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Concept.zipPAF 410 WEEK 2.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 2
Early leadership theories: Traits, skills and behaviors
Agenda
• Intro + recap
• Trait Perspective
• Skill Perspective
• Behavior Perspective
• Break
• Case
Recap
• Leadership is …
• The role of power – influencing others
• Ethics: Conduct and character
• Today: Closer look at the three main perspectives on leadership
Leadership Trait Perspective
What is it?
• ”Great Man” theories (early 1900s and onwards)
• Systematic approach to leadership
• Innate qualities or characteristics (traits) that great political, social or cultural leaders possess
Exercise
• In small groups (the person(s) sitting next to you), make a list of 5 (or 10) major traits that you believe are important for a strong leader
• Prepare the list based on your experiences and without reference to the book
Northouse 2016: 9
Appearances
• Different characteristics or traits linked to physical appearances
• Ex. Height
• Other examples … ?
Who seems more competent?
John Antonakis, and Olaf Dalgas Science 2009;323:1183
✔
Important traits
• A number of other important traits are linked to leadership emergence and effectiveness
• Northouse: 5 major leadership traits (intelligence, self- confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability)
• Psychology: Big 5 personality factors (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness)
5 major traits
• Traits to possess or cultivate …
• Intelligence: Verbal, perceptual, and reasoning capabilities (NB! distinction between fluid and crystallized)
• Self-confidence: Feeling certain about one’s competencies and skills. Feelings of being efficacious at performing one’s tasks.
• Determination: A desire and drive to get the job done (taking initiative and being persistent)
5 major traits (cont.)
• Traits to possess or cultivate …
• Integrity: Quality of honesty. Being trustworthy and authentic as a leaders (cf. credible commitment and transactional leadership)
• Sociability: Inclination to seek out social relationships with followers.
Big 5
Northouse 2016: 27
Are Big 5 factors related to leadership? (Judge et al. 2002)
Extraversion, conscientiousness,
openness are positively related to
emergence
Extraversion, openness,
agreeableness, and
conscientiousness are all
positively related to effectiveness
Neuroticism is negatively related
to both criteria
Judge et al. 2002
Self-assessments
Look at your own score and
compare with the results from
the meta-analysis and your
initial list of important traits.
Q: Do you score high or low on
the factors?
Q: Are there something you
would do to further cultivate
particular traits – why/why not?
Judge et al. 2002
Other Personality Characteristics:
• Internal locus of control
• A lack of strong authoritarianism tendencies
• High EQ!
Disclaimer: An effective leader need not be high (or low) on each and every one of these characteristics.
McClelland’s Needs Theory
A profile of motives of more effective leaders:
• high need for socialized power, but not personalized power
• moderate need for personal achievement
• moderate need for extensive, personal affiliation with others, or need to be liked by others
https://hbr.org/2003/01/power-is-the-great-motivator
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
• Intuitive
• Some emerge and are effective as leaders, others do/are not
• ‘Need’ to see leaders as gifted
• Benchmarks for recruitment
Weaknesses
• Do not delimit list of definitive traits
• Lists are often subjective
• Less appropriate for leadership training?
Application
• Personality assessments are commonly used by organizations to find the “right” candidate in recruitment processes.
• Idea: Fit between individual personality and the needs of the organization increases effectiveness
Leadership Skills Perspectives
Skills
• Definition: The ability to use one’s knowledge and competencies to accomplish a set of goals and objectives (Northouse 2016: 44)
• Focus is on various types of skills that can be learned and developed and that will help leaders become effective in their organizations
• Katz: Technical, human, and conceptual
• Mumford and colleagues: Skills-based model
Katz: Three-Skill Approach
• Leaders require all three types of skills but their relevance depend on the management level …
• Why are technical skills more important at the supervisory level and conceptual ones more at the top-management level?
Northouse 2016: 46
Skills
• Technical: Knowledge about specific type of work or activity. Specialized competencies (tools and techniques). Hands-on experience
• Human: Knowledge about people and being able to work with different people. Self-awareness and insight into followers’ needs. Creating relationships with followers characterized by respect and trust
• Conceptual: Ability to create meaning of organizational policy and issues to direct followers. Articulating a vision and strategic plan to make clear what the organization stands for and where it is going
Capabilities model (Mumford et al.)
