Journal Article Review

Volume 27 • Number 3 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 167

Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2018, 27, 167-179, © 2018 West Virginia University

Can Concessions Take You Out to the Ballpark? An Investigation of Concessions Motivation Mark A. Slavich, Lisa Rufer, and Gregory P. Greenhalgh

Mark A. Slavich, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Business Administration Department of Grand View University. His re- search interests include the sport fan experience, including the role of food and beverages at sporting events, and the function of nostalgia and identity within these experiences. Lisa Rufer, PhD, is an assistant professor of Sport Management at Rider University. Her research interests focus on the sport consumer behavior experience, exploring the use of various technology, and strengthening relationships. Gregory P. Greenhalgh, PhD, is the director of student services and outreach at Virginia Commonwealth University. His research interests include consumer behavior, sport and the natural environment, and the marketing of sport organizations, specifically what attracts fans and sponsors to niche sports and how these sports can position themselves to be more sustain- able in the future.

Abstract As sport facilities place greater emphasis on their concession offerings, the outcome of these improvements is of interest. With previous research examining concessions as part of service quality, the current study explored the possible motivating ability of concessions in the minor league baseball (MiLB) context. Utiliz- ing factors from the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) and Scale of Event Quality in Spec- tator Sports (SEQSS), an online survey assessed fans’ motivations to attend MiLB games. Results indicated neither food nor beer motivated spectators to attend sporting events, as only the social motive predicted fans’ future intentions to return to watch the team. In addition, no differences were found in concession motiva- tion according to gender, age, or attendance frequency. Implications of these results are discussed as facilities seek to utilize concessions to enhance the sporting event experience and potentially motivate fans to attend. Keywords: sport consumption, sport spectator motivations, concessions motivation, fan attendance

Introduction Originating more than a century ago as hot dogs, peanuts, and Cracker Jacks (History, 2011), the sport concessions industry experienced tremendous change and growth in recent years, blossoming into an industry generating between five and 10 billion dollars in annual revenue (Klayman, 2009). With changes in the food and beverage preferences of Americans, concessionaires such as Aramark, Centerplate, and Legends Hospitality increased the quantity and quality of their food and beverage offerings to meet consumer needs (Broughton, 2015). Trends at sport facilities across the country include an increase in local, novel, healthy, ethnic, and recognizable brand food offerings as well as growth in craft beer options. The table below displays examples of these trends throughout North American professional sports.

The transformation of concessions throughout sports occurred as two trends swept through the United States: the foodie movement and the craft beer boom. A foodie is defined as “a person having an avid interest in the latest food fads” (Foodie, 2017). Between 2010 and 2015, the number of US adults who enjoy food as an “art form” increased 20%. In the same time period, the number of individuals who enjoy trying new recipes increased by 32%, while the number of people who enjoy trying new drinks grew 34% (Sloan, 2016). Paralleling the foodie movement, the craft beer industry is also growing. An American craft brewery is defined by its size (producing an annual output of six million or fewer barrels of beer) and independence (less than 25% of the brewery is owned by a larger, “non-craft” brewery), as well as its focus on traditional style beer (Craftbeer.com, 2017). Craft breweries typically focus on differentiation,

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offering unique types of beers, and also tend to be local (Kleban & Nickerson, 2011). In 2015, craft beer sales increased by 12.8%, maintaining 12.2% of the overall market share in the United States (Brewers Association, 2017). In recent years, larger, macro breweries have even taken advantage of the craft beer popularity, beginning to offer craft-style beers (Murray & O’Neill, 2012).

Recognition of these trends resulted in the increase in quantity and quality of food and beverages at many minor league baseball (MiLB) facilities. Conversations with four MiLB marketing representatives revealed that these trends inspired their increased focus on food and beverages. MiLB organizations also recently began using food and beer to potentially attract

specific segments of fans. For example, the Burl- ington (NC) Royals of the rookie-level Appalachian League expanded their beer offerings with the aim of attracting a broader range of fans. The Johnson City Cardinals, also of the Appalachian League, saw their expanded beer offerings successfully increase atten- dance among younger fans (Spedden, 2016).

