selected. However, banding is suggested as an alternative to conventional top-down selection because banding satisfies employment equity objectives, while still enabling the hiring of top-quality applicants.

Once the most suitable candidates have been selected, a job offer is made, prefer- ably in writing. A number of legal and practical details and implications need to be considered in making the offers and drafting job offer letters or contracts. Importantly, candidates should sign the offer letters or contracts before they commence working for the organization.

Today’s organizations are undergoing rapid change and, to survive, must adapt to unanticipated innovations in technology, global competition, changing labour force demographics, and increasing government regulation and societal pressures for confor- mity to ethical, environmental, and human rights standards. Best practices in recruit- ment and selection are part of an organization’s survival tools. The procedures we have outlined in this text address the need for reliable, valid, and legally defensible staffing procedures that provide a return on their investment and enhance a firm’s productivity.

key TermS

Banding, p. 482 Consideration, p. 492 Cutoff score, p. 472 False negative error, p. 463 False positive error, p. 462 Implicit theories, p. 461 Incremental validity, p. 470 Judgmental composite, p. 465 Multiple cutoff combination model, p. 479 Multiple hurdle combination model, p. 479 Organizational fit, p. 460 Profile interpretation, p. 465 Pure judgment approach, p. 464 Pure statistical approach, p. 465 Satisficing, p.460 Selection ratio, p. 472 Statistical composite, p. 465 Top-down selection, p. 482 Trait rating approach, p. 465

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DiSCUSSion QUeSTionS

1. What are the common decision-making errors made in employee selection? Can these be eliminated? If so, how? If they cannot be eliminated, can they be reduced? If so, how?

2. What is the difference between judgmental and statistical approaches to the collec- tion and combination of applicant information?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the following decision-making models?

a. Rational weighting

b. Regression models

c. Multiple hurdle

d. Multiple cutoff

e. Profile matching

4. Why do organizations tend to use groups to make selection decisions? What are the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making?

5. Why is it better to use predictors that are uncorrelated or that have a low correlation with each other than predictors that are highly correlated with each other?

6. Discuss the differences among cutoff scores, banding, and top-down selection. Is any one of these more advantageous to use than the others? If so, under what circumstances?

7. What are the biggest pitfalls employers need to be concerned about when drafting offer of employment letters or contracts? What steps can be taken to avoid or mini- mize the likelihood of problems with offers of employment?

8. Discuss the benefits of using best practices in recruitment and selection.

exerCiSeS

1. Assume that you occasionally hire cashiers for a small store. You generally do not hire more than two or three at a time. You have five applicants for two positions. You have obtained information from all of the applicants on a set of five predictors, as follows (the regressions weights are validity coefficients multiplied by two):

Predictor scores

Applicant Cognitive

Test Conscientiousness

scale biodata

form structured interview

Reference Check

Ms. Z 47 26 18 47 6

Mr. y 36 36 15 45 8

Ms. W 46 36 16 32 9

Ms. V 44 30 10 36 7

Mr. U 39 38 14 41 10

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505CHAPTER 10 Decision Making NEL

a. Using the information presented in the table, determine which of the applicants would be selected and, where appropriate, what their rank would be under each of the following decision-making models:

i. Multiple regression

ii. Multiple cutoff

iii. Multiple hurdle combination

iv. Profile matching ( only)2D

b. Which of the selection models discussed do you believe is best suited to this situation? Why?

2. If the regression weights were 1.2, 0.7, 0.3, 1.5, and 0.5 for the five measures, respec- tively, who would now be selected (the cutoff scores remain unchanged from the original)? What would be the rank-order under each of the four decision-making models?

3. If the cutoffs were 30, 30, 15, 40, and 6, respectively, for the five measures, who would now be selected (the regression weights remain unchanged from the originals)? What would be the rank-order under each of the four decision-making models?

4. Discuss the impact that both cutoff scores and regression weights may have on selection decisions.

5. You are an HR practitioner trying to improve selection procedures in your orga- nization. Under the current system, application forms are screened by relevant department managers to determine who should be interviewed. References are also collected. The managers do their own interviewing using individual, unstructured interviews and base their selection decisions almost exclusively on these interviews. They tend to have a lot of confidence in their gut feelings about candidates and believe they’ve been doing a pretty good job of selecting the right applicants.

a. How would you go about trying to convince them that they should adopt a more structured, objective (i.e., statistical) decision-making system?

b. What objections to your suggestion do you anticipate would be raised by the managers?

c. How would you address these objections?

6. Table 10.2 on page 473 presented hypothetical data for four predictors used to hire sales representatives. For the purpose of the illustration, arbitrary cutoffs were set for each of the predictors. For this exercise, we want you to develop actual cutoff scores that you might assign to each of the four measures. Retain the maximum

Applicant Cognitive

Test Conscientiousness

scale biodata

form structured interview

Reference Check

maximum Possible

Scores 50 40 20 50 10

Regression weights 1.1 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5

Cutoff scores 36 27 12 35 7

Mean scores 40 35 16 39 8

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possible score stated in Table 10.2 for each measure. First, obtain the requirements for a sales representative by going to the National Occupational Classification or other job analysis procedure discussed in Chapter 4. Next, follow the Public Service of Canada guidelines (https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commission/services/ staffing-assessment-tools-resources/human-resources-specialists-hiring-managers/ management-toolkit/assessing-competence-series/setting-off-scores-matter- judgement.html) to develop cutoff scores for each measure. The cognitive ability and extraversion measures are generic; however, you may want to use the resources identified in Chapter 8 (e.g., Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook) to select specific cognitive ability and personality measures. Use the information from these specific tests, such as any normative data that is provided, to help set your cutoffs.

a. What are your new cutoffs for each of the tests?

b. Using your new cutoffs, reanalyze the data in Table 10.2, following the proce- dures in Table 10.3 (pages 476–477), for each of the decision-making models. Compare your rank-ordering of the four candidates under each model to that obtained from using the Table 10.2 cutoffs. Are there differences in who would be hired?

c. Discuss the importance of setting cutoffs with respect to hiring decisions.

CAsE sTudy sELECTiOn sysTEm AT gOOgLE

The Google organization is best known for its Web search engine, which now accounts for over 92 percent of worldwide market share, to the point that the term “Googling” has become synonymous with Web browsing.83 Actually, the name “Google” was derived from the word “googol,” a mathematical term for the number 1 followed by 100 zeros, which was intended to convey Google’s mission to organize the huge amount of information on the Web.84 Of course, Google offers a wide variety of other products and services, including Gmail, Google Calendar, Blogger, Google Docs, Google Maps, Google Groups, and others. Google’s official mission is to “organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.”85

Google was founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, three years after they met at Stanford University. They started working out of a garage with one employee in 1998 but the Google corporation has now grown to over 70 000 employees internationally, including Canadian offices in Kitchener-Waterloo, Montreal, and Toronto. Although Google has grown a lot since 1998, it strives to main- tain a small-company feel. Google needs to innovate in order to survive and depends on its employees to provide the necessary innovation. Casual interactions among employees and the sharing of ideas and opinions at the office café or break rooms are strongly encouraged. Every employee is expected to contribute in a variety of ways, often wearing several hats. In turn, Google treats its employees very well, providing a wide variety of perquisites and generous compensation and benefits packages for its employees. It is therefore understandable that Google was ranked first in the most recent Fortune’s “100 Best Companies to Work For.”86

Given its reputation, it is not surprising that Google attracts more than 3 million job applications every year. Although this number of applications provides great opportunity for Google to be highly selective, it also creates a challenge in terms of how to efficiently sort through the more than 3 million applications every year to

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determine which applicants are most suitable. Fortunately, Google has been able to apply search algorithms, similar to the ones it uses for Web searches, to its online job applications. This automated system makes the selection process much easier and also more effective.87

In the past, Google’s selection system required successful applicants to have a grade-point average of at least 3.7 and to go through more than half a dozen inter- views. However, management at Google was not satisfied with the outcomes of this system. In addition to seeking greater efficiency, they were interested in hiring more “well-rounded” candidates who demonstrated abilities in leadership, teamwork, cre- ativity, and other areas, not just those who did well academically.

