Human Resources

PROMOTING TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN GOVERNMENT: THE ORIGINS AND EARLY CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPOD A. CAROL RUSAW VINTON D. FISHER

ABSTRACT

This article describes the foundations of training and professional development in government and the beginnings of the American Society for Public Administration’s (ASPA) Section on Professional and Organizational Development (SPOD). It summarizes the philosophical contributions of public sector political and economic reforms, human relations approaches to management, and socio- technical applications to organizational development and training. The article also highlights key changes in the decade between 1965 and 1975 that fostered the emergence of SPOD, such as the rapid growth of federal government and the demands for social and economic changes. It concludes with reflections on the founding of SPOD from an early member. Keywords: training, professional development, adult learning, public administration

INTRODUCTION

Professional development plays a considerably important part of employees’ skills acquisition and applications for job performance, growth in career competencies and responsibilities, and contributions to organizational health and mission achievement. Professionals in government are often delineated by pay grade and expectations for independently performing technically complex sets of tasks when outcomes are general or ill defined (Bowman, West, Berman, and Van Wart, 2004). Professionals, however, at all levels of government are particularly identified by their ethical beliefs and practices, attitudes and abilities towards collaboration an in attaining agency goals. Professional development occurs over time and across different occupations and skills-levels. Its effectiveness depends upon organizational support for learning, growth, commitment, and provisions of resources, particularly in terms

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of funds, technology, and opportunities for skills demonstration and feedback.

The American Society for Public Administration’s (ASPA) Section on Professional and Organizational Development (SPOD), celebrating its 40th anniversary this year, is one of the earliest and most diverse communities of learning and change among public sector employees. It is comprised of academics, professionals in federal, state, and local governments, students of public administration, consultants and change agents, and, most recently, Certified Public Managers. The SPOD provides professional development through its annual conferences, its journal (the Public Administration Quarterly), and through the Certified Public Manager Program. Its emergence was a culmination of various forces promoting progressive reforms in individual skills development, organizational change, and professionalization of careerists in the public sector.

CONTRIBUTING REFORM PHILOSOPHIES

The impetus for developing professional career public servants came with the passage of the Pendleton Act in 1883. Coming just after a disgruntled office seeker had assassinated President James A. Garfield, the Pendleton Act sought to replace the spoils system of getting and advancing in a government career. It inaugurated Merit System principles that based careers not on political favoritism, but on technical competence and neutrality in carrying out administrative functions. It proscribed open and fair competition for positions based on rational and legal standards for evaluating and classifying cabinet-level positions. The Pendleton Act spelled out the ethical assumptions that career employees place organizational mission and goals ahead of self and politically based interests.

Pragmatic Progressivism

The Pendleton Act reflected many of the reform-oriented principles of pragmatism and progressivism that characterized the late nineteenth century and extended through the 1940’s. Brom and Shields (2006) depicted pragmatic progressivism as a

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practical, results-oriented view of truth, meaning, and value. These principles appear in the social work reforms of Jane Addams’ Hull House work among Chicago’s poorest residents. Addams used analytic methods similar to Taylor’s (1911) scientific methods of management to study the contexts of poverty; she also applied her own skills from experience to developing solutions to the complexities of the social problems. Merriam and Brockett (1997) noted that pragmatic progressivism esteemed the use of reason informed by experience as a superior means of problem solving. Pragmatic progressivism became a key strategy for addressing the multi-faceted issues resulting from rapid industrialization and urbanization in America.

Bureau Reforms

The spirit of pragmatic progressivism also took hold of public administrative reforms in promoting training and education. One of the earliest champions for progressive reform in education, John Dewey (1938), believed that social, economic, and political improvement were possible provided that education fostered experience-based learning. One of the central assumptions in basing education reform on experience was the notion that individuals needed to have freedom to experiment with different ideas before settling on a strategy. In order for progress to occur, learners needed to have freedom to inquire as well as support for experimentation in social settings.

The principles of pragmatic progressivism in training public employees filtered through the bureau movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Stivers (2006:377) described the bureau movement of reform as more than merely “throwing the rascals out” of political positions, but also replacing them with administrators who knew and practiced “good government.” Reforming public service meant initiating a process of normative re-education: insisting that ethical behaviors and attitudes become the standards for performance and that teaching and training would reinforce their retention. The use of training to promote pragmatic progressive reform began from practitioner-based research and applications. Professionals from the New York-based National Municipal League developed training programs for members in social

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work, welfare, city administration, and perhaps most notably, in formulating comprehensive executive budgets. The National Municipal League based many of their reforms on economic and fiscal accountability, believing that administrative funding decisions required openness to external scrutiny and responsibility to constituents for results. Eventually, universities took up education and training by developing graduate programs in the emergent field of public administration and blending them with apprenticeships in organizations.