Food and beer selection also assist MiLB organiza- tions in their competition with other forms of enter- tainment. Sport organizations are always faced with competition from numerous entertainment options and any source that could take the disposable time or money of potential fans (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2014). Today, many sport organizations must note the competition stemming from local restaurants and

Table 1. Concession Trends

Sports Food and Beverage Trends Team Type League Offerings Miami Dolphins Healthy NFL Salmon burgers; Portobello mushroom wrap; Smoothies Charlotte Hornets Craft Beer NBA Craft beer garden featuring four local breweries Trenton Thunder Novel MiLB (AA) Deep-fried Oreo cookies; Twinkies; Fried s’mores Atlanta Falcons Local NFL The Varsity; Sublime Doughnuts; Antico pizza Washington Nationals Ethnic MLB Asian dumplings; Jewish-style deli sandwiches; Gyros Birmingham Barons Local MiLB (AA) Dreamland BBQ Baker; Magic City Dog

Green Bay Packers Novel NFL Pig Skin (bacon-wrapped baked potato); The Hail Mary

Brat (foot-long brat with Bloody Mary seasoning)

Durham Bulls Craft Beer MiLB (AAA) Durham Bulls beer company (first craft brewery located at

MiLB ballpark) Dallas Mavericks/ Stars

Brand NBA/NHL Pizza Hut; Taco Bueno; 7 Eleven Slurpee

Lakewood BlueClaws Healthy MiLB (A) Veggie hot dogs; Fruit salad; Uncrustable peanut butter &

jelly sandwiches Philadelphia 76ers; Flyers

Local NBA/NHL Nick’s Roast Beef ’s; Chickie’s & Pete’s; Rita’s Italian Ice

Frisco Roughriders Novel MiLB (AA) Riders Mac & Cheese BBQ sandwich (brisket, coleslaw,

BBQ sauce, and pickles between two mac & cheese 'buns')

Seattle Mariners Healthy MLB Vegan soup of the day; Hummus platter; Organic gummy

snacks St. Louis Blues Ethnic NHL Asian stir fry; Korean flat bread; Chicken sate

Atlanta Braves Novel MLB The Burgerizza (a large bacon cheeseburger between two

pizzas) San Jose Sharks Brand NHL Round Table Pizza; Panda Express

Minnesota Twins Local MLB Kramarczuk’s Sausages; Andrew Zimmern’s Canteen;

Mac’s Walleye and Chips Seattle Mariners Craft Beer MLB More than 50 varieties of beer each game

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craft breweries. This is especially true of MiLB and other recognized niche sports (Greenhalgh, Simmons, Hambrick, & Greenwell, 2011), which attract less- er-identified fans while also relying much more on ticket revenue than mainstream sports (Greenhalgh et al., 2011). Research of MiLB fans showed that these individuals are motivated based upon entertainment, promotions, and social interaction (Bernthal & Graham, 2003; James & Ross, 2002). Thus, these fans may be motivated by novel, nontraditional factors that serve fans’ desire for socialization and entertainment.

With food and craft beer taking on more visible roles in society, the current study sought to assess whether they could serve as motives for fan attendance. This exploration aimed to extend research of sport fan motives by investigating practical components of the sport fan experience that comprise social, entertain- ment, and other sensory and psychological elements. Such findings will allow sport marketers to specifically focus on highlighting food and beverages to attract fans or develop marketing initiatives that meet specta- tors’ desires for entertainment, socialization, and other needs. Furthermore, the study purposed to provide theoretical contributions concerning the function of food and beverages in the sport experience.

Literature Review

Concessions Evaluations Much of the previous sport concessions literature has viewed food and beverages as part of the overall service experience. These studies investigated conces- sions with other service quality elements including seating comfort, facility cleanliness, and layout accessibility (e.g., Kahle, Aiken, Dalakas, & Duncan, 2003; Kelley & Turley, 2001). Both Kahle et al. (2003) and Kelley and Turley (2001) found food to be the worst and least-important facet of service quality within the collegiate basketball setting. Interestingly, Greenwell, Lee, and Naeger (2007) found MiLB fans had negative impressions of concessions offered while arena football fans were mostly pleased with the concessions. Finally, Wakefield and Sloan (1995) found that Southeastern Conference (SEC) football fans desired more variety and higher quality concessions to increase their experience. Wakefield and Sloan (1995) also noted fans’ dissatisfaction with the high prices of the concessions. The aforementioned studies display the overall negative perception of concessions held by many spectators at the time of the investigations. However, with the recent enhancement of the quality and variety of food and beverage offerings among many collegiate and professional sport organizations, there is reason to believe that fans’ perceptions of them

have also changed. With food and craft beer distinct from service quality attributes such as facility design and parking based upon their sensory, social, and psychological attributes (Holtzman, 2006; Korsmeyer, 2002), food and beer warrant investigation beyond service quality attributes, serving as potential motives for attendance.