To accomplish its objectives, Google developed an online biographical infor- mation blank (BIB) or biodata form (see “Biographical Data” on pages 297–298 in Chapter 7). Every employee who had worked with the company for at least five months was asked to fill out a 300-question survey. The survey included questions about what programming languages employees were familiar with, what Internet mailing lists they subscribed to, what magazines they subscribed to, whether their workplace was messy or neat, whether they were introverts or extraverts, whether they preferred working alone or in groups, whether they had ever tutored, what pets they had, whether they had ever made a profit from activities such as a catering business or dog walking, whether they had ever set a world record, etc. Data from the initial survey were compared with 25 separate measures of job performance, including supervisors’ ratings, peer ratings, and measures of organizational citizenship. Eventu- ally, patterns of responses were identified that predicted performance in various areas such as engineering, sales, finance, or human resources. The resulting online biodata form is now completed by applicants and their responses are sorted by Google’s algo- rithm to identify which applicants are best suited to the various positions available.88

The online application form has not eliminated the interview as part of the selection process but it seems to have reduced the number of interviews in which successful candidates participate. Now, applicants who are identified as possible match for a position by Google’s algorithm are contacted by a recruiter for a 30- to 40-minute telephone screening interview. The recruiter makes a preliminary assess- ment of their technical skills and proficiency, and determines whether they should be brought in for in-person interviews.

Applicants who proceed to an on-site interview are further assessed in terms of their job-relevant skills. For example, applicants for a technical position would be evaluated in terms of their core software engineering skills including coding, algorithm development, data structures, design patterns, and analytical thinking skills. Applicants for business and general positions are evaluated with respect to their problem solving and behavioural abilities. Google no longer uses puzzle interview questions (see “Puzzle Interviews” on pages 433–434 in Chapter 9).89 Instead, interviewers use structured interviews with a combination of situational and behavioural questions. Google has developed a tool called qDroid, which allows interviewers to custom-build an interview guide with questions designed to predict performance for any particular job at Google.90 The program draws from a ques- tion bank that has interview questions categorized in terms of their assessment of particular attributes that are deemed important for jobs at Google.

The onsite visits include interviews with at least four interviewers, including both managers and potential colleagues. Applicants are also given a tour of the

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facilities and exposed to various work activities at the site during their visit.91 Fol- lowing the interviews, an independent hiring committee evaluates the interview scores in combination with paper-and-pencil assessments of cognitive ability, consci- entiousness, and leadership and makes recommendations to a senior executive, who makes the final decision.92 This process means that it can take up to two additional weeks for hiring decisions to be made. However, the people at Google believe it helps them make the most effective decisions possible.

QUeSTionS

1. Why did Google change its selection system? How was the selection system changed?

2. Do you think the changes are an improvement compared with Google’s previous selection system? Why or why not?

3. Do you agree that using an online biographical information blank (BIB) is the best way for Google to manage the large volume of applications? Why or why not?

4. Is invasion of privacy a concern with the kinds of questions used in Google’s online BIB (e.g., “Is your workplace messy or neat?”)? Why or why not?

5. Do you think the online BIB could have adverse impact on minority applicants? If so, why? If not, why not?

6. What alternatives can you suggest for an organization such as Google to manage a large number of applications?

7. Do you think the new system will be more effective at helping Google to hire candidates who will be more “well rounded” (i.e., have demonstrated abilities in leadership, teamwork, creativity, etc.)? Why or why not?

8. What alternative ways are there of identifying the kind of “well-rounded” candidates Google is looking for?

9. Would an interview question bank such as qDroid be helpful to inter- viewers in organizations other than Google? Why or why not?

10. Pretend you have been put in charge of staffing at Google. Your job is to review the new selection system and to explore ways of improving the system.

a. How would you determine whether the online BIB and interviews are helping Google accomplish its employee selection objectives?

b. If you found that the BIB has adverse impact on minority applicants, what would you do to address the problem?

c. What suggestions would you make to help Google further improve its selection system? How would you determine whether these suggested changes are effective?

d. What decision-making model (e.g., multiple regression, multiple cutoff, multiple hurdle, combination, and profile matching) is currently being used by Google? Is this the most appropriate model? If so, why? If not, why not and what alternative model would you recommend? Why?

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44. Dose, J.J. 2003. “Information Exchange in Personnel Selection Decisions.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 52: 237–252.

45. Slaughter, J.E., J. Bagger, and A. Li. 2006. “Context Effects on Group-based Employee Selection Decisions.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 100: 47–59.

46. Guzzo, R., and E. Salas, eds. 1997. Team Effectiveness and Decision Making in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

47. Hackett, R.D., J.B. Rose, and J. Pyper. 2000. “The Employment Interview: An Analysis of Canadian Labour Arbitration Decisions.” In K. Whitaker, J. Sack, M. Gunderson, R. Filion, and B. Bohuslawsy, eds. Labour Arbitration Yearbook 1999–2000, Vol. 1. Toronto: Lancaster House.

48. Hackett, R.D., L.M. Lapierre, and H.P. Gardiner. 2004. “A Review of Canadian Human Rights Cases Involving the Employment Interview.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 21: 215–228.

49. Kichuk, S.L., and W.H. Wiesner. 1998. “Work Teams: Selecting Members for Optimal Performance.” Canadian Psychology 39: 23–32.

50. Stevens, M.J., and M.A. Campion. 1994. “The Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Requirements for Teamwork: Implications for Human Resource Management.” Journal of Management 20: 503–530.

51. Burch, G.S.J., P. Christos Pavelis, and R.L. Port. 2008. “Selecting for Creativity and Innovation: The Relationship between the Innovation Potential Indicator and the Team Selection Inventory.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 16: 177–181.

52. Saks, A.M., N. Schmitt, and R.J. Klimoski. 2000. Research, Measurement, and Evaluation of Human Resources. Scarborough, ON: Nelson.

53. Drezner, Z., G.O. Wesolowsky, and W.H. Wiesner. 1999. “A Computational Procedure for Setting Multiple Cutoff Scores.” Journal of Business and Management 6: 86–98.

54. Cascio, W.F., and H. Aguinis. 2011. Applied Psychology in Human Resource Management, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

55. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2016. Human Resource Selection, 8th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

56. Ibid.

57. Cascio, W.F., and H. Aguinis. 2010.

58. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2011.

59. Ibid.

60. Stone, D.L., K.M. Lukaszewski, E.F. Stone-Romero, and T.L. Johnson. 2013.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Nunnally, J.C., and I.H. Bernstein. 1994. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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512 NELRecruitment and Selection in Canada, 7e.

64. Stone, D.L., K.M. Lukaszewski, E.F. Stone-Romero, and T.L. Johnson. 2013.

65. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2016.

66. Ibid.

67. Cottrell, J.M., D.A. Newman, and G.I. Roisman. 2015. “Explaining the Black– White Gap in Cognitive Test Scores: Toward a Theory of Adverse Impact.” Journal of Applied Psychology 100: 1713–1736.

68. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2016.

69. Cascio, F.W., J. Outtz, S. Zedeck, and I.L. Goldstein. 1991. “Six Methods of Test Score Use in Personnel Selection.” Human Performance 4: 233–264.

70. Campion, M.A., J.L. Outtz, S. Zedeck, F.L. Schmidt, J.F. Kehoe, K.R. Murphy, and R.M. Guion. 2001. “The Controversy over Score Banding in Personnel Selection: Answers to 10 Key Questions.” Personnel Psychology 54: 149–185.

71. Bobko, P., and P.L. Roth. 2004.

72. Kehoe, J.F. 2008. “Commentary on Pareto-Optimality as a Rationale for Adverse Impact Reduction: What Would Organizations Do?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 16: 195–200.

73. Schneider, B., and N.W. Schmitt. 1986. Staffing Organizations. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresmann.

