understanding consumer

orangepink

Consumer_Behaviour_Implications_for_Marketing_Stra..._----_Chapter_10_Motivation_Personality_and_Emotion.pdf

Home >Business & Finance homework help >Marketing homework help >understanding consumer

CHAPTER 10 Motivation, personality and emotion

Learning objectives LO 10.1 Understand the nature of motivation.

LO 10.2 Understand some theories of motivation.

LO 10.3 Be aware of how marketers can appeal to consumers’ motives.

LO 10.4 Understand the underlying aspects of theories of personality.

LO 10.5 Understand the relationship of personality to marketing.

LO 10.6 Be aware of how emotions can be used in marketing strategies.

One strong source of consumer motivation is the need for esteem. The desire for status, superiority and

Quester, Pascale, et al. Consumer Behaviour : Implications for Marketing Strategy, McGraw-Hill Education (Australia) Pty Limited, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/auckland/detail.action?docID=5471315. Created from auckland on 2021-12-16 00:54:34.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

success relates to consumers working their way up Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Personalised numberplates allow consumers to fulfil the need for esteem by reflecting their individualism and personality.

COURTESY PERSONALISED PLATES, QUEENSLAND

Stuck in traffic and amused by the numberplate IMKOOL in front of you? Personalised numberplates are on the rise, and one Australian company has launched a campaign to encourage even more consumers to express their distinct personalities on their cars. The motivations behind purchasing personalised numberplates will feature in myPlates’ campaign across billboards, print ads and bus wraps. The integrated campaign will also involve Twitter, Facebook and an iPhone app in a bid to encourage conversation about personalised plates. It invites drivers to share their stories of their own personalised plates and what motivated them to buy them.

So why do consumers desire customised plates? Numberplates that express human characteristics such as charm, honesty daring and success allows consumers to select a ‘brand’ that reflects their personality to others. Within this context, the myPlates campaign leverages brand personality as a self- expressive function. Cars, in particular, are products that consumers use in a public and social context, and people often regard their vehicle as a reflection of themselves and of their identity. Brand personality is often used in the marketing of luxury cars. It demands an understanding of the ‘personality’ of both the product and the target market. The customisation of a vehicle through personalised numberplates can be considered an alignment between the brand and the owner’s self-image—a strong motivator of consumption choices.

Personalised (or ‘vanity’) numberplates are not just popular in Australia—they are also a common sight in the US, UK, Belgium, Denmark and Hong Kong, and Singapore is currently considering their introduction. Emerging economies such as China and India are also expected to become huge markets for such potent tokens of individualism in the near future.

This chapter focuses on motivation and two closely related concepts: personality and emotion. Motivation is the energising force that activates or triggers behaviour and provides purpose, direction and drive to that behaviour. Personality reflects the common responses (behaviours) that individuals make to a variety of recurring situations. Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrollable feelings that affect behaviour. The three concepts are closely interrelated and are often difficult to disentangle in any given consumer’s behaviour. For example, consumers who are self-confident (a personality characteristic) are more likely to have a need for assertion (a characteristic of motivation) and to seek situations that allow them to feel powerful (an emotional response).1

motivation the energising force that activates or triggers behaviour and provides purpose, direction and drive to that behaviour

personality the unique psychological make-up of the individual; relates to an individual’s characteristic response tendencies across similar situations, although the role played by the situation itself must also be recognised

emotions the feelings connected with, or affective responses to, objects, people, messages and events—that is, the stimuli that individuals encounter

LO 10.1

The nature of motivation It is important for marketers to identify the motives influencing their target markets. Research into these motives can provide marketers with useful insights into how they can create strategies for different goods and services targeted at different market segments. This

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

section describes the nature of the motivational process. Motivation is the reason for behaviour; it concerns why an individual does something. A

motive is a construct representing an unobservable inner force that stimulates and compels a behavioural response, provides specific direction to that response and drives the response until the inner force is satisfied. Thus, a motive has three main elements: the triggering of a behaviour, the general direction of that behaviour and its persistence until satisfaction is achieved. A motive is often stimulated by processes similar to problem recognition (as discussed in Chapter 3)—the perception of a discrepancy between a desired state and an actual state that is both sufficient to arouse behaviour and relatively important to the individual. In addition, a motive cannot be seen, so the existence of motives can only be inferred from behaviour. motive a construct representing an unobservable inner force that stimulates and compels a behavioural response, provides specific direction to that response and drives the response until the inner force is satisfied

For example, consider consumer motives in the purchase of clothing. At one level, many clothing purchases are partially motivated by a physiological need (for shelter/protection) or a safety need (avoidance of arrest/harassment). In addition, consumers may be motivated to purchase clothing that expresses or symbolises status because they have a strong need to express that aspect of their identity (or desired identity) to others. Also, consumers with a strong need for affiliation may purchase a certain wardrobe or brand in order to feel more comfortable in their relationships with people whose affection they seek. This may especially be the case among teenagers trying to fit in with their peer group.2

Although these motivations may be strong, they still depend on the situation. For example, a teenager with a high need for affiliation may not be guided by that motive in the purchase of underwear if the purchase or use is unlikely to be observed by others in their peer group—though underwear is quite visibly worn among some teen groups! Or the expression of this need for affiliation may vary according to what represents fashion consciousness in different cultures. Therefore, motives directing behaviour in one situation may not exist in another situation or may be quite different from the motives shaping behaviour in that situation.

Other motivations may also direct behaviour. For example, what drives individuals to use the social networking site Facebook? Facebook is transforming the role of the individual in terms of capacity of information giving and withholding through patterns of social interaction for a given community. Facebook users are motivated to use and share links based on a set of different primary motives. A study found the motive statements of information sharing, convenience and entertainment, to pass time, interpersonal utility, control, and promoting work as relevant underlying motives.3 Understanding what motivates users to share information on Facebook is critical for marketers seeking to expand their digital reach to a broader market base, particularly for mass communication industries such as news media, which are experiencing a significant downturn in traditional readership.

LO 10.2

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Theories of motivation There are many theories of motivation, and many of them offer potential insights for the marketing manager.4 This section describes two particularly useful, needs-based approaches to understanding consumer motivation: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and McGuire’s psychological motives.

The first approach, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (motives), is a macro-theory designed to account for most human behaviour in general terms. The second approach, McGuire’s psychological motives, uses a fairly detailed set of motives to account for a limited range of consumer behaviours. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a theory designed to account for most human behaviour in general terms, stipulating a natural progression from physiological needs to higher, self-actualisation needs

McGuire’s psychological motives a fairly detailed motive classification system designed to account for a limited range of consumer behaviours

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is based on the following four premises. • All humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment and social interaction. • Some motives are more basic or critical than others. • The more basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other motives are activated. • As each motive in the hierarchy is satisfied, the next more advanced motive comes into play.5 Maslow proposed a hierarchy of motives that is common to all individuals. This

hierarchy comprises the following levels. 1 Physiological—These needs include food, water, sleep and, to some extent, sex. Unless these needs are minimally satisfied, others will not be activated. 2 Safety—These needs include physical safety and security, stability, familiar surroundings and so on. They are aroused after physiological motives have been minimally satisfied. 3 Belongingness—These needs include the desire for love, friendship, affiliation and group acceptance. They are activated after physiological and safety needs have been minimally satisfied. 4 Esteem—These needs include the desire for status, superiority, self-respect and prestige. They relate to the individual’s feelings of usefulness and accomplishment. They are aroused after physiological, safety and belongingness needs have been minimally satisfied. 5 Self-actualisation—These needs involve the desire for self-fulfilment, or becoming all that one is capable of becoming. This level of needs is only activated when all others have been satisfied.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Maslow’s theory is a good guide to general behaviour; however, it is not an ironclad rule. It is also necessary to recognise that certain needs may carry more importance than others, and that satisfying needs does not necessarily need to occur in a strictly linear order.6 Many examples exist of individuals who have sacrificed their lives for friends or for ideas, or who have given up food and shelter to seek self-actualisation. However, this type of behaviour is often viewed as exceptional, which may support the general validity of Maslow’s overall approach.

There are also cultural differences that this generalised, sequential hierarchy does not account for. For example, some cultures (such as Indigenous Australians, Mãori and many Asian cultures) value social motives more highly than those of personal achievement and satisfaction. Also, adherents of religions with strict dietary rules (such as Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) may choose to satisfy self-actualisation motives before certain physiological ones. These observations should not be surprising, given that needs will be both influenced by, and expressed according to, culturally dictated traditions, norms and preferences (an issue discussed further in Chapter 16).7 Further, some individuals knowingly consume products that are demonstrably dangerous for their health, such as cigarettes or alcohol, as they focus on satisfying their social or ego needs over their physiological or safety ones. This is not to mention ‘aberrant’ consumer behaviours such as compulsive buying, which appear to operate outside any hierarchical understanding of need satisfaction.8

Maslow’s theory has been extensively employed within the fields of marketing and management in an effort to conceptualise and define customer needs (see the Social and mobile CB boxed example). It can also be used to assist in market segmentation based on consumer needs. Lastly, it can be used to better understand the motivation of managers, employees and generational cohorts in the workplace.9 In a recent study recognising the growth of virtual world channels, the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has shown great utility in explaining how particular needs might be facilitated within computer- mediated environments.10

Social & mobile CB

Maslow and slogans: a successful partnership? What motivates consumers to engage in consumption decisions? Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that individuals are fundamentally motivated by a set of needs that have different levels of importance. As consumers fulfil their physiological and safety needs, followed by belongingness and esteem, they strive towards self-actualisation, which is the highest-order need and is driven by the desire for an individual to become all they are capable of becoming. So what motivators can trigger aspirations towards self- actualisation?

The United Kingdom’s Army Cadet Force (ACF) successfully launched a recruitment drive appealing to the population’s higher-order needs. With the slogan ‘Make a difference’, the campaign attracted several

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

thousand new cadet recruits and adult instructors. But can a slogan motivate? As part of the appeal to attract consumers to engage in consumption decisions, advertising slogans

epitomise the essence of a brand and the backbone of campaigns. Typically a short phrase, slogans define the image, brand positioning and identity that the organisation represents. A value proposition as a slogan can communicate an emotional mood to appeal to the needs and motivations of the particular target market. This is exactly how the ACF campaign motivated potential recruits through its multimedia communication strategy, which aimed to trigger problem recognition and motivate potential recruits to begin a life-changing journey.

Recruitment slogans in particular have employed a variety of appeals specifically tailored to meet perceived needs. The United States Army’s recruitment slogans have always reflected the times, with recently campaigns including social media to attract potential recruits. From ‘Today’s Army wants to join you’ to ‘Be all you can be’ to ‘An Army of one’, these slogans appeal to social needs and the needs of self-esteem and self- actualisation. A study examining the success of the armed forces in attracting recruits found that motivation appealing in particular to self-actualisation, esteem and autonomy were the most effective at prompting people to make a lifestyle choice by enlisting for military service. Integrating a sense of anticipation of a reward from military life proved effective in attracting individuals who desired such an outcome. Similarly, the Australian Army’s ‘Army. Challenge yourself’ campaign illustrated the association between effort and performance and striving towards self-fulfilment.

Recognising Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a basis for understanding consumers and their areas of perceived or actual deficit contributes towards creating meaning in brands and slogans. In an information-rich environment where consumers’ needs can be readily satisfied, slogans can create an edge by communicating what consumers want to hear, and what their psyche actually needs.

QUESTIONS 1 Explain in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs how both lower and higher needs can be met through a lifestyle decision such as joining the military.

2 Does Maslow’s hierarchy operate in order, or can several needs be competing at a particular point in time?

3 How can a marketer’s understanding of slogans define ‘the image, brand positioning and identity that the organisation represents’?. Explain, giving examples.

4 With reference to Maslow’s framework, do people’s needs change as they grow older?

It is also important to remember that any given consumption behaviour can satisfy more than one need. Likewise, the same consumption behaviour can satisfy different needs at different times. For example, the consumption of Evian water—with its marketing emphasis on natural spring water as a source of health, youth, beauty and vitality—could satisfy both physiological and esteem needs, physiological needs only, or simply esteem needs, social needs or even safety needs. Table 10.1 provides illustrations of marketing appeals associated with each of Maslow’s levels or motivation.

Table 10.1 Direct appeals to Maslow’s motives in advertising and promotional campaigns

Physiological

Products Health foods, medicines, low-cholesterol foods, exercise equipment

Examples Centrum: ‘Complete from A to zinc’

Sanitarium: ‘Start your day right’

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Vitasoy: ‘Can work wonders for your health and wellbeing’

Safety

Products Smoke detectors, preventative medicines, insurance, social security, retirement investments, burglar alarms, safes

Examples APIA: ‘Understanding, not just insurance’

Zurich: ‘There’s only one thing worse than having to pay insurance’

Robitussin: ‘There’s a Robitussin with your name on it’

Belongingness

Products Personal grooming products, entertainment, clothing and many others

Examples Apple: ‘Think different’

Elizabeth Arden: ‘For all the laughter that lies ahead of me’

Rexona: ‘It won’t let you down’

Esteem

Products Clothing, furniture, alcohol, hobbies, cars and many others

Examples Seiko: ‘It’s your watch that tells most about who you are’

David Jones: ‘Was. Is. Always. David Jones’

BMW ‘We only make one thing – the ultimate driving machine’

Self-actualisation

Products Education, hobbies, sports, some holidays, charities, gourmet foods, museums

Examples Australian Red Cross: ‘The power of humanity’

UNICEF: ‘Make a difference that lasts a lifetime’

Australian Defence Force: ‘Army. Challenge yourself’

McGuire’s psychological motives McGuire has developed a motive classification system that is more specific than Maslow’s. He has identified 16 motives and classified these into four categories—cognitive preservation motives, cognitive growth motives, affective preservation motives and affective growth motives—depending on whether the motive is cognitive or affective and whether it focuses on preservation of the status quo or on growth. McGuire’s 16 motives are briefly described in Table 10.2. This system can help marketers to isolate motives likely to be involved in various specific consumption situations. cognitive preservation motives motives that focus on achieving a sense of meaning while maintaining equilibrium

cognitive growth motives motives that focus on achieving a sense of meaning through personal development

affective preservation motives motives that focus on achieving personal goals while maintaining equilibrium affective growth motives motives that focus on achieving personal goals through personal development

Table 10.2 McGuire’s psychological motives

Cognitive preservation motives

Consistency The need for internal equilibrium or balance

Causation The need to determine who or what causes the things that happen to us

Categorisation The need to establish categories or mental partitions that provide frames of reference

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Cues The need for observable cues or symbols that enable us to infer what we feel and know

Cognitive growth motives

Independence The need for a feeling of self-governance or self-control

Novelty The need for variety and difference

Teleological The need to achieve desired outcomes or end states

Utilitarian The need to learn new information to solve problems

Affective preservation motives

Tension reduction The need to reduce stress

Self-expression The need to express self-identity to others

Ego-defence The need to defend or protect our identities or egos

Reinforcement The need to act in such a way that others will reward us

Affective growth motives

Assertion The need to increase self-esteem

Affiliation The need to develop mutually satisfying relationships with others

Identification The need to adopt new roles

Modelling The need to base behaviours on those of others

Source: Adapted from McGuire WJ (1974), ‘Psychological motives and communication gratification’, in JG Blumler & C Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 167–196.

Cognitive motives focus on the individual’s need for being adaptively oriented towards their environment and achieving a sense of meaning. Affective motives deal with the need to reach satisfying feeling states and to attain personal goals. Preservation-oriented motives emphasise the individual as striving to maintain equilibrium, whereas growth motives emphasise development.