Northouse 2016: 48
Competencies
• Problem solving: Ability to think creatively and solve new or unusual challenges
• Social judgment: Ability to understand people and social systems
• Knowledge: Accumulation of information
Attributes
• Intelligence: General cognitive ability – g – and crystallized cognitive ability
• Motivation: Drive, persistence, and orientation
• Personality: Usual suspects …
Northouse 2016: 56
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
• Emphasis on structure
• Process of leadership around skills
• Training programs
• Available to everyone
Weaknesses
• Emphasis on structure
• Weak in predictive value (how does skills lead to effective leadership?)
• Not clear on the role of traits even though they are given a prominent role
Leadership Behavioral Perspectives
Behaviors
• Focus on leaders’ actions
• Ohio State Studies • Task behaviors: Facilitate goal accomplishment. E.g., giving structure to
work context, defining responsibility)
• Relationship behaviors: Help followers feel comfortable with themselves, each other, and the workplace. E.g., building respect, trust and mutual recognition
• University of Michigan Studies: Product and employee orientation (basically the same …)
Conceptualization
• Leader actions have been conceptualized in two ways:
• As opposite ends on a single continuum (Task ------------- Relationship)
• As multiple independent orientations
Blake & Mouton: Leadership Grid
• Again, two types of behaviors …
• Concern for production: How a leader is concerned with achieving tasks and results in the organization
• Concern for people: How a leader attends to members who are tasked with achieving the goals of the organizations
• Combining the two leads to various styles/types of leaders …
Authority-Compliance (9,1)
• Heavy emphasis on task and job requirement
• Results driven
• Low emphasis on the people involved in achieving goals. E.g., communicates with followers mainly for the purpose of task instructions
• Leader may be seen as controlling, demanding, hard-driving, and overpowering
Country Club (1,9)
• High concern for interpersonal relationships
• Low emphasis on task accomplishment – stresses the attitudes and feelings of followers rather than their task-related effort
• Leader will try to create a positive work environment by being agreeable, helpful and non-controversial
Impoverished (1,1)
• Minimal effort is done – just enough to sustain organizational survival
• Low concern for task performance and for interpersonal relationships
• Uninvolved and withdrawn from followers
• Leaders have little contact with followers and are likely described as indifferent, resigned and apathetic
Team (9,9)
• Strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationship
• Seek to promote a high degree of participation among workers, attend to their basic needs, and foster a climate of teamwork
• Leaders act determined, make priorities clear through goals and responsibilities and foster an open and friendly environment in which followers feel safe and respected
Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
• Intermediate concern for both tasks and interpersonal relationships
• Seek out compromises and avoids conflict
• Leaders are described as someone who prefers the middle grounds and does not like disagreements
A Few Thoughts…
• … but how useful is the leadership grid?
• maybe it needs to be more “situational”, rather than “universal”
• maybe in general, there needs to be more emphasis on consideration or supportive behaviors, rather than an emphasis on directing tasks
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
• Emphasis on leader actions: What leaders do inside organizations should matter for their effectiveness
• Two (broad) categories of leadership behaviors
• A heuristic – tool for learning
Weaknesses
• Context matters! – are ”team leaders” always the most effective?
• Limited research on the performance effects of leader behaviors
Perspectives on leadership
Perspective Trait Skill Behavior
Focus
(who?)
Ability
(innate or malleable?)
Availability
(who can lead?)
Perspectives on leadership
Perspective Trait Skill Behavior
Focus Leader Leader Leader
(who?) (NB! Follower perception)
Ability
(innate or malleable?)
Availability
(who can lead?)
Perspectives on leadership
Perspective Trait Skill Behavior
Focus Leader Leader Leader
(who?) (NB! Follower perception)
Ability Innate Malleable Malleable
(innate or malleable?) (NB!) (NB!)
Availability
(who can lead?)
Perspectives on leadership
Perspective Trait Skill Behavior
Focus Leader Leader Leader
(who?) (NB! Follower perception)
Ability Innate Malleable Malleable
(innate or malleable?) (NB!) (NB!)
Availability Restricted Everyone Everyone
(who can lead?)