Professionalism, Education, and Ethics

The democratically centered idea of education and training and the demands for ethical reform of practices in public administration underscored two additional currents in professionalization of public administration. Professionalism in public service came to mean a high degree of education, competencies in performing work, sensitivity to ethical relationships with internal and external stakeholders, accountability to wider public constituencies, and unbiased judgments in making budgeting and program decisions. Professional development in government reflected the growing awareness of human relations, adult learning, and organizational change as key ingredients for undertaking government reform.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL

SCIENCE AND PRACTICES Human Relationships in Organizations The Hawthorne Experiments in the Western Electric Plant in New York opened the door for investigating the importance of human needs, aspirations, and contributions to organizational productivity. One of the earliest scholars was Mary Parker-Follett (1924). Follett drew on the pragmatists and progressives in her belief that dialog promoted a shared understanding of the movements of power, hierarchy, and authority in organizational systems; collective participation in work-centered groups produced a dynamic means for integrating individual needs and desires as well as methods for planning, organizing, and conducting work. Employees rather than

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managers devised how work was actually done, and their strategies rested on a combination of situational variables, motivations, and experience-based judgment. Lewin (1947) integrated Follett’s work in-group dynamics in his study of collective decision making related to organizational development. Lewin expressed a strong moral and ethical belief in the importance of democratic institutions and values in creating knowledge that could be acted upon. He felt that group-level discussions of change and their consequent formulating of strategies were at the heart of organizational change. He observed that groups could analyze the field of forces operating in a given problem context and identify forces that could be used to leverage change as well as those preventing it from happening. Following what Lewin called force field analysis, groups could develop consensus on a means for conducting change in particular contexts. Socio-Technical Interventions Lewin’s studies of group dynamics made important contributions to the use of social science to changing organizational technical systems. The London-based Tavistock Institute advanced Lewin’s group studies by integrating psychoanalytic practice with views of organizations as systems that were open to environmental changes. The idea that organizations changed goals and strategies in response to changes in their environment posited that organization development was contextually based. Planning change required an understanding of trends that influenced changes in various organizational systems. For example, if a group had decided to create a new employee rewards system through providing financial incentives, success would depend on careful attention to several different organization systems: (a) management processes of currently rewarding employees would have to be modified; (b) new employee performance standards would need to change and be communicated for each occupational series and grade level; (c) funding allocations from the external environment (such as a state legislator or Congressional committee) would need to be contacted; and (d) changes in the current means of getting work done would have to be instituted,

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requiring changes in training for skills development, developmental assignments for benchmarking, and new job requirements.

The Tavistock Institute developed Lewin’s ideas into a concept of action research, in which employees participated in developing a research strategy to promote quality of work life, cultural change, and participative organizational change (Bunker and Alban, 2006). Trist and Emery (1960) further extended the idea of participatory research by adding the interdependent effects of technical operations and human systems in organizations. Trist and Emery’s (1960) research culminated in a more holistic view of intricate social and technical dynamics at play in creating organizations.

Systems Views of Organization This Socio-Technical view of organizations also based its concepts on Barnard’s earlier research on the interactions of organizations with their environments (Barnard, 1938, in Kast and Rosenzweig, 1972). A more advanced theory, however, drew on Von Bertalanffy’s biological characterization of organizations as living organizations that change in relation to their environments to grow and to survive (Von Bertalanffy, 1972). Organizations, like plants, interact with their environments to extract necessary resources for sustenance. They construct networks with their environments to sense where the status of resources and opportunities to expand or grow, and where there might be problems. In terms of public organizations, administrators continually hone their sensitivity to wide-ranging constituent needs and legal and regulatory changes and may shift strategic and operational plans as a result. Constituencies may include state, county, and local administrations, profit and non- profit based organizations, legislative and executive bodies, and a multitude of citizen-based interests and needs.