74. Gatewood, R.D., H.S. Feild, and M. Barrick. 2016.

75. Breaugh, J.A. 2013. “Employee Recruitment.” Annual Review of Psychology 64: 389–416.

76. Becker, W.J., T. Connolly, and J.E. Slaughter. 2010. “The Effect of Job Offer Timing on Offer Acceptance, Performance, and Turnover.” Personnel Psychology 63: 223–241.

77. Scullen, S.E. 2013.

78. Becker, W.J., T. Connolly, and J.E. Slaughter. 2010.

79. Breaugh, J.A. 2013.

80. Ibid.

81. Scullen, S.E. 2013.

82. Ibid.

83. StatCounter Global Stats, “Search Engine Market Share Worldwide: Apr 2016 to Apr 2017.” Retrieved July 18, 2017, from http://gs.statcounter.com/ search-engine-market-share

84. Google: Company. Retrieved May 2017, from https://www.google.com/about/ company

85. Ibid.

86. Fortune, “100 Best Companies to Work For, 2017.” Retrieved July 19, 2017, from http://fortune.com/best-companies

87. Hansell, S. 2007, January 3. “Google Answer to Filling Jobs Is an Algorithm,” New York Times. Retrieved July 19, 2017, from http://www.nytimes .com/2007/01/03/technology/03google.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

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513CHAPTER 10 Decision Making NEL

88. Ibid.

89. Google Careers: How We Hire. Retrieved July 19, 2017, from https://careers .google.com/how-we-hire/#does-google-still-ask-brainteasers-in-job-interviews

90. Bock, L. 2015. Insights from Google that Will Transform How You Live and Lead. New York: Twelve.

91. Google Careers: How We Hire. Retrieved July 19, 2017, from https://careers .google.com/how-we-hire/

92. Bock, L. 2015.

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A Abilities Enduring, general traits or characteristics on which people differ and which they bring to a work situation. (Chapter 8)

Absolute rating systems Compare the performance of one worker with an absolute standard of performance; can be used to assess performance on one dimension or to provide an overall assessment. (Chapter 5)

Accommodation The three-part Meiorin test is now the standard under which all workplace practices, including selection testing, constitute bona fide occupational requirements. It is the test that courts, tribunals, and arbitrators use in determining whether a workplace practice can be considered to be a BFOR when considering whether those practices constitute either adverse or direct discrimination against individuals or groups. (Chapter 3)

Adaptive performance A worker’s behavioural reactions to changes in a work system or work role. (Chapter 5)

Adverse effect discrimination Refers to a situation where an employer, in good faith, adopts a policy or practice that has an unintended, negative impact on members of a protected group. (Chapter 3)

Adverse impact Occurs when the selection rate for a protected group is lower than that for the relevant comparison group. (Chapter 3)

Applicant pool The set of potential candidates who may be interested in, and who are likely to apply for, a specific job. (Chapter 6)

Aptitude A specific, narrow ability or skill that may be used to predict job performance. (Chapter 8)

Assessment centre A standardized procedure that involves the use of multiple measurement techniques and multiple assessors to evaluate candidates for selection, classification, and promotion. (Chapter 8)

B Banding Grouping applicants based on ranges of scores. (Chapter 10)

Behaviour description interview A structured interview in which the applicant is asked to describe what he did in given situations in the past. (Chapter 9)

Biodata Biographical data gathered from applicant BIBs, application blanks, or other sources. (Chapter 7)

Biographical information blank (BIB) A pre-selection questionnaire that requires applicants to provide detailed job-related information concerning their personal background and life experiences. (Chapter 7)

Bona fide occupational requirement (BFOR) A procedure used to defend a discriminatory employment practice or policy on the grounds that the policy or practice was adopted in an honest and good-faith belief that it was reasonably necessary to assure the efficient and economical performance of the job without endangering employees or the general public. BFORs are sometimes referred to as bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs). (Chapter 3)

C Cognitive abilities Intelligence, general mental ability, or intellectual ability. (Chapter 8)

Competencies Groups of related behaviours or attributes that are needed for successful job performance in an organization. (Chapter 4)

Competency framework A broad framework for integrating, organizing, and aligning various competency models that are based on an organization’s strategy and vision. (Chapter 4)

Competency model A collection of competencies that are relevant to performance in a particular job, job family, or functional area. (Chapter 4)

Competency profile A set of proficiency ratings related to a function, job, or employee. (Chapter 4)

Consideration A promise of compensation by the employer in return for the prospective employee’s services. (Chapter 10)

Contextual performance The activities or behaviours that are not part of a worker’s formal job description but that remain important for organizational effectiveness. (Chapter 5)

Counterproductive work behaviours Voluntary behaviours that violate significant organizational norms and in so doing threaten the well-being of an organization, its members, or both. (Chapter 5)

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GlOssARy

Criteria Measures of job performance that attempt to capture individual differences among employees with respect to job-related behaviours. (Chapter 5)

Criterion contamination The degree to which the criterion measure is influenced by, or measures, behaviours or competencies that are not part of job performance. (Chapter 5)

Criterion deficiency Those job performance behaviours or competencies that are not measured by the criterion. (Chapter 5)

Criterion measures Measures of employee job-related outcomes important to the employer (e.g., absenteeism, turnover, and supervisory ratings of performance) used to establish the validity (i.e., the appropriateness and meaningfulness) of screening and selection tools. (Chapter 7)

Criterion relevance The degree to which the criterion measure captures behaviours or competencies that constitute job performance. (Chapter 5)

Cutoff score A threshold; those scoring at or above the cutoff score pass, those scoring below fail. (Chapter 10)

D Designated targeted groups The four groups (women, visible minorities, Aboriginal people, and people with disabilities) designated in the federal government’s Employment Equity Act that receive legal “protection” in employment policies and practices because of their underrepresentation in the workforce. (Chapter 7)

Dilemma A choice in an interview question between two alternatives that appear equally desirable or undesirable. (Chapter 9)

Discrimination In employment, any refusal to employ or to continue to employ any person, or to adversely affect any current employee, on the basis of that individual’s membership in a protected group. All Canadian jurisdictions prohibit discrimination at least on the basis of race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical or mental disability. (Chapter 3)

E Emotional intelligence The ability to accurately perceive and appraise emotion in oneself and others, and to appropriately regulate and express emotion. (Chapter 8)

Employment equity The elimination of discriminatory practices that prevent the entry or retention of members from designated groups in the workplace, and the elimination of unequal treatment in the workplace related to membership in a designated group. (Chapter 3)

Error score The hypothetical difference between an observed score and a true score. (Chapter 2)

Ethics The determination of right and wrong; the standards of appropriate conduct or behaviour for members of a profession: what those members may or may not do. (Chapter 1)

Experience-based interview Experience-based interview assesses applicant qualifications such as work experience and education using job knowledge or work sample questions. (Chapter 9)

F False negative error Occurs when an applicant who is rejected would have been a good choice. (Chapter 10)

False negatives Individuals who, based on their screening outcomes, are expected to be unsuccessful in the job, but who nonetheless would have performed satisfactorily if given the chance. (Chapter 7)

False positive error Occurs when an applicant who is assessed favourably turns out to be a poor choice. (Chapter 10)

False positives Individuals who, based on their screening outcomes, are expected to perform well in the target job, but who do not. (Chapter 7)

G Genetic testing The testing or monitoring of genetic material to determine a genetic propensity or susceptibility to illness resulting from various workplace chemicals or substances. (Chapter 8)

H Honesty or integrity tests Self-report inventories designed to assess employee honesty and reliability. (Chapter 8)

Human Resources Information systems (HRIs) Computer-based systems that track employee data, the needs of HR, and the requirements and competencies needed for different positions, among other functions. (Chapter 1)

I Image advertising Advertising designed to raise an organization’s profile in a positive manner in order to attract job seekers’ interest. (Chapter 6)

Implicit theories Personal beliefs that are held about how people or things function, without objective evidence and often without conscious awareness. (Chapter 10)