PAF 410 WEEK 3.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 3
Visions & Charisma in Leadership
Agenda
• Recap
• Transformational leadership and visions
• Cases: Constructing effective vision statements
Recap
• Three approaches to leadership …
• Traits
• Skills
• Behaviors
Leadership Current Event Discussion
• Dana Perino
• LeBron James
Transformational Leadership
What is it?
• Break with management as “taking care of the shop”
• “Transforming” vs “transactional” leadership (Burns 1978)
• TFL as an influencing process: Transform individuals
• Core elements: Values, emotions, ethics and long-term goals
Leadership Continuum
• Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership
• Laissez-Faire Leadership
Transformational Leadership Factors (Bass)
• Idealized influence (charisma) – attributes and behaviors (perception by followers)
• Inspirational motivation
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized consideration
Transactional Leadership Factors (Bass)
• Contingent reward
• Management-by-exception
Non-Leadership Factors (Bass)
• Laissez-Faire
Pseudo Transformational Leadership
• Personalized leadership because leaders focus on own interests rather than those of the collective
• Authenticity: Intentions should be genuine
• In case of transformational leadership leaders should be concerned with the collective good and transcend their own interest for the sake of the group
Two key elements
• Vision: A vibrant, idealized “verbal portrait” of what the organization aspires to one day achieve” (Carton et al. 2014, 1544)
• Content of message (values and long-term goals)
• Charisma: Ability to communicate a clear, visionary, and inspirational message that captivates and motivates an audience (Antonakis et al. 2012)
• Communication of message
Visions
• Focal point for transformational leaders: Why?
• Conceptual map of where the organization is going
• Give meaning and clarifies the organization’s identity (cf. values)
• Provide workers with a sense of identity within the organization and stimulate task significance and self- efficacy
Visions in TFL theories
• Bass (1985): Idealized influence and inspirational motivation (NB! Intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration)
• Bennis and Nanus (1985): Clear vision. “Fit” in organization and provides a sense of significance in the enterprise
• Jensen et al. (2016): Behaviors that seek to develop, share, and sustain a vision with the intent to encourage employees to transcend their own self-interest and achieve organizational goals
What does an effective vision look like?
• Conceptualization
• Values and long-term goals
Conceptualization
• Abstract/conceptual
• ”Our core value is environmental sustainability”
• Concrete/image-based
• “To one day see a city full of hybrid cars”
Conceptualization – Let’s Try
• Poverty alleviation
• Social justice
• Diffusion of technology
• Education
Values
• Many vs few
• Ex: accountability, customer satisfaction, profitability, integrity, respect, teamwork, innovation, quality etc.
• Arizona Community Foundation
What does an effective vision look like?
• Specific combination: Large amount of vision imagery and a small number of values
• Imagery: More vivid and less subjective to varying interpretations
• Values: Lower potential for disagreement among employees
Exercise: Reestablishing a vision
• Read case (handout)
• Complete assignment 1 in assigned groups
• Present your vision statement and discuss the other questions in assignment 1 with your new group. Provide feedback on the vision statement: E.g., Does the vision statement reflect Rachel’s idea of the company. Can the vision statement be modified to be even more effective?
Recap
• Transformational leadership: Develop, share and sustain a vision with the aim of transforming follower motivation and values
• Vision: A vibrant, idealized “verbal portrait” of what the organization aspires to one day achieve” (Carton et al. 2014, 1544)
• Specific combination: Large amounts of vision imagery and small number of values
Charisma
• Weber (1947): Special characteristic that is reserved for a few and results in persons being perceived as leaders
• House (1976): Charismatic leaders display certain behaviors …
• Antonakis et al. (2010 ->): Charisma can be taught!
Charisma
Antonakis et al. 2012 (HBR):
“… to persuade others, you must use powerful and reasoned rhetoric, establish personal and moral credibility, and then arouse followers’ emotions and passions”.
Is “Charismatic” Leadership a Good or Bad Thing?
• A term that has often been associated with highly influential or leaders perceived to be extraordinary, but:
• It has also been confused with charm, personal appearance, and the “Hollywood factor”
• Possibility of a “double-edged sword”
What do you think?
Definition
House (1976)
Northouse 2016: 165
Charismatic Leadership Tactics
• Verbal: metaphors, similes, analogies; stories and anecdotes; contrasts; rhetorical questions; three-part list; expression of moral conviction; reflections of the group’s sentiments; setting high goals; and conveying that goals can be achieved
•Nonverbal: animated voice; facial expressions; and gestures.