Sport Spectator Motivations A copious amount of literature has investigated sport fan motivation based off Sloan’s (1989) categorization of sport fan motivation (e.g., James & Ridinger, 2002; James & Ross, 2004; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, Grieve, Zapalac, & Pease, 2008). Among these studies were the development of scales to measure sport fan motivation, including Wann’s (1995) Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) and Trail and James’ (2001) Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC). These scales investigate sport fan motives, such as the drama and the aesthetics of the event as well as the event serving as an escape from one’s normal everyday activities. Other motives are attending sporting events to socialize with other people and to spend time with one’s family (Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995).

Previous research found differences in sport fan motivation based upon a number of elements, includ- ing the level of sport (Bernthal & Graham, 2003; James & Ross, 2002). For example, MiLB fans were shown to place greater importance on entertainment-added elements such as promotions while the community aspect was more important to college baseball fans (Bernthal & Graham, 2003). James and Ross (2002) also found differences between levels of baseball, as MiLB fans were more motivated by social interaction than MLB fans, who were highly-motivated by drama, aesthetics, and physical skills of the players. These findings suggest that food and beverages may play a greater role to fans of minor league sporting events than major league and collegiate events.

James and Ross (2004) discovered that motives vary by sport as wrestling fans were much more motivated by drama than both baseball and softball fans. Other sport-related motivational differences were found according to segments of sports. For example, fans of team sports displayed higher ratings for the eustress, self-esteem, group affiliation, family, and entertainment motivations (Wann et al., 2008). With the current study taking place in the context of team sports, spectators were likely to place more importance on motives such as family and eustress.

Previous literature also showed motivation and other factors affecting attendance to differ by gender (James & Ridinger, 2002; Wann, 1995). In Wann’s (1995) study, males rated higher than females on aesthetics,

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entertainment, eustress, and self-esteem while females rated higher on family. James and Ridinger (2002), meanwhile, found many differences between males and females, including their connection to sports overall, connection to a team, and motives such as achievement, empathy, and knowledge, which were all rated higher by males.

Food Motivation Research of the tourism industry exhibited the central role food plays in tourism motivation as well as food selection decisions in tourist destinations (e.g., Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Lin, Pearson, & Cai, 2011; Yeoman, McMahon-Beattie, Meethan, & Fields, 2015). Kivela and Crotts (2006) found that food can serve as a motive for tourists to travel to a destination and plays a large role in their travel experience. Other litera- ture suggests that food is one of the main factors for tourists in selecting a destination (Ardabili, Rasouli, Daryani, Molaie, & Sharegi, 2011). Furthermore, Hjalager and Richards (2002) emphasized the role that food plays in tourists’ desire to experience the local culture of their destination. These findings reveal the overall integral role that food plays in tourism, grow- ing to a level in which tourists travel solely based upon food.

While food is not part of the core experience of sporting events, literature provides support for the relationship among sport fan motives and food and beer consumption. Food is shown to serve a variety of functions including acting as a social bond and a source of entertainment (Wei & Nakatsu, 2012). Other literature exhibited the act of eating together as a shared social experience (Counihan & Van Esterik, 2012), while Korsmeyer (2002) found that food is associated with escape from reality. Alcohol was also found to serve as an escape (Steele & Josephs, 1990) and is consumed in social situations (Jones & Field, 2013). Based upon these associations, the relationship of food and beer to sport spectator motives, such as family, social, and escape, was of interest. Literature also displays food preferences differing by gender and age (Logue & Smith, 1986; Granner et al., 2004). In addition, with MiLB teams expressing their attempt to attract a broader range of fans, the motivating ability of food and beer in the sport setting may differ based upon spectator attendance frequency.

Theoretical Framework The current study was grounded in the sport fan motivation theories first examined by Sloan (1989). Food and beer consumption encompass many of the same motives as sport fan consumption. Similar to sports, food serves as a form of entertainment (Wei

& Nakatsu, 2012) and facilitates social interaction (Counihan & Van Esterik, 2012). Other motivational theories, such as stress and stimulation-seeking theories, can also be met by food and beer. Zuck- erman (2014) defined sensation-seeking as “the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences” (p. 10). Humans are shown to maintain a desire for a specific level of stimulation or arousal. To meet this need, individuals engage in behaviors including consumption of novel food and beverages (Ha & Jang, 2015). Therefore, fans may satisfy their desire for risk, arousal, and stimulation with novel food and beer offerings. Fans may also turn to food and beverages as a way to express their identity and status. Food consumption has long been a form of regional and national identity expression (Holtzman, 2006). In recent years, utilizing food and craft beer as a celebration of one’s identity has increased as a result of globalization (Schnell, 2013). The new focus on offering local food and craft beer among many sport organizations may meet this desire among fans. With sports and food sharing such motives and psycholog- ical needs, fans may be attracted by these new types of food offered in the sport setting. Based upon these similarities between sports and food, the current study was constructed in an attempt to answer the following research questions:

RQ1: Does food or beer motivate spectators to attend sporting events?