ORIGINS OF PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE CREATION IN SPOD

Over time, organizations develop caches of knowledge about environmental changes as well as techniques to managing

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them: each organization learns to identify subtle changes that could produce tsunamis. They also develop a common stock of knowledge that they draw from in finding ways to cope with varieties of changes. Professional organizations, such as SPOD, are repositories of organizational knowledge, and, interfused with professional ethics, offer members menus of “what works” and what does not. Professional organizations share this stock of knowledge formally, as in workshops and seminars, and informally, as through interpersonal networks, mentoring, and alliances with similar interests in groups. Professionalization, in such cases, occurs over a lifetime.

Formal skills learning through training and education produce perhaps five to 10 percent of professional knowledge (Marsick and Watkins, 1990). Informal and incidental learning occurs through relationships with others, through applications of skills to new or complex situations, or through life’s experiences (Watkins and Marsick, 1992). Most organizational learning comes from non-routine situations. To better understand the importance of informal and incidental learning in professional development, it is helpful to show their relationships to other forms of adult learning. Brief descriptions below will clarify how adults learn to develop professional skills in performing work-related tasks. Adult Learning Adult learning is distinct from learning from childhood through adolescence. Whereas the latter relies on gaining knowledge about a variety of disciplines and skills for reading, writing, computation, and self and interpersonal relationships through the direction of expert instructors, adult learning assumes that adults are self-directed in pursuing learning for particular purposes or roles (Long and Associates, 1989). Adults exercise freedom to choose when and where they wish to learn, and abstract from an event what they need to know and apply. Adult learning incorporates experiences and problem solving methods and expands when individuals share their solutions and outcomes with other adult learners (Stewart, 1987).

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Adult Education Traditionally, adult education has been associated with

learning basic skills and competencies for performing roles and responsibilities for adulthood. Although it has been associated mainly with basic skills, such as in literacy and computation for employability, it also includes education in skills individuals need in making life transitions. Unlike informal and non-formal education, adult education tends to be planned, achieving pre- determined competencies or goals, and is preparatory for new states of being. In this sense, professional associations may help individuals getting ready for retirement, needing interpersonal support, or moving upward.

Training and Professional Development Training is a form of adult education, but is primarily focused on acquiring or expanding job-related skills and competencies, such as new job technologies, effective interpersonal an team communications, changes in the job itself (Laird, Holton, and Naquin, 2003). While training is generally short-term and instructor led, professional development is longer, may include applications of job skills, and may or may not involve the help of others. Professional development may occur through extensive skills applications in the workplace as well as through coaching, mentoring, special assignments, rotations, and shadowing. Human Resource Development Human Resource Development (HRD) is often associated with training, but actually encompasses much more. Because it recognizes the value of contributions employees make to accomplish work, HRD regards employees as organizational assets, which must be cultivated to increase value. Human Resource Development includes support for professional development through certifications, particularly of competencies, ongoing cultivation of skills and competencies for performance improvement, opportunities for career growth and management, and the creation and cultivation of network ties and professional organization alliances. Human Resource Development not only provides for skills development, but also realizes that various

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organizational systems also must be aligned to promote success. Thus, HRD engages in consultation with management to identify and remove obstacles, develop motivational incentives, and promote a culture that fosters continuous learning and growth (Knowles, 1990); HRD is concerned with enabling both individual and organizational development (Lippitt and Lippitt, 1986).

CONTEXT AND EMERGENCE OF SPOD Before the Early 1960s

Until the 1950s, organization and professional development, in both public and private sector organizations was sporadic and little used. Few employees gained sufficient education, training, and certification to perform independently as professionals. In the early twentieth century, moreover, Frederick Taylor (1911) prescribed management training to ensure workers produced sufficient quantities of goods and services. With the later theories of human motivation, learning, and performance, however, management came to understand the importance of encouraging and supporting organizational learning for professional growth. The cultivation of human relations skills, coupled with the notions of interdependencies of human and organizational systems, produced a new view of developing employees: employees worked not only to earn money, but also came to find affiliations and to extract intrinsic meaning from jobs they performed (Van Riper, 1958). Professionally affiliated organizations, such as SPOD, were positioned for providing needed employee development. This came at a crucial time in which public organizations faced large- scale change. The Decade 1965-1975

Between 1965 and 1975, when SPOD emerged, profound social and economic changes occurred. In the workplace, training and development, spurred by the burgeoning ranks of professionals in large organizations, accelerated. In government, the Civil Service Commission launched management development centers to train experienced

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professionals as well as program administrators. It also introduced the Federal Executive Institute in 1968 to provide top-level career managers skills for developing employees, leading organizational changes, and adapting to the changing financial and mission requirements as well as political landscape (Retrieved from: http://www.opm.gov/about-us/our-mission- role-history/).