Example of CLTs
CONTRAST 1
2
3
THREE PART
LIST
MORAL
CONVICTION
AND
SENTIMENT OF
GROUP
Exercise I – TEDx Talk
• Discuss the following questions with the person(s) sitting next to you:
• What are examples of verbal and nonverbal charismatic leadership tactics? Why are these tactics powerful? (hint: use HBR article)
• What tactics did John make use of in his talk? Give examples of different tactics and how they may have helped him convey his message to the audience.
Exercise II – CLTs in ICCR
1. Return to the case exercise and complete assignment 2 using the information on CLTs that you have acquired in the lecture and by watching the TEDx talk.
2. Present your opening speech (using verbal and nonverbal CLTs) to members of your new group. Provide feedback. E.g., Did the person make use CLTs? If so, were they effective? Could other CLTs than the ones chosen be more appropriate? Why/why not?
PAF 410 WEEK 4.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 4
Transactions & Servant Leadership
Recap
• Vision and charisma
• What does an effective vision look like?
• What communication tools/tactics can leaders employ to effectively convey visions and values in organizations?
Transactional Leadership
An Economic Perspective on Motivation
What is it?
• Management as “taking care of the shop”
• “Transforming” vs “transactional” leadership (Burns 1978)
• Standard economic assumptions about motivation (self- interest, rationality)
• Focus on aligning followers’ self-interest with organizational goals
Setting the stage
• Homo economicus: Self-interest and rationality
• Rewards:
• Pecuniary (wages, bonuses, promotion etc.)
• Near-pecuniary (a better office, professional development etc.)
• Non-pecuniary (recognition, job autonomy etc.)
Identifying the problem
• Principal (e.g., leader) wants agent (e.g., follower) to exert a task on his or her behalf
• Agent wants compensation for costs, but …
• Asymmetry in information
• Actions impact payoff for principal and agent
The principal’s problem
• Principal-agent theory focuses on …
• How incentives can provide leverage for the informationally disadvantaged principal to:
• Minimize shirking (suboptimal performance) and agency loss (losses imposed by inability to perfectly align agent’s self-interest with the interest of the principal)
Manifestations
• Principal’s problem manifests in three ways:
• Adverse selection (how to get the right candidate for the job?)
• Moral hazard (how to prevent agent from engaging in risky behaviors?)
• Verification (how to determine whether the agent delivers his or her best effort?)
Moral hazard
• Information asymmetry opens up for ‘hidden actions’ …
• Why? All behaviors cannot be monitored; costly
• Solution? Invite agent to take on risk …
• Example from insurance: Introducing deductibles to make it costly for agent to engage in risky behaviors (incentive)
BUT!
• Incentives offer second-best solution!
• Why? Transaction costs and transfer of risk cannot be effective with asymmetric information
Transactional leadership
• Based on the same logic (‘quid pro quo’) and assumptions. Applied to organizational management
• Focuses on the exchanges between leaders and followers
• Example: Surpass goals = bonus, promotion etc.
Transactional leadership factors
• Three transactional leadership factors according to Bass:
• Contingent reward
• Active management by exception
• Passive management by exception
Contingent reward
• Focus on the exchange process where effort is traded for specified rewards
• Pecuniary (e.g., bonus, promotion)
• Non-pecuniary (e.g., recognition)
Management by exception
• Behaviors to correct criticism, provide negative feedback and negative reinforcement
• Active: Watch followers and correct proactively
• Passive: Intervene after failures or problems have arisen
Transactional Leadership
Extensions and Limitations
Credible commitment
• The success of transactional leaders hinges on credibly committing to incentives or rules
• But! The principal’s other problem (moral hazard)
• Principals self-interest (often shortsighted) is the problem. Incentive to deviate from commitment
Credible commitment - solutions
• How to credibly commit as a leader?
• Odysseus
• Hire agent with different preferences (E.g., Curtis ‘Boom Boom’ LeMay)
• Delegation
Multiple principals
• Assumption 4 in PAT: Unified principal
• Yet! Often agents have multiple principal (e.g., team leadership). What happens if principals have different preferences?