RQ2: Is there a relationship between sport spectator motivations and food and beer?

RQ3: Is there a difference in food or beer motivation according to spectator age?

RQ4: Is there a difference in food or beer motivation according to spectator attendance frequency?

Method

Sample Data for this study were gathered using a convenience sample of spectators attending games of a MiLB team in a mid-Atlantic city. The team was chosen for the current study because minor league fans tend to place a greater emphasis on service factors compared to fans of major professional sports (Greenwell, Fink, & Pastore, 2002). In addition, MiLB has placed a signif- icant focus on its concessions offerings (Pearlman, 2013). Representatives of the team under investigation informed the researchers that the organization made extensive improvements to their concession offerings prior to the current season.

Surveys were distributed through the team’s email newsletter, Facebook, and Twitter. A link to the online survey was included in each of these mediums of

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communication. The email newsletter was sent to registered recipients three times over a period of six weeks during the second half of the team’s season. In addition, the survey was posted on the team’s Face- book page twice and once to the team’s Twitter page, each of which occurred in the second half of the team’s season. The use of such online data collections became popular in recent years (Casler, Bickel, & Hackett, 2013). Previous sport consumer behavior research has also utilized social media and email newsletters to access specific sport fan populations (cf., Dwyer & Drayer, 2010; Havard, Reams, & Gray, 2013; Larkin, 2015). Online sampling is an effective method for reaching unique populations and also benefits respon- dents through a surveys’ ease of use and accessibility (Brandon, Long, Loraas, Mueller-Phillips, & Vansant, 2013). Thus, in order to reach a large segment of the team’s fan base, online data collection was employed.

Survey Instrument To measure spectator motivations, six factors from the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) (Trail & James, 2001) were employed (Aesthetics, Drama, Escape, Family, Physical Skills, and Social). Motivation factors from this scale were preferred to other sport spectator motivation scales because of the scale’s consistently strong reliability and validity as evidenced in numerous previous studies with Cron- bach alpha coefficients ranging from 0.82 to 0.93 and AVE values of at least 0.61 (Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002; James & Ross, 2004; Robinson & Trail, 2005; Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003).

To measure concessions as a motive, the Concessions subscale from the Scale of Event Quality in Spectator Sports (SEQSS; Ko, Zhang, Cattani, & Pastore, 2011) was applied to the instrument. The factor was pre- ferred based upon its instrument’s development in the context of professional baseball. While the original factor is a service quality measure, with the explorato- ry nature of the current study, the adaptation of this existing factor was preferred compared to construction of a new factor. In addition, the factor previously ex- hibited strong reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.88) and an AVE of 0.70. To properly assess food and beverages as potential motives, the wording of these items was modified. For example, “The facility provides high quality food,” was changed to, “I enjoy the facility’s high quality food.” Also, to obtain separate, accurate measures of both food and beer, individual items were added, mirroring items investigating food to investi- gate beer. One such item, for instance, read, “I enjoy the facility’s high quality beer.”

With food serving as a form of entertainment (Wei & Nakatsu, 2012), the researchers were interested in

examining the relationship between food and beer and the entertainment motive. Thus, the entertain- ment factor was drawn from the SEQSS to measure entertainment as a motive. Similar to the food and beer factors, the wording of this factor’s items was modified to accurately measure entertainment’s ability to serve as a motive. While entertainment was previ- ously explored as a motive using another instrument (Wann, 1995), the current research team preferred the entertainment factor of the SEQSS due to its focus on spectator sports. All of the previously described items were measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (7).

The outcome variable assessing behavioral intentions was adapted from Greenwell, Greenhalgh, and Stover’s (2013) instrument. This measure was preferred based upon its use in the niche sport context. For the current study, the measure was expanded to two items to create a composite outcome of behavioral intentions: “How often do you plan to attend (team’s) games in the future?” and “How often do you plan to recommend (team’s) games to others?” The items were measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale from Not at all (1) to Very frequently (7). See Table 3 for a full list of the items used within the survey instrument.

In order to ensure that only fans who had attended games during the current season were included in the study, a preemptive question of “Have you attended a (team) game this season?” was placed at the beginning of the survey. Demographic data collected included age, gender, ethnicity, income, education, employment, relationship status, and attendance habits.

