Lesson 12 | Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia | Honors

ashyxykirzhntc123

CopyofChapter12_ExpansionandIsolationisminEurasia.pdf

Home >History homework help >World history homework help >Lesson 12 | Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia | Honors

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Introduction

In 1279, under the leadership of Kublai Khan, the Mongols ousted the Song dynasty

and completed their conquest of China. As they

took control, they established the Yuan dynasty,

with Kublai Khan serving as emperor. However,

Mongol rule over China was relatively short lived.

Within 100 years, the Yuan dynasty would be

forced out by Chinese rebels.

Under Mongol rule, the Chinese became

increasingly angered by policies that favored

Mongols and foreigners. This anger and resentment

eventually resulted in unrest. Around 1350, small

states in China began to emerge to fight the

Mongols. Chinese leaders turned to military force to

advance their interests and establish regional

power. Some leaders were members of the upper class, and others were religious

leaders or bandits supported by peasants. By the middle of the 1350s, these Chinese

powers were united in their campaign to get rid of Mongol rule.

The years of ongoing warfare spurred military innovation among the Chinese.

Although the Mongols had access to gunpowder weapons, they did not develop new

technologies. In contrast, the first large cannons in China were manufactured by the

Chinese rebels. While the term “Gunpowder Empire” is often associated with the

Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, the Chinese

advancements in gunpowder weaponry has led some historians to regard Ming China

as the world’s first gunpowder empire.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

In this lesson, you will learn about three countries in Eurasia that used gunpowder

to expand and maintain their control: China, Japan, and Russia. You will consider the

rise and fall of the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. You will examine the unification of

Japan under the Tokugawa. Finally, you will explore the growth of the Russian Empire

during the Romanov dynasty.

Section 1. China Under the Ming and Qing

Between the 14th and the early 20th centuries,

two dynasties governed China: the Ming and the Qing.

Both dynasties took power during times of upheaval.

To restore order, they established strong, centralized

rule and revived traditional Chinese values, including

Confucian ideals.

The Ming Revival By the mid-1300s, China was in

turmoil. The Mongols’ hold on power had became

unstable. Disease and natural disasters had weakened

the Mongol grip. Additionally, feuds broke out within the government, leaving the

countryside unprotected against bandits and rebels.

As life became more dangerous and difficult, Chinese peasants grew increasingly

frustrated with the incompetence of their rulers. Led by Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant

uprising successfully invaded the city of Nanjing. In 1368, aided by gunpowder

weapons, Zhu and his army captured the city of Beijing, the Mongol capital in China.

After destroying the Mongol palaces and forcing the Mongol rulers to retreat north, Zhu

took power and established the Ming dynasty. This name comes from the Chinese

word Ming, which means “brilliant.”

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

The new Ming emperor set out to restore traditional Chinese rule. He revived the

state examination system used to select officials for the civil service. This system of

tests was based on the Chinese classics, especially the works of the philosopher

Confucius. Under Ming rule, Confucian scholars were again elevated in Chinese society.

Classical art and literature were held up as models for artistic expression.

The emperor also reformed the tax system and distributed land to Chinese

peasants. Under the Ming, agriculture prospered. New crops such as sweet potatoes

and corn, brought from the Americas in the 1500s, increased the food supply. As a

result, the Chinese population doubled under the almost three centuries of Ming rule.

Trade and commerce also increased, although Ming rulers—in traditional Confucian

style—favored agriculture over business.

During his 30-year reign, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as Emperor Taizu, brought

stability to China. However, he was also a despot who ruled with an iron fist. While he

recognized Confucian scholars’ role in administering effective government, Zhu viewed

the scholar class as dangerous and sought to curb scholars’ power and ensure that

they were working exclusively on

his behalf. Fearing threats to his

power, he had thousands of officials

executed for suspected

wrongdoing. In one instance, he had

the prime minister and 30,000 of his

followers executed for a plot to

overthrow him. He described his

actions this way: “In the morning I

punish a few; by evening others

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

commit the same crime. . . . Day and night I cannot rest. . . . To be a ruler is indeed

difficult.”

Ming Expansion In 1402, the emperor’s son, Yong Le, took power. Like his father, Yong

Le continued to strengthen the Chinese state. He also built a new capital at Beijing,

which was enclosed by high walls and featured a great palace—called the Forbidden

City—at its heart. In its grand design, the new capital symbolized the power of the

Chinese empire. Beijing’s location also allowed the emperor to focus on the ongoing

Mongol threat to the north.