• Room for strategic behaviors. Neither principals are likely to have their preferences satisfied
Strategic behaviors II: Manipulation
Ultimatum bargaining - Game
• Pair up with the person sitting next to you
• Select one to be principal, the other to be agent
• Task: Principal can divide $10 between principal and agent. Write down your offer on a piece of paper and hand it to the agent
• The agent can choose to: Accept or decline (which results in zero payoff for each player); no counteroffers
Rationality
• Contrary to the ’common knowledge’ assumption experiments show that principals do not expect agents to behave rationally!
• Usually significant surplus is transferred to the agent and most agents provide high effort despite potential for moral hazard
Rationality (cont.)
• Other examples of irrational decision making …
• Heuristics: Routinized (unconscious) decision making rules to reduce complexity
• A few examples …
Biases
• Anchoring: We give disproportionate weight to the first information we receive and use it to judge subsequent impressions (e.g., last years budget)
• Status-Quo: Comfortable: Minimize psychological risk. The more choices the more people pull the status quo!
• Sunk-Cost: We use irrecoverable investments to justify choices
Biases
• Confirmation: We tend to favor information that support our priors
• Framing: How a problem or question is posed help define its answers. E.g., gains versus losses; people more risk-seeking when problem is framed as avoiding loss
• Forecasting: We tend to be overconfident about our decisions
Recommendations
• Outcome-based incentives: Incentives tied to the results of the agent’s actions not the actions themselves
• Efficiency tradeoffs: Transfer of risk necessary implies compensation
Performance evaluation
• Information about the performance of a program, an organization, a team or an individual
• BUT: Performance = Effort + error
• Things to consider:
• Risk profile; distortion; job design; manipulation …
Recap
• Delegation raises questions of control and verification
• Principal agent theory provides one lens for thinking about these relationships and how incentives can help the informationally disadvantaged principal
• Designing - and implementing! – incentive systems is a complex task that can lead to adverse effects
• It is important to recognize the potential of incentives (pecuniary and non-pecuniary!) but also to critically assess the assumptions we make about individual motivation
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 4
Servant Leadership
Servant Leadership
What is it?
Servant leadership
• Paradox: Service and influence
• Prescriptive rather than descriptive
• Focuses on a set of characteristics or behaviors (?) of leaders tied to ‘putting’ followers first (leader-centric)
Definition
“Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. . . . The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test . . . is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become a servant? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?” (Greenleaf 1970 p. 15)
• Note! Some focus primarily on traits while others see it as behaviors
Exercise: 10 characteristics
• Northouse (2016) lists 10 characteristics of servant leadership
• Review pages 227–229 and discuss the 10 characteristics of servant leadership
• Discuss whether we see similarities between one or more of these characteristics and components of other leadership theories that we have discussed so far (e.g., transformational leadership, charisma, transactional leadership …)
10 characteristics
1. Listening: Acknowledge viewpoints of the followers. Listen first.
2. Empathy: “Standing in the shoes” of followers. See the world from their perspective
3. Healing: Help followers overcome personal problems
4. Awareness: Attention to surrounding environment
5. Persuasion: Communication to convince others to change
10 characteristics (cont.)
6. Conceptualization: Ability to be visionary. Provide clear sense of goals and direction
7. Foresight: Ability to predict future based on experience
8. Stewardship: Accepting responsibility to manage
9. Commitment to the growth of people: Treating followers as unique individuals (e.g., career development)
10.Building community: Establish sense of unity and relatedness
Traits or states?
• Other characteristics? See Figure 10.1 (p. 230)
• As noted by Northouse some tend view servant leadership is made up by traits or behaviors
• Based on the 10 characteristics and the additional characteristics in Figure 10.1 discuss if servant leadership is a fixed (trait-like) or dynamic (changeable behaviors) construct
A model of servant leadership
• Liden et al. (2008) has created a model of servant leadership
• Three components …
• Antecedents: Context and culture; leader attributes; follower receptivity
• Behavior: 7 different behaviors (extensive overlap with 10 characteristics)