These four categories can then be further divided depending on whether (a) the behaviour is actively initiated or is in response to the environment (that is, active versus passive response) and (b) the behaviour helps the individual to achieve a new internal state or a new external state (that is, outcomes are internal to the individual or focused on the relationship with the environment).11

Cognitive preservation motives

The need for consistency (active, internal) A basic human desire is to have all facets or parts of oneself consistent with each other. These facets include attitudes, behaviours, opinions, self-images and views of others (this topic will be discussed further in Chapter 11). Marketers use this in several ways. First, it makes clear the need for a consistent marketing mix. A product positioned as a luxury product with an elegant design, expensive packaging, limited distribution and advertisements that stress exclusiveness should not be priced at or below the price of an average product. This inconsistency would be likely to cause consumers to reject the product.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

The need for consistency also relates to purchase-decision processes. Following an important purchase, a consumer may have feelings of dissonance (see Chapter 7) and may be motivated to seek additional information to reduce these feelings. This concern for ‘Did I make the right purchase?’ must be reduced in order to establish a comfortable balance between feelings, attitudes and behaviour.12 The need for consistency with respect to purchase behaviour was discussed in Chapter 7 in the section ‘Post-purchase dissonance’.

The need to attribute causation (active, external) This set of motives deals with the need to determine who or what causes the things that happen to us. When individuals attribute the cause of a favourable or unfavourable outcome to themselves, this is described as an internal attribution. However, if they attribute the cause to some outside force, this is referred to as an external attribution. internal attribution the process whereby individuals attribute the cause of a favourable or unfavourable outcome to themselves

external attribution the process whereby individuals attribute the cause of a favourable or unfavourable outcome to some outside force

Exhibit 10.1 This advertisement provides clues through distinctive use of colour and visual images about the image associated with the product.

COURTESY KRAFT FOODS EUROPE SERVICES GMBH - IRISH BRANCH

The need to attribute cause has led to an area of research known as attribution theory. 13 This approach to understanding why consumers assign particular meanings to a person’s behaviour—and whether it is due to inferred dispositional characteristics or situational factors or both—has been used primarily for analysing consumer reactions to promotional

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

messages (in terms of credibility). For example, when consumers attribute a purchase motive to advice given by a salesperson or advertising message, they tend to discount the weight of the advice. In contrast, similar advice given by a friend would be likely to be attributed to a desire to be helpful and might therefore be accepted. attribution theory an approach to understanding why consumers assign particular meanings to a person’s behaviour, and whether it is due to inferred dispositional characteristics or situational factors or both

The fact that consumers do not passively receive messages but rather attribute sales motives and tactics to advertising and the advice of sales staff means that many of these messages are not believed, or are ‘discounted’.14 Marketers use a variety of methods to overcome this, including using credible spokespeople in their advertising. This is discussed in Chapter 11 in the section ‘Source characteristics’.

The need to categorise (passive, internal) We all have a need to be able to categorise and organise information and experiences in some meaningful yet manageable way, so we establish categories or mental partitions that allow us to process large quantities of information. Prices are often categorised in such a way that different prices mean different categories of goods. For example, the concepts ‘cars under $10 000’ and ‘cars over $20 000’ may be seen to have two different meanings, because consumers have categorised this information to reflect different price levels. Many firms price items at $9.95, $19.95, $49.95 and so on to avoid having their products categorised in the over-$10, over-$20 or over-$50 group, respectively. Perceptions of price were also discussed in Chapter 8.

The need for cues (passive, external) These motives reflect our need for observable cues or symbols, which enable us to infer what is felt and known. By viewing our own behaviour and that of others, and drawing inferences as to what we feel and think, we can subtly establish impressions, feelings and attitudes. In many instances, the clothes and accessories that people wear and the cars they drive act as cues to the subtle meaning of a desired image and consumer lifestyle.15 This is so critical that airlines and banks use consulting firms to design staff uniforms that are consistent with the firm’s desired image.16

Cognitive growth motives

The need for independence (active, internal) An individual’s need for independence or the feeling of self-governance is derived from a need to establish a sense of self-worth and self-actualisation. It is likely that all individuals in all cultures have this need at some level. In many Western cultures the need for independence is reinforced, whereas in some Eastern cultures the need for affiliation or belonging is more

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

acceptable. Marketers in Western countries have responded to this motive by providing products that suggest that you ‘do your own thing’ and ‘be your own person’. Advertising campaigns for companies such as Nike or Reebok have used this approach, with slogans such as ‘Just do it’ and ‘Personal best’, as has Weight Watchers with ‘Be who you want to be’.

The need for novelty (active, external) People often seek variety and difference simply out of a need for novelty. Marketers refer to the outcome of this motive as variety-seeking behaviour. This may be a prime reason for brand switching and so-called impulse purchasing.17 The need for novelty is curvilinear and changes over time. That is, individuals experiencing rapid change generally become satiated and desire stability, while those in stable environments become bored and desire change. The travel industry segments the holiday market by promoting ‘adventure’ holidays, ‘relaxing’ holidays or ‘eco-’ or ‘nature-based’ holidays, depending on the target market’s likely need for novelty.18 For example, P&O Cruise Lines appeals to those who want a relaxing holiday with the slogan ‘This is how to holiday’. Contiki, on the other hand, appeals to the more adventurous with its slogan ‘Every vacation an experience’.

Teleological need (passive, internal) Consumers are pattern matchers who have images of desired life outcomes to which they compare their current situation. Behaviours are changed and the results are monitored in terms of movement towards the desired end state. For example, this type of motive propels individuals to prefer movies, television programs and books with outcomes that match their view of how the world should work (the good guys win, the hero and heroine get together, and so on).

Utilitarian need (passive, external) This suggests that individuals are problem solvers who approach situations as opportunities to gain useful information or new skills. Therefore, a consumer watching a comedy on television is not only entertained but is also learning about clothing styles, lifestyle options, etiquette, and so on. Similarly, consumers may view advertisements, salespeople and other marketing stimuli as sources of learning for future decisions as well as for current use (all these issues were alluded to in Chapter 9).

Affective preservation motives

The need for tension reduction (active, internal) Individuals encounter situations in their daily lives that create uncomfortable levels of stress. In order to effectively manage tension and stress, people are motivated to seek ways to reduce arousal. Leisure products and activities are often promoted in terms of tension relief.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

The need for self-expression (active, external) This motive deals with the need to express one’s identity to others. Individuals feel the need to let others know by their actions (which include the purchase and display of goods) who and what they are. The purchase of many products, particularly clothing and cars, allows consumers to express an identity to others, since these products have symbolic or expressive meanings and can be ‘conspicuously consumed’.19 Fashion items, especially clothing, accessories and jewellery, are good examples of products that rely on their appeal to a consumer’s need for self-expression. For example, BMW positions its vehicles as ‘the ultimate driving machine’. When an individual drives a BMW, the brand personality of the luxury vehicle is reflected in a lifestyle fit for the driver. Exhibit 10.2 illustrates this need for self-expression.

Exhibit 10.2 Advertisements may appeal to an individual’s need for self-expression by offering a product with symbolic or expressive meanings.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

COURTESY SHOES OF PREY, WWW.SHOESOFPREY.COM

The need for ego-defence (passive, internal) An individual’s need to defend their identity or ego is another important external, social motive. When identity is threatened, the individual is motivated to protect their self-concept and use defensive behaviours and attitudes. Many products can provide ego-defence. A consumer who feels insecure may rely on well-known brands for all socially visible products in order to avoid any chance of making a socially incorrect purchase. A favourite, proven outfit can be worn to instil confidence and thereby also be ego-defensive.

The need for reinforcement (passive, external) People are quite often motivated to act in certain ways because they are rewarded for doing so. Products designed for use in public situations (clothing, furniture and artwork) are often sold on the basis of the amount and type of reinforcement that will be received. This is the basis for operant/instrumental learning as discussed in Chapter 9.

Affective growth motives

The need for assertion (active, internal) The need for assertion reflects the individual’s desire to engage in those types of activities that will bring about an increase in self-esteem, as well as esteem in the eyes of others.20 Individuals with a strong need for assertion are more likely to complain when dissatisfied with a purchase.

Companies often appeal to consumers’ need to enhance their self-esteem, as well as their need to enhance the way in which others see them. Maybelline’s ‘Maybe she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline’ campaign is an example.

The need for affiliation (active, external) Affiliation is the need to develop mutually helpful and satisfying relationships with others and to share with and be accepted by others. Group membership is a critical part of most consumers’ lives, and many consumer decisions are based on the need to maintain satisfying relationships with others. Marketers often use affiliation-based themes in advertising, such as ‘Your kids will love you for it’.21 The more serious appeal by the ‘Quit Now’ campaign to stop smoking—‘If not for yourself, then for your family’—is another example.

The need for identification (passive, internal) The need for identification results in the consumer playing various roles. A person may play the role of university student, supermarket employee, partner, parent, and so on. We gain pleasure from adding new, satisfying roles and by increasing the significance of roles already

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

http://www.SHOESOFPREY.COM

adopted. Marketers encourage consumers to assume new roles and position products as critical for certain roles. Bosch, for example, is designing power tools specifically for women in order to cater for the increase in the female DIY market. Likewise, Black & Decker features women in its commercials, highlighting confidence in roles once traditionally carried out by men.

The need for modelling (passive, external) This need reflects the tendency to base one’s behaviour on that of others. Modelling is an important way in which children learn to become consumers.22 The tendency to model explains some of the conformity that occurs within reference groups (see Chapter 14). Marketers use this motive by showing desirable types of individuals using their brands. For example, some Tag Heuer advertisements devote most of their copy to a description of a very successful person—in sport, performance or industry (actor Cameron Diaz is one of its recent celebrities); they then state that this person owns a Tag Heuer watch. This is the basis of the upward-pull strategy used by marketers to appeal to middle-class consumers (discussed in Chapter 15).

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibit 10.3 AAMI’s ‘Rhonda’ advertisements attempt to appeal to consumers’ need to identify with the brand name and brand image.

LO 10.3

Motivation theory and marketing strategy Consumers do not buy products. Rather, they buy solutions to problems or motive satisfaction. For example, consumers do not buy fragrances (or indeed a chemical compound

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

with certain odoriferous characteristics). Rather, they seek to acquire all that the fragrance promises: romance, sexual attractiveness, youthful vitality, and so on. Marketing managers must therefore discover the motives that their products and brands can satisfy and develop their marketing mix based on these motives.

Consumers often buy goods and services as a gift for themselves, although some may feel guilt at being self-indulgent. Motivation research has found that people make such purchases for a variety of motives, including rewarding themselves for an accomplishment.23 For example, many holiday and travel destinations, car brands, health clubs and spas are marketed with slogans such as ‘Reward yourself’.

The tourism industry has applied the basic concepts of motivation in its attempt to understand why people travel. It has been suggested that the prime motivations for engaging in pleasure travel are to be elsewhere and to escape. These basic motivations have been said to consist of both internal or ‘push’ factors—relaxation, play, the strengthening of family bonds, romance, wish-fulfilment—and external or ‘pull’ factors—the image of the destination and attractions available, climate and safety.24 Tourism researchers have used Maslow’s theory to divide basic travel motivations into various categories.25 This type of research can help companies marketing tourism to recognise the extent to which different motivations can lead to different types of tourism, travel patterns, destinations and the use of tourism resources. For example, motivation research can determine the extent to which motivations encompass cultural, interpersonal, status or recreational needs.

The preceding section provided a number of examples of firms and brands appealing to specific consumer motives. However, multiple motives are more often involved in consumption behaviour. The following sections examine how to discover which motives are likely to affect the purchase of a product category by a particular target market, how to develop a strategy based on the total array of motives that are operating and how to reduce conflict between motives.

Discovering purchase motives Suppose a market researcher asked you why you wear Ray-Ban sunglasses. The chances are that you would offer several reasons, such as ‘They’re fashionable’, ‘Celebrities wear them’, ‘They’re good quality’ and ‘They look good on me’. However, there may be other reasons you are reluctant to admit to or perhaps not even aware of: ‘They show that I have money’, ‘They make me look attractive’, ‘They show that I’m cool’ or ‘They show I’m youthful’. All or any combination of the above motives could influence the purchase of a pair of Ray-Bans.

The first group of motives described above were known to the consumer and admitted to the researcher. Motives that are known and freely admitted are called manifest motives. Any of the above motives could be manifest; however, motives that conform to a society’s prevailing value system are more likely to be manifest than those that are in conflict with such values. manifest motives motives that are known and freely admitted

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

The second group of motives described above either were unknown to the consumer or were such that the consumer was reluctant to admit them. Such motives are known as latent motives. Both manifest and latent motives may influence a purchase; alternatively, only manifest motives may be operating. Figure 10.1 illustrates how the two types of motives could influence a purchase. latent motives motives that either are unknown to the individual or are such that the individual is reluctant to admit them

Figure 10.1 Latent and manifest motives in a purchase situation

Given that a variety of manifest and latent motives may be operating in a particular purchase, such as that shown in Figure 10.1, one of the main tasks of the marketing manager is to determine the combination of motives influencing the target market. Manifest motives are relatively easy to determine. Direct questions (for example, ‘Why did you buy a Louis Vuitton bag?’) will generally produce reasonably accurate assessments of manifest motives.

Determining latent motives is substantially more complex. Sophisticated analytical techniques, such as multidimensional scaling, can sometimes provide insights into latent motives. ‘Motivation research’ using projective techniques is designed to provide information on hidden or latent motives. Table 10.3 describes some of the more common projective techniques. projective techniques techniques designed to measure feelings, attitudes and motivations that consumers would be unable or unwilling to reveal otherwise

Table 10.3 Projective techniques in motivation research26

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Association techniques

Word association

Consumers respond to a given word with the first word that comes to mind.

Successive word

association

Consumers give the series of words that comes to mind after hearing each word on a list.

Analysis and use

Responses are analysed to determine whether negative associations exist. When the time to respond (response latency) is also measured, the emotionality of the word can be estimated. These techniques tap semantic memory

more than motives and are used for brand name and advertising-copy tests.

Completion techniques

Sentence completion

Consumers complete a sentence such as ‘People who buy a Mercedes-Benz …’

Story completion

Consumers complete a partial story.

Analysis and use

Responses are analysed to determine what themes are expressed. Content analysis—examining responses for themes and key concepts—is used.

Construction techniques

Cartoon techniques

Consumers fill in the words and/or thoughts of one of the characters in a cartoon drawing.

Third- person

techniques

Consumers tell why ‘an average woman’, ‘most doctors’ or ‘people in general’ purchase or use a certain product. Shopping lists (‘describe a person who would go shopping with this list’) and lost wallets (‘describe a person with

these items in his/her wallet’) can also be used in third-person techniques.

Picture response

Consumers tell a story about a person who is shown, in a picture or line drawing, buying or using a product.

Analysis and use

Same as for completion techniques.

Projective techniques were popular in the 1950s and early 1960s, but virtually disappeared from use as marketers began to rely heavily on quantitative measures. However, these techniques are gaining currency again as a way of enhancing the insights that can be gained from more empirical sources. Not only are traditional projective techniques such as those shown in Table 10.3 being used at an increasing rate, but new approaches are being developed, including metaphor elicitation, narrative analysis and netnography.27

Investigating metaphors is increasingly being seen as a way of gaining access to deep meanings, and as a means of probing both manifest and latent motivations. One such technique is the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), which uses qualitative methods to elicit the metaphors, constructs and mental models that drive consumers’ thinking and behaviour. Photographs and pictures are presented as entry points to encourage respondents to articulate their feelings in terms of metaphors.

