Sports Spectators Motives

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Consumer Involvement in Sport Activities Impacts their Motivation for

Spectating

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Consumer Involvement in Sport Activities Impacts Their

Motivation for Spectating

Hirotaka MATSUOKA

Waseda University

Corresponding author: Hirotaka MATSUOKA

Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Japan

Email: [email protected]

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Consumer Involvement in Sport Activities Impacts Their

Motivation for Spectating

Abstract

In order to attract a sufficient number of spectators to stadiums and arenas, it is

crucial for sport managers to clearly identify and understand the factors that trigger

consumers’ need to watch sporting events. A great deal of research has gone into the

investigation of explanatory variables of spectators’ motives since such findings are useful

in segmentation marketing. To further deepen our understanding regarding this matter, this

study also examined other variables associated with spectators’ motives. A unique

classification criterion in the sports spectator market might be the extent of spectators’

actual experience in playing sports. Thus, this study examined spectators’ motives across

different levels of involvement in sports activities. The author employed nine spectator

motives: achievement, aesthetics, drama, escape, knowledge, physical skill, social

interaction, team affiliation, and family. The survey was conducted on the spectators of a

game of professional basketball in Japan. The questionnaires with 18 items assessing

spectator motives were distributed and collected at the arena. The number of effective

respondents was 481. According to their involvement in playing basketball, 46.5% of

subjects have experience in playing basketball regularly, 16.8% of subjects have played

basketball occasionally, and remaining 36.6% of subjects have no experience in playing

basketball. Results of the data analysis indicated that there were significant differences

across the three groups on “knowledge,” “skills,” and “family.” Those who have played

basketball regularly were high in “knowledge,” whereas those of no experience in playing

basketball were high in “family.” Furthermore, there were differences on “knowledge,”

“skills,” and “family” between spectators belonging to basketball teams and those who do

not belong to any teams.

Keyword: spectator motive, sport activity, segmentation marketing

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Due to successful management of the J-League (Japan Professional Football League)

and growth in the popularity of spectator sports, Japan has experienced significant growth

in the spectator sport industry year after year. However, not all professional sports leagues,

clubs, or teams are financially healthy; many are suffering from the difficulty of attracting

enough attendees, and are having problems with marketing and financing. Professional

sports leagues in other Asian countries have also faced such challenges. In order to attract

a sufficient number of spectators to stadiums and arenas, it is crucial that sport managers

clearly understand the factors that trigger consumers’ need to watch sporting events.

Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) introduced six major categories of triggering

factors: time, changed circumstances, product acquisition, product consumption,

individual differences, and marketing influences. Although these factors are important, the

primary issue might be the consumer’s motives themselves. Therefore, marketers need to

answer the question: “Why would people want to consume a particular service?” Some

people may want to enjoy the aesthetic sport performance by skillful athletes, while others

may want to feel the excitement by watching sports and being part of a group experience.

Several research studies have sought to examine the motives of spectators in more

depth. For example, Wann (1995) as well as Wann, Schrader, and Wilson (1999) discussed

eight reasons why individuals were spectators at sporting events: self-esteem; group

affiliation; family; aesthetics; escape; economic; eustress; and entertainment. Similarly,

Milne and McDonald (1999) identified twelve motives: self-actualization; self-esteem;

value development; social facilitation; affiliation; skill mastery; aesthetic; stress release;

risk-taking; aggression; competition; and achievement. Trail and James (2001) developed

the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption composed of nine factors: achievement;

acquisition of knowledge; aesthetics; drama; escape; family; physical attraction; physical

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skill; and social interaction. By using the data from spectators of women’s soccer, Funk,

Mahony, and Ridinger (2002) examined 14 motives including: vicarious achievement,

excitement, interest in soccer, interest in player, national pride, and so forth to capture the

wide variety of motivating forces. More recently, Funk, Filo, Beaton, and Pritchard (2009)

proposed a 10-item scale named SPEED to measure five facets of motivation:

socialization, performance, excitement, esteem, and diversion.