• Outcomes: Performance; personal growth; societal impact
Servant leadership behaviors
1. Conceptualization: Ability to be visionary. Provide clear sense of goals and direction
2. Emotional healing: Help followers overcome personal problems
3. Putting followers first: To put others’ needs over personal needs
4. Helping followers grow and succeed: Treating followers as unique individuals (e.g., career development)
5. Behaving ethically: Doing what is right in the right way
6. Empowering: Allowing followers to be independent, involved in decision making etc.
7. Creating value for the community: Create link between organization and the community
Key points
• Servant leadership differs from many other leadership theories by emphasizing behaviors that put followers first
• Servant leadership speaks to altruism among leaders. A strong motivation to help others may therefore be a prerequisite
• It is critical that followers are receptive to servant leadership; otherwise perception of micromanagement
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
• Emphasis on sharing control (empowering leadership)
• Takes context seriously – followers receptivity
• Sound measure (you will see it shortly)
Weaknesses
• Multitude of traits and behaviors – what does a definitive list look like?
• Are we considering traits or behaviors (implications for leader development)
• Prescriptive overtone: Conflict with classical ideas of directing, concern for production etc.
• Conceptualizing not unique to servant leadership
Midterm Review!
PAF 410 WEEK 5.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 5
Dyadic Approaches: Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Agenda
• Recap
• Midterm Debrief
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory: What is it?
• Guest Speaker - CANCELED
Recap
• Servant leadership differs from many other leadership theories by emphasizing behaviors that put followers first
• Servant leadership speaks to altruism among leaders. A strong motivation to help others may therefore be a prerequisite
• It is critical that followers are receptive to servant leadership; otherwise perception of micromanagement
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
What is it?
What is it?
• Leadership as a process
• Focuses on the interactions between a leader and individual followers
• Differs from trait, skills and behavioral perspectives as we have covered them so far
• Differs from theories focusing on the context and contingencies of leadership (next time)
Illustration
Dyadic relationship between leader and follower is the focal point for LMX.
Northouse 2016: 138
Two streams
• Descriptive: What does the relationship look like?
• Prescriptive: What kinds of relationships should the leader build with followers?
Descriptive
• Assumption that leaders treat all followers in a collective way is not realistic
• Differences in the quality of relationships may exist
• Work unit viewed as a series of linkages
Northouse 2016: 139
In-Groups versus Out-Groups
• Leaders form unique relationships with each follower
• Some relationships are of higher quality (the ‘in- group’ ones)
Northouse 2016: 140
In-Groups versus Out-Groups
In-Group
• Expanded role responsibilities (extra-role; beyond job description)
• Based on mutual trust and respect
• More information, influence, and attention
Out-Group
• Formal responsibilities as defined in employment contract
• Formal communication
• Monitoring and incentivizing
How to become in-group member?
• In-group versus out-group status based on …
• How well follower works with the leader and vice versa
• How followers involve themselves in negotiating new role responsibilities and tasks that go beyond formal job description
Implications of LMX
• High-quality exchanges (i.e., more in-group relationships) have been linked to positive outcomes for …
• Leaders, followers, groups (work units), and organizations
• Examples: Job performance, commitment, retention, satisfaction and role clarity
Prescriptive
• Emphasizes that leaders should develop high-quality (in-group) relationships with all followers rather than a few
• 3 phases of leadership making as it develops over time …
• 1: Stranger phase
• 2: Acquaintance phase
• 3: Mature partnership phase
Northouse 2016: 143
The LMX Dilemma: Out-Group Formation
• Why does out-group membership tend to occur? What causes it?
• What, if anything, can be done to prevent or remedy out-group formation?
• Consider the leader, followers, and greater organizational context (such as HR policies and procedures)
Followership
• “Lead, Follow, or Get Out of the Way”…
• “Good” leaders do not guarantee good followership
• Why followership is important • It is required for the implementation of goals and visions
• It is relevant to good LMX in terms of in-group (versus out-group) formation
• Effective followership does not equate to “brown-nosing” or being a “yes man”
Effective Followers
• Assume responsibility for one’s own job security and development independent thinkers
• Balance the courage to serve with the courage to challenge • Avoid obstructionist behavior based on personal motives • Avoid “upward delegation”
• Support organizational goals and strategies • Or have the courage to leave
• Dilemma for organizations: Why are many followers either “passive”, “conformist”, or “alienated”?
