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Chapter 11 Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

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Gateway Theme

It is important to draw a distinction between a person’s sex and gender. Sexuality is a normal and healthy part of human behavior.

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The discussion of sex and sexuality in psychology is a very important topic. It relates to the core of individual identity, but also to an important aspect of how we engage with others in the most intimate of ways. This chapter looks at sex as both part of our self-concept and also as an activity among partners, as well as studying the psychosocial construct of gender and its development.

Gateway Questions (1 of 2)

What are the basic dimensions of sex?

What is sexual orientation?

How does one’s sense of masculinity or femininity develop?

What is psychological androgyny?

What is gender variance?

To what extent do females and males differ in sexual response?

Have recent changes in attitudes affected sexual behavior?

What is involved in a sexually satisfying relationship?

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Gateway Questions (2 of 2)

What are rape myths?

What are the most common sexual dysfunctions?

What is a paraphilic disorder?

What impacts have sexually transmitted diseases had on sexual behavior?

How can civic engagement help me in my personal and professional life?

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Dimensions of Sex

Prenatal development of the reproductive organs

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Recall that the term sex refers to our biological, physical state of being male or female. It differs from gender, which will be discussed later in this chapter.

Sex is defined along a number of dimensions:

Genetic sex—most typically an XX chromosomal pattern for females and XY for males, though other variations can occur.

Hormonal sex—whether an individual has a higher proportion of female (estrogens) hormones or male (androgens) hormones.

Gonadal sex—the presence of ovaries or testes.

Genital sex—the presence of a penis and scrotum in males or a clitoris and vagina in females. These are the primary sexual characteristics and they differ from nonreproductive physical changes, or secondary sexual characteristics that emerge during puberty

The Stability of Sexual Orientation

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Sexual orientation refers to the direction of our sexual interest; that is, do we find ourselves sexually attracted to others of our own sex (homosexual), the opposite sex (heterosexual), or both sexes (bisexual).

Recent writing also examines the topic of those who generally lack sexual interest, suggesting that this may refer to its own sexual orientation called asexuality.

Sexual orientation is an important part of one’s self-concept and understanding of their own identity, but it can have different developmental paths. For some, their sexual orientation emerges early in life and undergoes no changes, while others experience a fluctuation of sexual attraction as they mature. This is very different from the oft-cited (and incorrect) contention that people can simply choose to change their sexual orientation, or that it can be forcibly changed through some sort of conversion therapy. The existing research simply does not support such claims.

Refer to your text for a brief yet thorough discussion examining some lines of study on the origins of sexual orientation; understand that it remains unclear exactly what determines the nature of our sexual attraction to others (or absence thereof).

Sexual Orientation Today

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Although social acceptance of nonheterosexual individuals has seen tremendous progress in recent years, it is important to understand that such individuals still face serious challenges in the forms of heterosexism and homophobia.

Psychological challenges, including diagnosable disorders, are still far higher among LGBTQ individuals, as is suicidal behaviors.

Education helps to reduce this problem, so study the list of myths about gay and lesbian individuals and be mindful of others’ rights to their own happiness and sexual choices.

Gender and Gender Identity

Distribution of male-female differences

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Though often confused as being synonymous with sex, gender is a culturally constructed part of our identity that refers to our sense of being male or female. It is a psychological and social construct that is related to but not the same as sex. It is often expressed in our actions, appearance, and attitudes, and this is called gender identity.

Although gender is not biological in definition, it may certainly be affected by biological factors. Some research has explored the effect of prenatal hormonal exposure, suggesting that certain androgens in the womb may affect one’s gender development later in life. This research is far from definitive, however, and the question of how gender develops is ongoing.

Gender Roles

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The actions that are expected of people based on their sex are called a gender role, and some might be familiar to you. When you think of a young boy or girl, do you have prescribed behaviors that you expect to see in them? If these lead to simplified generalizations about males and females, they are now called gender stereotypes.

Female and male gender role stereotyping are so common that many of us “fall” for these ways of thinking. Refer to the text for some of these typical, though potentially problematic and limiting, types of gender typings.

Acquiring Gender Identity

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The way in which we learn what behaviors are expected of us based on our sex is called gender role socialization. We find that boys and girls tend to be socialized differently, with boys being urged toward instrumental behaviors and girls being led toward expressive behaviors.

Quite a bit of this information comes directly from caregivers (usually parents), but what other sources tell children about the behaviors that are expected of them?

When the gender roles that we are taught are inconsistent with our own desires, needs, or sense of self, gender role strain can emerge. How might this manifest over time? How might it be resolved?

Psychological Androgyny

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Though we typically anticipate that males will have male traits and females will have female traits, some people combine both masculine and feminine aspects to their personality. This is referred to as androgyny. It is associated with several positive outcomes, as those who are more androgynous are more able to adapt to changing needs or demands from their environments.