Data Analysis Prior to addressing the research questions, a confirma- tory factor analysis (CFA) with mean and variance-ad- justed maximum likelihood estimation (MLMV) was conducted in mPlus7. Assumptions introduced by Brown (2012) were tested before running the CFA. Composite reliability scores were calculated to measure the scale’s internal validity. Average variance extracted (AVE) scores for each factor were measured to examine convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Prior to running a regression analysis to address the first two research questions of whether food or beer serves as motivation to attend the team’s games, the data were screened and tested to investigate regression assumptions of linearity, independence of residuals, normal distribution of residuals, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity. Data were shown to meet all assumptions. To address the first research question, a multiple regression was utilized to determine which

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motives predicted behavioral intentions. The multiple independent variables included food, beer, drama, physical skills, entertainment, escape, social, family, and aesthetics while the dependent variable was behavioral intentions.

Potential differences concerning the independent variables of participant age and attendance frequency and the dependent variables of food and beer motiva- tion were assessed using separate one-way ANOVAs. Participants’ ages were collapsed into four equivalent groups (18 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 to 54, and 55 and older) in order to assess potential differences regarding age. Descriptive statistics and statistical tests revealed no violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variances. The assumption of normality was not met, however, as negative skewness of data occurred due to an inordinate number of high rating scores on survey items. Fortunately, due to the robustness of the ANOVA test, this violation did not seriously affect the results (Field, 2013).

Results A total of 205 participants began the survey with 187 complete and usable surveys obtained. Demographic results indicated that 57% of the participants were male while 43% were female. The majority of respon- dents were Caucasian (88%), between the ages of 18 to 44 (58%), married (67%), employed full-time (71%), and held at least a bachelor’s degree (39%). Regard- ing attendance, 36% attended 4–6 games and 24% attending 10 or more games; meanwhile, only 6% of participants were season ticket holders. The sample of the current study appears to be representative of the population of MiLB fans as demographic data nearly mirrors those reported in a 2008 MiLB report (Minor League Baseball, 2008) where they found 57% of MiLB fans were 18–44 years of age and 56% of fans were male. Descriptive statistics of the study’s participants can be found in Table 2.

Results of the CFA are found in Figure 1. Two of the three assumptions required to run a CFA—large sample size and indicators measured on a continuous scale—were both met (Brown, 2012). However, the third assumption of multivariate normality was not met. The data were found to have residuals with a skewed distribution, so a natural log transformation was used to obtain residuals that have an approximate- ly symmetrical distribution. The estimator used to run the CFA was the mean and variance-adjusted maxi- mum likelihood estimate (MLMV), which is robust for handling non-normal data. More so, the MLMV was shown to perform better than the Santora-Bentler (MLM) and the robust maximum likelihood (MLR)

Table 2. Demographics

Characteristic N % Gender Male 97 56.7 Female 74 43.3 Age 18–34 47 27.6

35–44 51 30.0 45–54 38 22.4 55+ 34 20.0 Race Caucasian 153 88.4 Other 11 6.4 Prefer Not to Say 10 5.8 Income $0–$49,999 34 23.0 $50,000–$74,999 26 17.6 $75,000–$99,999 29 19.6 $100,000–$149,999 39 26.4 $150,000+ 20 13.5 Relationship Status Married 106 67.1 Single 37 23.5 Other 15 9.5 Employment Status Full-Time 111 70.7 Part-Time 15 9.6 Retired 17 10.8 Other 14 8.9 Education Bachelor’s Degree 60 38.5 Graduate Degree 40 25.6 Associate Degree 14 9.0 Some College 37 23.7 Other 5 3.2 Season Ticket Yes 10 6.2 No 152 93.8 Attendance frequency 0–3 33 20.4 4–6 58 35.8 7–9 32 19.8 10+ 39 24.1

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Table 3. Scale Psychometrics for Motivations

Factor/Item AVE α Drama A game is more enjoyable to me when the outcome is not decided until the very end. I prefer a close game rather than a one-sided game.

.625 .797

Escape (Team) games represent an escape for me from my day-to-day activities. (Team) games are a great change of pace from what I regularly do. I look forward to (team) games because they are something different to do in the summer.

.726 .888

Entertainment The show is just as exciting as the game. The show combined with the game entertains me. Pre- and after-game shows entertain me.

.707 .878

Physical Skills The physical skills of the players are something I appreciate. I enjoy a skillful performance by the (team). Watching a well-executed athletic performance is something I enjoy.

.730 .889

Social Interacting with other fans is a very important part of being at (team) games. I like to talk to other people sitting around me at (team) games. (Team) games are great opportunities to socialize with other people.

.661 .852

Family I like going to (team) games with my spouse. I like going to (team) games with my family. I like going to (team) games with my children.

.540 .770

Aesthetics I enjoy the gracefulness associated with the game of baseball. There is a certain natural beauty to the game of baseball. I appreciate the beauty inherent in the game of baseball.