Managing “Upward”
• Working with (rather than against) the leader’s style and goals
• Serving as a resource for the leader
• Avoiding thinking in black-and-white terms about the leader
• Building a relationship
• Asking questions and asking for advice or feedback
• Modeling the behavior that you seek
• How might societal cultural factors come into play?
LMX
Strengths
• Intuitive: Relationships matter: some are more developed than others
• Dyadic focus: Leaders and followers play significant roles in shaping relationships
Weaknesses
• Privileged groups and access -> fairness?
• Still not clear how high-quality exchanges are formed?
• Endogeneity
Case: Social Security Administration
Read case 7.3 (pp. 152-154) and discuss the following questions with your group:
1. From a LMX theory point of view, how would you describe Jim’s relationships with his employees?
2. Can you identify an in-group and an out-group?
3. Do you think the trust and respect Jim places in some of his staff are productive or counterproductive? Why?
4. As suggested in the chapter, leadership making recommends that the leader builds high-quality relationships with all of the followers. How would you evaluate Jim’s leadership in regards to leadership making?
PAF 410 Week 6.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 6
Leadership in Different Contexts
Agenda
• Recap
• Leadership in different contexts
Recap
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Dyadic approach; leader-follower relationship in focus
• Descriptive vs prescriptive
• In-group vs out-group relationships
• Temporal development?
Leadership in Different Contexts
Individual and Organizational Characteristics
What is the idea?
• Contextual factors create opportunities or barriers for …
• Leadership emergence • Leadership effectiveness
• Ex. 1: Transformational leadership in organizations with large or small spans of control
• Ex. 2: Transactional leadership in complex organizations like hospitals versus structured organizations like assembly plants
• Other examples …
Illustration
Leadership
Training
Leadership
Behaviors
Leadership
Effectiveness
Context
(Cultural, Structural (Organization; Job),
Individual (Personality, Gender, Tenure)
Contextual Factors
• Many more than we can possibly cover … but relevant ones are:
• Individual characteristics (e.g., personality) and attitudes (e.g., values, motivation, and commitment)
• Job design: Beneficiary contact (Grant HBR)
• Organizational characteristics (e.g., stability/change, structures)
• National characteristics (e.g., culture, economy, political climate/regulation)
Individual characteristics
• Personality …
• Leadership emergence: Openness to new information; Extraversion?
• Ex. Charisma and communication: Are some traits more likely to make the leader succeed in these respects?
• Does follower personality matter? Conscientious people already operate at high levels of motivation (Grant HBR)
Individual attitudes
• Motivation …
• Drive to engage in specific job behaviors
• Expectancy theory (Vroom 1964):
• Capable of performing task
• Task will lead to result
• Result will be rewarded
Individual attitudes (cont.)
• Commitment…
• ”Whether a person has developed a positive attitude regarding a goal” (Northouse 2016: 96)
• Can also be wider …
• Positive affect and identification with work group or entire organization
Individual skills
• Competencies required to master task:
• Technical
• Human
• Conceptual
Situational Leadership
• Basic idea: Leaders should adapt their style according to the competencies and commitment of the followers
• Two general behavioral patterns that can be combined …
• Directive: Giving direction, setting goals, timelines and roles etc.
• Supportive: Social and emotional support
Where have we seen this before?
Situational Leadership (cont.)
Directing
(High Directive – Low
Supportive)
Coaching
(High Directive – High
Supportive)
Supporting
(Low Directive – High
Supportive)
Delegating
(Low Directive – Low
Supportive)
Low Competence
High Commitment
Low/Some
Competence
Low Commitment
Moderate/High
Competence
Variable Commitment
High Competence
High Commitment
DevelopedDeveloping
Adaptation of leadership style
Situational Leadership (cont.)
Path-Goal Theory (Contingency Theory)
• Concerned with follower motivation as a means to enhance goal attainment
• Effect of leadership behaviors (directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented) is contingent on follower and work characteristics
• Grant HBR: Relative job design offers one example …
Path–Goal Theory
• Path–goal theory centers on how leaders motivate followers to accomplish designated goals
• Emphasizes the relationship between
• the leader’s style
• the characteristics of the followers
• the work setting
Path–Goal Theory
Path–Goal Theory
How does Path-Goal Theory Work?