In addition to extending our understanding of the structural components of spectator

motivation, researchers have attempted to find answers to the question: “Do those

spectating motives differ among various types of consumers?” From the perspective of

segmentation marketing, it is necessary for sport marketers to understand the most

important motives of each segment in their target markets. Researchers have investigated

factors that are associated with spectator motives such as gender (James & Ridinger, 2002),

country (James, Fujimoto, Ross, & Matsuoka, 2009), sport type (James & Ross, 2004;

Wann, Grieve, Zapalac, & Pease, 2008), length of time as a fan (Nakazawa, Mahony, Funk,

& Hirakawa, 1999), the extent of psychological commitment to teams (Mahony, Madrigal,

& Howord, 2000), the level of fans’ attachment to teams, players, and head coaches (Koo

& Hardin, 2008), and demographics and psychometrics (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007).

Since these findings are useful in segmentation marketing, it is useful to investigate

other variables related to spectator motives. A unique classification criterion in the

spectator sports market is the extent of consumers’ actual experience in playing sports.

Because of a spectator’s experience in playing basketball, he or she might have specialized

knowledge of the game, which may provide specific motives for spectating basketball

games. Although some research studies have dealt with the relationship between sports

participation and sports spectating (Tokuyama & Greenwell, 2011), the precise nature of

that relationship has been unclear. It has been suggested that empirical studies were

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necessary to decipher this connection (McDonald, Milne, & Hong, 2002; Tokuyama &

Greenwell, 2011). Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to compare the motives

of spectators across different degrees of involvement in sports activities.

Method

Instrument

A questionnaire was prepared to assess spectators’ motives behind attending a

professional basketball game. As shown in Table 1, the author considered nine spectator

motives drawn from previous research (James et al., 2009; Matsuoka, Fujimoto, & James,

2003; Trail & James, 2001). Nine motives were achievement, aesthetics, drama, escape,

knowledge, physical skill, social interaction, team affiliation, and family.

Table 1 Nine Spectator Motives

Motives Definitions

achievement

aesthetics

drama

escape

knowledge

physical skill

social interaction

team affiliation

family

desire to be associated with successful teams

appreciation of the beauty and gracefulness of sport

desire to experience the pleasant stress or stimulation from

watching an uncertain/suspenseful outcome

desire to escape from one’s daily routine

desire to learn and understand the technical aspects of a sport

appreciate and enjoy the players’ athletic skills

desire to interact/spend time with others

desire to feel part of the team

desire to spend time with one’s family

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In addition to these nine facets, there are some other dimensions of spectators’

motivation that have been commonly employed in previous studies. These are:

entertainment; interest in player; interests in sports; and so forth (e.g., Funk et al., 2002,

Funk et al., 2004; James et al., 2009; Trail & James, 2001). The reason why the present

study did not employ these factors was rooted in the following definition of motivation:

“an internal force that directs behavior toward the fulfillment of needs (Shank, 2002,

p.116).” Since spectators attend sporting events to fulfill their needs, such needs have to be

captured by researchers and practitioners who must appreciate the internal forces that

encourage watching sports. The three facets listed above (entertainment, interest in player,

and interest in sports) are not rooted in the fulfillment of spectators’ needs. What is

required is to understand the spectators’ need to attend a game as a form of entertainment

and the reasons behind their interest in players or sports. Therefore, the relevant questions

are: “How does a spectator want to be entertained in a sporting event?” “Why is a

spectator interested in a specific sport?” and “What does a spectator want to see while

watching a specific player’s performance: skillful play, beautiful play, intelligent play, or

dramatic play?” Thus, this study attempted to determine the core components of the

motives of sports spectators using the nine facets listed above.

Another unique element and challenge of the present study was to assess each

dimension of motivation of spectating using only two items instead of three or more.

Most of the previous studies on spectator motivation employed at least three items for one

dimension and thirty, forty, and more for all dimensions (e.g., Funk et al., 2002;

McDonald et al., 2002; Trail & James, 2001). Such large numbers of questions often

bother respondents at stadiums and arenas, which may lead to an irresponsible attitude

toward answering them. Consequently, potentially ambiguous responses may have low

internal validity. Thus, by minimizing the number of questions, this problem can be kept

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in check (DeVellis, 2003; Funk et al., 2009).

Shorter scales also help practitioners understand the psychological and sociological

factors influencing consumers’ decision-making process. Since the longer scales bother

customers, practitioners may want to consider using a short one in a game day

environment. In addition to exploring theoretical scales, sport marketing studies need to

consider practical applications (Razzaque, 1998; Funk et al., 2009).