Resolving a Mismatch

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Recent events in the United States have called a major issue to the forefront of our national consciousness. This question addresses the curious topic of individuals whose physical sex and psychological gender do not match.

There are a number of terms used to describe such situations. Some include gender variant and transsexual. This mismatch can carry with it significant psychological turmoil, and when it does this is referred to as gender dysphoria.

There are a number of ways that people are advised to respond to such situations, but the best outcomes result from support and loving acceptance. This can be difficult for some, particularly when you add in the influence of various cultural details.

There is likely no single answer to the best way for a person with such a mismatch to resolve it, but having options and exploring them is the best start.

The “Want To”

Sexual intercourse across age

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The desire to engage in sexual behavior and the strength of that desire is called sex drive. There are many factors that relate to it, including hormone levels. When one is castrated and their hormone levels drop, sex drive tends to decrease over time.

Sex drive appears very early in live, as genital self-stimulation (masturbation) is seen so early that it is believed to be almost instinctive. It is also an important part of sexual exploration during puberty and, irrespective of cultural prohibitions, is considered a normal part of sexual maturation.

Do drugs affect sex drive? They can. Alcohol, which is a depressant, may increase sexual behavior by depressing inhibitions, but overall it is not a drug that has a physiological increase on sex drive. Other drugs, called aphrodisiacs, may do so. Be careful about what advertising you believe, however.

Human Sexual Response (1 of 2)

Female sexual response cycle

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The human sexual response pattern was first studied by Masters and Johnson, who found that there were four stages, the progression of which was somewhat typical. There were similarities and differences between how women and men experienced these stages.

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

Resolution

For women, the cycle may progress in a 1-2-3-4 sequence, though some women are capable of multiple orgasms (more than one 3), while other women may experience an absence of orgasm (1-2-4).

Human Sexual Response (2 of 2)

Male sexual response cycle

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The male progression through Masters and Johnson’s stages tends to appear quite consistently in a 1-2-3-4 sequence, though there are certainly variations as welly. Very few men are capable of multiple orgasms in a single sexual moment, and some men do experience a delay or absence of orgasms.

Men also tend to experience a refractory period after orgasm that is not typically observed in women.

Read about some other prevailing beliefs that may undermine people’s sexual confidence and satisfaction. For example, is simultaneous orgasm a realistic sexual goal? Does the size of a man’s erection relate to partner satisfaction with intercourse? If a woman does not always orgasm, does that indicate something about her sexual responsiveness or her partner’s sexual skill?

Contemporary Sexual Behavior

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How have sexual beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors changed over the last several decades? Are sexual attitudes today much different than in generations past? How do we separate myth from fact when it comes to what people do, how they think, and what society beliefs?

The answer is in appropriate, well-conducted research that examines these topics.

Sex Among the Young

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Sexual openness—more liberal attitudes toward sex—seems to be pervasive among adolescents and young adults. Read about the following topics as they relate to sex among younger people in today’s world:

Casual sex (what some people call hooking up) and its relationship with sexual scripts.

Internet pornography

Sexual freedom

Asking about how sexual attitudes will continue develop. Will there be a return to former attitude positions, or will sexual freedoms continue to become more liberal?

Bridges to Sexual Satisfaction—Intimacy and Communication

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Pretend that you are a psychotherapist who specializes in sexual counseling. What would you regard as the most important cornerstones of a healthy sexual identity for an individual as well as a healthy sexual relationship between partners?

Some answers from one sex therapist noted in the text include sexual anticipation, valuing one’s sexuality, believing that one deserves sexual pleasure, and valuing intimacy.

As with virtually all things in a relationship, sexual satisfaction also depends upon communication. Read in the chapter to see some tips for facilitating positive and healthy communication that can help improve a sexual relationship.

Forcible Rape and Acquaintance Rape

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Forcible rape, which occurs when a person is coerced into sexual activity by threat of physical harm, is a horrendous crime that is often regarded as an aggressive or brutal rather than sexual act. The psychological consequences of such victimization can be very severe, and last for years if not a lifetime.

Acquaintance rape is far more common, as it refers to sexual victimization by a person known to the victim. Sometimes referred to as date rape, this represents far more cases of rape than forcible rape.

It is possible that the victimization by a known aggressor may be even more devastating to the victim, as the issue of trust is brought into the situation. After all, the inability to trust a person who you knew could magnify the intensity of the psychological response to the attack.

Gender Role Stereotypes and Rape Myths

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In a true demonstration of victim-blaming mentality, many fall back on “rape myths” as a way of rationalizing or even justifying this heinous act. Some rape myths include the following:

A woman is “asking for it” based on where she goes or what she wears.

“No” really means “yes.”

Women enjoy being raped.

When a woman goes home with a man she is consenting to sex.

Sexually active women lie when they say they were raped.

Do you see how any or all of these beliefs can minimize the seriousness of rape? Countering these myths is a first step in reducing the incidence of rape and other forms of sexual victimization.

