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Chapter 8 Cognition, Language, and Creativity

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Gateway Theme

The origins of intelligent behavior lie in thinking, language, problem solving, and creativity.

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One of the factors that truly separates human beings from non-human animals is our capacity for cognition. We apply the process of taking in information, using it, and directing it to solving problems and making decisions in ways that most other animals simply cannot. Further, our ability to use language in a very complex way is another criterion of the human species.

Our thought capacity is reflected in our creative mechanism, which allows us to create novel solutions by combining various mental elements in useful ways.

Gateway Questions

What is the nature of thought?

In what ways are images related to thinking?

What are concepts, and how are they learned?

What is language, and what role does it play in thinking?

What do we know about problem solving?

What is the nature of creative thinking?

How accurate is intuition?

How can creative and innovative thinking help me in my personal and professional life?

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How Do We Think?

Experiential vs. reflective processing

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Cognition involves thinking, but also the ability to gain and deal with knowledge. It refers to internal processing of data that typically begins outside of us, and then be mentally manipulated in any number of ways.

Two types of processing include experiential and reflective processing. The first is automatic, unconscious, and effortless, while the second takes deliberateness and intentionality. Cognitive processes can move back and forth between these two types of processing, depending on how we focus our attention and effort.

Some Basic Units of Thought

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If you think of thought (see what we did there?) as being a constructed puzzle, then what are the individual pieces? What are the units of thought?

1. Mental images

2. Concepts

3. Language

These small bits all work together to help our thinking process be more efficient and effective.

Creating and Using Mental Images (1 of 2)

Imagery in thinking

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Our brains seem to be wired to use visual information and process information in a visual way. Some research finds that even those who are blind—those who have never seen—still see activation in the visual cortices of the brain when thinking, supporting the idea that visual processing is an important part of how we think. If you remember our discussion of memory, you’ll recall that visual encoding helps us to remember more effectively.

We use our “mind’s eye” to create the mental images so that we can process information effectively. These visual processes include the following, which you should study carefully:

1 . Reverse vision talks about how creating mental images works with memory processes.

2. Kinesthetic imagery speaks to the interplay between our muscular movements and thinking processes.

Creating and Using Mental Images (2 of 2)

Imagery in the brain

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This figure shows how the brain processes mental images in a manner that differs from processing visual sensory input. In other words, our “mind’s eye” works differently from our actual eyes.

Forming Concepts

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A concept is a category of objects or events that share some common feature or attribute. When we form concepts, individual data points are analyzed in a positive (they belong) or negative (they don’t belong) manner. This may happen above or below the level of awareness; that is, it may be an automatic or controlled process.

It is also important that we recognize that there are exceptions to some concept rules, much in the way that learning the rules of language also requires us to learn the exceptions to those rules. Sometimes what looks like an exception really is not, but just appears to be so. As an example, the inclusion of “tomato” in the concept of “fruit” is not a violation of the rules of that concept, but at first glance might appear to be.

Types of Concepts

Identifying prototypes

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There are several different types of concepts of which you should be aware:

1. Relational concepts—how objects or features relate to each other

2. Disjunctive concepts—“either/or” concepts

3. Prototypes—ideal examples of a concept (e.g., an apple is a prototype of fruit)

(4) Faulty concepts—inaccurate examples of concepts that can muddle thinking (e.g., all-or-nothing thinking or the use of stereotypes)

Linguistic Relativity: What’s North of My Fork?

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According to the linguistic relativity hypothesis, the words that we use are shaped by but also shape our thoughts. This is a modern take on an older model that, in its original form, had somewhat little research support. The original model suggested that words create thought, but the more recent revision shows us how words influence, but don’t determine, thought.

As an example, have you ever said “I know what I mean but I don’t know how to say it?” From the linguistic relativity perspective, one might respond by saying, “if you don’t know how to say it, you may not truly know what you mean!”

Semantics

Osgood’s semantic differential

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The meaning of the words that we use is what we refer to when we talk about semantics; that is, the semantics of “semantics” is what the words mean.