This is a useful technique for marketers, because metaphors communicated about a brand through marketing strategies need to be both similar and dissimilar to their customers’ metaphors. A metaphor needs to be recognisable but it also needs to engender interest, facilitating the processing of information and the creation of enough tension to spark further attention to the brand.28

Another popular method is laddering, or constructing a means–end or benefit chain.29 A product or brand is shown to a consumer, who names all the benefits they believe possession

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

or use of that product might provide. Then, for each benefit mentioned, the respondent is asked to identify additional benefits that the benefit provides. This is repeated for each round of benefits until the consumer can no longer identify additional benefits. For example, a consumer might mention ‘getting fewer colds’ as a benefit of taking vitamins daily. When asked the benefit of getting fewer colds, the consumer might identify ‘having more energy’. Another consumer might identify ‘looking better’. Both use the vitamins to reduce colds, but as a means to obtain different ultimate benefits. How should vitamin advertisements aimed at each of these two consumers differ?

Another approach uses the terms generated in a word association test as the stimulus words in a second round of associations. For example, the term ‘soap’ generates relatively few associations. Among these are ‘clean’ and ‘fresh’. Clean and fresh, however, generate additional responses, such as free, relaxed, unhindered, natural, country and sensual.30 This type of information can be valuable for developing advertising and positioning strategies.

Within the marketing context, narrative analysis focuses on narrative text that represents either a person’s whole life story or particular aspects of it.31 As a qualitative technique, it takes as a premise the idea that people live and make sense of their world and experiences in story form. Analysing consumption experiences through their narratives can offer valuable insights into consumer perceptions of the service encounter.

Netnography—‘ethnography on the internet’—is a qualitative research method designed to investigate the consumer behaviour of communities and cultures that are present on the internet. It involves using publicly available information from online forums to identify and understand the needs of online consumer groups. Tastes, desires, use of symbols and metaphors, and decision-making influences can all be studied, as the researcher immerses himself or herself in online communities. netnography a qualitative research method (‘ethnography on the internet’) designed to investigate the consumer behaviour of communities and cultures that are present on the internet

Marketing strategy based on multiple motives Once the marketing manager has isolated the combination(s) of motives that are influencing the target market, the next task is to design the marketing strategy based on the relevant set of motives. This task involves everything from product design to marketing communications. The nature of these decisions is most apparent in the communications area. To the extent that more than one motive is important, the product must provide more than one benefit. The advertising for the product must communicate these multiple benefits.

Communicating manifest benefits is relatively easy. Direct appeals are generally effective for manifest motives, since these are the motives that consumers are aware of and are willing to discuss. Appeals to latent motives are more difficult to implement. On occasion, direct appeals can be used. Although any given advertisement for a product may focus on only one or a few purchasing motives, (see Exhibits 10.4 and 10.5) an advertising campaign as a whole needs to cover all the important purchase motives of the target market. The advertisements for Helly Hansen gear are a direct appeal to the manifest motive to own and

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

wear its high performance garments, which also offer warmth and durability. The advertising slogan ‘Confident when it matters’ can also directly appeal to more latent, higher-order needs such as self-fulfilment and personal achievement. In essence, the overall campaign should try to position the product in the schematic memory of the target market in a manner that corresponds with the target market’s manifest and latent motives for purchasing the product.

Exhibits 10.4 Helly Hansen gear

COURTESY OF HELLY HANSEN, PHOTOGRAPHER: JOHAN WILDHAGEN

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibits 10.5 Helly Hansen gear

COURTESY OF HELLY HANSEN, TEAM SANYA, PHOTOGRAPHER: ANDRE’S SORIANO

Marketing strategies based on motivation conflict Since there are many motives, and many situations in which these motives are activated, there are frequent conflicts between motives. The resolution of a motivational conflict often affects consumption patterns. For example, a consumer might be motivated to buy a product on the internet but concerned about the quality of the product. To alleviate this concern, the marketer could provide a money-back guarantee to encourage the consumer to purchase the product, because this will reduce the consumer’s perceived risk if the product’s quality is not satisfactory. motivational conflict the outcome of different motives driving consumers to opposite behaviours

In many such instances, the marketer can analyse situations that are likely to result in a motivational conflict, provide a solution to that motivational conflict and attract the patronage of those consumers facing the motivational conflict.

There are three types of motivational conflict of importance to marketing managers. These are approach–approach motivational conflict, approach–avoidance motivational conflict and avoidance–avoidance motivational conflict.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Approach–approach motivational conflict In approach–approach motivational conflict, a consumer faces a choice between two attractive alternatives. The more equal this attraction, the greater the conflict. A consumer who has recently received a large income-tax refund (situational variable) might be torn between going on a holiday to Italy (perhaps powered by the novelty motive) and purchasing a large-screen plasma television (perhaps powered by the need for self-expression). This conflict could be resolved by an advertisement scheduled to appear around the latter part of the year, when income-tax refunds are generally returned, and designed to encourage one or the other action. Alternatively, a price modification such as ‘Buy now, with no repayments for six months’ could result in a resolution whereby one or even both alternatives are selected. approach–approach motivational conflict a situation where the consumer faces a choice between two attractive alternatives

Approach–avoidance motivational conflict In approach–avoidance motivational conflict, the consumer faces both positive and negative consequences in the purchase of a particular product (see Exhibit 10.6). A consumer who is trying to lose weight faces this type of problem; for example, the consumer might want the taste and emotional satisfaction associated with fast food (approach), but might not want to gain weight (avoidance). The introduction of lower-kilojoule and smaller-portion- sized foods may reduce this conflict and allow the weight-sensitive consumer to enjoy snacks and also control their kilojoule intake. In general terms, consumers are strongly motivated by avoidance behaviour and the minimisation of negative feelings.32

approach–avoidance motivational conflict a situation where the consumer faces both positive and negative consequences in the purchase of a particular product

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibit 10.6 The consumption of products such as fast food can evoke both positive (taste) and negative (guilt) consequences, resulting in an approach–avoidance conflict. The introduction of calorie-controlled servings could help to resolve this conflict.

COURTESY DOMINOS AUSTRALIA

Avoidance–avoidance motivational conflict In avoidance–avoidance motivational conflict, the consumer faces two undesirable alternatives and is required to choose the ‘lesser of two evils’. When a consumer’s old washing machine breaks down, this conflict may occur. The consumer might not want to

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

spend money on a new washing machine, but might also not want to go without one. The availability of credit is one way of reducing this motivational conflict. avoidance–avoidance motivational conflict a situation where the consumer faces two undesirable alternatives

Advertisements stressing the importance of regular maintenance or of buying genuine replacement parts use this type of motivational conflict to their advantage, with slogans such as: ‘Remember, when it comes to replacement headlamps, fitting second best could be a fatal mistake’. Insurance companies also often use this approach in their advertising. For example, an advertisement for Bupa Health Insurance shows two versions of the same person meeting, with the slogan ‘What would you do if you met the healthier version of yourself?’

While motivations are the energising and directing force that makes consumer behaviour purposeful and goal-directed, the personality of the consumer guides and directs the behaviour chosen for accomplishing goals in different situations by shaping the range of possible responses available to them. The next section discusses some of the main theories of personality and how marketers use personality in their marketing strategies.

LO 10.4, 10.5

Personality For marketers, personality is a useful concept as it enables consumers to be categorised into different groups on the basis of the characteristics they exhibit. As such, personality characteristics can be used to help structure marketing strategies, and can inform our understanding of psychographics or ‘lifestyle’ segmentation (see Chapter 12). The opening vignette of this chapter illustrated how personality can play a central role in the marketing strategy of a product. This section provides a background on personality and introduces different types of personality theories. It then explains how marketers can use these theories.

Personality refers to those relatively long-lasting personal qualities that describe how a particular individual typically responds to the world around them. A person can easily (although perhaps not always accurately!) describe their own personality or perhaps the personality of a friend. For example, you might say that one of your friends is ‘fairly aggressive, very opinionated, competitive, outgoing and witty’. What you have described are the behaviours your friend has exhibited over time across a variety of situations—the study of personality is concerned with accounting for these consistent patterns of behaviour. These characteristic ways of responding to a wide range of situations can also reflect the ways a consumer might respond to marketing strategies.

There is controversy regarding the exact nature of personality, the value of studying such a broad area (especially with regard to consumer behaviour) and its accurate measurement.33 However, the concept is very real and meaningful: people do have personalities! Personality characteristics exist in those we know, and help us to describe and differentiate between individuals.

A range of personality theories have been developed, and these can be categorised as either individual personality theories or social learning theories. Understanding these two

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

general approaches to personality will provide an appreciation of the potential uses of personality in marketing decisions. individual personality theories theories of personality based on the assumptions that all individuals have internal characteristics or traits and that, for these characteristics, there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals; compare social learning theories

Individual personality theories Individual personality theories are based on the following two assumptions: • All individuals have internal characteristics or traits. • For these characteristics, there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals. The external environment or events around us (situations) are not considered in these

theories, or are considered only as the context for triggering the expression of internal characteristics or traits. Most of these theories state that the traits or characteristics formed at a very early age are relatively unchanging over the years. Differences between individual theories centre on the definition of which traits or characteristics are the most important, but all concur that traits act as the fundamental basis of personality.

Single-trait theories emphasise one personality trait as being particularly relevant to understanding a specific set of behaviours. They do not suggest that other traits do not exist or are not important; rather, they study a single trait for its relevance to a set of behaviours, for instance, consumption-related behaviours. Some examples of single-trait theories are those that deal with dogmatism, extroversion, neuroticism,34 innovativeness,35 consumer conformity,36 vanity,37 authoritarianism and need for cognition.38 Materialism—seeing possessions as particularly important to one’s identity and way of living—is a key example of a single-trait concept that is relevant to consumer behaviour.39

single-trait theories theories that emphasize one personality trait as being of overwhelming importance

In contrast, multi-trait theories specify several traits in combination that capture a substantial portion of an individual’s personality. For example, Cattell’s theory illustrates this view of personality. Cattell believed that traits are acquired at an early age through learning, or are inherited. A unique aspect of his approach is the delineation of surface traits, or observable behaviours, which can be grouped together on the basis of their similarity, and primary factors (source traits), which represent the causes of these behaviours.40

multi-trait theories theories that describe personality as the compound sum of several identifiable traits

Cattell suggested that, if we could observe the surface traits that correlate highly with one another, we would be able to identify an underlying source trait. For example, a low level of the source trait of dominance could account for the surface traits of deference and cooperativeness. Table 10.4 gives examples of some of Cattell’s main source traits and the corresponding surface traits.

Table 10.4 Cattell’s traits

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Surface traits of left (low) scores Primary factor (source trait) Surface traits of right (high) scores

Emotionally distant from others Warmth Attentive and warm towards others

Reactive, emotionally changeable Emotional stability Adaptive, emotionally stable

Deferential, cooperative Dominance Dominant, forceful

Expedient, non-conforming Rule-consciousness Rule-conscious, dutiful

Shy, threat-sensitive, timid Social boldness Socially bold, adventurous

Objective, unsentimental Sensitivity Subjective, sentimental

Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting Vigilance Vigilant, suspicious, sceptical, wary

Grounded, solution-oriented Abstractedness Abstracted, idea-oriented

Forthright, straightforward Privateness Private, discreet, non-disclosing

Self-assured, unworried Apprehension Apprehensive, self-doubting, worried

Traditional, values the familiar Openness to change Open to change, experimenting

Group-oriented, affiliative Self-reliance Self-reliant, individualistic

Tolerates disorder, flexible Perfectionism Perfectionistic, self-disciplined

Relaxed, placid, patient Tension Tense, high energy, impatient, driven

A more recent approach commonly used by marketers to illustrate multi-trait personality theory is the five-factor model of personality.41 This model identifies five basic traits that are said to be formed by genetics and early learning. These core traits interact and manifest into behaviours triggered by situations. Table 10.5 lists the five traits and their manifestations. Due to their relevance to social behaviour, these traits have shown utility in investigations of the use of certain forms of online social media, such as social networking sites.42

five-factor model of personality a theory that identifies five basic personality traits formed by genetics and early learning

Table 10.5 The five-factor model of personality

Core trait Manifestation

Extroversion Prefers to be in a large group rather than alone

Talkative when with others

Bold

Instability Moody

Temperamental

Touchy

Agreeableness Sympathetic

Kind to others

Polite with others

Openness to experience Imaginative

Appreciative of art

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Finds novel solutions

Conscientiousness Careful

Precise

Efficient

Social learning theories In contrast to individual personality theories, social learning theories emphasise the environment as the important determinant of behaviour.43 These theories are associated with social constructivism, an educational approach based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, culture, context and learning.44 The term social constructivism refers to how people interacting with their environment learn to construct meaning individually and through social activity.45 This perspective is derived from the works of Vygotsky, Dewey and Bruner.46

Bandura’s social learning theory47 complements this approach with respect to media, advertising and marketing. It emphasises the importance of observing and modelling the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. However, Bandura developed social learning theory to include an interaction between cognitive learning (see Chapter 9), behavioral and environmental influences. This stemmed from the belief that behaviourism alone could not explain all that could be observed, and that behavior and the environment interacted and affected each other. Bandura applied this theory to connect personality with behaviour and the environment.

In contrast, the philosophy of behaviourial science founded by BF Skinner (see Chapter 9) focuses on identifying environmental variables that can be observed, measured and manipulated, and avoids that which is subjective, internal and unavailable – including explanations in terms of personality traits, attitudes, purposes and intentions.48

As situations change, individuals’ reactions also change. In the extreme, every interpersonal interaction may be viewed as a different situation, with the result being a different response pattern. Thus, depending on the situation, some people may see an individual as an extrovert, and others may see the same individual as an introvert. Each could be accurate in their assessment, because individuals express different aspects of their personalities in different contexts in response to differing stimuli.

A combined approach Individual or trait theorists see behaviour as being largely determined by internal characteristics common to all people, but existing to different degrees within different individuals. Social theorists claim just the opposite—situations that people face are the determinants of behaviour, and different behaviours among people are the result of different situations. The position taken in this book is that behaviour is a result of some combination of individual traits and the situations people face.

Although research seems to indicate that individual traits are not good predictors of

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

behaviour, it seems more appealing to look for, and expect to see, some basic stability in individual behaviour across situations. For example, a person who is assertive will probably tend to exhibit assertive behaviours in a variety of situations.

Certainly, some situations would result in less assertive behaviour than others, but it seems reasonable to assume that an assertive person will generally act in a more assertive way than a shy person would in the same situation. Therefore, the situation modifies the general trait, perhaps influencing when and how the trait is expressed, and together they affect behaviour.49

The use of personality in marketing Each individual has a variety of personality traits and becomes involved in many situations that activate different aspects of personality, but some of these traits or characteristics are more desirable than other traits—and some may even be undesirable. In some situations a person may be shy when they wish to be bold, or timid when they would like to be assertive. Every individual can find some areas of their personality that need bolstering or improvement, and may be open to influence from marketing communications.

With the increasing use of social networking sites for marketing purposes, the question arises: do personality traits influence individuals’ use of social media?50 The microblogging website Twitter provides a forum that extends well beyond a confined network of friends, where individuals can discuss, seek information about and exchange opinions on almost every aspect of their daily lives. A recent study found that personality traits were associated with linguistic cues found in such forums, and could be accurately judged by unknown others. For example, ‘agreeableness and neuroticism’, which are parameters often used in social research, could be reliably identified as distinct personality traits on the basis of microblog content.