Impression management Attempts by applicants to create a favourable impression by monitoring interviewer reactions and responding accordingly. (Chapter 9)

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GlOssARy

In-basket test A simulation exercise designed to assess organizational and problem- solving skills. (Chapter 8)

Incremental validity The value in terms of increased validity of adding a particular predictor to an existing selection system. (Chapter 10)

Interests and values An individual’s likes and dislikes and the importance or priorities attached to those likes and dislikes. (Chapter 6)

Internet recruiting The use of the Internet to match candidates to jobs through electronic databases that store information on jobs and job candidates. (Chapter 6)

J Job A collection of positions that are similar in their significant duties. (Chapter 4)

Job description A written description of what job occupants are required to do, how they are supposed to do it, and the rationale for any required job procedures. (Chapter 4)

Job family A set of different, but related, jobs that rely on the same set of KSAOs. (Chapter 4)

Job knowledge Knowledgeable of issues and/or procedures deemed essential for successful job performance. (Chapter 8)

Job performance Behaviour (the observable things people do) that is relevant to accomplishing the goals of an organization. (Chapter 5)

Job performance domain The set of job performance dimensions (i.e., behaviours) that is relevant to the goals of the organization, or the unit, in which a person works. (Chapter 5)

Job search The strategies, techniques, and practices an individual uses in looking for a job. (Chapter 6)

Job specification The knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes or competencies that are needed by a job incumbent to perform well on the job. (Chapter 4)

Judgmental composite An approach in which judgmental and statistical data are combined in a judgmental manner. (Chapter 10)

K Knowledge structures Interviewers’ beliefs about the requirements of the job and the characteristics of applicants. (Chapter 9)

KsAOs The knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes necessary for a new incumbent to do well on the job; also referred to as job, employment, or worker specifications. (Chapter 2)

l leaderless group discussion A simulation exercise designed to assess leadership, organizational, and communication skills. (Chapter 8)

long-distance interviews Interviews conducted over a long distance, including telephone interviews, videoconference interviews, Internet interviews, or computerized interviews, which serve as alternatives to face-to-face interviews. (Chapter 9)

M Measurement error The hypothetical difference between an observed score and a true score; comprises both random error and systematic error. (Chapter 2)

Minimum qualifications (MQs) Knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience deemed necessary for minimally acceptable performance in one or more positions; designed for making the “first cut” in screening applicants, and sometimes referred to as selection criteria. (Chapter 7)

Multiple cutoff combination model A combination of multiple cutoff and regression approaches. (Chapter 10)

Multiple hurdle combination model A combination of multiple hurdle and regression approaches. (Chapter 10)

Multiple Mini-Interviews A version of the speed interview where applicants participate in a circuit of 12 eight-minute interviews with 12 different interviewers at 12 different interview stations. (Chapter 9)

O Objective performance measures Production, sales, and personnel data used in assessing individual job performance. (Chapter 5)

Organization analysis An important step in the recruitment and selection process in which human resources specialists consider the design and structure, functions and processes, and strategies and missions of organizations to highlight areas of strength and weakness useful to human resources planning. (Chapter 6)

Organizational fit Applicants’ overall suitability for the organization and its culture. (Chapter 10)

Outreach recruiting A recruitment practice where the employing organization makes a determined and persistent effort to make potential job applicants, including designated group members, aware of available positions within the employing organization. (Chapter 3)

Outsourcing Contracting with an outside agent to take over specified HR functions. (Chapter 6)

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GlOssARy

P Panel interview An interview conducted by two or more interviewers together at one time. (Chapter 9)

Performance dimensions Sets of related behaviours that are derived from an organization’s goals and linked to successful job performance. (Chapter 5)

Personality A set of characteristics or properties that influence, or help to explain, an individual’s behaviour. (Chapter 8)

Personality traits Stable, measurable characteristics that help explain ways in which people vary. (Chapter 8)

Person–job fit Occurs when a job candidate has the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other attributes and competencies required by the job in question. (Chapter 6)

Person–organization fit Occurs when a job candidate fits the organization’s values and culture and has the contextual attributes desired by the organization. (Chapter 6)

Physical abilities Traits or characteristics that involve the use or application of muscle force over varying periods, either alone or in conjunction with an ability to maintain balance or gross body coordination. (Chapter 8)

Position A collection of duties assigned to individuals in an organization at a given time. (Chapter 4)

Practical intelligence The ability to apply ideas in “real world” contexts. (Chapter 8)

Practicality The degree to which a criterion measure is available, plausible, and acceptable to organizational decision makers. (Chapter 5)

Probes Follow-up questions or prompts used by the interviewer to guide the applicant’s descriptions of situations or events or to provide scorable elaboration of answers. (Chapter 9)

Professional standards Professional standards provide guidance on how HR professionals should behave in certain situations including the use of employment tests. (Chapter 1)

Proficiency level The level at which competency must be performed to ensure success in a given functional group or position. (Chapter 4)

Proficiency scales A series of behavioural indicators expected at specific levels of a competency. (Chapter 4)

Profile interpretation An approach in which statistical data are combined in a judgmental manner. (Chapter 10)

Psychomotor abilities Traits or characteristics that involve the control of muscle movements. (Chapter 8)

Pure judgment approach An approach in which judgmental data are combined in a judgmental manner. (Chapter 10)

Pure statistical approach An approach in which data are combined statistically. (Chapter 10)

Puzzle interviews Puzzle interviews are usually unstructured interviews that ask applicants to solve puzzles or unusual problems. (Chapter 9)

R Realistic job preview A procedure designed to reduce turnover and increase satisfaction among newcomers to an organization by providing job candidates with accurate information about the job and the organization. (Chapter 6)

Recruitment The generation of an applicant pool for a position or job in order to provide the required number of candidates for a subsequent selection or promotion program. (Chapter 1)

Reference check Information gathered about a job candidate from supervisors, coworkers, clients, or other people named as references by the candidate. The information is usually collected from the written references and/or from contacts over the phone. (Chapter 7)

Relative rating system A subjective measurement system that compares the overall performance of one employee to that of others to establish a rank order of employee performance. (Chapter 5)

Reliability The degree to which observed scores are free from random measurement errors. Reliability is an indication of the stability or dependability of a set of measurements over repeated applications of the measurement procedure. (Chapter 2)

s satisficing Making an acceptable or adequate choice rather than the best or optimal choice. (Chapter 10)

scoring guide A behavioural rating scale consisting of sample answers to each question that is used by the interviewer to evaluate and score the applicant’s answers. (Chapter 9)

screening interviews Preliminary interviews designed to fill gaps left on the candidate’s application form or résumé, sometimes serving recruitment as well as selection functions. (Chapter 9)

screening The first step of the selection process; involves identifying individuals from the applicant pool who lack the minimum qualifications for the target position(s). Candidates “passing” this first hurdle then undergo more extensive assessment. (Chapter 7)

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GlOssARy

selection ratio The proportion of applicants for one or more positions who are hired. (Chapter 7)

selection The choice of job candidates from a previously generated applicant pool in a way that will meet management goals and objectives as well as current legal requirements. (Chapter 1)

self-report inventory Short statements reflecting various personality traits which individuals rate on the degree to which they are self-descriptive. (Chapter 8)

self-selecting out Occurs during the recruitment and selection process when candidates form the opinion that they do not want to work in the organization. Short statements reflecting various personality traits which individuals rate on the degree to which they are self-descriptive.