There are several facets of a language’s semantic structure:

1. Connotative versus denotative meaning—the first is exact definitions, and the second is emotional or personal meanings.

2. Context—do different words mean something different when used in different situations?

3. Bilingualism—the ability to speak more than one language fluently.

The Structure of Language

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Phonemes are the basic units of sound in language, while morphemes are the individual units of meaning. The way in which we construct language is based on the rules of grammar, which includes syntax (word order) and transformational rules (guidelines for changing a sentence to a different but proper grammatical structure).

Gestural Languages

American Sign Language

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When you think of language, you probably default to verbal (spoken) language forms. Don’t worry, most people do. But remember that there are many types of language, many of which involve gesturing.

The best example would probably be the sign language used by deaf individuals, but if you consider how we use body language, posturing, facial expressions, and the like, you’ll note that language certainly involves far more than the words that we use.

Animal Language

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Throughout our study of language, many examples of animals communicating in a linguistic form have been identified. Read about how Kanzi has been able to learn how to use lexigrams to communicate.

An important question, though, is “to what extent can animals create using language, or are they simply imitating?” Experts differ on whether animals truly have the capacity to create new linguistic expressions and/or to move beyond simple repetition and modeling.

Algorithmic Solutions and Heuristics

The tumor problem

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Problem solving refers to our active attempts to overcome a barrier to arrive at a given destination (or end goal). There are several different methods that might be used, and you should refer to your text to understand each of them:

Algorithms (including logical, inductive, and deductive) thought

Understanding and general versus functional solutions

Heuristics (rules of thumb)

What are the benefits and potential drawbacks of each type of solution approach? It is often necessary to have a deep understanding of the problem (or question) in order to identify the best solution strategy.

Insightful Solutions

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When the lightbulb suddenly turns on as we attempt to solve a problem, you are having an insight moment. It is not a result of active problem solving, well not directly, but rather a passive process of considering an issue. It is likely that insight is partially caused by our active attempts that eliminate incorrect answers, but it still something that often feels like a spontaneous realization of an answer.

When we feel like we’re stuck, or fixated, on an incorrect answer, this can cause us to feel obstructed from finding a solution. Functional fixedness is one example, wherein we do not see common objects in uncommon ways. We get “stuck” thinking of them in only their most typical use or function. This can often obstruct us from seeing novel solutions to a problem.

Common Barriers to Problem Solving

The candle problem

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Emotional barriers cause us to avoid certain solutions for fear of various unpleasant affective outcomes, while cultural barriers are certain culturally prescribed ways of thinking that can interfere with certain types of problem solving efforts.

Functional fixedness, described earlier, is another common barrier to solving problems.

Aspects of Creativity

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When we engage in creative thinking, there are a number of factors to consider:

1. Convergent thinking involves finding a single answer to a problem

2. Divergent thinking, more commonly associated with creativity, involves finding multiple solutions to the same problem.

If you have trouble remembering the difference, the former is the process of “converging” on an answer while the latter is the process of “diverging” to many answers.

Three additional factors to focus on when looking at creativity are as follows:

1. Fluency

2. Flexibility

3. Originality

What does each mean, and how do these factors “work” together to help bring about creative outcomes?

Stages of Creative Thought

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The five stages of creative thought are as follows. Refer to your text for an explanation of each:

1. Orientation

2. Preparation

3. Incubation

4. Illumination

5.Verification

Errors in Intuitive Thought

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Using intuition, or a gut feeling, to solve problems can be effective but can also be riddled with potential pitfalls. They include:

- Miscalculation of underlying odds (the base rate effect)

- The Representativeness heuristic (judging something with inaccurate understanding of its likelihood)

- Framing—being affected by the manner in which information is presented

- Cognition and emotion—when thought processes are unduly effected by emotional states

- Choice overload—as an example, if you go to a restaurant with a 10-page menu, do you find it difficult to decide on what you would like to eat?

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