Disorders of Desire, Arousal, Orgasm, and Pain

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Sexual dysfunctions are surprisingly common and no reason for a person to feel ashamed or embarrassed. Most respond quite well to appropriate therapy, and in most cases in a rather short period of time.

There are several categories of sexual dysfunction. Please study them carefully in the textbook, along with their potential causes and symptoms:

Disorders of desire: hypoactive sexual desire

Disorders of arousal: male erectile disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder

Disorders of orgasm: female orgasmic disorder, delayed ejaculation, premature (early) ejaculation

Disorders of sexual pain: genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

Paraphilic Disorder and Exhibitionism

Table 11.1 Paraphilic Disorders

Focus of paraphilia	Paraphilic Disorder	Primary Symptom
Nonhuman objects	Fetishistic disorder Transvestic disorder	Sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects Achieving sexual arousal by wearing clothing of the opposite sex
Nonconsenting people	Exhibitionistic disorder Voyeuristic disorder Frotteuristic disorder Pedophilic disorder	“Flashing,” or displaying the genitals to unwilling viewers “Peeping ,” or viewing the genitals of others without their permission Sexually touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person, usually in a public place such as a subway Sex with children or child molesting
Pain or humiliation	Sexual masochism disorder Sexual sadism disorder	Desiring pain, humiliation, or both as part of the sex act Deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain, humiliation, or both

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Who gets to decide what sexual behaviors are “normal”? There are a number of ways of making this determination, based on the standard used, but diagnostically sexual practices are considered problematic if they significantly interfere with sexual functioning, cause harm or distress to an individual, or interfere with satisfying relationships.

Paraphilic disorders involve extremely unusual practices that meet these standards. They can involve specific sexual behaviors that involve nonhuman objects, nonconsenting partners, or administration or receipt of pain or humiliation.

Sexual activity with children, generally referred to as child molestation, is among the most devastating of sexual pathologies. It is important to know what to look for that may indicate that this has occurred (or is occurring) and how the respond appropriately to support the child

HIV/AIDS

Table 11.2 Common Sexually Transmitted Diseases

STD	Male Symptoms	Female Symptoms	Prevention	Treatment
Gonorrhea	Milky discharge from urethra; painful, urination	Vaginal discharge and inflammation; painful urination	Condom/safer sex practices	Antibiotics
Chlamydia	Painful urination; discharge from vagina; abdominal pain	Painful urination; discharge from vagina; abdominal pain	Condom/safer sex practices	Antibiotics
Syphilis	Painless sores on genitals, rectum, tongue, or lips; skin rash; fever; headache; aching bones and joints	Same	Condom/safer sex practices	Antibiotics
Genital herpes	Pain or itching on the penis; water blisters or open sores	Pain or itching in the genital area; water blisters or open sores	Condom/safer sex practices	Symptoms can be treated but not cured
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)	Warty growths on genitals; some cancers	Same	Condom/safer sex practices	Wart removal by surgery or laser, HPV vaccine for prevention
HIV/AIDS	Prolonged fatigue; swollen lymph nodes; fever lasting more than 10 days; night sweats; unexplained weight loss; purplish lesions on skin; persistent cough or sore throat; persistent colds; persistent diarrhea; easy bruising or unexplained bleeding	Same	Condom/safer sex practices	Can be treated with various drugs but cannot be cured
Hepatitis B	Mild cases may have no symptoms, but infection can cause chronic liver disease, cirrhosis of the liver, or liver cancer	Same	Vaccination	None available
Pelvic inflammatory disease	Does not apply	Intense pain in lower back, abdomen, or both; fever	Condom/safer sex practices	Antibiotics

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Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are those that are contracted via sexual contact, and can include bacterial, viral, or parasitic conditions. Safe sex practices can reduce but often not eliminate the risk of these conditions.

The STD that gives people the most pauses is acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that can develop as a result of exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Understand that HIV and AIDS are not the same thing. To reiterate, you can contract HIV through sexual contact or exposure to contaminated blood, and some people who are HIV-positive develop AIDS.

HIV is a global problem and is more problematic in certain cultures or societies.

Behavioral Risk Factors for STDs

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Clearly, the only true way to avoid contracting an STD is total abstinence from sexual activity, but for many that is not a realistic goal. So practicing sex with safety in mind can significantly reduce the likelihood of contracting one of these illnesses. See a list of such strategies in your text.

Finally, please note that STDs can and do happen to responsible people who have taken steps to avoid it. If you have any—ANY—symptoms that you think indicate that you may have an issue, please contact a qualified physician urgently. In most cases, the earlier treatment is begun the better the outcomes will be. A physician has seen it before and will not judge you if you have contracted an STD.

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Resolution

R esolution

R eso

lu tio

Plateau

Excitement

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Time

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Refractory period

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Refractory period

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