Similarly, personality traits influence the way individuals interact with others on social networking sites such as Facebook. Research indicates that Facebook users display different personality traits from non-users. Traits such as extroversion and narcissism have been associated with Facebook users, as have feelings of family loneliness. Non-users are more likely to be conscientious, shy and socially lonely.51

Within a marketing context, insight into an individual’s personality through their use of social networking may give insight into how to attract consumers’ attention by matching personality traits to marketing communication.

In Chapter 9, brand image was described as what individuals think of and feel when they hear or see a brand name. A particular type of image that some brands acquire is brand personality. Brand personality is a set of human characteristics that become associated with a brand. Like individuals, many consumer products also have a ‘brand personality’.52

brand personality a set of human characteristics that become associated with a brand

For example, one brand of perfume might project youth, sensuality and adventure, while another might be viewed as modest, conservative and aristocratic. Each has a distinct

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

personality and is likely to be purchased by a different type of consumer or for different situations. Consumers tend to purchase products with personalities that most closely match their own, as they perceive it, or that strengthen an area in which they feel weak. For example, Coco by Chanel is a fragrance that would appeal to consumers who identify with or desire a classic, sophisticated image, whereas Katy Perry’s fragrance, with its slogan ‘Steal her style’, is more likely to appeal to consumers who identify as trendy, youthful and vigorous.

Consumers can also be said to perceive brands in terms of five basic dimensions, each with several facets, as shown in Figure 10.2. A 42-item Likert scale has been developed to measure brand personality on these dimensions.53 Stores, shopping centres, websites and geographic areas such as cities also acquire personalities.54

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibit 10.7 Brand personality involves ascribing a set of human characteristics to a brand. Here the colour, texture and gritty background of the advertisement convey ruggedness, toughness and an outdoorsy personality.

COURTESY PACIFIC BRANDS

Brands acquire relatively enduring personalities whether marketers want them to or not, and these personalities influence purchase behaviour. In this regard, people will assign personalities to brands based on factors including the characteristics of the product category, the brand’s features, its packaging and its advertising. Therefore, marketers need to manage the personalities of their brands. Brand personality can in fact provide a distinctive element of brand image and thus differentiation in the market,55 and a distinct brand personality can thus play a key role in the success of a brand. Recent research found significant relationships between personality traits and brand personality for consumers purchasing toys or video games.56 In terms of marketing, this highlights the fact that shaping a distinct brand personality is crucial to the success of the brand.57

The VB beer campaign featuring the three spots ‘hands’, ‘shirt’ and ‘sweat’ is designed to appeal to the hardworking Aussie man.58 Men’s fragrances, on the other hand, aim to appeal to a broader market than the stereotypical male. For example, Gucci’s Guilty Intense Pour Homme has an orange flower at its heart and features what might be considered ‘feminine’ traits.59 Some brands have even developed characters that exhibit their own distinctive personalities, such as Bundaberg Rum’s polar bear ‘Bundy R Bear’ and McDonalds’ Ronald McDonald. Marketers can also use celebrities to endorse their brands, in order to develop a brand personality associated with that celebrity’s image. Examples include George Clooney for Nespresso and Brad Pitt for Chanel No. 5. However, this approach can backfire. Joel and Benji Madden’s recent endorsement of KFC generated more publicity than the company had hoped for, with claims that the brothers were not only vegetarians but members of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). The brothers have responded on Twitter, denying both their vegetarianism and PETA membership.60

Emotion Emotions are important to marketers because they affect the thoughts and behaviours of consumers. Marketers frequently use emotional appeals and triggers in their advertising campaigns, and design products to meet various emotional needs. This section provides a background on the different types of emotions that are relevant to marketing. It then explains how marketers can use emotions to influence consumer behaviour.

Emotions can be described as strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect our behaviour.61 Everyone experiences a wide range of emotions. Think for a moment about a recent emotional experience. What characterised this experience? Although the experience of emotion can be very idiosyncratic, all emotional experiences tend to have several elements in common.

For a start, emotions do not happen in isolation; they are generally triggered by

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

environmental events. Anger, joy and sadness are most often a response to a set of external events. However, internal processes, such as imagery, can also initiate emotional reactions. Athletes often use imagery to ‘psyche’ themselves into a desired emotional state.

Emotions are also accompanied by physiological changes. Some characteristic changes are: • pupil dilation • increased perspiration • more rapid breathing • increased heart rate and blood pressure • elevated blood-sugar level. The consistent presence of physiological changes during emotional experiences has led to

the theory that physiological responses precede emotion. For example, according to this theory, as an individual begins to fall, the physiological changes described above occur and then they experience fear.

All emotions, as subjectively experienced and identified, appear to be associated with similar physiological changes. The emotions labelled as ‘joy’, ‘fear’ and ‘anger’ occur in conjunction with very similar physiological patterns. Current thinking leans towards accepting the primacy of physiological changes, which are then interpreted based on environmental occurrences.62 It is the shaping of these physiological experiences through a process of attribution—in which meaning is ascribed—that constitutes the emotional reaction. As seen in the example above, a sudden falling sensation will initiate physiological changes. These changes would be interpreted on the basis of the situation in which they occur: exhilaration or excitement if bungy-jumping; fear if falling from a ledge.

Another characteristic feature of an emotional experience is cognition, or thought. Emotions are generally, although not necessarily, accompanied by thinking. The types of thoughts and our ability to think ‘rationally’ vary with the type and degree of emotion. Extreme emotional responses are often used as an explanation for inappropriate thoughts or actions: ‘I was so mad I couldn’t think straight’.

Emotions, moreover, have associated behaviours. Although the behaviours vary between individuals, and within individuals across different times and situations, there are certain behaviours characteristically associated with different emotions: fear triggers fleeing responses, anger triggers striking out, grief triggers crying, and so on.

Finally, and most importantly, emotions involve subjective feelings. In fact, it is the feeling component that is generally referred to when emotions are mentioned. Grief, joy, anger, jealousy and fear feel very different from one another. These subjectively determined feelings are the essence of emotion.

Feelings have a specific component that is labelled as the emotion, such as ‘sad’ or ‘happy’. In addition, emotions typically carry an evaluative or a like/dislike component. Although the terms ‘emotion’ and ‘affect’ are used inconsistently in the literature, this book uses the term ‘emotion’ to refer to the identifiable, specific feeling and the term ‘affect’ to

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

refer to the liking/disliking aspect of the specific feeling.63 Although all individuals generally evaluate emotions in a consistent manner, and within

individuals over time, there is some individual and situational variation.64 For example, few people generally want to be sad or afraid, yet we all occasionally enjoy a movie or a book that scares or saddens us—or even some of the frightening rides at theme parks! Figure 10.3 reflects the current thinking on the nature of emotions.

Figure 10.2 Dimensions of brand personality

Source: Aaker JL (1997), ‘Dimensions of brand personality’, Journal of Marketing Research, August, p. 352. Published by the American Marketing Association; reprinted with permission.

Types of emotions If asked, we could doubtless name many emotions. A group of 20 or so people can generally name or describe several hundred emotions. Therefore, it is not surprising that researchers have tried to categorise or ‘type’ emotions into more manageable clusters. Plutchik lists the following eight basic emotional categories: • fear • anger • joy • sadness • acceptance • disgust • expectancy • surprise. According to Plutchik, all other emotions are secondary and represent combinations of

these basic categories.65 For example, delight is a combination of surprise and joy, and contempt is composed of disgust and anger.

Other authors have suggested that three basic dimensions—pleasure, arousal and

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

dominance (PAD)—underlie all emotions. According to this theory, specific emotions reflect various combinations and levels of these three dimensions. Consumer researchers use both typologies.66 Table 10.6 lists the three primary PAD dimensions, a variety of emotions or emotional categories associated with each dimension, and indicators or feelings that can be used to measure each emotion. Table 10.7 provides similar information for a 12-emotion typology developed by Batra and Holbrook.

Table 10.6 Emotional dimensions, emotions and emotional indicators

Dimension Emotion Indicator/feeling

Pleasure Duty Moral, virtuous, dutiful

Faith Reverent, worshipful, spiritual

Pride Proud, superior, worthy

Affection Loving, affectionate, friendly

Innocence Innocent, pure, blameless

Gratitude Grateful, thankful, appreciative

Serenity Restful, serene, comfortable, soothed

Desire Desirous, wishful, craving, hopeful

Joy Joyful, happy, delighted, pleased

Competence Confident, in control, competent

Interest Attentive, curious

Hypoactivation Bored, drowsy, sluggish

Activation Aroused, active, excited

Surprise Surprised, annoyed, astonished

Arousal Déjà vu Unimpressed, uninformed, unexcited

Involvement Involved, informed, enlightened, benefiting

Distraction Distracted, preoccupied, inattentive

Urgency Playful, entertained, light-hearted

Contempt Scornful, contemptuous, disdainful

Conflict Tense, frustrated, conflictful

Guilt Guilty, remorseful, regretful

Helplessness Powerless, helpless, dominated

Sadness Sad, distressed, sorrowful, dejected

Dominance Fear Fearful, afraid, anxious

Shame Ashamed, embarrassed, humiliated

Anger Angry, irritated, enraged, mad

Hyperactivation Panicked, overstimulated, confused

Disgust Disgusted, revolted, annoyed, full of loathing

Scepticism Sceptical, suspicious, distrustful

Source: Adapted from Holbrook MB & Batra R (1987), ‘Assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer responses to advertising’, Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp. 404–420.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Table 10.7 Batra and Holbrook’s emotions and indicators (adjectives)*

Emotion ** Indicator

Activation Aroused, active, excited

Scepticism Sceptical, suspicious

Anger Angry, enraged, mad

Restfulness Restful, serene

Boredom Bored, uninvolved, unimpressed, unexcited

Fear Fearful, afraid

Desire Desirous, wishful, full of craving

Social affection Loving, affectionate, pure

Gratitude Grateful, thankful, benefited

Sadness Sad, remorseful, sorrowful

Irritation Disgusted, irritated, annoyed

Surgency Playful, entertained, light-hearted

* Administered as ‘I felt not at all (adjective)/very (adjective)’ (seven-point scale).

** The authors use the term ‘affect’; ‘emotion’ is used here to maintain consistency with the text.

Source: Adapted from Batra R & Holbrook MB (1990), ‘Developing a typology of affective responses to advertising’, Psychology and Marketing, Spring, p. 22.

LO 10.6

Emotions and marketing strategy The study of emotions is important in marketing. Emotions are considered a primary source of human motivation triggered by exposure to specific stimuli and influencing information search, memory and behaviour.67 Marketers have always used emotions on an intuitive level to guide product positioning, sales presentations and advertising. The deliberate and systematic study of the relevance of emotions in marketing strategy, however, is relatively new. This section briefly describes strategies focused on emotion arousal as a product benefit, emotion reduction as a product benefit, and emotion arousal in the context of advertising. emotion arousal the motivation to activate certain emotional states

Emotion arousal as a product benefit Consumers have a set of emotional desires that drive them to seek out products and services beyond those that satisfying utilitarian task-related needs and contribute to fulfilling anticipated symbolism, sensory and affective outcomes.68 Although positive emotions are sought most of the time, this is not always the case—as noted above, we might sometimes say, ‘That movie was so sad—I loved it!’69 Indeed, the assumption that consumers will always strive to feel good and avoid feeling bad can be an oversimplification, and may vary

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

depending on the consumption context.70 Consumption related to feeling or experiential aspects of consumer behaviour reflects a

‘hedonic’ perspective.71 Emotional arousal that engages consumers towards an anticipated experience is considered a type of response related to hedonic consumption. The perceived hedonic value of preferring particular products and services can determine a consumer’s level of involvement with a purchase, and the emotions associated with the consumption can carve strong affective traces in episodic memory (see Chapter 9).72

Many products feature emotion arousal as a primary benefit, and can arouse some degree of hedonic motivation.73 Movies, books and music are the most obvious examples. The Great Barrier Reef, the Northern Territory and even DisneyWorld are all positioned as emotion- arousing destinations, as are various other adventure travel offerings. Telephone companies, non-profit organisations and even the armed forces have also been positioned as emotion- arousing products (see Exhibit 10.8). The Global CB boxed example illustrates how a tourism campaign, by arousing strong emotions and feelings towards a destination, creates positive feelings triggering hedonic decision making, Several brands of soft drinks and beers stress fun and excitement as primary benefits. Even cars are sometimes positioned as emotion-arousing products, as in the case of Honda with its slogan ‘It all starts with you’ or Volkswagen’s ‘It’s not the miles, it’s how you live them’. Perfume is another good example of where the arousal of a particular emotion is a benefit of using the product.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibit 10.8 This advertisement presents a sense of camaraderie, pride and being part of a team.

Emotion reduction as a product benefit As Tables 10.6 and 10.710.7 indicate, there are many emotional states that are unpleasant to most individuals most of the time. For example, few people like to feel sad, powerless, humiliated or disgusted. In response to this, marketers design and/or position many products to prevent or reduce the arousal of unpleasant emotions.

The most obvious of these are the various products designed to deal with anxiety or depression. People often visit shopping centres, department stores or retail outlets to alleviate boredom, to experience excitement or desire, or to engage in ‘retail therapy’ or comfort shopping.74 In this regard, the simple act of shopping itself can reduce negative emotions for some people. Retailers such as Westfield, Woolworths, Big W and Myer are playing an active role in enhancing the benefits of retail therapy by offering tech-hungry shoppers their own phone apps to browse and shop.75

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

global CB

A journey to Middle Earth82

Close your eyes and imagine that a fictional world that entertained all of your senses on a movie screen is in fact a real world that you can visit. This is what has been done with New Zealand’s new ‘100% Middle Earth’ global integrated advertising campaign, which has succeeded in revitalising its 100% Pure New Zealand brand while capitalising on the release of the first instalment of Tolkien’s The Hobbit, filmed in New Zealand’s.

Confronted with the task of depicting the country’s most ‘magical’ aspects, where ‘lines between real life and fantasy blur’, the team at Whybin\TBWA cleverly leveraged the Middle Earth movie theme, incorporating storytelling techniques to do just that. ‘Traveller, your dreams are waiting’, narrates actor Sir Ian Holm as imagery including the ‘four-legged creatures that swim’, ‘wizards that turn water into wine’ and ‘metal hawks that soar’ attempt to captivate potential tourists.

Air New Zealand is also embracing the campaign, referring to itself as the ‘official airline of Middle Earth’ and screening ads on its flights to drum up interest in what its country has to offer. Critically, the more urban and contemporary experiences on offer in New Zealand are not featured in the campaign.

So will it work? Is using destination anticipation and imagery effective in motivating tourists’ choice behaviour? Research indicates that mental imagery can trigger behavioural intentions in tourists who are pushed by their emotional needs and pulled by the emotional benefits. A campaign that arouses desirable feelings, daydreaming and leisure experiences can also trigger hedonic decision making and consumption. Strong emotions and feelings towards a destination can increase the likelihood of motivating potential tourists to plan a holiday.

The 100% Middle Earth campaign, in pitching the desirability of New Zealand as a holiday destination, appears to tick all the boxes from this perspective in attracting a broad audience. It targets both those audiences spellbound by the past Tolkien trilogy who want to view the scenery for themselves as well as those who are yet to experience any part of it. Finally, Kiwis who have not travelled within their home country for a while may be tempted to take another look and spend their money locally rather than taking it overseas.