.696 .887

Food I enjoy the concessions’ wide variety of foods. I enjoy the facility’s high-quality food. The quality of the food of the concession stands impresses me.

.820 .931

Beer I enjoy the facility’s high-quality beer. I enjoy the concessions’ wide variety of beer. The quality of the beer of the concession stands impresses me.

.857 .838

Behavioral Intentions How often do you plan to attend (team’s) games in the future? How often do you plan to recommend (team’s) games in the future?

.820

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estimates for smaller sample sizes (Asparouhov, 2005). To evaluate the overall fit of the CFA model, the following fit indices were used: MLMV chi-square (χ2), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approxima- tion (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR).

The χ2 value (322.451) was statistically significant at p < 0.001 (df = 263), and the χ2/degrees of freedom ratio (1.226) was greater than 1. While a nonsignificant χ2 is indicative of an acceptable model, a significant χ2 does not indicate that the model should be rejected. It has been recognized that the χ2 test is sensitive to sample size (Jöreskog, 1969). Thus, the other fit indices (RMSEA, CFI, TLI, and SRMR) should be evaluated to assess the overall fit of the model. The values for RMSEA (0.040), CFI (0.928), TLI (0.911), and SRMR (0.058) were all a good fit as suggested by Bentler (1990). Therefore, even though the χ2 test was signif- icant, the overall model was found to be within the acceptable range of values recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999).

The composite reliability and convergent validity for all factors can be found in Table 3. The composite reliability scores ranged from 0.770 (family) to 0.931 (beer), which meet the standard set by Nunnally (1978). With regard to convergent validity, AVE scores indicate if the amount of variance explained is greater than the variance explained by measurement error.

Table 4. Regression of Motivations on Behavioral Intentions

Factors B SE Β Sig.

Drama .296 .338 .081 .382

Escape -.141 .425 -.039 .741

Entertainment -.227 .250 -.090 .366

Physical Skills .621 .509 .149 .224

Social .682 .264 .245 .011

Family -.325 .289 -.108 .261

Aesthetics .520 .364 .160 .155

Food .165 .186 .074 .376

Beer .147 .198 .061 .459

Figure 1. Confirmatory factor analysis of nine first-order factors (Beer (b), Food (f), Social (s), Aesthetic (a), Escape (es), Family (fa), Drama (d), Physical Skills (ps), and En- tertainment (en)). All coefficient values are standardized. Note. All are statistically significant at the p < 0.001 level.

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Fornell and Larcker (1981) identified that the cut off value for an acceptable AVE score is 0.50. All AVE scores met this threshold. Thus, the results indicate that the nine factors are distinct from one another and the factor structure is confirmed.

To address research question one, a simultaneous multiple regression analysis was conducted and revealed that the combined nine factors (seven tra- ditional motivation factors as well as food and beer) accounted for 17 percent of the variance in future attendance and was statistically significant (F(9, 152) = 4.594, p < 0.001, adjusted r2 = 0.167). However, inspec- tion of individual motives determined only the social factor (β = 0.245, p = 0.011) was a significant predictor of future attendance. See Table 4 for complete results of the regression analysis.

Correlation analyses were run to investigate research question two, the relationship of food and beer to sport spectator motives. Food maintained weak correlations with physical skills (r = 0.254), family (r = 0.294), dra- ma (r = 0.268), social (r = 0.312), aesthetics (r = 0.333), and escape (r = 0.379). Food maintained its strongest relationship with entertainment (r = 0.420). Beer had weak correlations with the motives entertainment (r = 0.292), aesthetics (r = 0.319), drama (r = 0.292), physical skills (r = 0.335), social (r = 0.351), and family (r = 0.384). Beer maintained its strongest relationship with escape (r = 0.404). Meanwhile, food and beer maintained a correlation of r = 0.271. The complete correlation analysis is displayed in Table 7.

Two separate ANOVAs were conducted to answer research question three. In examination of concession motivation differences according to age, the results of the ANOVAs revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between any of the age groups

and food motivation (F(3, 163) = 0.136, p = 0.938). No differences were found according to age and beer moti- vation as well (F(3, 164) = 2.158, p = 0.095). Means and standard deviations of differences in food and beer motivation by age are provided in Table 5.