Profound and rapid societal changes also stirred the growth of the federal government, requiring a novel way of designing and administering social and economic change. Many new social welfare programs were created during the administration of Kennedy's successor, President Lyndon B. Johnson. One of the most wide-ranging reforms occurred with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1965 and 1968. Second, a hallmark of President Johnson’s “War on Poverty” was the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which created the Office of Economic Opportunity and the Job Corps and Neighborhood Youth Corps. The Social Security Act of 1965 established Medicare and Medicaid. At the federal level, moreover, government established the National Endowments for Arts and Humanities in 1965, Public Broadcasting in 1969, and various cultural centers. It also created the Consumer Protection Agency, the National Highway Traffic Safety Board, and the Urban Mass Transit Association. The decade also exhibited a widespread concern for the preservation of the natural and human environments, particularly in the need to avoid air and water pollution (Garrett and Rhine, 2006).

During the mid-1960s to the 1970s, the number of cabinet-level agencies added to the federal government in the 20th century accounted for almost half of those added in the 20th century alone (Ward, 2008). The Office of Personnel Management records show a steady increase in the number of federal employees staffing the new offices, peaking in 1969 at 304,000, but declining to 284,000 in 1974 as the effects of two major recessions and decrease in the Vietnam Conflict outlays. In 2012, federal employment decreased to 269,700 (Retrieved from http://www.opm.gov). Ward (2008) observed that while the number of full time federal employees decreased, the amount of spending on federal programs increased to $4 trillion during the

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President G.W. Bush administration. However, the growth in state and local governments greatly increased during this time.

But by the end of the 1960s, economic prosperity was being eroded by persistent inflation. The 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo pushed prices rapidly higher and created shortages throughout the United States. Even after the embargo ended, prices stayed high, fueling inflation and eventually causing rising rates of unemployment. By May, 1975, the unemployment rate reached 9 percent. To address the recessions’ drain on tax revenue, the era of “New Federalism” introduced revenue sharing and block grants. The Emergency Employment Act and the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act were particularly important in assisting the unemployed (Garrett and Rhine, 2006).

WHAT WAS SPOD LIKE?

The Section on Professional and Organization Development in ASPA came into being forty years ago as the twin currents of professional and organizational development were emerging in a quickly evolving social, economic, and political government milieu. What composition did SPOD assume in those early years, and what did it contribute to the theory and practice of public administration? To give some insights, Dr. Vinton Fisher, one of the earliest members, reflected on what membership was like. At the time, he was a professor at the University of Connecticut’s Institute of Public Service, and his observations connect the world of pragmatism with theory. His case study, written in his own words, tells the story of SPOD mingled with applications to teaching, consulting, and organization development.

INNOVATIONS THAT SHAPED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: VINTON FISHER REFLECTS ON

SPOD

There were many involved in the effort to meld and strengthen the theory and practices of professional development

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with organization development. Pragmatism was the key: did it work?

Frank Sherwood, Chet Newland, Neely Gardner, Fred Fisher, Jim Wolf, Myron Wiener, Jerry Brown, Nesta Gallas, Dwight Waldo, and many others were involved in this fusion of professionalism in public administration with organizational change in our public institutions.

Some were the presidents of ASPA and others were both ASPA presidents as well as the Directors of the Federal Executive Institute. Many were associated with the public administration program at the University of Southern California/USC, especially its Washington-based program. Some were involved in other universities and learning centers as organizational leaders and educators who provided the support and intellectual “heft” for the transition to SPOD. There were also others who were on the front line.

However, no matter where they were located or their roles, they were united in the belief that professional development programs (training was dropped as a term) – if done without a strong relationship to social purpose, mission, organizational improvement and development – were potentially dead-end ventures: a waste of resources. One such person was Dr. Thomas Mills, who was a predecessor and colleague of Hindy Schachter at the New Jersey Institute of Technology. A Case Study and Major Learning at UCONN

At the University of Connecticut’s Institute of Public Service, I was privileged to be the manager of our international management development program. We had relationships with the Agency for International Development, the Ford foundation, and the United Nations.

We were sent three participants from India, who were supposed to learn the advanced practices of quality control. Because the basis of our educational programs was built upon on-the-job training, we had personal relationships with many of the practitioners in the best organizations in Connecticut who were involved in quality control. Therefore, we brought the three to several insurance companies as well as United Technologies. The feedback that we received from the participants was that we were not meeting their needs. I turned to the chair of quality

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control education at UConn’s School of Business: Dr. Joseph Emerzian sat down with the three men.