QUESTIONS 1 How effective do you think it would be to align a tourist campaign with a blockbuster movie like The Lord of the Rings trilogy or The Hobbit?

2 How do emotions and feelings about ‘destination attributes’ influence motivation to act, choose or purchase?

3 What are the benefits and risks of this campaign?

Marketers are recognising the importance of designing retail environments to create these emotional experiences. Flowers are heavily promoted as a cure for sadness. Weight-loss products and other self-improvement products are often positioned primarily in terms of guilt-, helplessness-, shame- or disgust-reduction benefits. Personal-grooming products often stress anxiety reduction as a major benefit. Charitable organisations often use stress reduction or avoidance as a reason for making donations.76

Emotion in advertising Emotion arousal is often used in advertising even when emotion arousal or reduction is not a product benefit. A sound understanding of how emotional responses to advertising influence

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

consumer responses has been slow to emerge.77 Some research has focused on what causes an advertisement to elicit particular emotions.78

Out of a concern that traditional methods of studying emotion have missed the point, more recent research—under the rubric of the ‘Emotional Response to Advertising Study’— has turned to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology and the field of neuroscience to gain ‘real-time’ reactions to product advertisements.79 The general conclusions discussed below must be considered as tentative.

The emotional content of advertisements enhances their attention-attraction and attention- maintenance capabilities. Advertising messages that trigger emotional reactions of joy, warmth or even disgust are more likely to be attended to than are more neutral advertisements (see Exhibit 10.7). As described in Chapter 8, attention is a critical step in the perception process.

Figure 10.3 The nature of emotions

As has been explained, emotions are characterised by a state of heightened physiological arousal. Individuals become more alert and active when aroused. Given this enhanced level of arousal, emotional messages may be processed more thoroughly than neutral messages. More effort and increased elaborative activities may occur in response to the emotional state.80

Emotional advertisements that trigger a positively evaluated emotion enhance liking of the advertisement itself.81 For example, ‘warmth’ is a positively valued emotion that is triggered by experiencing a love, family or friendship relationship either directly or vicariously. ‘Warm’ advertisements, such as advertisements that show love, family or friendship relationships, are liked more than neutral ones, and liking an advertisement has a

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

positive effect on liking the product (see Chapter 11). Emotional advertisements may be remembered better than neutral ones.83 As discussed in

Chapter 8, recognition measures, rather than recall measures, may be required to measure this enhanced memory.

Repeated exposure to positive-emotion-eliciting advertisements may increase brand preference through classical conditioning.84 Repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus (for example, positive emotion-inducing music or images) with the conditioned stimulus (for example, brand name) may result in the positive emotion occurring when the brand name is presented.

Brand liking may also occur in a direct, high-involvement manner. A person having a single exposure or few exposures to an emotional advertisement may simply ‘decide’ that the product is a good or likeable product. This is a much more conscious process than implied by classical conditioning. For example, viewing warmth-arousing advertisements has been found to increase purchase intentions, an outcome of liking a product.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Exhibit 10.9 Advertising often uses emotions in order to be noticed and to evoke a response from consumers.

COURTESY WORKSAFE VICTORIA AND GREY MELBOURNE

A variety of approaches exists for measuring emotional responses to advertising.85 Emoti*Scape, developed by advertising research company Ipsos-ASI, is a testing tool comprising a set of 40 emotional descriptors used to provide insight into respondents’ emotional feelings aroused by viewing ads and towards brands.86 It can be a relevant tool where information about emotional responses and associations is important. Each emotion has a cartoon-like visual representation (emoticon) and a verbal description of the feeling

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

expressed. This approach ranges from active to passive and from positive to negative. For example,

emotions can range from ‘lonely/ignored’ to ‘entertained/pleased’. Each emotion gives insight into how the respondent feels about an ad, brand or piece of music. Respondents are asked two questions pertaining to a given advertisement: ‘What feelings do you have from this ad?’ and ‘What feelings is the advertiser trying to use and portray within the ad?’ A third question, ‘What emotions do you associate with being a brand user?’ is asked for brands. Respondents are asked to indicate which emotion on the Emoti*Scape reflects their feelings for each of these questions. So far, results have suggested there is an association between the types of emotions aroused by specific brands and the consumer’s intention to purchase.

As mentioned above, neuroscientific measures of emotion have recently gained currency in advertising. Particularly relevant for consumer behaviour is the field of cognitive neuroscience, which investigates the influence of neuronal processes (conscious and unconscious) and cognitive processes such as perception, attention, reasoning, decision making, object representation, emotion and memory.87 Related methods, such as galvanic skin response (GSR), have certainly been used before to measure emotional arousal. GSR involves fitting the respondent with small electrodes that monitor the electrical resistance of the skin, which changes with the very slight changes in perspiration that accompany emotional arousal. However, the newer approach, dubbed neuromarketing, encompasses a much wider suite of methods. It is important to consider the emergence of these new technologies as complementing other more traditional methods such as observation and in- depth interviews. neuromarketing the use of neuroscientific measures of emotion, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to understand consumers’ responses to advertising and other marketing stimuli

There are currently approximately 16 biometric techniques that may be used in neuromarketing. The most common are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalograph (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), eye tracking and measures of facial movements.88 These have the potential to be much more precise than earlier methods such as focus groups and paper-and- pencil tests in pinpointing why and how advertisements create certain emotional responses. These techniques have already been tested on a variety of products and continue to develop, enabling greater depth of understanding and providing marketers with increased insight into the emotional power of brands and advertising. See the Discuss CB boxed feature at the end of this chapter for an example of facial recognition technology.

While neuromarketing is still in its early stages of development, research continues into emotion as a critical part of successful marketing, representing a new direction of emotion- based research in consumer behaviour.89 Recognising that the decisions consumers make are processed not only on a conscious (explicit) level but also on a subconscious (implicit) level can help marketers to influence the way consumers feel towards a brand.90

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

ethical CB

Which brands do we love to trust?91

So which brands are we, as Australians, happy to trust? If iconic brands such as Vegemite and Fosters spring to mind, then guess again. According to a survey conducted by Reader’s Digest Australia, it is healthcare products, chocolate brands and breakfast cereals that generate the greatest trust in Australia. Dettol tops the list, followed by Cadbury and Colgate.

But how important is trust? And how important is creating an emotional connection to a brand? Research indicates that trust of a brand is based on direct experience and built over time. It has been associated with ‘positive feelings’ and making the consumer ‘feel good’. Australian consumers reportedly believe that brands such as Band-Aid, Panadol, Elastoplast and Betadine are beneficial to their health and associated with feeling good, so have rated those brands highly, along with chocolate brands Cadbury and Lindt. Importantly, trust serves as a heuristic, allowing the consumer to make confident choices between different brands. For example, the top 10 most trusted brands in Australia are perceived as having a history of ‘being steadfast and safe’, particularly in times of an uncertain economic climate.

Consumers also develop ‘attachment-like’ emotions to brands, which are expressed in terms of emotions such as ‘trust’, ‘bonding’, ‘resonance’, ‘companionship’ and ‘love’. A study examining the behavioural effects of specific brand emotions found that ‘emotionally attached’ consumers are the most profitable.

A global study of 17 000 consumers, including more than 5000 in China and Singapore, found that luxury cars and airlines were the most desirable brands. They evoked positive consumer feelings about the brand, and these feelings were strong enough to trigger purchase intention. BMW topped the list as of one the most desired brands in China, just ahead of Rolex, Apple and rivals Mercedes and Audi. Chinese consumers were found to desire brands that they perceived as ‘confident’, ‘exciting’ and ‘sophisticated’ and that had a strong affiliation with luxury. Singapore Airlines was found to be the most desired brand in Singapore, being associated with qualities such as ‘pride’ in a strong service ethic and a high-quality product, which are attributes particularly prized in Singapore.

The implication here is for marketers to consider the role played by trust and emotional attachment within the context of brand relationships in a consumer market where information is just a click away. Balancing consumers’ informational learning with their emotional learning can facilitate the creation of strong emotional ties to and beliefs in brands that consumer will continue to love and trust.

QUESTIONS 1 How could a marketing strategy based on fostering emotional attachment to brands be effectively used —and misused—by marketers?

2 What are the limitations of emotional advertising? What do you think accounts for the differences in brands deemed desirable and trusted by Australians and Asian consumers?

3 Can consumers really trust or love a brand? What marketing campaigns can you think of that have used emotional appeals and triggers to meet unmet consumer needs?

SUMMARY LO 10.1 What is the nature of motivation?

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Consumer motivations are the energising forces that activate or trigger behaviour and provide purpose, direction and drive to that behaviour. In terms of specific product purchases, consumer motivations seem highly dependent on the situation at hand. It is necessary to understand what motives and behaviours are influenced by specific situations in which consumers engage in goal-directed behaviour.

LO 10.2 What are some theories of motivation? There are many theories of motivation. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that basic motives must be minimally satisfied before more advanced motives are activated. It proposes five levels of motivation: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem and self-actualisation.

McGuire has developed a more detailed set of motives organised around categories of cognitive versus affective, and preservation versus growth; whether the behaviour is initiated actively or passively, and whether the outcomes are internal to the individual or focused externally. Cognitive motives focus on the individual’s need for being adaptively oriented towards the environment; affective motives deal with the need to reach satisfying feeling states.

LO 10.3 How can marketers appeal to consumers’ motives? Consumers are often aware of, and will admit to, the motives causing their behaviour. The types of motives that are readily admitted to are called manifest motives. They can be discovered by standard marketing research techniques, such as direct questioning. Direct advertising appeals can be made to these motives. At other times, consumers are unable or unwilling to admit to the motives that are influencing them—these are called latent motives. This type of motive can be determined by projective motivation-research techniques, such as word association, sentence completion and use of metaphor. Although direct advertising appeals can be used, indirect appeals are often necessary. In many purchase situations, both manifest and latent motives are operating.

Because of the large number of motives and the many different situations that consumers face, motivational conflict can occur. In approach–approach conflict, the consumer faces a choice between two attractive alternatives. In approach–avoidance conflict, the consumer faces both positive and negative consequences in the purchase of a particular product. And in avoidance–avoidance conflict, the consumer faces two undesirable alternatives.

LO 10.4 What are the underlying aspects of theories of personality? The personality of a consumer guides and directs the behaviour chosen for accomplishing goals in different situations by shaping the range of possible responses available to them. Personality refers to those relatively long-lasting personal qualities that describe how a particular individual typically responds to the world around them. Though there are many controversies in the area of personality research, personalities do exist and are meaningful to consumers and therefore to marketing managers.

Two basic approaches to understanding personality can be described. Individual personality theories have two common assumptions: all individuals have internal

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

characteristics or traits and, for these characteristics or traits, there are consistent differences between individuals that can be measured. Most of the individual personality theories state that traits are formed at an early age and are relatively unchanging over the years. Social learning theories emphasise the environment as the important determinant of behaviour. Therefore, the focus is on external (situational) versus internal factors.

LO 10.5 What is the relationship of personality to marketing? Every individual can find some areas of their personality that they believe need bolstering or improvement, and so may be open to influence from marketing communications. Brands, like individuals, also have personalities, and consumers tend to prefer products with personalities that are pleasing to them. It is also apparent that consumers prefer advertising messages that portray their own personality or one they desire.

LO 10.6 How can emotions be used in marketing strategies? Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect behaviour. Emotions occur when environmental events or mental processes trigger certain physiological changes in the body. These changes are interpreted as specific emotions based on the situation. They affect consumers’ thoughts and behaviours. Marketers design and position products to both arouse and reduce emotions. Advertisements include emotion-arousing material to increase attention, degree of processing, remembering and brand preference through either classical conditioning or direct evaluation.

KEY TERMS affective growth motives 301 affective preservation motives 301

approach–approach motivational conflict 310 approach–avoidance motivational conflict 310

attribution theory 303 avoidance–avoidance motivational conflict 310

brand personality 313 cognitive growth motives 301

cognitive preservation motives 301 emotion arousal 317

emotions 298 external attribution 302

five-factor model of personality 312 individual personality theories 311

internal attribution 302 latent motives 307

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

manifest motives 307

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 299 McGuire’s psychological motives 299

motivation 298 motivational conflict 310

motive 298 multi-trait theories 312

neuromarketing 321 netnography 309

personality 298 projective techniques 307

single-trait theories 312 social learning theories 311

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 How can motivation be defined? What are the three main elements of a motive? 2 Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. How does it function? How applicable is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for today’s consumer?

3 What are some of the limitations of Maslow’s theory? 4 What is the difference between cognitive and affective motives, as described by McGuire? How can McGuire’s motives be used to develop a marketing strategy?

5 What is (a) a manifest motive and (b) a latent motive? How can each be accessed in motivational research? 6 How can personality be defined?

7 What is the difference between single-trait and multi-trait theories? 8 What is social learning theory, and how is it different from individual personality theories?

9 How can knowledge of personality be used to develop marketing strategy? 10 What are the common elements of emotional experiences?

11 What is the relationship between emotions and physiological changes? 12 How can marketers use emotions in developing marketing strategies?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1 How could Maslow’s hierarchy of needs be used to develop a marketing strategy for: (a) the World Health Organization (WHO) (b) a beautician (c) an online dating website (d) a cosmetic surgeon (e) a range of energy drinks (f) the Apple iPad?

2 Describe a motivational conflict that might arise when deciding whether to purchase or donate to the following,

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

and explain how it might be alleviated: (a) UNICEF child sponsorship (b) membership of a Lotto syndicate (c) a Hummer (d) life insurance (e) fast food (f) a fur coat.

3 ‘Social needs are more compelling than esteem needs.’ Discuss this statement within the context of Maslow’s hierarchy.

4 Use your understanding of personality theory to develop an advertising campaign for the following goods/services: (a) a nightclub (b) the Apple iPad (c) a range of ‘age-defying’ beauty products (d) a cosmetic surgery clinic (e) a line of fitness equipment (f) a range of travel services.

5 How can marketers apply the factors of personality shown in Table 10.5 to develop a marketing campaign? Choose an example of a good or service to illustrate how this might be done.

6 How could you use emotion to develop a marketing strategy for the following goods/services: (a) live animal exports (b) the Butterfly Foundation (which provides support and education for people with eating disorders) (c) the Clean Up Australia campaign (d) recycling (e) battery-farmed eggs?

7 Consider some recent examples of goods or services that have been marketed using a fear appeal. Was the use of fear effective in these campaigns? Explain.

APPLICATION ACTIVITIES 1 Find and describe a print advertisement in a newspaper or magazine that uses the following: (a) McGuire’s motivation theories (b) the promotion of a brand personality (c) an emotional appeal to children.

2 Nike, Coca-Cola and Apple have strong brand personalities. Relate these to the dimensions of brand personality shown in Figure 10.2.

3 Compare and contrast two company slogans that contain direct appeals to latent motives. What do you think the companies are hoping to achieve with these slogans, and do you think it is working?

4 Interview five students who have donated their time or money to a charitable cause within the past three years. Describe which of McGuire’s psychological motives influenced their decisions.

5 Find three examples of advertising that you think are aimed at the need to affiliate with others. Describe how advertisers use these appeals, and whether you think they are effective.

6 Choose a particular service and use a projective motivation-research technique, such as word association or sentence completion, to determine the latent purchase motives of five consumers.