Therefore, the present research employed 18 items assessing nine facets listed above.

Participants rated items on seven-point Likert scales with “1” representing “Strongly

Disagree” and “7” representing “Strongly Agree.” The questionnaire also included a set of

questions pertaining to demographic characteristics, measures of experience in attending

professional basketball games, experience in playing basketball, current status of

membership in basketball teams, and intention to attend games in the next season.

Sampling

The survey used in this study was conducted among the spectators of a pre-season

game of the bj-league (Professional Basketball Japan), which was established in 2005 with

six teams. The league has since expanded rapidly and included 21 teams in the 2012-13

season.

The game was held in a city located in the western part of Japan. Since the host city

did not have its own team, two teams from two different cites played against each other.

Thus, spectators of the game consisted of fans of both teams who had traveled to the arena

from their hometown as well as people living in the host city who had no favorite teams.

This composition should make the sample of this survey diverse, consisting of avid fans

and unfamiliar spectators. Questionnaires were passed out at an entrance point;

convenience sample was used to distribute the questionnaire. A total of 481 usable

questionnaires were collected at the arena.

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Results

Participant Characteristics

The participants consisted 226 male (47.0%) and 255 female (53.0%). The mean

age for the sample was 28.2 years (SD=12.8). Of the subjects, 34.1% were under 19

years old, 19.8% were between 20 and 29 years old, 22.7% were between 30 and 39 years

old, 18.9% were between 40 and 49 years old, and 4.6% were 50 years old or older.

Most respondents (72.6%, n=349) had attended one or more games of bj-league in the

previous season or before.

According to their involvement in playing basketball, 221 subjects (46.5%) have

experience in playing basketball regularly, 80 subjects (16.8%) have played basketball

occasionally, and remaining 174 subjects (36.6%) have no experience in playing

basketball. Among those who have experience in basketball regularly, 72.3% (n=149) of

them belong to a basketball team currently, whereas 27.7% (n=57) of them do not belong

to any teams currently.

Spectator motives: descriptive analyses

Mean scores and standard deviations for nine facets of spectator motives are shown

in Table 2. The participants were motivated to a greater extent by variables, “Aesthetic,”

“Skills,” “Drama,” and “Knowledge.” The mean scores on these motives were 6.30, 6.25,

5.72 and 5.37 respectively. The mean scores on “Family,” “Team affiliation,” and “Escape,”

4.42, 4.63, and 4.76 respectively, were relatively low among the nine facets of motives.

Standard deviations for nine facets ranged from .1.10 to1.77. Table 1 also provides

correlation parameters among nine facets of motives, which ranged from r = .16 to r = .73.

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Table 2 Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations and Reliability Estimates

for Nine Facets Motive Facets (n=481)

AC

AE

DR

ES

KN

SK

SO

TA

FA

M

SD

α

AC AE DR ES KN SK SO TA FA

-

.36

.47

.53

.27

.29

.42

.73

.46

-

.61

.34

.43

.72

.22

.27

.17

-

.45

.44

.49

.29

.42

.27

-

.32

.31

.53

.60

.54

-

.59

.19

.23

.16

-

.21

.21

.18

-

.66

.62

-

.59

-

4.84

6.30

5.72

4.76

5.37

6.25

4.78

4.63

4.42

1.46

1.10

1.32

1.62

1.25

1.20

1.66

1.58

1.77

.66

.73

.72

.77

.74

.89

.86

.84

.87

Note:

Motives measured on scale anchored with 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree. AC= Achievement, AE=Aesthetics, DR=Drama, ES=Escape, KN=Knowledge, SK=Skills, SO=Social Interaction, TA=Team affiliation, FA=Family M=Means, SD=Standard Deviations, α=Cronbach’s Alphas

Spectator motives: assessment of the scale

The measurement scale of nine facets influencing spectator motives with 18 items

were examined in terms of internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant

validity. Cronbach’s Alpha, which assessed internal consistency for all facets ranged from

α = .66 to α = .89 (see Table 2). Only the “achievement” factor was below the .70

benchmark (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). However, since it was not

significantly below the benchmark, it was considered acceptable, indicating that the

measurement scale with nine facets was internally consistent.