Later Ming emperors also rebuilt the Great Wall, an ancient defense against

nomadic invaders from the north. Construction of the wall represented a major change

in Ming military strategy, from offence to defense. In the past, Ming military campaigns

to the Mongolian steppe had been costly and failed, despite the Ming’s advanced

gunpowder weapons.

In addition, Yong Le expanded China’s influence overseas. He sponsored a series of

great ocean voyages under the command of Admiral Zheng He. Between 1405 and

1433, Zheng He led a large fleet on seven voyages to Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and

Africa. He met with foreign rulers and brought back exotic goods, including zebras and

giraffes. The main purpose of the voyages was to increase the flow of tribute to China.

For the Ming, the tribute system demonstrated Chinese power. It bolstered their

age-old belief that China, which they called the “Middle Kingdom,” was the center of

the world.

Although the Ming voyages were great successes, the government ended sea travel

in the 1430s. The expeditions were expensive, and China decided to focus attention on

defending its northern border against Mongol invasions. The decision also reflected the

conservative Chinese view that other cultures were inferior and had little to offer China.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Increasingly, the Ming rulers looked inward and isolated China from the rest of the

world.

The Qing Dynasty Ming rule lasted for nearly three centuries. By the early 1600s,

however, the Ming dynasty had grown weak and corrupt. Famine and peasant

rebellions ravaged the country. To the Chinese people, the Ming had lost the Mandate

of Heaven, the traditional right to govern.

In 1644, rebels invaded Beijing and overthrew the last Ming emperor. Ming officials

sought assistance from the Manchus, a confederation of tribes from Manchuria, to fight

the rebellion. However, the Manchus took advantage of the Ming dynasty’s weakness

and seized the capital instead. They established a new dynasty, the Qing, which means

“pure.”

The Manchus’ rise to power was anything but sudden. In the 1610s, they had

begun to raid Ming territory. At the time, the Manchus depended largely on cavalry

forces, whereas the Ming fought with firearms. Despite this, the Manchus were able to

defeat the Ming in battle thanks to their tactical maneuvering and the Ming’s ineffective

use of gunpowder weapons.

As the Manchus conquered Ming territory, they took gunpowder weapons from

Chinese arsenals and recruited Chinese soldiers who knew how to use them. Over time,

and after some defeats, the Manchus began to develop a method of fighting that

incorporated their highly skilled cavalry as well as gunpowder weapons. Combining

these different forms of fighting was essential in helping the Manchus ultimately

overcome the Ming.

By the time the Manchus officially formed the Qing dynasty in 1644, they had been

gradually building their power in China. Though the Manchus had long been influenced

by Chinese culture and had adopted many Chinese customs, the Chinese still saw them

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

as foreign barbarians. Because of this, the Manchus met strong resistance to their rule.

Over subsequent decades, however, they brought all of China under their control.

To remain in power, the Manchus adopted policies that were both tough and

generous. On the one hand, they forced Chinese men to submit to their rule by wearing

their hair in the Manchu style, with a shaved forehead and braided hair. They also kept

control of the military by reserving the top positions for Manchus.

At the same time, the Manchus showed

respect for Chinese traditions. They preserved the

overall structure of Ming government and ruled

according to Confucian principles. They supported

the state exam system and allowed Chinese

officials to hold high positions in government. They

upheld the values of classical Chinese culture. In

this way, the Manchus gradually won acceptance

from the Chinese people.

The Qing dynasty also benefited from having

two outstanding emperors. The first, Kangxi, ruled

from 1661 to 1722. Under Kangxi, the Qing defeated the last of the Ming dynasty in

1683. His grandson, Qianlong, gained the throne in 1735 and held power just as long.

Both men were wise and capable rulers. They expanded the boundaries of the empire

and brought peace and prosperity to China. Qing China became the largest and richest

empire in the world.

Isolation and Decline As in the past, most of China’s wealth came from agriculture. But

trade and commerce also played an important role. Like good Confucian rulers, the Qing

officially discouraged trade, while allowing it in limited form. They restricted European

traders to the port of Canton, in southern China, and showed little interest in European

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

goods. In 1793, Emperor Qianlong

wrote to King George III of

England: “Our Celestial Empire

possesses all things in

abundance. We have no need for

barbarian products.”