7 Describe the brand personalities of each of the following brands. To what extent is each pair similar? Why are there differences?

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

(a) Red Rooster versus KFC (b) Apple versus IBM (c) Sony versus Panasonic (d) Puma versus Adidas

8 Find some examples of advertisements that promote emotional arousal or emotional reduction as a benefit. What are the advantages and disadvantages of attempting to manipulate emotions in this way?

discuss CB

What can you see in my smile and frown?92

Research indicates that our emotions play a fundamental role in how we make decisions to pursue particular courses of action. A new market research tool has recently joined the repertoire of neuroscience and other techniques that can help us to better understand an audience’s emotional engagement with advertising and brand effectiveness.

The system of measuring facial expressions such as frowns, smiles and laughs to identify spontaneous emotional responses is known as the facial action coding system (FACS). Using 43 ‘action units’ based on the movements of more than 200 facial muscles, founder Dr Paul Ekman has created an instrument that provides insight into people’s emotions and motivations by analysing their facial expression through these muscle movements.

Insight into emotions and how consumers react to advertising is invaluable information for marketers, as it can help them to assess attention and an ad’s impact on brand perceptions. Importantly, this could lead to more effective decisions made in terms of ad content, messaging and creative development.

So what is the advantage of recording facial expressions over using traditional self-administered surveys? For one, facial coding allows a researcher to record how a consumer actually responds to a stimulus, rather than what the consumer reports having felt while watching. Put simply, if the facial muscles move, the subject is probably feeling the emotion. More interestingly, it is virtually impossible to totally mask an emotional reaction and associated muscle movement. This is why the face is such a good indicator of whether people are telling the truth. It is also why it is easier to lie on the telephone than it is in person.

Humans share similar facial expressions regardless of culture, so monitoring facial expressions is a good way to target a particular market segment. In Japan, NEC is already using facial recognition software in digital billboards in shopping malls to identify the gender, ethnicity and approximate age of passing shoppers so they can better target their advertising.

QUESTIONS 1 What primary emotions are produced by your favourite advertisement? How could this information be useful to marketers?

2 Do you think the monitoring of people’s facial expressions and other body reactions by advertisers in public places is an infringement of privacy? Explain.

Case study Consumer motivation for buying fake brands93

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Kaleel Rahman, RMIT University The global market for non-deceptive counterfeit goods—in which consumers know that what they are buying is a fake—has grown rapidly over the past two decades. Counterfeiting is considered a major threat to the wellbeing of consumers, brand owners, governments and society at large. Hence, the issue of counterfeiting has attracted considerable research attention in the recent years.

Common across most literature on counterfeiting is the orthodox argument that it poses considerable threats: of unfair capitalising on the genuine brand’s investment in research, development and brand name recognition; of billions of dollars a year in lost jobs, taxes and sales; of damage to the reputation and profits of genuine brands; and of legal fees incurred.

Phrases such as ‘crime of the 21st century’, ‘bad business’ and ‘lost revenue’ reflect this view. The underlying assumption of threat is also reflected in the recent Anti-counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), a 40-nation international agreement to help coordinate efforts to fight counterfeit and pirated goods, as well as the existence of the $79 billion ‘anti-counterfeiting technologies’ sector, growing at an estimated 8.6 per cent from 2009 to 2014.

Despite the criticism, some positive aspects of counterfeit goods have also been highlighted. Counterfeit goods can help to build brand awareness, have advertising effects for the brand, and are often used as trial versions leading to subsequent purchasing of the genuine brand.

So why do consumers knowingly buy fakes instead of the genuine brands? The simplest answer would be that the fake is a lot cheaper. Research has found that people who purchase counterfeit goods are usually of lower socioeconomic status and cannot afford the luxury-brand price. But research also shows that the underlying motivations behind buying fake brands are more than simply price.

Consumption of counterfeit goods is driven primarily by the need to ‘keep up with the Joneses’. This sense of socioeconomic inferiority was first explained in 1934 by Veblen (and is thus sometimes called the Veblen effect), who theorised about ‘conspicuous consumption’, or the acquisition of expensive, mostly non-necessary products and services for the purpose of signalling status and wealth. The notion was elaborated on in 1950 by Leibenstein, who proposed a ‘snob’ effect characterised by the motivation to be identified with the rich and a ‘bandwagon’ effect representing the motivation not to be identified as poor.

The literature on counterfeiting presents a range of other non-price determinants of consumers’ willingness to buy fakes, showing that buying counterfeit products is not simply a question of affordability. Common reasons why more consumers bought fakes included a desire to try the fake before buying the original, and simple availability. The more people wished to ‘keep up to speed’ with a fashion brand, the more likely they were to buy counterfeits, as they perceived counterfeits as a cheaper way to stay up to date and avoid falling out of fashion.

Novelty-seeking consumers also have a positive purchase intention regarding counterfeits, as they often try new products in order to satisfy their curiosity or experimental needs. These findings suggest that even those who can afford genuine brands might choose to buy fakes.

QUESTIONS 1 Develop a hypothetical brand personality profile for the purchaser of a genuine luxury fashion brand of your choice in the women’s handbag category. Develop another profile for a fake version of the same brand. Based on these, discuss the differences between genuine versus fake brand personalities.

2 Consider consumer motivations for buying fake brands. How do they relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

3 Consider the motivation of ‘keeping up with the Joneses’. To what extent is this motivation still current in modern-day Australia?

4 Using the types of emotions discussed in the text, describe the emotional journey that a person buying and using a fake brand might go through. What types of emotions will likely be evoked if the person is ‘caught’ buying or using the fake?

Spotlight

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

on South Korea Korean flower boys: catalysts of change94

Ghazala Khan, Monash University, Malaysia In Korea, the term ‘flower boy’ basically means ‘pretty boy’—or, in Korean, kkot minam, which translates as ‘handsome as a flower’. Featured extensively in the entertainment industry, these male idols all have chiselled bodies, flawless complexions, wavy hair and near-perfect features. Successful television dramas such as Boys over flowers and You’re beautiful, along with ‘K-pop’ (Korean pop music) boy bands such as Infinite, Beast, U- Kiss, 2PM and Shinee, invest heavily in the lure of flower boys, the influence of whom is now widely evidenced in Korean society’s evolution into the male make-up capital of the world.

According to Euromonitor International, South Korean men spent US$495.5 million on skin care in 2011— accounting for almost 21 per cent of global sales—and sales were estimated to reach US$885 million (an increase of 79%) in 2013. Some young Korean men spend as much as US$500 a month on facial creams and spa treatments.

Korean male idols have for some time been enlisted to endorse cosmetic brands, resulting in increasing acceptance of cosmetic use by young men. According to Kim Jungcheon, CEO of South Korean cosmetic company Tonymoly, ‘Using male K-pop stars charms the ladies, and it may prompt younger men to want to look more like their idols’.

The influence of flower boys is not restricted to South Korea—it is slowly making its way into other Asian countries, including Malaysia and Thailand. ‘The male K-pop stars are very good looking, and I think the make-up helps them look good—so why not me as well?’ asks Lenard Heng, a 26-year-old graphic designer from Malaysia.

While flower boy idols may have played a dominant role in the changing idea of masculinity, this transformation of South Korean men from macho to make-up can be explained partly by fierce competition in the spheres of career advancement and romance. An effeminate style of male beauty is ‘a marker of social success’, according to Roald Maliangkay, head of Korean Studies at the Australian National University, and men who don’t take care of their appearances may be perceived as lazy.

Changing images of masculinity, romance and expectations from prospective employers, along with heavy media exposure of perfection, have also fuelled another trend—that of cosmetic surgery. TV actors and pop music icons are no longer hiding the fact that they’ve had surgery. A recent survey by a clinic specialising in cosmetic procedures for men revealed that Korean women have become more accepting of men who spend thousands of dollars on cosmetic surgery. Cosmetic surgery among younger men is so commonplace that even global popstar PSY—who by no means fits the description of a flower boy—was urged by his entertainment company to have a facelift.

Whatever the reason, South Korea is increasingly embracing men who opt for artificially enhanced looks, and the salient influence of the flower boy image has changed many young men’s ideas of male beauty and affected their decisions to undergo procedures to enhance their chances of success on both a professional and a personal level.

Outsiders whose own ideas of masculinity differ significantly from South Koreans’ might find the trend of flower boys unacceptable or simply inexplicable. But the ever-increasing popularity of Korean celebrities in many parts of the world may change ideas of male beauty in a wider sphere, and create numerous marketing opportunities.

QUESTIONS 1 Are your ideas of male beauty similar to or different from the flower boys’? 2 Do you think this trend is likely to be adopted in your country?

3 Discuss the marketing implications of each of the following scenarios: (a) The flower boy trend is adopted and widely acceptable in your market.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

(b) The flower boy trend arises as a niche market.

ENDNOTES 1 Leary MR (2007), ‘Motivational and emotional aspects of the self’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 58, pp. 317–344.

2 See Piacentini M & Mailer G (2004), ‘Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices’, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 251–263; Parker RS, Hermans CM & Schaffer AD (2004), ‘Fashion consciousness of Chinese, Japanese and American teenagers’, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 176–186; Speer JK (2005), ‘Analysts’ perspectives’, Apparel, vol. 46, no. 11 (July), p. 12; Penman S & McNeill LS (2008), ‘Spending their way to adulthood: consumption outside the nest’, Young Consumers, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 155–169.

3 Kanghui B, Holton A, Harp D & Yaschur C (2011), ‘The links that bind: uncovering novel motivations for linking on Facebook’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 27, pp. 2243–2248.

4 For some recent reviews see Ratneshwar S, Mick DG & Huffman C (2000), The Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspective and Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, London; Pincus J (2004), ‘The consequences of unmet needs: the evolving role of motivation in consumer research’, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 4 (June), pp. 375–387; Higgins ET & Pittman TS (2008), ‘Motives of the human animal: comprehending, managing, and sharing inner states’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 59, pp. 361–385; Leary MR (2007), ‘Motivational and emotional aspects of the self’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 58, pp. 317–344.

5 Maslow AH (1970), Motivation and Personality (2nd edn), Harper & Rowe, New York.

6 Barnes SJ & Pressey AD (2011), ‘Who needs cyberspace? Examining drivers of needs in Second Life’, Internet Research, vol. 21, no: 3, pp. 236–254.

7 Seely E (1992), ‘Human needs and consumer economics: the implications of Maslow’s theory of motivation for consumer expenditure patterns’, Journal of Socio-Economics, vol. 21, no. 4 (Winter), pp. 303–324; Raymond MA, Mittelstaedt JD & Hopkins CD (2003), ‘When is a hierarchy not a hierarchy? Factors associated with different perceptions of needs, with implications for standardization–adaptation decisions in Korea’, Journal of Marketing Theory, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 12–25; Wachter K (2003), ‘Rethinking Maslow’s needs’, Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, vol. 95, no. 2 (April), pp. 68–69.

8 Hassay DN & Smith MC (1996), ‘Compulsive buying: an examination of the consumption motive’, Psychology and Marketing, vol. 13 (December), pp. 741–752; Ariely D & Norton MI (2009), ‘Conceptual consumption’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 475–499.

9 Dye K, Mills AJ & Weatherbee T (2005), ‘Maslow: man interrupted: reading management theory in context’, Management Decision, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 1375–1395.

10 Barnes SJ & Pressey AD, (2011), ‘Who needs cyberspace? Examining drivers of needs in Second Life’, Internet Research, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 236–254.

11 McGuire WJ (1974), ‘Psychological motives and communication gratification’, in JG Blumler & C Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communications, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 167–196; McGuire WJ (1976), ‘Some internal psychological factors influencing consumer choice’, Journal of Consumer Research, March, pp. 302–319. McGuire has more recently focused his work on the nature of persuasive communication and rhetoric in a consumer context; see, for example, McGuire WJ (2000), ‘Standing on the shoulders of ancients: consumer research, persuasion, and figurative language’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 27 (June), pp. 109–114.

12 Wakefield KL & Stone GW (2003), ‘Social influence on post-purchase brand attitudes’, Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 31, pp. 740–746; Nadeem MM (2007), ‘Post-purchase dissonance: the wisdom of the “repeat” purchases’, Journal of Global Business Issues, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 183–193; Taylor SA (2008), ‘Reconciling satisfaction, emotions, attitudes, and ambivalence within consumer models of judgment and decision making: a cautionary tale’, Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behaviour, vol. 21, pp. 41–65.

13 Burton S, Lichtenstein DR, Biswas A & Fraccastoro (1994), ‘The role of attributions in consumer perceptions of retail advertisements promoting price discounts’, Marketing Letters, vol. 5, no. 2. pp. 131–140; Miller EG & Kahn BE (2005), ‘Shades of meaning: the effect of color and flavour names on consumer choice’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 32, no. 1 (June), pp. 86–92; Elmadag AB & Lemon KN (2006), ‘Customer perceptions of service employee motivation: an

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

attribution theory perspective’, American Marketing Association Conference Proceedings, vol. 17, p. 103; Kim Y (2006), ‘How attribution explains consumers’ views of penalties’, Journal of the American Academy of Business, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 311–315.

14 See Noush DM, Friestad M & Rose GM (1994), ‘Adolescent skepticism toward TV advertising and knowledge of advertising tactics’, Journal of Consumer Research, June, pp. 1–31; Friestad M & Wright P (1995), ‘Persuasion knowledge’, Journal of Consumer Research, June, pp. 62–74; MacLaghlan DL (2005), ‘Ad skepticism’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 34, no. 3 (Fall), pp. 7–17; Moore JJ & Rodgers SL (2005), ‘An examination of advertising credibility and skepticism in five different media using the persuasion knowledge model’, American Academy of Advertising Conference Proceedings, pp. 10–18; Thakor MV & Goneau-Lessard K (2009), ‘Development of a scale to measure skepticism of social advertising among adolescents’, Journal of Business Research, vol. 62, no. 12, p. 1349.

15 McCracken GD & Roth VJ (1989), ‘Does clothing have a code?’, International Journal of Research in Marketing, vol. 5 (September), pp. 13–33; Schultz Kleine S, Kleine RE III & Allen CT (1995), ‘How is a possession “me” or “not me”? Characterizing types and an antecedent of material possession attachment’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 22 (December), pp. 327–343; Elliot R & Wattanasuwan K (1998), ‘Brands as symbolic resources for the construction of identity’, International Journal of Advertising, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 131–144; Reed A II & Bolton LE (2005), ‘The complexity of identity’, MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 46, no. 3 (Spring), pp. 18–22; Grimmer MR & Webber C (2008), ‘Age, identity and materialism: a generational comparison’, Proceedings of the 2008 ANZMAC Conference, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 1–3 December; Sowden L-J & Grimmer MR (2009), ‘Symbolic consumption and consumer identity: an application of social identity theory to car purchase behaviour’, Proceedings of the 2009 ANZMAC Conference, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, 30 November–2 December.

16 Wilkerson B (2009), ‘Uniform matters’, Marketing, 22 April, p. 35.

17 Simonson I (1990), ‘The effect of purchase quantity and timing on variety-seeking behavior’, Journal of Marketing Research, May, pp. 150–162; Kahn BE & Isen AM (1993), ‘The influence of positive affect on variety-seeking among safe, enjoyable products’, Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp. 257–270; Menon S & Kahn BE (1995), ‘The impact of context on variety-seeking in product choice’, Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp. 285–295; Van Trijp HCM, Hoyer WD & Inman JJ (1996), ‘Why switch? Product category-level explanations for true variety-seeking behavior’, Journal of Marketing Research, August, pp. 281–292; Chen J & Paliwoda S (2004), ‘The influence of company name in consumer variety seeking’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 11, no. 3 (February), pp. 219–231; Roehm H Jr & Roehm ML (2004), ‘Variety-seeking and time of day: why leader brands hope young adults shop in the afternoon, but follower brands hope for morning’, Marketing Letters, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 213–221; Orth UR (2005), ‘Consumer personality and other factors in situational brand choice variation’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 115–133; Bertarelli S & Censolo R (2006), ‘Taste for variety, taste for novelty and price behaviour’, Metroeconomica, vol. 57, no. 1 (February), pp. 93–111.