sensory/perceptual abilities Traits or characteristics that involve different aspects of vision and audition, as well as the other senses. (Chapter 8)

serial interviews A series of interviews where the applicant is interviewed separately by each of two or more interviewers. (Chapter 9)

situational exercises Assess aptitude or proficiency in performing important job tasks by using tasks that are abstract and less realistic than those performed on the actual job. (Chapter 8)

situational judgment test Type of situational exercise designed to measure an applicant’s judgment in workplace or professional situations. (Chapter 8)

skill An individual’s degree of proficiency or competency on a given task, which develops through performing the task. (Chapter 8)

social networks Internet sites that allow users to post a profile with a certain amount of information that is visible to the public. (Chapter 6)

speed interviewing A series of short (5–15 minutes), consecutive interviews. (Chapter 9)

statistical composite An approach in which judgmental and statistical data are combined statistically. (Chapter 10)

strategy Strategy is the formulation of organizational objectives, competitive scopes, and action plans for gaining advantage. (Chapter 1)

structured interview An interview consisting of a standardized set of job-relevant questions; a scoring guide is used. (Chapter 9)

subjective performance measures Ratings or rankings made by supervisors, peers, or others that are used in assessing individual job performance. (Chapter 5)

subject-matter experts (sMEs) People who are most knowledgeable about a job and how it is currently performed; generally job incumbents and their supervisors. (Chapter 4)

sufficient risk As part of a BFOR defence, an employer may argue that an occupational requirement that discriminates against a protected group is reasonably necessary to ensure that work will be performed successfully and in a manner that will not pose harm or danger to employees or the public. (Chapter 3)

systemic discrimination In employment, the intentional or unintentional exclusion of members of groups that are protected under human rights legislation through recruiting, selection, or other personnel practices or policies. (Chapter 6)

T Tacit knowledge Knowledge that is derived from experience when learning is not the primary objective. (Chapter 8)

Talent management An organization’s commitment to recruit, retain, and develop the most talented and superior employees. (Chapter 1)

Task inventories Work-oriented surveys that break down jobs into their component tasks. (Chapter 4)

Task statement A discrete sentence containing one action verb that concisely describes a single observable activity performed by a job incumbent. (Chapter 4)

Top-down selection Ranking applicants on the basis of their total scores and selecting from the top down until the desired number of candidates has been selected. (Chapter 10)

Trait rating approach An approach in which judgmental data are combined statistically. (Chapter 10)

True score The average score that an individual would earn on an infinite number of administrations of the same test or parallel versions of the same test. (Chapter 2)

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U Ultimate criterion The concept that a single criterion measure reflects overall job success. (Chapter 5)

Unstructured interview A traditional method of interviewing that involves no constraints on the questions asked, no requirements for standardization, and a subjective assessment of the candidate. (Chapter 9)

V Validity coefficient The correlation between assessment scores and job performance measures. (Chapter 7)

W Weighted application blank (WAB) A formal method for quantitatively combining information from application blank items by assigning weights that reflect the value of each item in the prediction of job success. (Chapter 7)

Work samples and simulations Testing procedures that require job candidates to produce behaviours related to job performance under controlled conditions that approximate those found in the job. (Chapter 8)

Worker traits inventories Methods used to infer employee specifications from job analysis data. (Chapter 4)

Work-oriented job analysis Job analysis techniques that emphasize work outcomes and descriptions of the various tasks performed to accomplish those outcomes. (Chapter 4)

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ABC Glass, requirements, 316

abilities, 332

absolute rating systems, 210–214

balanced scorecard, 214

BARS, 210–212

BOS, 211, 213

graphic rating scales, 210, 211

MBO, 213

Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (AODA), 77

access to test results, employment test, 329

accommodation, 84

of caregiving responsibilities, 97

employment test, 329

individual, 96–98

reasonable, 95–96

accurate expectations, 273–274

Action travail des femmes v. Canadian National (1984), 100

adaptive performance, 183, 189–191, 199

adverse effect discrimination, 87–89

direct discrimination and, 92–94

adverse impact, 84, 89–90

fairness and, 361

aggression and violence, 195–196

agreeableness, 359

agreements, restrictive, 500

Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody (1975), 91, 92, 120

Alberta Dairy Pool v. Alberta (Human Rights Commission) [1990], 82

alcohol testing, pre-employment drug and, 345–347

alternate forms reliability, 42

Ambassador program, 269

Andrews v. Treasury Board and Department of Transport (1994), 98, 101

AODA. See Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act

applicant decisions, interviewer and, 406–407

applicant pool, 230, 241–243

applicant reactions, 370–371

structured interviews, 426–427

applicants

expectations, 404–405

interview coaching for, 432

responses, 405

Applicant Tracking Systems (ATSs), 303

application blank, 294

aptitude, 331, 332

assessment centres (AC), 352–353

in Canada, 353

effectiveness, 354

evaluations, 353

location and cost, 353

audit, recruitment, 279

availability, 140

background checks, 308–309

balanced scorecard, 214

banding, 482–483

behavioural interview (BI), 418–421

vs. SI, 422–424

behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS), 210–212

behaviour description interview, 418

behaviour observation scales (BOS), 211, 213

Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, 55–56

bias, 53, 55–56

Big Five factors, 358–361

Bill 168, 198

biodata, 297

biographical information blank (BIB), 297–301

B.L. Mears v. Ontario Hydro, 215

bona fide occupational requirement (BFOR), 58, 84, 94–95, 294

British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v. British Columbia Government Service Employees’ Union [1999], 83

British Columbia (Superintendent of Motor Vehicles) v. British Columbia (Council of Human Rights) [1999], 83

broad vs. narrow traits, 360

bullying and cyberbullying, 196–197

business résumés. See résumés

business strategy, 236–237

Campbell’s job performance dimensions, 186, 187

Canada

assessment centres (AC) in, 353

constitutional law, 68

demographic makeup, 10–11

employment practices, 67

globalization, 8–9

legality of pre-employment drug testing, 345–347

trading, 8

unionized environment, 12

vision and mission statements, 7

Canada Labour Code, 76

Canada (Attorney General) v. Johnstone, 97

Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), 70

Canadian Classification Dictionary of Occupations (CCDO), 124

Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, 18

Canadian Council of Human Resource Associations (CCHRA), 16, 19

Canadian Forces Aptitude Test (CFAT), 337

Canadian Human Rights Act, 70, 72–73

Canadian Human Rights Commission (CHRC), 72–73, 75, 346

Canadian National Railway Co. v. Canada (Human Rights Comm.) and Action travail des femmes [1987], 82, 88–89

NEL

INDEX

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INDEX

Canadian National Railway Co. v. Canada (Human Rights Comm.) and Bhinder [1985], 82

Canadian National Railway Co. v. Seeley, 97

Canadian National recruitment and selection, 100–101

Canadian Privacy Act, 80

Canadian Psychological Association (CPA), 17

Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (CSIOP), 17

Cango Distribution, 440–441

case

ABC Glass, requirements, 316

Cango Distribution, 440–441

competitive environment, recruitment, 282

emotional intelligence (EI), 62–63

Google, 24–25, 506–508

job analysis, 171–172

job performance assessments, 219–220

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), 374–375

victim of discrimination, 110–111

cautions, screening interviews, 402

CBC. See Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

CCDO. See Canadian Classification Dictionary of Occupations

CCHRA. See Canadian Council of Human Resource Associations

Central Okanagan School District No. 23 v. Renaud [1992], 82–83

Certified Human Resources Executive (CHRE), 17

Certified Human Resources Leader (CHRL), 17

Certified Human Resources Professional (CHRP), 15, 16, 339

CFAT. See Canadian Forces Aptitude Test

Chartered Professional in Human Resources (CPHR), 15–19

CHRC. See Canadian Human Rights Commission

CIT. See critical incident technique

CKE. See Comprehensive Knowledge Exam classification consistency reliability, 42

CMQ. See Common-Metric Questionnaire coaching, interview, 432

cognitive ability, 62–63, 199, 332–336

cognitive ability tests, 331

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA), 148

combination models, 479–480

Common-Metric Questionnaire (CMQ), 147

communication, 140

and perception, 272–273

Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada, Local 30 v. Irving Pulp & Paper Ltd., 2013, 346