Nevertheless, the Qing agreed to

exchange Chinese

goods—including silk and

tea—for silver from the Americas.

As a result, China’s economy

continued to grow, and so did its population. Between 1650 and 1800, the population

rose from 150 million to 350 million, more than one-third of humanity. However, China

could not sustain such growth forever. In the 1800s, it began to experience food

shortages and famine. Once again, rebellions broke out and the dynasty faltered.

In some ways, China’s success under Qing rule also contained the seeds of its

decline. For centuries, China had relied on its traditions to ensure stability, prosperity,

and power. But as global interaction increased and the world began to change, this

conservative approach hindered progress. China rejected new ideas in science,

technology, and economics that might have brought increased productivity and wealth.

Similarly, because China entered a period of sustained peace in 1760, there was no

drive or need for military innovation, and the strength of its armed forces declined.

This reluctance to change left China vulnerable to the growing power of Europe.

The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912, but as a result of its policies, it was increasingly

dominated by Western powers in the late 1800s.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Section 2. Tokugawa Japan

While the Ming dynasty ruled China, another strong dynasty—the Tokugawa—took

power in Japan. In the 1600s, the Tokugawa unified Japan and brought a long period of

peace and stability to the country.

A Feudal System For centuries, Japan had been a feudal society, much like

medieval Europe. Local lords, known as daimyo, controlled large landed estates. They

relied on armies of samurai warriors to defend their land and settle disputes with other

lords.

At the top of this feudal structure was the emperor, who claimed descent from a

mythical sun goddess. But real power rested in the hands of the shogun, a military

leader who ruled on behalf of the emperor and demanded the allegiance of the daimyo.

In theory, the daimyo respected the shogun’s authority, but the system was unstable.

Because power was decentralized and allegiance based on military strength, a lord

who grew strong enough might challenge the shogun and seize power himself.

In the late 1400s, civil war broke out when a series of weak shoguns lost control of

the state. For the next century, the daimyo, backed by their samurai armies, battled

each other for power. This period of warfare was known as the Age of the Warring

States. It was during this era that gunpowder weapons were widely introduced in

Japan.

Gunpowder weapons had been used in Japan previously— albeit by the Mongols

during their failed invasions in the late 13th century. During the 1400s and early 1500s,

merchants and travelers brought some guns from China to Japan. However,

gunpowder weapons, particularly guns, did not gain wider attention—or use—until the

arrival of the Portuguese in 1543.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

In September 1543, a Chinese ship with a few Portuguese men onboard landed on

the Japanese island of Tanegashima. The men were introduced to the island’s lord and

demonstrated how to use the strange oblong objects they were carrying called

muskets. Intrigued, the lord bought one or two guns and then decided that they should

be manufactured on iron-rich Tanegashima. A local blacksmith was tasked with

creating copies of the musket.

News of this weapon spread around Japan.

Muskets were soon manufactured in many parts

of the country, and saltpeter for gunpowder

became an important import from China. Within

decades of the musket’s introduction, thousands

of guns were being produced annually in Japan.

Daimyo eagerly sought these new weapons as

the conflicts of the Age of the Warring States

intensified.

By the late 1500s, a series of powerful

daimyo had emerged. Aided by muskets and

field artillery, the first two each defeated their

rivals, consolidated their power, and worked to

unify Japan. But it was a third lord, Tokugawa

Ieyasu, who finally ended the wars and united Japan. In 1603, he became shogun. He

created a dynasty and a government that ruled Japan for the next 250 years.

Tokugawa Rule To ensure stability, the Tokugawa rulers formed a strong, centralized

government. They established controls on the daimyo and on Japanese society that

allowed them to govern effectively. Scholars have referred to the Tokugawa system as

centralized feudalism.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

To curb the power of the daimyo, the Tokugawa rulers created a secret police force

to root out opposition. They restricted the production of gunpowder weapons,

prohibited their import, and controlled the production of gunpowder and ammunition.

They banned the construction of new castles. They also restricted the movement of

samurai and forced the daimyo and their families to live as virtual hostages in Edo, the

capital city now known as Tokyo. This arrangement placed a great financial burden on

the daimyo while curbing their power and helping ensure their loyalty.

The Tokugawa also established a rigid social structure, consisting of four social

classes. At the top was the warrior class of lords and samurai, which made up about 7

percent of the population. Next came

farmers, considered the most productive

part of society. Artisans made up the

third social class. At the bottom were

merchants. An elaborate code of

etiquette laid out rules for the dress and

behavior of each class.