Potential differences were also explored concerning participant gender and attendance frequency and food and beer motivation. Regarding gender, the indepen- dent samples t-test results were not statistically signif- icant between females (M = 4.93, SD = 1.48) and males (M = 4.87, SD = 1.51) with regard to food motivation (t = 0.279 [166], p = 0.781). Similar results were found when examining beer, though males (M = 5.29, SD = 1.54) scored higher than females (M = 5.20, SD = 1.32) concerning beer motivation (t = -0.391 [166], p = 0.696). Results also showed that there was not a sig- nificant difference between attendance frequency and food motivation (F(3, 155) = 1.577, p = 0.197) as well as beer motivation (F(3, 155) = 1.152, p = 0.330). Means and standard deviations of differences in food and beer motivation by attendance frequency are provided in Table 6. Overall, it was revealed that physical skills was the highest-rated motive (M = 6.14, SD = 0.92) while food was rated the lowest of all motives (M = 4.86, SD = 1.49).

Discussion The increased focus on concessions within the sport industry calls into question the function of food and beverages. With previous literature encompassing con- cessions as a part of service quality’s role in consumer satisfaction, the purpose of this study was to explore concessions as a motive. Sport fan motivation was in- vestigated in numerous studies (e.g., James & Ridinger, 2002; James & Ross, 2004; Robinson, Trail, & Kwon,

Table 5. Correlations Among Motivations, Means, and Standard Deviations

Factors Mean Standard Deviation

Drama 1 5.49 1.05

Escape .538 1 5.93 1.05

Entertainment .394 .594 1 5.29 1.37

Physical Skills .565 .685 .434 1 6.14 .92

Social .411 .482 .468 .539 1 4.91 1.27

Family .451 .525 .506 .515 .457 1 5.72 1.25

Aesthetics .464 .576 .394 .719 .531 .474 1 5.68 1.21

Food .268 .379 .420 .254 .312 .294 .333 1 4.86 1.49

Beer .292 .404 .292 .335 .351 .384 .319 .271 1 5.21 1.47

*All correlations significant at the .01 level

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2004; Wann, 1995) with elements such as aesthetics, entertainment, escape, family, and social aspects of the sporting event having been exhibited to motivate fans to attend sporting events. With food shown to share many of the same functions as spectator sport, including facilitating social bonding (Wei & Nakatsu, 2012) and serving as an escape (Korsmeyer, 2002), the possibility of food and beer contributing to fan moti- vation to attend sporting events was of interest.

Results of the current study found that neither food nor beer served as statistically significant motives of future fan attendance. Interestingly, the only predictor of future attendance was the social motive. Therefore, while fans were attracted by the ability to socialize with other people, neither food nor beer were viewed as a conduit for such social interaction. While this finding suggests that food and beer may not serve as motives for fan attendance, the correlations among motives provide support for food and beer’s function within the MiLB fan experience. Food maintained its strongest relationship with entertainment (r = 0.420) while beer’s strongest relationship was with escape (r = 0.404). In addition, social was among the highest-cor- related motives for both food (r = 0.312) and beer (r = 0.351). These results display food serving as a form of entertainment for spectators and beer providing an escape from one’s day-to-day life, and both serving a social function.

Therefore, with many sport organizations offering novel food items, the moderate relationship between food and entertainment suggests that organizations may have an opportunity to satisfy spectators’ desire to be entertained by offering unique food items. Beer’s relationship with escape, meanwhile, exhibits the capacity of beer to provide spectators with a

withdrawal from their daily lives. Also, with sport facilities creating more space for fans to socialize while enjoying food and beverages (Charlotte Magazine, 2013; Cleveland Indians, 2015; Muret, 2014), these relationships among the food, beer, and social factors provide support for sport organizations providing fans with an opportunity to enjoy food and beverages in a relaxing, social environment.

Interestingly, results failed to display any differences in gender, age, or attendance frequency concerning food and beer motivation. With previous research showing differences in food preferences according to gender and age (Granner et al., 2004; Wansink, Cheney, & Chan, 2003), differences according to these demographics were expected. The lack of difference concerning age is especially surprising. Previous research shows that millennials and members of the “foodie generation” place greater emphasis on food than recent previous generations (Pinsker, 2015). In addition, the team utilized for the study had placed an emphasis on concessions, including a recent increased offering of craft beer intended to attract younger fans. With 27.6% of the surveyed fans between age 18 and 34, differences in food and beer motivation were expected.