18 Bellow DC & Etzel MJ (1985), ‘The role of novelty in the pleasure travel experience’, Journal of Travel Research, Summer, pp. 20–26; Basala SL & Klenosky DB (2001), ‘Travel-style preferences for visiting a novel destination: a conjoint investigation across a novelty–familiarity continuum’, Journal of Travel Research, vol. 40 (November), pp. 172– 182; Holden A & Sparrowhawk J (2002), ‘Understanding the motivations of ecotourists: the case of trekkers in Annapurna, Nepal’, The International Journal of Travel Research, vol. 4, no. 6 (November/December), pp. 435–446; Liang JH & Crouch GI (2005), ‘Extraordinary journeys: an exploratory cross-cultural study of tourists on the frontier’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, vol. 11, no. 3 (July), pp. 209–223.

19 O’Cass A & Frost H (2002), ‘Status brands: examining the effects of non-product-related brand associations on status and conspicuous consumption’, Journal of Product and Brand Management, vol. 11 no. 2/3, pp. 67–86; O’Cass A & McEwen H (2004), ‘Exploring consumer status and conspicuous consumption’, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 25–39; Wattanasuwan K (2005), ‘The self and symbolic consumption’, Journal of American Academy of Business, vol. 6, pp. 179–184; Ang SH & Lim EAC (2006), ‘The influence of metaphors and product type on brand personality perceptions and attitudes’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 39–50; O’Cass A & Grace D (2008), ‘Studying the role of the retail store service experience: issues of value, satisfaction and self-image—retail store image’, Psychology & Marketing, vol. 25, pp. 521–537.

20 See Durgee JF (1986), ‘Self-esteem advertising’, Journal of Advertising, no. 4, pp. 21–27; Harrison NE (2001), ‘All- consuming desire: advertisers prey on our sexual insecurities to mass-market products and services’, Alternatives Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 24–35; Kropp F, Lavach AM & Silvera DH (2005), ‘Values and collective self-esteem as predictors of consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence among university students’, International Marketing Review, vol. 22,

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

pp. 7–33; Smeesters D & Mandel N (2006), ‘Positive and negative media effects on the self’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 32, no. 4 (March), pp. 576–582.

21 See Zinkhan GM, Hong JW & Lawson R (1990), ‘Achievement and affiliation motivation’, Journal of Business Research, March, pp. 135–143; Silvera DH, Lavack AM & Kropp F (2008), ‘Impulse buying: the role of affect, social influence, and subjective wellbeing’, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 25, pp. 23–33.

22 Gelman SA (2009), ‘Learning from others: children’s construction of concepts’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 115–140.

23 Mick GD, DeMoss M & Faber RJ (1992), ‘A projective study of motivations and meanings of self-gifts’, Journal of Retailing, Summer, pp. 122–144; Ward CB & Tran T (2008), ‘Consumer gifting behaviors’, Services Marketing Quarterly, vol. 29, pp. 1–17.

24 Richardson JI & Fluker M (2004), Understanding and Managing Tourism, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest, NSW; Page SJ & Connell J (2006), Tourism: a Modern Synthesis (2nd edn), Thomson Learning, London; Walsh G & Gwinner KP (2009), ‘Purchasing vacation packages through shop-at-home television programs: an analysis of consumers’ consumption motives’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 111–128.

25 Witt CA & Wright PL (1992), ‘Tourism motivation: life after Maslow’, in P Johnson & B Thomas (eds), Choice and Demand in Tourism, Mansell, London; Ross GF (1994), The Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality Press, Melbourne; Copper C, Fletcher J, Fyall A, Gilbert D & Wanhill S (2005), Tourism: Principles and Practice (3rd edn), Pearson Education, Harlow, England.

26 Adapted from Tull DS & Hawkins DI (1990), Marketing Research, Macmillan, New York, pp. 402–411; See also Kumar V, Aaker DA & Day GS (1999), Essentials of Marketing Research, John Wiley & Sons, New York; Ratneshwar S, Mick DG & Huffman C (2000), The Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspective and Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, London.

27 See Collier T (1993), ‘Dynamic reenactment’, Marketing Research, Spring, pp. 35–37; Zaltman G (1996), ‘Metaphorically speaking’, Marketing Research, Summer, pp. 13–20; Raffel CB (1996), ‘Vague notions’, Marketing Research, Summer, pp. 21–23; Ratneshwar S, Mick DG & Huffman C (2000), The Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspective and Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, London; Kozinets RV (2002), ‘The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities’, Journal of Marketing Research, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 61–73; Langer R & Beckman SC (2005), ‘Sensitive research topics: netnography revisited’, Qualitative Market Research, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 189–204; Rapaille C (2006), The Culture Code, Broadway Books, New York.

28 Coulter RH & Zaltman G (1994), ‘Using the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique to understand brand images’, in CT Allen & DR John (eds), Advances in Consumer Research XXI, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT pp. 501– 507.

29 See Gutman J (1997), ‘Means–end chains as goal hierarchies’, Psychology & Marketing, September, pp. 545–60; Gengler CE, Mulvey MS & Oglethorpe JE (1999), ‘A means–end analysis of mothers’ infant-feeding choices’, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Fall, pp. 172–188; Wagner T (2007), ‘Shopping motivation revised: a means–end analytical perspective’, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, vol. 35, pp. 569–582.

30 Langer JL (1985), ‘Story time is alternative research technique’, Marketing News, September, p. 19; See also Golden LL, Alpert MI & Betak JF (1989), ‘Psychological meaning’, Psychology & Marketing, Spring, pp. 33–50; Reilly MD (1990), ‘Free elicitation of descriptive adjectives for tourism research’, Journal of Tourism Research, Spring, pp. 21–26; Zikmund WG (1997), Exploring Marketing Research (6th edn), The Dryden Press, Orlando; Rapaille C (2006), The Culture Code, Broadway Books, New York and www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/persuaders/interviews/rapaille.html.

31 Wertz FJ, Charmaz K & McMullen ML (2011), Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis: Phenomenological Psychology, Grounded Theory, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Research, and Intuitive Inquiry, The Guilford Press, NY; Hawkins MA & Saleem FZ (2012), ‘The omnipresent personal narrative: story formulation and the interplay among narratives’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 204–219.

32 Ratneshwar S, Mick DG & Huffman C (2000), The Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspective and Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, London; Bosniak M & Rudolph N (2008), ‘Undesired self-image congruence in a low-involvement product context’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 42, pp. 702–712.

33 Foxall GR & Goldsmith RE (1988), ‘Personality and consumer research’, Journal of the Market Research Society, no. 2, pp. 111–125; Albanese PJ (1993), ‘Personality and consumer behaviour: an operational approach’, European Journal of

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/persuaders/interviews/rapaille.html

Marketing, vol. 27, no. 8, pp. 28–37; Albanese PJ (2002), The Personality Continuum and Consumer Behavior, Quorum Books, Westport, CT and London; Orth UR (2005), ‘Consumer personality and other factors in situational brand choice variation’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 115–133; Heine SJ & Buchtel EE (2009), ‘Personality: the universal and the culturally specific’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 369–394; Casidy Mulyanegara R, Tsarenko Y & Anderson A (2009), ‘The big five and brand personality: investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 16, pp. 234–247.

34 See Mooradian TA (1996), ‘Personality and ad-evoked feelings’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Spring, pp. 99–109.

35 Goldsmith RE & Hofacker CF (1991), ‘Measuring consumer innovativeness’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 209–221.

36 Bousch DM, Kim CH, Kahle LR & Batra R (1993), ‘Cynicism and conformity as correlates of trust in product information sources’, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Fall, pp. 71–79.

37 Netemeyer RG, Burton S & Lichtenstein DR (1995), ‘Trait aspects of vanity’, Journal of Consumer Research, March, pp. 612–626.

38 Smith SM, Haugrvedt CP & Petty RE (1994), ‘Need for cognition and the effects of repeated exposure on attitude accessibility and extremity’, in CT Allen & DR John (eds), Advances in Consumer Research XXI, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT, pp. 63–68; Zhang Y & Buda R (1999), ‘Moderating effects of need for cognition on responses to positively versus negatively framed advertising messages’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 1–15; Sicilia M, Ruiz S & Munuera JL (2005), ‘Effects of interactivity in a web site’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 34, no. 3 (Fall), pp. 31–45.

39 Belk R (1985), ‘Materialism: trait aspects of living in the world’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 265– 280; Christopher AN & Schlenker BR (2004), ‘Materialism and affect: the role of self-presentational concerns’, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 260–272; Grimmer MR & Hanson DJ (2007), ‘A trait approach to measuring materialism: structure and scale properties’, Proceedings of the 2007 ANZMAC Conference, Otago University, Dunedin, New Zealand, 3–5 December.

40 For a recent discussion of a related personality trait hierarchy see Mowen JC (2000), The 3M Model of Motivation and Personality: Theory and Empirical Applications to Consumer Behavior, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.

41 See Wiggins JS (2005), The Five-Factor Model of Personality, Guilford Press, New York; John OP & Srivastava S (1999), ‘The big-five trait taxonomy: history, measurement, and theoretical perspectives’, in LA Pervin & OP John (eds), Handbook of Personality Theory and Research (vol. 2), Guilford Press, New York, pp. 102–138; Casidy Mulyanegara R, Tsarenko Y & Anderson A (2009), ‘The big five and brand personality: investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 16, pp. 234–247; Sung SY & Choi JN (2009), ‘Do big five personality factors affect individual creativity? The moderating role of extrinsic motivation’, Social Behaviour and Personality, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 941–946.

42 Ryan T & Xenos S (2011), ‘Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 27, pp. 1658–1664.

43 See Buttle F (1989), ‘The social construction of needs’, Psychology and Marketing, Fall, pp. 196–210; Hall CS, Lindzey G & Campbell JB (1998), Theories of Personality (4th edn), John Wiley & Sons, New York; Qiu L, Lin H, Ramsay J & Yang F (2012), ‘You are what you tweet: personality expression and perception on Twitter’, Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 46, pp. 710–718; Ryan T & Xenos S (2011), ‘Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 27, pp. 1658–1664; Baek K, Holton A, Harp D & Yaschur C (2011), ‘The links that bind: uncovering novel motivations for linking on Facebook,’ Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 27, pp. 2243–2248.

44 Crotty M (1998), The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process, Sage Publications London.

45 Swan K (2005), ‘A constructivist model for thinking about learning online’ in J Bourne & JC Moore (eds), Elements of Quality Online Education: Engaging Communities. Sloan-C Needham, MA.

46 See Wertsch JV (1985), Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives, Cambridge University Press.

47 Bandura A (1986), Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, Englewood Prentice-Hall

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Cliffs, NJ, Bandura A (1977). Social Learning Theory, General Learning Press New York.

48 Foxall GR (1995), ‘Science and interpretation in consumer research: a radical behaviourist perspective’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 29, no. 9, pp. 3–99.

49 Fennis BM, Pruyn ATH & Maasland M (2004), ‘Revisiting the malleable self: brand effects on consumer self-perceptions of personality traits’, Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 32, pp. 371–407; Casidy Mulyanegara R, Tsarenko Y & Anderson A (2009), ‘The big five and brand personality: investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 16, pp. 234–247; Sung SY & Choi JN (2009), ‘Do big five personality factors affect individual creativity? The moderating role of extrinsic motivation’, Social Behaviour and Personality, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 941–946.

50 Qiu L, Lin H, Ramsay J & Yang F (2012), ‘You are what you tweet: personality expression and perception on Twitter’, Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 46, pp. 710–718.

51 Ryan T & Xenos S (2011), ‘Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 27, pp. 1658–1664.

52 Aaker DA (1996), Building Strong Brands, The Free Press, New York; Merrilees B & Miller D (2001), ‘Antecedents of brand personality in Australian retailing: an exploratory study’, Proceedings of the 2001 ANZMAC Conference, Massey University, Albany Campus, New Zealand, 1–5 December; Govers PCM & Schoormans JPL (2005), ‘Product personality and its influence on consumer preference’, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 22, no. 4/5, pp. 189–197; Freling TH & Forbes LP (2005), ‘An empirical analysis of the brand personality effect’, The Journal of Product and Brand Management, vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 404–413; Casidy Mulyanegara R, Tsarenko Y & Anderson A (2009), ‘The big five and brand personality: investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality’, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 16, pp. 234–247.

53 Aaker JL (1997), ‘Dimensions of brand personality’, Journal of Marketing Research, August, pp. 347–356. See also Austin J, Siguaw J & Mattila A (2003), ‘A re-examination of the generalizability of the Aaker brand personality measurement framework’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, vol. 11, pp. 77–92; Sweeney JC & Brandon C (2006), ‘Brand personality: exploring the potential to move from factor analytical to circumplex models’, Psychology & Marketing, vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 639–663; Romaniuk J (2008), ‘Comparing methods of measuring brand personality’, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 153–161.

54 Aiken KD, Koch EC & Madrigal R (2000), ‘What’s in a name? Explorations in geographic equity and geographic personality’, AMA Winter Educators Conference Proceedings, 11, pp. 301–308; Anholt S (2000), ‘The nation as brand’, Across the Board, November/December, pp. 22–27; Olins W (2002), ‘Branding the nation—the historical context’, The Journal of Brand Management, vol. 9, no. 4–5, pp. 241–248; Hosany S, Ekinci Y & Uysal M (2007), ‘Destination image and destination personality’, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, vol. 1, p. 62; Hayes JB, Alford BL & Capella LM (2008), ‘When the goal is creating a brand personality, focus on user imagery’, Academy of Marketing Studies Journal, vol. 12, pp. 95–116.

55 van Rekom J, Jacobs G & Verlegh PWJ (2006), ‘Measuring and managing the essence of a brand personality’, Marketing Letters, vol. 17, pp. 181–192; Hayes JB, Alford BL & Capella LM (2008), ‘When the goal is creating a brand personality, focus on user imagery’, Academy of Marketing Studies Journal, vol. 12, pp. 95–116; Rathnayake CV (2008), ‘Brand personality and its impact on brand feelings: a study among young television viewers’, South Asian Journal of Management, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 7–24.

56 Douglas A (2012), ‘These 15 stars are celebrities by day, gamers by night’, www.businessinsider.com.

57 Lin L-Y (2010), ‘The relationship of consumer personality trait, brand personality and brand loyalty: an empirical study of toys and video games buyers’, Journal of Product & Brand Management, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 4–17.

58 ‘Victoria Bitter works up a hard-earned thirst in new TV spots’ (2012), www.campaignbrief.com.