In principle, social mobility was rare in

Japan. This rigid structure was designed

to ensure social order and respect for

authority. In this way, it helped reinforce Tokugawa rule.

Chinese Influence Long before the rise of the Tokugawa, Japanese society and culture

had reflected Confucian values from China. As an island nation, Japan had never been

conquered by China. However, Japan was still heavily influenced by Chinese civilization

and culture.

As early as 500 C.E., Chinese culture was making its mark on Japan. However, the

Japanese did not simply adopt Chinese culture; rather, they had their own interpretation

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

of it. Over time, the Japanese combined Chinese customs with their own traditions to

form a unique Japanese culture. For example, in the mid-500s, some Japanese adopted

Buddhism, which arrived from Korea via China. Yet they did not abandon their original

religion, Shinto. Instead, each religion thrived and embraced elements of the other.

China’s influence on Japan greatly increased after Empress Suiko and Prince

Shotoku came to power in 593. In particular, Shotoku encouraged the Japanese to

embrace cultures from mainland Asia, especially from China and Korea, and subsequent

rulers did as well. Knowledge of mainland culture came from Japanese travelers

returning from China, as well as from items sent from the mainland to Japan.

Sometimes, it came from Korean workers who settled in Japan, bringing their

knowledge and skills with them.

In addition to Confucian thought, the Japanese borrowed their political structures

from China. Previously, Japanese rulers shared power with the leaders of clans

throughout the nation and depended on them to govern. This began to change under

Shotoku. He created ranks for government officials based on Confucian ideas. In 604,

he issued a set of guidelines called the Seventeen Article Constitution, which stated

that the emperor was the supreme ruler. Later in the 600s, the emperor took control of

the land from the clans and redistributed it. By the 700s, Japan’s government was very

much like China’s, with centralized leadership supported by a large bureaucracy.

Between the 600s and 900s, China continued to influence Japan culturally. Japan

sent officials, students, translators, and monks on ships across the sea to China. These

people often remained in China for years before returning home with what they had

learned. As a result of these contacts, the Japanese acquired new ideas about

government, the arts, architecture, and writing.

During the Tokugawa era, various art forms native to Japan flourished. Kabuki is a

form of theater that combines elaborate costumes, music, and dance. It became popular

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

in Japanese cities. Visual artists created beautiful woodblock prints showing scenes

from urban and rural life. Writers and poets explored new forms of literature, including

short verse called haiku.

A Policy of Isolation Leads to Decline Not long before the Tokugawa took power,

European traders and missionaries had arrived in Japan. At first, the Tokugawa rulers

remained open to foreign influence. They took an interest in Western goods and

welcomed new ideas in science, mapmaking, and

shipbuilding. They even allowed Catholics to set up

missions. They became alarmed, however, when the

Japanese began to convert to Catholicism. Religious

intolerance spread in the form of expelling the

missionaries and cracking down on Christian converts.

This xenophobia, or fear of foreigners, started to

affect commercial exchange when the government also

began to restrict trade. By 1638, it had expelled most

European traders, limiting trade to just one port. Only the

Dutch were allowed to visit, and only once or twice a year.

The government also prohibited the Japanese from traveling abroad and outlawed the

building of large ships.

For the next two centuries, Japan was effectively isolated from the rest of the world.

This policy of isolation was beneficial in that it helped the Tokugawa rulers preserve

Japanese traditions and maintain control. But the negative impact was that it also

prevented Japan from gaining useful knowledge from abroad. Like China under the

Qing, Japan did not benefit from developing ideas in science, technology, and other

fields that would have helped the country develop. Ultimately, this lack of progress left

Japan vulnerable to foreign powers.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Additionally, Japan did not have modern weaponry to defend itself. After restricting

production of firearms to prevent the daimyo from obtaining them, the Tokugawa

government had minimal need for such weapons. Restricting access to information

about new gunpowder technology from abroad became a priority. The government

maintained a monopoly on firearms, but over time, production more or less ceased.

By the 19th century, many, including the shogun, began to worry about Japan’s lack

of modern weaponry. They feared that another country would try to gain control of

Japan. Attempts to restart weapon production were made but largely failed because

the weakened Tokugawa government could not obtain the necessary funds. In the

mid-1800s, foreign powers,

including the Dutch, French, and

English, repeatedly attempted to

open the country and develop

commercial relations. Then, in

1853, lacking the defenses to

resist, Japan was forced to open

up to foreign trade by U.S.

warships.