Assessments of convergent and discriminant validity were conducted via an

examination of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values. Since these values for the

nine facets ranged from .53 to .81(see Table 3), they were greater than the benchmark

value foe convergent validity (.50) (Fornell & Laecker, 1981). In addition, discriminant

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validity was examined by comparing the AVE value for each facet with the squared

correlations between the respective facets. Since any of the squared correlations did not

exceed the AVE value for all facets (see Table 2 and Table 3), discriminant validity was

confirmed (AVE value of “achievement” = .5348; the squared correlation between

“achievement” and “team affiliation” = .5285).

The model’s fit indices by the results of confirmatory factor analysis using Amos 21

(χ 2 = 318.22, df = 99, χ

2 /df = 3.21; CFI = .96; NFI = .94; RMSEA = .068) also showed the

acceptable fit to the data (Hair et al., 2010).

Table 3 Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Motive facets (n=481)

Facets and Items

β

AVE

Achievement

I feel a personal sense of achievement when my favorite team wins. I feel proud when the my favorite team plays well

Aesthetics

I appreciate the beauty inherent in the game of basketball. I enjoy the graceful plays in the baseball game

Drama

I like the suspense of a game where the lead changes back and forth. I like the excitement of a game’s outcome not being decided until the end.

Escape For me, a game is an escape from my day-to-day activities (e.g., housekeeping, work, study). I like going to a game because when I’m there I forget about all of “life’s little problems

Knowledge

I increase my knowledge of basketball when I attend a game. I learn about the technical aspects of basketball by going to a game.

Skills

One reason I like a game is being able to see well-played basketball. Getting to see the players’ superior skills is a major reason why I enjoy a game.

Social Interaction

I enjoy a game because it gives me an opportunity to be with my

.56

.87

.75

.78

.72

.77

.73

.85

.72

.82

.91

.88

.85

.89

.86

.84

.53

.59

.56

.63

.59

.81

.76

.72

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friends. Wanting to spend time with my friends is one reason I go to a game

Team affiliation

I want to feel like a part of my favorite team.. It is important for me to feel connected to my favorite team

Family

Being with my family is why I enjoy baseball games The opportunity to spend time with my family is something I like about attending games.

.84 .91

.77

Note: β = Standardized Regression Coefficients, AVE = Average of Variance Extracted

Spectator motives: comparative analyses

The scores regarding each of the nine facets were compared by the degree of

experience in playing basketball. The respondents were divided into three groups:

experience in playing basketball regularly, experience in playing basketball occasionally,

and no experience in playing basketball. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results

indicated that there were significant differences across the three groups with respect to

“knowledge,” “skills,” and “family” (see Table 4). Those who have played basketball

regularly were ranked high in “knowledge (M=5.76)” and “skills (M=6.39),” whereas

those with no experience in playing basketball were ranked high in “family (M=4.91).”

Rank order comparisons are also shown in Table 4. The four most important motives:

“aesthetics,” “skills,” “drama,” and “knowledge,” were common to all three groups.

Conversely, distinctive differences were found regarding “social interaction” and “family.”

Among those with no experience playing basketball, “social interaction” and “family”

were ranked fifth and sixth, respectively. In contrast, those facets were ranked seventh and

ninth, respectively among the “Regularly” and “Occasionally” groups.

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Table 4 A Comparison of Spectator Motives by Degree of Experience in Playing Basketball

Facets

Mean <Rank>

(Standard Deviation)

F

Statistic

p

Value

Regularly (n=221)

Occasionally (n=80)

No experience (n=174)

Achievement Aesthetics Drama Escape Knowledge Skills Social Interaction Team affiliation Family

4.77 <5>

(1.50)

6.29 <2> (1.10)

5.80 <3>

(1.32)

4.65 <6> (1.62)

5.76 <4>

(1.25)

6.39 <1> (1.20)

4.63 <7>

(1.77)

4.54 <8> (1.61)

4.02 <9>

(1.86)

4.87 <6>

(1.52)

6.27 <1> (1.00)

5.79 <3>

(1.20)

4.97 <5> (1.55)

5.13 <4>

(1.31)

6.04 <2> (1.25)

4.78 <7>

(1.58)

4.62 <8> (1.58)

4.42 <9>

(1.72)

4.88 <7>

(1.38)

6.32 <1> (.87)

5.86 <3>

(3.78)

4.84 <8> (1.54)

4.96 <4>

(1.37)

6.16 <2> (1.17)

4.93 <5>

(1.53)

4.72 <9> (1.53)

4.91 <6>

(1.55)

.36

.09

.04

1.47

19.54

3.04

1.55

.57

12.47

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

<.01

<.05

n.s.

n.s.