59 Long A (2011), ‘Men’s fragrance trend: unisex appeal’, www.elle.com.

60 Levin D (2012), ‘Good Charlotte’s Madden brothers: from PETA activists to KFC posterboys, www.fasterlouder.com.au.

61 Houston JP (1985), Motivation, Macmillan, New York, p. 271; See also Plutchik R (2001), ‘The nature of emotions’, American Scientist, vol. 89, no. 4 (July/August), pp. 344–350; Donath B (2006), ‘Emotions play a key role in biz brand appeal’, Marketing News, vol. 40, no. 10 (1 June), p. 7; Leary MR (2007), ‘Motivational and emotional aspects of the self’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 58, pp. 317–344; Izard CE (2009), ‘Emotion theory and research: highlights,

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

http://www.businessinsider.com

http://www.campaignbrief.com

http://www.elle.com

http://www.fasterlouder.com.au

unanswered questions, and emerging issues’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 1–25.

62 Houston JP (1985), Motivation, Macmillan, New York, p. 278; See also Houston JP (1991), Fundamentals of Learning and Memory (4th edn), Harcourt-Brace-Jovanovich, Orlando, FL; Plutchik R (2001), ‘The nature of emotions’, American Scientist, vol. 89, no. 4 (July/August), pp. 344–350; Izard CE (2009), ‘Emotion theory and research: highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 1–25.

63 See Holbrook MB & O’Shaughnessy J (1984), ‘The role of emotion in advertising’, Psychology and Marketing, Summer, pp. 45–63; Batra R & Ray ML (1986), ‘Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising’, Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp. 234–249; Herr PM & Page CM (2004), ‘Asymmetric association of liking and disliking judgments: so what’s not to like?’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 30 (March), pp. 588–601; Miles Homer P (2006), ‘Relationship among ad-induced affect, beliefs, and attitudes’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 35, no. 1 (Spring), pp. 35–51.

64 See Foxall GR & Yani-de-Soriano MM (2005), ‘Situational influences on consumers’ attitudes and behavior’, Journal of Business Research, vol. 58, no. 4 (April), pp. 518–525.

65 R.Plutchik (1980), Emotion: A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis, Harper & Rowe, New York; Plutchik R (2001), ‘The nature of emotions’, American Scientist, vol. 89, no. 4 (July/August), pp. 344–350.

66 Havlena WJ, Holbrook MB & Lehmann DR (1989), ‘Assessing the validity of emotional typologies’, Psychology and Marketing, Summer, pp. 97–112; See also Stout PA & Leckenby JD (1986), ‘Measuring emotional response to advertising’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 53–57; Page TJ et al. (1988), ‘Measuring emotional response to advertising: a comment on Stout and Leckenby’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 49–52; Holbrook MB & Batra R (1988), ‘Toward a standardized emotional profile (SEP) useful in measuring responses to the nonverbal components of advertising’ in S Hecker & DW Stewart (eds), Nonverbal Communication in Advertising, DC Heath, Lexington, MA; Day E (1989), ‘Share of heart’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Winter, pp. 5–12; Foxall GR & Greenley GE (2000), ‘Predicting and explaining responses to consumer environments: an empirical test and theoretical extension of the behavioural perspective model’, Services Industry Journal, vol. 20, no. 2 (April), pp. 39–63; Foxall GR & Yani-de- Soriano MM (2005), ‘Situational influences on consumers’ attitudes and behavior’, Journal of Business Research, vol. 58, no. 4 (April), pp. 518–525; Martin D, O’Neill M, Hubbard S & Palmer A (2008), ‘The role of emotion in explaining consumer satisfaction and future behavioural intention’, The Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 224–236; Izard CE (2009), ‘Emotion theory and research: highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 1–25.

67 Miranda MJ, (2009), ‘Engaging the purchase motivations to charm shoppers’, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 127–145.

68 Arora R, (2012), ‘A mixed method approach to understanding the role of emotions and sensual delight in dining experience’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 333–343.

69 See Campbell C (1987), The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism, Blackwell, Oxford. For a re- examination of Campbell’s work see Boden S & Williams SJ (2002), ‘Consumption and emotion: the romantic ethic revisited’, Sociology, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 493–512; See also Bigné JE, Mattila AS & Andreu L (2008), ‘The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions on behavioral intentions’, The Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 22, pp. 303–315.

70 Johar GV, Maheswaran D & Peracchio LA (2006), ‘MAPping the frontiers: theoretical advances in consumer research on memory, affect, and persuasion’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 33, no. 1 (June), pp. 139–149.

71 Holbrook MB & Hirschman E (1982), ‘The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feelings and fun’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 49–56.

72 Arora R, (2012), ‘A mixed method approach to understanding the role of emotions and sensual delight in dining experience’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 333–343.

73 Miranda MJ, (2009), ‘Engaging the purchase motivations to charm shoppers’, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 127–145.

74 O’Guinn TC & Belk RW (1989), ‘Heaven on earth’, Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp. 227–238; Benson A (2000), I Shop, Therefore I Am, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, ML; Pearson P (2001), ‘Comfort shopping provides therapy for anxious times’, USA Today, 17 December, p. A.13; Fornerino M, Helme-Guizon A & Gotteland D (2008), ‘Movie consumption experience and immersion: impact on satisfaction’, Recherche et Applications en Marketing, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 93–109.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

75 Ferguson A (2012), ‘The online shopping revolution, enabled through smartphones, is coming whether stores like it or not’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 19 May.

76 Huhmann BA & Brotherton TP (1997), ‘A content analysis of guilt appeals in popular magazine advertisements’, Journal of Advertising, Summer, pp. 35–45; See also Passyn K & Sujan M (2006), ‘Self-accountability emotions and fear appeals: motivating behavior’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 32, no. 4 (March), pp. 583–589.

77 Aaker DA, Stagman DM & Hagerty MR (1986), ‘Warmth in advertising’, Journal of Consumer Research, March, pp. 365–381; Stout PA & Leckenby JD (1986), ‘Measuring emotional response to advertising’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 53–57; Mizerski RW & White JD (1986), ‘Understanding and using emotions in advertising’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Fall, pp. 57–69; Goldberg ME & Gorn GJ (1987), ‘Happy and sad TV programs’, Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp. 387–403; Holbrook MB & Batra R (1987), ‘Assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer responses to advertising’, Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp. 404–420; Mitchell AA (1988), ‘Current perspectives and issues concerning the explanation of “feeling” advertising effects’, in S Hecker & DW Stewart (eds), Nonverbal Communication in Advertising, DC Heath, Lexington, MA; Machleit KA & Dale Wilson R (1988), ‘Emotional feelings and attitude toward the advertisement’, Journal of Advertising, no. 3, pp. 27–35; Stayman DM & Aaker DA (1988), ‘Are all the effects of ad-induced feelings mediated by Aad?’, Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp. 368–373; Burke MC & Edell JA (1989), ‘The impact of feelings on ad-based affect and cognition’, Journal of Marketing Research, February, pp. 69–83; Alpert JI & Alpert MI (1990), ‘Music influences on mood and purchase intentions’, Psychology and Marketing, Summer, pp. 109–133; Lee AY & Sternthal B (1999), ‘The effects of positive mood on memory’, Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp. 115–129; Roehm HA Jr & Roehm ML (2005), ‘Revisiting the effect of positive mood on variety seeking’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 32, no. 2 (September), pp. 330–336; Thomson M, MacInnes DJ & Park CW (2005), ‘The ties that bind: measuring the strength of consumers’ emotional attachments to brands’, Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 77–91; Martin D, O’Neill M, Hubbard S & Palmer A (2008), ‘The role of emotion in explaining consumer satisfaction and future behavioural intention’, The Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 224–236; Pitta D (2008), ‘Providing the tools to build brand share of heart: Gydget.com’, The Journal of Product and Brand Management, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 280– 284.

78 Biel AL & Bridgwater CA (1990), ‘Attributes of likable television commercials’, Journal of Advertising Research, July, pp. 38–44; Lee S & Barnes JH Jr (1990), ‘Using color preferences in magazine advertising’, Journal of Advertising Research, January, pp. 25–29; Kamp E & MacInnis DJ (1995), ‘Characteristics of portrayed emotions in commercials’, Journal of Advertising Research, November, pp. 19–28.

79 Melillo W (2006), ‘Inside the consumer mind’, Adweek, 16 January, pp. 12–15; Fielding M (2006), ‘ARF exec discusses future of ad research’, Marketing News, 15 March, pp. 15–17; Kenning P, Plassmann H & Ahlert D (2007), ‘Applications of functional magnetic resonance imaging for market research’, Qualitative Market Research: an International Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 135–152.

80 Roehm HA Jr & Roehm ML (2005), ‘Revisiting the effect of positive mood on variety seeking’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 32, no. 2 (September), pp. 330–336; Johar GV, Maheswaran D & Peracchio LA (2006), ‘MAPping the frontiers: theoretical advances in consumer research on memory, affect, and persuasion’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 33, no. 1 (June), pp. 139–149.

81 Zajonc RB (1968), ‘Attitudinal effects of mere exposure’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 9, pp. 1–27; Murray JP Jr & Dacin PA (1996), ‘Cognitive moderators of negative-emotion effects’, Journal of Consumer Research, March, pp. 439–447; Harrison A (2006), ‘Brain’s inner working’, Campaign, 15 September, pp. C24–C28; Melillo W (2006), ‘Inside the consumer mind’, Adweek, 16 January, pp. 12–15.

82 Bazilian E (2012), ‘Ad of the day: Tourism New Zealand – A grand new spot fully embraces “Lord of the Rings” under the theme “100% Middle Earth”, www.adweek.com; Fahy B (2012), ‘Hitting the heart, not the head: Tourism New Zealand’s Justin Watson on 100% Middle Earth’, www.stoppress.co.nz; Goossens C (2000), ‘Tourism information and pleasure motivation’, Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 301–321; Schwartz T (2012), ‘New Zealand Tourism draws “Hobbit” fans with “100% Middle Earth” campaign’, http://moviesblog.mtv.com; ‘New Zealand turns fantasy into reality in new “100% Middle Earth, 100% Pure New Zealand’”, (2012), www.campaignbrief.com.

83 Friestad M & Thorson E (1986), ‘Emotion-eliciting advertising’, in RJ Lutz (ed.), Advances in Consumer Research XIII, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT, pp. 111–116; Lee AY & Sternthal B (1999), ‘The effects of positive mood on memory’, Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp. 115–129; Leigh JH, Zinkhan GM & Swaminathan V (2006), ‘Dimensional relationships of recall and recognition measures with selective cognitive and affective aspects or

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L

im ite

d . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

http://Gydget.com

http://www.adweek.com

http://www.stoppress.co.nz

http://moviesblog.mtv.com

http://www.campaignbrief.com

print ads’, Journal of Advertising, vol. 35, no. 1 (Spring), pp. 105–22.

84 See Groenland EA & Schoormans JPL (1994), ‘Comparing mood-induction and affective conditioning as mechanisms influencing product evaluation and product choice’, Psychology & Marketing, March, pp. 183–197.

85 See Morris JD & McMullen JS (1994), ‘Measuring multiple emotional responses to a single television commercial’, in CT Allen & DR John (eds), Advances in Consumer Research XXI, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT pp. 175– 80.

86 Ipsos (2005), ‘Moods, minds, and motivations: measuring emotions for advertising results, www.ipsos.com/ideas.

87 de Balanzó Bono C & Serrano Abad N (2011), ‘Neuroscience and advertising: redefining the role of the unconscious, WPP Atticus Awards Merit.

88 de Balanzó Bono C & Serrano Abad N (2011), ‘Neuroscience and advertising: redefining the role of the unconscious, WPP Atticus Awards Merit.

89 Abeele PV & MacLachlan DL (1994), ‘Process tracing of physiological responses to dynamic commercial stimuli’ in CT Allen & DR John (eds), Advances in Consumer Research XXI, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT pp. 226– 232; LaBarbera PL & Tucciarone JD (1995), ‘GSR reconsidered’, Journal of Advertising Research, September, pp. 33– 53; Harrison A (2006), ‘Brain’s inner working’, Campaign, 15 September, pp. C24–C28; Melillo W (2006), ‘Inside the consumer mind’, Adweek, 16 January, pp. 12–15; P. Kenning P, Plassmann H & Ahlert D (2007), ‘Applications of functional magnetic resonance imaging for market research’, Qualitative Market Research: an International Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 135–152; Lindstrom M (2008), Buy-ology, Random House Business Books, London.

90 Micu AC & Plummer JT (2010), ‘Measurable emotions: how television ads really work—patterns of reactions to commercials can demonstrate advertising effectiveness, Journal of Advertising Research, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 137–153.

91 Clark L (2012), ‘Healthcare and chocolate brands are the most trusted’, www.bandt.com.au; Rossiter J & Bellman S (2012), ‘Emotional branding pays off: how brands meet share of requirements through bonding, companionship, and love’, Journal of Advertising Research, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 291–296; ‘Australia’s most trusted brands indicate climate of uncertainty’ (2012), http://mumbrella.com.au; Heath R, Brandt D & Nairn A (2006), ‘Brand relationships: strengthened by emotion, weakened by attention’, Journal of Advertising Research vol. 46, no. 4; Kunal G (2011), ‘Creating “brand desire”: an Asian perspective’, WARC; Martin B (2012), ‘Trust matters’, Market Leader; Cunniffe N & Sng M (2012), ‘Brand loyalty: confirmation bias’, Admap, WARC.

92 ‘Frowns and smiles become ad testers as “facial coding” lands in Australia’ (2012), www.marketingmag.com.au; Fernandez J (2012), ‘Millward Brown and Affectiva extend facial coding to emerging markets’, www.research-live.com; Fitzpatrick M (2010), ‘Advertising billboards use facial recognition to target shoppers’, The Guardian, 27 September.

93 Bloch P, Bush R & Campbell L (1993), ‘Consumer accomplices in product counterfeiting: a demand side investigation’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 27–36; Gentry JW, Putrevu S & Shultz CJ (2006), ‘The effects of counterfeiting on consumer search’, Journal of Consumer Behavior, vol. 5, pp. 246–256; International AntiCounterfeiting Coalition (2011), ‘Truth about counterfeiting’, www.iacc.org/about-counterfeiting/the-truth-about-counterfeiting.php; Leibenstein H (1950), ‘Bandwagon, snob, and Veblen effects in the theory of consumers’ demand’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 64 (May), pp/183–207; Tom G, Garibaldi B, Zeng Y & Pilcher J (1998), ‘Consumer demand for counterfeit goods’, Psychology and Marketing, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 405–421; Veblen T (1934), The Theory of the Leisure Class, New York: Mentor Books; Wee CH, Tan SJ & Cheok KH (1995), ‘Non-price determinants of intent to purchase counterfeit goods’, International Marketing Review, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 19–46.

94 Barry D (2012), ‘Men in South Korea aren’t shy about getting oodles of cosmetic surgery’, Jezebel, 9 October, http://jezebel.com/5950108/men-in-south-korea-arent-shy-about-getting-oodles-of-cosmetic-surgery; Choo JH (2012), ‘Korean “Flower Men” buy 20% of world’s cosmetics for men’, ABC News, 27 September; Yang S (2012), ‘Pretty boys and dancing divas give S Korean cosmetics Asian appeal’, Reuters, 12 December; ‘The “flower boys” of South Korea who spend more on beauty products than any other men in the world’ (2012), Mail online, 17 Sept; Han SM (2012), ‘Korea’s pop music explosion is fueling a plastic surgery boom’, Alternet, 30 December; Woo J (2012), ‘More men opt for plastic surgery’, The Wall Street Journal, 9 October; Fairbairne E (2012), ‘How do you solve a problem, lipo Korea?’ The Sun, 2 February.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 3 . M

cG ra

w -H

ill E

d u ca

tio n (

A u st

ra lia

) P

ty L