Subsequently, violence erupted over whether Japan should expel foreigners or

continue to open. However, those seeking to rid the country of foreigners realized that

they did not have adequate means to do so by force. Some then turned to overthrow

the Tokugawa government. As this movement gained power, the last shogun resigned,

ending the Tokugawa period.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Section 3. The Russian Empire

In the 1500s, Russia formed a powerful state and began to expand its territory.

Over the next few centuries, it built a great empire that stretched across Eurasia. Unlike

China or Japan, however, Russia made efforts to modernize by adopting Western ideas.

The Rise of Russia The origins of the Russian

state go back to the late 1400s and the rise of

Prince Ivan III of Moscow. At the time, the

Mongols still controlled Russia, but they were

divided and their power was waning. To

maintain control, the Mongols allowed Russian

princes to govern their own cities in return for

tribute payments. They also allowed Russians

to practice their Orthodox Christian faith,

which helped bolster Russian identity under

Mongol rule.

Ivan III—also known as Ivan the

Great—came to power in 1462 and began to

conquer lands around Moscow and build up

his strength. At this time, Ivan III was a

tributary of the Mongols. However, the Mongols were in decline. Their population had

been reduced by disease, and their military remained dependent on cavalry forces and

failed to effectively employ guns. These weaknesses enabled the Russians to take large

portions of Mongol territory. By 1480, Ivan III had thrown off Mongol control, although

some Mongol elements remained a threat until 1502.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Over the next two decades, Ivan the Great continued his conquests. With the aim of

uniting Slavic peoples, he tripled the size of Moscow’s territory and made it the

dominant power in Russia. He also began to call himself czar, the Russian form of

“caesar.” He saw Russia as the “Third Rome”: the heir to the Roman and Byzantine

empires and the defender of Christianity.

Ivan the Great’s successors continued to expand the Russian state. The most

powerful of the early czars was his grandson, Ivan IV, who gained the throne as a child

in 1533. During his reign of about 50 years, Ivan IV took three steps to strengthen the

central government and modernize Russia. First, he conquered Mongol lands to the

south and east, incorporating them into Russian territory. Second, he instituted reforms,

including a uniform code of laws, to make the state more efficient. This was especially

important given the difficulty of controlling Russia’s expanding territory. Third, he

fought feudalism and took steps to curb the power of the boyars, Russia’s landed

nobility. In turn, he increased the power of military leaders who were loyal to him.

In centralizing power, Ivan IV also worked to strengthen the military. When he

ascended the throne, the army was largely a cavalry force. To support a more modern

military, Ivan IV expanded the training of Russian soldiers to include skills such as

engineering and gunsmithing. These developments laid the groundwork that enabled

the formation a permanent infantry force, field artillery force, and combat engineer

corps.

Ivan is best remembered, however, as a cruel tyrant who terrorized Russian society.

Midway through his reign, he became obsessed with threats to his rule. Suspecting that

the boyars were plotting against him, Ivan established an oprichnina, territory directly

under his control, in an attempt to further reduce their power. The oprichnina enabled

him to force boyars from their land, reducing their political and economic power.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Within the oprichnina, Ivan had a personal bodyguard of up to 6,000 men drawn

from the lower gentry. Known as the oprichniki, this bodyguard was loyal to Ivan. It

functioned as a secret police force that arrested, tortured, and killed those suspected of

resisting or challenging his authority, including its own members. For example, in 1570,

Ivan and the oprichniki sacked the city of Novgorod and executed people of all classes

because he questioned the city’s loyalty. Ivan and the oprichniki conducted a reign of

terror, earning him the nickname Ivan the Terrible.

Rule of the Romanovs After Ivan’s death in 1584, his son Fyodor became czar. Fyodor

was a weak ruler, however, who failed to

mend the divisions caused by his father. In the

early 1600s, after Fyodor’s death, Russia was

engulfed in a 15-year period of civil war

known as the Time of Troubles.

In 1613, however, a new czar, Michael

Romanov, came to power. Gradually, Russia

began to recover from the social divisions Ivan

had created. The Romanov family would rule

Russia for the next 300 years.