What Dr. Emerzian did helped transform part of our international management education program at UConn: he asked them a few simple questions: What was a median, what was a mode and what was a standard deviation. To my amazement, they had no answers to any of these questions.

Simply stated, I had “assumed” that they had some basic knowledge, experience and education in quality control BEFORE we took them to some of the best providers of quality control in the Greater Hartford area. They were not learning anything because they were mystified and unprepared for the information that was provided to them. I had planned a program that assumed they had come for a “topping up”; in reality, they needed to come for a basic education in quality control. The information that we had been provided about their learning objectives was misguided.

Soon thereafter we instituted in our management development programs, a pretest. How a participant did in the pretest affected the program that they would receive during the n balance of their professional development program.

Then we progressed into the cognitive and affective areas of curriculum development. What were we trying to specifically achieve in our programs? What means were more appropriate to transmit and inculcate the knowledge and skills that the learners needed? How did our educators need to tailor their methodology and curriculum to facilitate the acquisition of that knowledge and skills? This also meant that we needed to focus more on the evaluations of our instructors and their ability to achieve these objectives. Therefore, we instituted a “training of trainers” program for all of our instructors. For some we had special tutoring to enhance their presentation style and the manner in which they approached the learning process. Specifically, emphasis upon the experiential rather than lectures proved to be a better means of learning. This paid off in improved feedback from the participants and post test results improved.

It also led us to discover that we were involved in education and not in training. Education meant that we were

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dealing with the basic values and skills of an individual who was becoming a professional who might become certified in his/her professional designated craft. We were providing a platform for them to grow in their area of expertise. Training pertained to scripted responses that did not build upon creativity and problem solving: it was more rote. For us this attribute distinguished education from training.

As we became more involved in experiential learning through such means as case studies, individual and group exercises, on-the-job training, and simulations, we were able to distinguish more between what it means to become a professional, and what it means to be “trained”. We developed simulations that were used in international settings, and eventually became modified for use in US local regional planning and governance, especially in the area of conflict management and inter-/intra-governmental and organizational relations. All of these developments were built upon our international experience.

Around this same time, dialogue about public administration education was occurring within ASPA. Nesta Gallas, then president of ASPA, chaired a meeting designed to differentiate between education and training, particularly in the process of the Section for Professional Development, transitioning from SPA to the Section for Professional and Organization Development. She asked me to present the framework that distinguished education from training. Nesta turned to Dwight Waldo, then a certified guru within ASPA and asked: “Dwight what you think about that distinction?” My heart was in my mouth because Dwight’s insights were usually correct and, most importantly accepted. In his rather precise, clear, and reflective response Dwight said: “I think I would have to agree.”

WHAT DOES THIS HAVE TO DO WITH SPOD?

In other institutions dealing with public administration

education – both degree and non-degree – there was a shared insight and belief that public administration education needed to focus on making our public institutions more responsive. Or, as was the theme for the 2015 national conference, we were then

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also dedicated to “building a stronger and more equitable society.”

In this effort Neely Gardner at USC was an intellectual and experiential fountainhead and mentor. I believe that with Fred Fisher, he helped to conceive, spawn and develop the National Training and Development Service/NTDS, which was a spinoff from the International City Management Association/ICMA.

Simultaneously, within ASPA, individuals were going through the approval and legitimacy process to move from the Section for Professional Development to the Section for Professional and Organization Development. We had support from a number of internal and external individuals and organizations: our timing could not have been better. For example, during this process, we also had the support individuals within the National Association of Schools of Public Administration/NASPA who were co-members of ASPA and NASPA.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS: 40 YEARS OF

PROFESSIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

The beginnings of SPOD rested on the theories and practices of human learning to promote more effective and efficient public organizations. In its early years, as Dr. Fisher notes, SPOD encouraged collaborative networks among various scholars and practitioners to adapt to the needs of stakeholders. The emphasis on applying skills learned in classrooms to real- time problems led to a differentiation of education and training. The further refinement of practical skills, particularly in problem-solving and conflict management, to different cultures helped international participants apply concepts and ideas from class to various international government settings. Through its innovative changes in training and organizational change, SPOD gained respect within ASPA. Its continued ability to assess, design, try out, reflect, and adapt enabled SPOD to attain status as well as continue to grow. The key to survival was, in Dr. Fisher’s words, its ability to learn, adapt and be responsive.

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