competencies

best practices, 163

categories, 156–158

defined, 155–156

dictionaries, 159–160

employee, 162–164

framework, 156

leadership, 166–168

legal defensibility of, 162

profile, 160–161

validation, 164–165

vs. job analysis, 165–166

competency-based management framework, 162–163

competency dictionary, 159–160

competency framework, 156

competency model, 156

competency profile, 160–161

competitive environment, recruitment, 282

composite vs. multiple criteria, 204

Comprehensive Knowledge Exam (CKE), 339

concurrent validation, 48

conditional offers, 498

conscientiousness, 140, 359

consideration, 492

consistency of job performance

criterion measures, 206

dynamic vs. stable criteria, 206

training vs. job proficiency criteria, 205

typical vs. maximum job performance, 205

constitutional law, 68

constructs, 35

construct validity, 45

content validity, 45

contextual performance, 182, 187–189, 199

contracts. See letters and contracts

core competencies, 156, 158

corporate image, job applicants, 267–270

correcting for errors, 52–53

cost, interviews, 395–396

counterproductive work, 191, 199–200

adaptive performance, 199

bullying and cyberbullying at work, 196–197

contextual performance, 199

employee theft, 195

presenteeism, 194

psychological harassment, 197–198

tardiness and absence, 191–194

task performance, 199

voluntary turnover, 194

workplace aggression and violence, 195–196

counterproductive work behaviours (CWBs), 183, 191

CPA. See Canadian Psychological Association

CPA’s Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, 19

criteria, 181

criterion contamination, 201

criterion deficiency, 201

criterion measures, 206, 296

criterion-related validity, 45

criterion relevance, 201

critical incident technique (CIT), 138–139, 149

CSIOP. See Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology

CTA. See Cognitive Task Analysis

cutoff scores, 472

database, job performance, 215

decision making

banding, 482–483

collection and combination, 464–466

combination models, 479–480

context of, 460–461

cutoff scores, 472

errors, 461–463

group, 468–470

incremental validity, 470–471

job offer (see job offer)

multiple cutoff model, 477–478

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decision making (Continued )

multiple hurdle model, 478

multiple regression model, 474–477

practical considerations, 483–484

profile matching model, 480–481

selection systems, 484–485

statistical approaches to, 466–467

top-down selection, 482

unit and rational weighting, 473–474

decision-making training (DMT), 277

declarative knowledge, 186

demographic characteristics, 411

demonstrating effort, 185

Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), 28

Department of National Defence, 266

designated groups, 84

designated targeted groups, 292

design, interview, 430–431

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), 124

digital audio recordings, 130

dilemmas, 416

Dipboye’s model, 403

direct discrimination, 83–87

and adverse effect discrimination, 92–94

direct mail advertising, 248

direct observation, 129–131, 149

structured interview and, 131–132

disability, 98–99, 343–344

hiring process, 77

discrimination

adverse effect, 87–89

defined, 67

direct, 83–87

employment, 71–72

in United States, 90–91

victim of, 110–111

diversity recruitment, 234–236

dynamic vs. stable criteria, 206

EBI. See experience-based interview

economy, HR, 9

educational institutions, recruitment, 252–253

effectiveness, interview

applicant reactions, 426–427

behavioural interview, 418–421

coaching applicants, 432

designing, 430–431

EBI, 421–422

employer reactions, 426

and human rights, 427–430

long-distance interviews, 432–433

MMI, 434–435

organizational fit, 424–426

panel interviews, 413, 415

puzzle interviews, 433–434

scoring, 424

serial interviews, 415–416

situational interview, 416–417

structured interview approaches, 422–424

structuring, 413

training, 431–432

effects of information, 411

EI. See emotional intelligence

electronic news-gathering (ENG), 219

ELPs. See expectation-lowering procedures

emotional intelligence (EI), 62–63, 331, 339–341

emotional stability, 359

employee competencies, 162–164

Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 362

employee referral, 248–249

employee theft, 195

employer reactions, structured interviews, 426

employment

agencies, 249–252

letters and contracts (see letters and contracts)

screening and selection, 85–87

Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC), 76

employment discrimination, 71–72

employment equity, 74–76, 84

Employment Equity Act, 75, 76, 78, 84, 294–295

employment equity legislation, 76

employment equity programs, 67, 75

employment law

job analysis and, 119–120

employment standards, 76–80

employment testing, 328

abilities, 332

applicant reactions, 370–371

assessment centres, 352–354

choosing, 328–330

cognitive abilities, 332–336

emotional intelligence, 339–341

honesty/integrity testing, 362–367

HR assessments, 367

job knowledge, 338–339

multiple aptitude test batteries, 336–337

personality inventories, 355–361

physical abilities, 341

physical fitness and medical examinations, 342–345

polygraph testing, 362

practical intelligence, 337–338

predictors, 367–370

pre-employment drug and alcohol testing, 345–347

psychomotor abilities, 341

sensory/perceptual abilities, 341–342

uses, 329

work samples and simulations, 347–352

ENG. See electronic news-gathering

EQ. See emotional intelligence

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Act, 90

e-recruiting

Internet recruiting, 253–257

social networking, 257–261

error score, 38

errors, decision making, 461–463

ESDC. See Employment and Social Development Canada

ethical dilemmas

recruitment and selection, 20–21

ethics, 18

evaluation, recruitment, 277–279

evidence-based vs. practice-based selection processes, 34

executive search firms, 251

expectation-lowering procedures (ELPs), 276–277

experience-based interview (EBI), 421–422

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external candidates, recruitment

educational institutions, 252–253

employment agencies, 249–252

job advertisements, 246–249

walk-ins, 249

extraversion, 359

Facebook, 180, 259–260

face validity, 46

fairness, 56–58

and adverse impact, 361

false negative error, 463

false negatives, 292, 293

false positive error, 462–463

false positives, 292

Federal Contractors Program (FCP), 74

first impressions, résumés, 302–303

Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS), 144–147, 150

forced distribution, 209

foundation

bias, 53–56

building, 36

evidence-based vs. practice-based selection processes, 34

fairness, 56–58

hiring process, 31–34

legal environment and selection, 58–59

reliability, 36–44

selection model, 34–36

steps, 58–59

systems approach, 29, 30

validity, 44–53

frame-of-reference (FOR) training, 432

frequency, recruitment, 264

functional competencies, 156–157

functional job analysis (FJA), 136–137, 149

General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), 337, 341

general cognitive ability (GCA), 333

General Competency Test: Level 1 (GCT1), 334

general mental ability (GMA), 333–337

genetic testing, 344

global competition, HR, 8–9

global vs. multiple criteria, 203–204

Google, 24–25, 506–508

Government of Canada, 267

graphic rating scales, 210, 211

Griggs v. Duke Power (1971), 91

Grismer case/decision, 83, 98–100

Grismer v. British Columbia (A.G.), 98

group decision making, 468–470

harassment and bullying, 198

Health Sciences Assn. of British Columbia v. Campbell River and North Island Transition Society, 97

HEXACO-Personality Inventory, 364

hiring incentives, 498

hiring process, 2, 31–34

decision making (see decision making)

Facebook, 180

job offer (see job offer)