This study was also interested in determining whether fans who attended few games (0–3) would be more motivated by concessions than those attending 10 or more games during the season. Based upon sport spectator motivations differing according to team identification (Fink et al., 2002; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995), and team identification maintaining a relationship with attendance frequency (Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, & Gladden, 2002), differences in food and beer motivation based upon attendance

Table 6. Means and Standard Deviations for Food and Beer Motivations by Age

Factor 18–34 35–44 45–54 55+ F-value p-value

Food 4.96 (1.40) 4.94 (1.53) 4.93

(1.56) 4.76

(1.53) .136 .938

Beer 5.51 (1.42) 5.35 (1.32) 5.29

(1.49) 4.72

(1.52) 2.158 .095

Table 7. Means and Standard Deviations for Food and Beer Motivations by Attendance Frequency

Factor 0–3 4–6 7–9 10+ F-value p-value

Food 5.33 (1.26) 4.84 (1.50) 4.55

(1.70) 4.83

(1.37) 1.577 .197

Beer 5.05 (1.72) 5.07 (1.22) 5.61

(1.58) 5.10

(1.28) 1.152 .330

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frequency were of interest. With the proliferation of variety of concession items across sports, new fans may be interested in attending games as a result of these items. However, the results displayed no differ- ences between food and beer motivation by attendance frequency, meaning that fans attending between 0–3 games each year were no more or less motivated by food and beer than those attending 10 or more games.

Further investigation of the results displayed food maintaining the lowest mean (M = 4.86) while beer had the third lowest (M = 5.21). One potential expla- nation for this result is the items comprising the Food and Beer factors. These items included “I enjoy the fa- cility’s high-quality food” and “The quality of the beer of the concession stands impresses me.” Greenwell et al. (2013) displayed the role fan expectations play in informing their level of satisfaction as spectators com- pare their experiences to similar sporting events. The authors suggested that sport facilities can increase fan satisfaction of concessions by providing better offer- ings than one’s competitors. Therefore, the low ratings of the food and beer by this study’s participants may be due to their expectations. Furthermore, while it is unlikely that spectators were unaware of the conces- sions’ enhancement as a result of the team’s emphasis and data collection occurring in the second half of the season, some spectators may have been unaware of the improvement in concession offerings.

Limitations and Future Research This study utilized a convenience sample, utilizing one MiLB team, which should be taken into consid- eration regarding the study’s generalizability. The MiLB context as well as the geographical location of the team serve as limitations for the study. Future research should investigate the function of concessions at other levels of sports and different types of sports. Differences that result from geographical locations of sport facilities should also be examined. In addition, previous literature displayed differences in food consumption according to race (Granner et al., 2004); however, due to the study’s sample comprising a vast majority of Caucasians (88.4%), differences according to race were not able to be investigated.

Another limitation of this study was the method of data collection, which took place solely online through the team’s social media and email accounts. This method limits participants to individuals who either were registered for the team’s bimonthly newsletter or were consumers of the team’s social media accounts. Also, the instrument used to collect data serves as a limitation. The MSSC was previously shown to be reli- able and valid in numerous sport contexts. The current

study chose to only utilize specific factors from the scale. The food factor, which was identified as conces- sions in the SEQSS, was adjusted to align its wording with the rest of the instrument, and the beer factor was created by changing the word “food” to “beer” in the concessions factor of the instrument. Future research should include all motivation factors and explore other ways to measure concessions satisfaction.

Future research should also explore the con- sumption habits of spectators in order to attempt to determine which types of fans would be more likely to be attracted by various types of food and beverage offerings. While hot dogs and other traditional con- cession items remain extremely popular (NHDSC, 2014), the new types of offerings may meet the desires of specific fans based upon various demographics and psychographics. Similarly, future research should also explore food-related promotions to determine their success. Previous research exhibited the success of promotions impacting MiLB attendance (McDonald & Rascher, 2000). Teams have long utilized 50-cent/Dol- lar hot dog nights and Dollar beer nights, and with the recent changes in concessions, promotions have greatly expanded to include a variety of other foods and beer. Investigation of the impact of these promotions on fan attendance and the overall experience is warranted. Finally, research should explore the consumption habits of different types of fans to determine the ultimate value of different food and beverage offerings. This research would also assist sport organizations in maintaining more efficient management of their food and beverage inventory, benefiting organizations financially.

Conclusion The function of food and beverages in the sport context is an area deserving more research. This study explored the potential motivating function of food and beer in the MiLB context. While the results did not show food and beer serving as motives, this does not suggest that sport organizations should not utilize food and beer as an enhancement to the fan experi- ence. Clearly, the improved quality and variety of food and beverage offerings at many sport facilities plays a role in the experience that sport organizations are pro- viding. The moderate relationships among food and entertainment and beer and escape suggest that food and beer may in fact be meeting fans’ needs. The ques- tion becomes, exactly what purpose do food and beer serve and how do sport organizations measure their impact on the fan experience? With the current study limited in scope and generalizability, more research is needed to address this issue. The current study aims to provide an initial exploration into this issue, serving as

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a catalyst for the study of food and beverages by both sport scholars as well as sport organizations in the evolving sport fan experience.

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