<.01

Note. Motives measured on scale anchored with 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree.

In addition, each of the nine motives were examined to ascertain whether there were

significant differences between participants currently belonging to a basketball team and

those who did not belong to any teams. According to the rank orders of both the groups,

“aesthetics,” “skills,” “drama,” and “knowledge,” were once again ranked as the top four

facets. Among other facets, the rankings were similar for both the groups.

Nevertheless, the comparisons of mean scores revealed statistically significant

differences between the two groups. The results reported in Table 5 indicate that

respondents that were identified as “current members of a team” desired to learn and

understand the technical aspects of basketball, and appreciated and enjoyed the players’

athletic skills more than those that were classified as “non-member of any team”

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(knowledge: M=6.11, M=5.02, respectively, and skills: M=6.57, M=5.95, respectively).

The results also indicated that “non-members of any team” desired to spend time with

their family by attending the basketball game more than “current members of a team”

(family: M=4.58, M=4.00 respectively).

Discussion and Conclusions

Summary

The present study attempted to compare the motives of spectators across different

degree of involvement in sport activities. Each of the nine motives was examined with

the data received from attendance of a professional basketball game. The results showed

that there were significant differences among the motives of respondents having

experience in playing basketball regularly, those that played basketball occasionally, and

those with no experience in playing basketball, and between the motives of respondents

belonging to a basketball team currently and those who did not belong to any teams.

Initially, the measurement scale with 18 items was used to examine the nine facets of

spectator motives. The scale was made shorter to improve its practical usage, and its’

validity and reliability were improved.

The findings revealed that spectators that were involved in basketball (beyond simply

watching a game) desired to learn and understand the technical aspects of the game

(knowledge), and appreciated and enjoyed the players’ athletic skills (skills). On the

other hand, spectators were less involved in playing basketball or not at all tended to enjoy

watching a basketball game with their family (Family).

Implications and limitations

The present study contributed to extend our understanding of the motives of

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spectators by revealing the relationship between spectators’ motives and their involvement

in sport were revealed. The study clarified the following points.

First, the findings of the study may provide an answer to the question: “How does

someone become a sport consumer?” “Consumers are surrounded by a host of factors that

may influence their decisions about sport involvement (Mullin, et al., 2007, P. 71).”

Therefore, it is important for sport marketers to appreciate the factors that affect sport

consumers’ behavior. Although researchers have been discussing socialization regarding

participant sports (Mullin et al., 2007), there has been limited analysis with respect to

socialization regarding spectator sport (James, 2001). This study revealed a probable

causal relationship that a consumer’s experience in playing sports fosters his/her need to

learn, understand, and enjoy the technical aspects of sports as well as players’ athletic

skills by watching sports. This finding might be one of the clues for understanding how a

sport participant becomes a spectator.

Second, marketers of professional sport organizations need to recognize the two

different segments they need to cater to: spectators that have significant involvement in

sports and those with low or no involvement in sport activities. There have been several

studies regarding segmentation of sport spectators. Some criteria of this segmentation

were demographic and psychometric factors such as gender, age, and psychological

commitment to teams (e.g., James et al., 2009; James & Ridinger, 2002; Mahony et al,

2000). In addition to these criteria, actual sports experience, which can be viewed as sport

involvement, is a critical and effective criterion of segmentation of sports spectators.

This clarification enables sport marketers to treat the two customer groups differently.

Marketers may try to provide spectators with significant sports involvement access to the

knowledgeable and skillful aspects of watching sports. On the other hand, they may try to

give spectators with limited or no involvement in sports activities opportunities to have

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social interactions at sporting events.

Finally, regarding the study’s limitations, the generalizability of the findings beyond

Japanese professional basketball is limited. Additional studies need to focus on other

spectator sports such as football and baseball, and examine these issues in more Asian

countries and other continents.

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