Under the Romanovs, Russia continued to

expand its empire. It moved east, taking in the

lands of Siberia—a huge portion of the Asian

continent—and extending Russia’s borders to the Pacific Ocean. Siberia was rich in

resources, including furs. During the 1600s, Russian colonizers settled in Siberia and

established a lucrative fur trade.

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

The Modernizing Czars The Romanovs continued to reform and modernize the Russian

state. The leaders in this effort were Peter I, also known as Peter the Great, and

Catherine the Great. Their rule marked the golden age of Russia’s enlightenment.

When Peter took power in 1682, Russia was still largely isolated from Europe. But

Peter was determined to open Russia up to the West. He took a long journey through

England and France to absorb new ideas. He visited factories and museums, and even

worked for a time in a shipyard. He returned home with plans to transform Russia into

a modern nation.

Peter also sought to gain access to a coastline. At this time, Russia’s only seaport

was at Archangel on the White Sea, along the northern coast. Gaining access to ports

on the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and especially the Baltic Sea was seen as crucial for

Russian trade. In 1696, he defeated Ottoman-backed forces to gain access to the Black

Sea, and in 1723, Persia ceded Caspian coastline in exchange for military aid. However,

it was taking territory from Sweden on the Baltic Sea in 1721 that changed Russia. It

emerged as a European power.

The territory gained from Sweden became “Russia’s window into the West.” There,

Peter built a modern new capital named after himself—St. Petersburg—based on

European designs. He brought in European advisers and specialists, set up schools to

teach technical subjects, and established an academy of sciences to promote new

learning. Under his rule, Russia built factories and roads and established a professional

army and civil service on the European model. The government required officials to

dress in the Western style and to shave off their beards.

Russia’s modernizing efforts continued under another ruler, Catherine II, who led

from 1762 to 1796. She was also known as Catherine the Great. Like Peter the Great,

Catherine also founded schools and supported the arts and sciences. She promoted

Enlightenment principles of justice and good government. But like her predecessors,

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

she was an absolute ruler who governed with an iron fist, allowing few freedoms and

forcing Jews into a limited area called the Pale of Settlement.

The End of Monarchy By the time of Catherine’s reign, Russia faced a looming crisis

that would eventually bring down the czars. For more than a century, Russia’s serf

population had been growing. When Catherine came to power, there were about 10

million serfs serving the crown, the state, the church, private owners, and industrial and

mining enterprises.

Although this system had ceased to exist in western Europe by the 14th century,

serfdom first emerged in Russia during the Time of Troubles. Fleeing famine, peasants

went to towns and cities to find food. With a decreasing number of laborers to tend to

the fields, Russian leaders decided to tie peasants to the land.

Initially, serfs had some rights, but as landowners gained power, serfs lost what

little they had. Ultimately, they had no rights

and lived in terrible poverty. By the

mid-1700s, they were regarded as property.

Those who worked in industry were treated

like machinery that belonged to the

business. Sometimes serfs revolted, but their

uprisings were brutally repressed. For

example, in 1762, Catherine sent troops

with cannons to force serfs to end an

industrial strike. In 1800, around half of all

Russian peasants—around 10 million

people—were tied to the soil.

Although Russia was taking steps to modernize, its social system was still mired in

the past. Russia was the last European country to outlaw serfdom, in 1861, and by

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia

How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

then it was too late. In 1917, a revolution erupted and brought an end to the Russian

monarchy as a result. The Romanovs’ attempt to modernize Russia had been too

concentrated on science and technological developments and ignored socio-political

developments. This unbalance brought about the last of the European revolutions.

Summary

In this lesson, you learned about three powerful empires that ruled in Eurasia during

the period from 1400 to 1800. These empires responded to outside influences in

different way.

Cultural Interaction The Russians modernized by opening up to the West. The

Chinese and Japanese held fast to their own traditions and resisted cultural change.

Political Structures All three empires built strong, centralized states to govern their

territory. They created official bureaucracies and codes of law to make government

more effective. Nevertheless, most rulers—such as the Russian czars—held absolute

power.

Economic Structures Trade and commerce became increasingly important across

Eurasia. However, both China and Japan turned toward isolation. In doing so, they

greatly restricted foreign trade. They also lacked access to new ideas and innovations

that would support development.

Social Structures Eurasian states imposed class structures designed to maintain

social and political order. But rigid social systems, such as those in Japan and Russia,

left empires unprepared for change.