Hogan Personality Inventory, 362

“Honesty-Humility” (H-H), 360

honesty/integrity inventories, 331

honesty/integrity testing, 362–367

honesty, résumés, 304–305

Human Resource Information System (HRIS), 215

Human Resource Professional Association (HRPA), 339

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC), 76

human resources information systems (HRIS), 4–5, 245–246

human resources management (HRM), 6, 13

human resources planning, 231, 232, 238–239

human resources (HR) professionals, 3, 6

assessments, evaluation, 367

best practices, 13

competitive advantage, 12–13

economy, 9

global competition, 8–9

job analysis, 114–116

jobs, 12

KSAO, 35

legal requirements and, 105–106

legislative environment, 8

nondiscriminatory recruitment, 102–103

organizations, 11

recruitment and selection, 15–17

restructured, organizations, 11–12

technology and Internet, 10

unionized environment, 12

workplace demographics, 10–11

human rights

and interview, 427–430

and job performance, 215–217

human rights considerations, 294–295

human rights law, 68, 70–74

image advertising, 270

implicit theories, 461

impression management, 408

in-basket test, 351–352

incremental validity, 470–471

index of reliability, 44

indirect discrimination, 84

individual accommodation, 96–98

individual consideration, 140

individual work performance, 183

information, collection and combination, 464–466

information, effects of, 411

information processing and decision making

applicant decisions, 406–407

assessments, 405–406

context, 407

knowledge structures, 403

social interaction, 405

informed consent, employment test, 329

in-house recruiters, 252

integrity testing. See honesty/integrity testing

interests and values, 266

internal candidates, 244

internal consistency reliability, 42

internal job postings, 244

international assignments, recruitment and, 262–263

Internet

human resources (HR), 10, 21

job analysis, 167

Internet recruiting, 253–257

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interpersonal workplace deviance

aggression and violence, 195–196

bullying and cyberbullying, 196–197

psychological harassment, 197–198

inter-rater reliability, 42

interview coaching, 432

interview decisions, 411

interviewer

and applicant decisions, 406–407

and candidate expectations, 403–405

candidate information processing and assessments, 405–406

social interaction of, 405

training, 431–432

interviewing

cost of, 395–396

effectiveness (see effectiveness, interview)

purposes, 394–395

screening (see screening interviews)

inventories

structured job analysis questionnaires and, 135

job, 117

level and type, 237

job advertisements, 246–249

job analysis, 171–172, 238

advantages and disadvantages, 148–150

best practice, 146–154

competencies vs., 165–166

criteria, 151

defined, 114–115

and employment law, 119–120

guidelines, 127, 153–154

Internet, 167

interview questions, 128–129

legal defensibility of, 152

methods, 120–121

NOC, 121–124

O*NET system, 124–125

process and outcomes, 115–116

SMEs, 118–119

worker-oriented, 126

work-oriented, 125–126

job applicants

attitudes and behaviours, 265

corporate image, 267–270

interests and values, 266

job search, 267

self-selecting out, 266

job description, 116, 148

job fairs, 248

job family, 117

job knowledge, 338–339

job offer

letters and contracts (see letters and contracts)

making, 487–488

negotiations, 489–492

preparation, 485–486

job performance, 181–184

absolute rating systems, 210–214

adaptive work performance, 189–191

assessments, 219–220

composite vs. multiple criteria, 204

consistency, 205–206

contextual performance, 187–189

counterproductive work (see counterproductive work)

criteria and performance appraisal, 206

criterion measures, 203

database, 215

domain, 184

fairness and satisfaction, 214–215

global vs. multiple criteria, 203–204

human rights and, 215–217

multidimensional, 184

multidimensional model, 185–187

objective performance appraisal measures, 206–208

performance dimensions, 185

personality measures, 357–358

practicality, 202–203

relevancy, 201–202

reliability, 202

subjective performance appraisal, 208–210

task performance, 187

ultimate criterion, 203

job relevance, 427–428

job search, 267

jobs, HR, 12

job specification, 117, 148

job-specific competencies, 157, 158

job-specific task proficiency, 185

judgmental composite, 465

knowledge

structures, 403

task performance, 199

knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes (KSAOs), 29, 87–88, 115, 132

competency, 155–156

task statement and, 132–135

KOF Index measures, 9

labour law, 76–80

labour markets and recruiting, 231–233

outsourcing, 233–234

part-time labour markets and recruiting, 233

language and culture, employment test, 329

language development, 137

leaderless group discussion, 351

leadership competencies, 166–167

legal defensibility

competency model, 162

job analysis, 152

legal environment, 234–236

legal issues

adverse effect discrimination, 87–89

adverse impact, 89–90

application, 100–102

BFOR, 94–95

direct discrimination, 83–87

direct discrimination and adverse effect discrimination, 92–94

individual accommodation, 96–98

nondiscriminatory recruitment and selection, 67–80

reasonable accommodation, 95–96

reasonable alternative, 98–99

sufficient risk, 99–100

United States, discrimination in, 90–91

legislative environment, HR, 8

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letters and contracts, 492–497

acceptance and implementation, 500–502

compensation and benefits, 497–498

conditional offers, 498

employment details, 497

hiring incentives, 498

probationary period, 498–499

restrictive agreements, 500

termination, 499

Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN)

competencies to, 158

job description for, 117–118

NOC, 121–122

task inventory, 135, 136, 143

task statement, 131

LIMRA Inc., 299

LinkedIn, 259

Living Healthy Inc. (LHI), 291

long-distance interviews, 432–433

management/administration, 186

management by objectives, 213

Manager Profile Record (MPR), 300

mathematical development, 137

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT), 339

measurement error, 40, 51

Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), 435

medical examinations, physical fitness and, 342–345

Meiorin case/decision, 83, 92–93

mental disability, 98–99

Microsoft Canada, 399

minimum qualifications (MQ), 292

mission statement, 7

multidimensional model

job performance, 184, 185–187

multiple aptitude test batteries, 336–337

multiple cutoff combination model, 479

multiple cutoff model, 477–478

multiple hurdle combination model, 479

multiple hurdle model, 478

multiple mini-interview (MMI), 402, 434–435

multiple regression model, 474–477

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 328

National Football League (NFL), 333

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 342

National Occupational Classification (NOC) system, 121–124, 148

NAV CANADA, e-recruiting, 254–255, 266

negligent hiring, reference check, 307, 308

networking, 249

newspapers, 247

nominations, 246

nondiscriminatory

outreach recruiting, 102–103

recruitment and selection, 67–80

non-job-specific task proficiency, 185

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 8

objective performance measures, 206–208

offer, job. See job offer

O*NET Resource Center, 40

O*NET system, 124, 125, 143–144, 148

Ontario Employment Standards Act, 498–499

Ontario Human Right Commission, 119

Ontario Human Rights Commission and Bruce Dunlop and Harold E. Hall and Vincent Gray v. The Borough of Etobicoke [1982], 81

Ontario Human Rights Commission and O’Malley v. Simpsons-Sears Ltd. [1985], 81

open houses, 248

openness to experience, 359

order effects, 411

organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), 188

organizational fit, 460

structured interviews, 424–426

organization analysis, 237–238

organizations, HR, 11

outreach recruiting, 102–103

outsourcing, 233–234

paired comparisons, 209

panel interviews, 413, 415

Parliamentary Employment and Staff Relations Act, 79

part-time labour markets and recruiting, 233

peer and team performance, 186

performance appraisal, 206

performance dimensions, 185

performance measurement, job, 200–201

absolute rating systems, 210–214

composite vs. multiple criteria, 204

criteria and performance appraisal, 206

criterion measures, 206

database, 215

dynamic vs. stable criteria, 206

fairness and satisfaction, 214–215

global vs. multiple criteria, 203–204

objective performance measures, 206–208

practicality, 202–203

relevancy, 201–202

reliability, 202

subjective performance, 208–210

training vs. job proficiency criteria, 205

typical vs. maximum job performance, 205

ultimate criterion, 203

personal discipline, maintaining, 186

Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), 80, 313

personality, 355–357

personality-based integrity test, 364

personality inventories, 331

personality measurement, 199

personality traits, 356

person–job fit, 271

Personnel Psychology Centre (PPC), 333

person–organization fit, 271–272

accurate expectations, 273–274

communication and perception, 272–273

DMT, 277

ELPs, 276–277

RJPs, 274–276

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phone-based reference check, 306–307

physical abilities, 341

physical ability and sensory/perceptual ability tests, 331

physical disability, 98–99

physical fitness and medical examinations, 342–345

polygraph testing, 362

poor validity reference check, 308

position, 117

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), 132, 135, 139–141, 149

practical intelligence, 337–338

practicality, 202–203

predictive validation, 47

predictive validity

reference check, 308

résumés, 305

of work experience, 310–311

pre-employment drug and alcohol testing, 345–347

presenteeism, 194

Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures, 45, 56–57

privacy and confidentiality, employment test, 329

privacy legislation, 69, 76–80

private employment agencies, 250

probationary period, 498–499

probes, 418

procedural knowledge and skill, 186

professional periodicals and trade journals, 247

professional standards, 18

proficiency level, 159

proficiency scale, 159–160

profile interpretation, 465

profile matching model, 480–481

protected groups, 84

provincial labour relations acts, 76

psychological harassment, 197–198

psychometric test, 28–29

psychomotor abilities, 341

psychomotor tests, 331

public displays, 247–248

Public Service Commission of Canada (PSC), 79

assessment centre (AC), 353

Public Service Employment Act, 79

Public Service Staff Relations Board (PSSRB), 80

pure judgment approach, 464–465

pure statistical approach, 465

puzzle interviews, 433–434

Quebec Labour Standards Act, 197–198

Québec v. Montréal, 100

radio and television job advertising, 247

random errors, 37, 38

range restriction, 51, 52

rank order, 209

rating systems, 214–215

rational weighting, unit and, 473–474

realistic job previews (RJPs), 274–276

reasonable accommodation, 95–96

reasonable alternative, 98–99

reasoning development, 137

recruitment, 5, 230

applicant pool, 241–243

best practices, 3

business strategy, 236–237

diversity recruitment, 234–236

e-recruiting (see e-recruiting)

ethical dilemmas, 20–21

evaluation, 277–279

external candidates (see external candidates)

frequency, 264

guidelines, 270

HR profession, 15–18

human resources planning, 238–239

and international assignments, 262–263

job analysis, 238

job applicants (see job applicants)

job level and type, 237

organization analysis, 237–238

outsourcing, 233–234

part-time labour markets and recruiting, 233

person–organization fit (see person– organization fit)

strategic objectives, 6–15

timing, 240–241

traditional (see traditional recruitment)

recruitment and selection

legal concepts, 100–102

nondiscriminatory, 67–80

recruitment audit, 279

reference check, 305–306

background checks, 308–309

negligent hiring, 307, 308

phone-based, 306–307

poor validity, 308

predictive validity, 308

relative percentile method (RPM), 209–210, 308

relative rating systems, 209

relevancy, 201–202

reliability, 36–38, 202

coefficients, 38–39

estimation methods, 41–43

factors, 40–41

index of, 44

measurement error, 40

reliability and validity, 412

reliability coefficient, 38–39

Re Mechanical Contractors Association Sarnia v UA Local 663, 2014, 346

requirement to accommodate, 344–345

resignation. See termination

restrictive agreements, 500

restructured, organizations (HR), 11–12

résumés, 301–302

first impressions, 302–303

honesty, 304–305

predictive validity, 305

screening, 303–304

writing, 303

retaining talent, 269

Royal Bank of Canada (RBC), 103

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) tests, 342, 374–375

sampling error, 52

satisficing, 460

scoring guide, 416

structured interviews, 424

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screening, 292

application forms, 294–295

biographical data, 297–301

false negatives, 292, 293

false positives, 292

methods, 293

reference checks (see reference checks)

résumés (see résumés)

selection ratio, 292

social media networks, 311–313

virtual career fairs, 313

virtual job auditions, 313

WAB, 295–297

work experience, 309–311

screening interviews, 396

applicant behaviours and interviewer impressions, 399

cautions on, 402

context, 407

decisions based, 399

interviewer (see interviewer)

interview guide, 396–399

predictive validity of, 402

social interaction, 405

unstructured interview, 407–412

value of, 399–402

searched social network sites (SNSs), 311–313

selection, 5

best practices, 3

ethical dilemmas, 20–21

HR profession, 15–18

strategic objectives, 6–15

selection ratio, 292, 472

self-report inventory, 356

self-selecting out, 266

sensory/perceptual abilities, 341–342

serial interviews, 415

Service Canada Centres, 250

simulations, work samples and, 347–352

situational exercises, 349

situational interview (SI), 416–417

situational judgment test (SJT), 349

skill, 332

slack labour market, 404

social interaction, 405

social media networks, 311–313

social networks, 257–261

Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), 327

speed interviewing, 401–402

standard error of measurement (SEM), 40, 483

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, 45

statistical approaches, 466–467

statistical composite, 465

strategy, 7

structured interview, 148

and direct observation, 131–132

structured interviews, 412

applicant reactions, 426–427

behavioural interview (BI), 418–421

employer reactions, 426

employment interviews, 412

organizational fit, 424–426

panel interviews, 413, 415

process, 414

scoring guides, 424

serial interviews, 415

situational interview (SI), 416–417

vs. BI, 422–424

structured job analysis interviews, 126–129

structured job analysis questionnaires, 149

and inventories, 135

subjective performance appraisal, 208–210

subjective performance measures, 206

subjective rating systems, 209

subject-matter experts (SMEs), 118–119

succession plans/replacement charts, 244–245

sufficient risk, 84, 99–100

Sulz v. Attorney General of Canada, 198

supervision/leadership, 186

systematic errors, 37, 38

systemic discrimination, 234

tacit knowledge, 338

tailored effort, 269

talent management, 3–5

tardiness and absence, 191–194

task inventories, 135–139

task performance, 182, 187, 199

task statement, 131

and KSAOS, 132–135

technology

human resources (HR) professionals, 10

telephone screening, 397

temporary help agencies, 252

termination of employment, 499

testing. See employment testing

test–retest reliability, 42

Threshold Traits Analysis System, 148

tight labour market, 404

timing of recruitment, 240–241

top-down selection, 482

Toronto Police Service selection process, 31–33

traditional recruitment

HRIS, 245–246

internal candidates, 244

internal job postings, 244

nominations, 246

succession plans/replacement charts, 244–245

training, interviewer, 431–432

training manuals, 148

training vs. job proficiency criteria, 205

trait rating approach, 465

true score, 38

Twitter, 260

typical vs. maximum job performance, 205

ultimate criterion, 203

unionized environment, HR, 12

unit and rational weighting, 473–474

United Kingdom Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT) scores, 351

United States, discrimination in, 90–91

unstructured interview, 407–412

validity, 44–45

coefficients, 51–55, 300

strategy, 45–51

validity generalization, 50–51

validity, screening interviews, 402

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variables, 35

verbal/nonverbal behaviour, 412

victim of discrimination, 110–111

video recording, 130

violence, 195–196

virtual career fairs, 313

virtual job auditions, 313

virtual reality, 269

vision statements, 6–7

vocational interest inventories, 331

voluntary turnover, 194

walk-ins, 249

Wards Cove Packing v. Antonio (1988), 91, 92

Watson v. Fort Worth Bank & Trust (1988), 91

weighted application blank (WAB), 295–297

Whyte v. Canadian National Railway Co., 97

withdrawal behaviours

presenteeism, 194

tardiness and absence, 191–194

voluntary turnover, 194

Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT), 45

work analysis, 114–118

worker instructions, 137

worker-oriented job analysis, 126

worker traits inventories, 141–146

work experience, 309–311

work-oriented job analysis, 125

direct observation, 129–131

PAQ, 139–141

structured interview and direct observation, 131–132

structured job analysis interviews, 126–129

structured job analysis questionnaires and inventories, 135

task inventories, 135–139

task statements and KSAOS, 132–135

worker traits inventories, 141, 143–146

work performance, individual, 183

workplace demographics, HR, 10–11

workplace deviance

aggression and violence, 195–196

bullying and cyberbullying, 196–197

employee theft, 195

psychological harassment, 197–198

Work Profiling System (WPS), 148

work samples and simulations, 347–352

write-in method, 249

writing, résumés, 303

written and oral communication task proficiency, 185

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Cover
BRIEF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
ABOUT THE SERIES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Recruitment and Selection
Chapter 2 Foundations of Recruitment and Selection I: Reliability and Validity
Foundations of Recruitment and Selection II: Legal Issues
Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Competency Models
Chapter 5 Job Performance
Chapter 6 Recruitment: The First Step in the Selection Process
Chapter 7 Selection I: Applicant Screening
Chapter 8 Selection II: Testing and Other Assessments
Chapter 9 Selection III: Interviewing
Chapter 10 Decision Making
GLOSSARY
INDEX