• The leader’s job is to help followers reach their goals by directing, guiding, and coaching them along the way
• Leaders must evaluate task and follower characteristics and adapt leadership style to these
• The theory suggests which style is most appropriate for specific characteristics
Path-Goal Theory
How Customers Can Rally Troops (Grant)
• Point of departure:
• People are motivated by meaningful work
• Leaders can try to highlight importance of work (e.g., through vision statements, stories etc.)
• Beneficiaries (end users) serve as tangible proof of consequences of employees’ effort
• How to capitalize on that?
Relative job design
• The way we structure job and tasks allow for more or less beneficiary contact
• Outsourcing inspiration: Connect frontline workers with beneficiaries
• End users are seen as more credible sources of information than the leader; help bring visions to life
An example
• University fundraising callers (Grant 2011: 98-99)
• Characteristics: Repetitive work, low autonomy, and rude customers
• Intervention: Visit and 5-minute impact speech by one scholarship recipient
• Result: 142 % increase in weekly time spent; 171 % in money raised!
Relative job design (cont.)
• What is going on?
• Impact: Vivid how their work matters
• Appreciation: Employees come to feel valued by end users
• Empathy: Develop a deeper understanding of users’ problems and needs that in turn fosters a commitment to help
Organizational characteristics
• Stability vs change of the internal environment of a collective entity
• Adaptive leadership: How leaders encourage people to deal with problems and changes in their environment
• Identify challenges; engage in behaviors that encourage a holding environment in which people can work with the challenge at hand
Leadership in Different Contexts
National and Cultural Characteristics
Contextual Factors
• Many more than we can possibly cover …
• Economy
• Political climate
• Today: Focus on culture
• Within and between country variation!
How do you define culture?
National characteristics: Culture
• Collection of related ideas
• Definition: Learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of people (Northouse 2016: 428)
• Shared qualities of a group that make them unique
Exercise: Cultural dimensions
• For each of the nine cultural dimensions outlined in the GLOBE project (pp. 431–434) discuss the following questions …
1. What characterizes the cultural dimension?
2. How can the cultural dimension create opportunities or barriers for one or more of the main leadership strategies we have discussed (transformational leadership, transactional leadership, servant leadership, leader-member exchange …)
Be prepared to present your answers
Dimensions of Culture
• Hofstede/GLOBE: 9 Dimensions
• Uncertainty avoidance: Use of rules to make things more predictable
• Power distance: Whether power should be shared unequally
• Institutional collectivism: Societal collective action
• Gender egalitarianism: Gender roles and equality
Dimensions of Culture
• In-group collectivism: Pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in org and families
• Assertiveness: Determined, confrontational and aggressive
• Future orientation: Planning and investing in the future
• Performance orientation: Reward group members for performance
• Humane orientation: Reward people for being altruistic, generous, and caring
Hofstede
• https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
Clusters
Northouse 2016:
435
How do you feel about cultural clustering?
Characteristics of clusters
Northouse 2016:
436
Global leadership behaviors
1. Charismatic-value based: Ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance. Visionary
2. Team-oriented: Team building and common purpose. Collaborative and integrative
3. Participative: Involving others in making and implementing decisions
Global leadership behaviors (cont.)
4. Humane-oriented: Emphasis on being supportive, considerate, and compassionate. Sensitive to others
5. Autonomous: Independent and individualistic leadership
6. Self-protective: Ensure safety and security of the leader and the group. Self-centered and status conscious
Culture and Leadership
• Basic idea: Culture defines framework within which some leadership behaviors are more likely to be perceived as legitimate than others
• E.g., in the US a high performance orientation may pave the way for transactional leadership behaviors. You are rewarded based on your performance
• Power distance: Participative leadership more likely to flourish in low power distance countries like Denmark
Case: A Challenging Workplace
Read case 16.1 (pp. 452-454) and discuss the following questions with your group:
1. What similarities and differences can you identify between North American and Japanese working style?
2. In what way did this company reflect the characteristics of other Confucian Asia countries?
3. Why do you think Samira was not seen as a team player?
4. What universal leadership attributes did Samira exhibit?
5. What other suggestions would you have for Samira in this situation?
Questions?
PAF 410 - WEEK 1.pdf
PAF 410 Building Leadership Skills
Session 1
Introduction
Leadership: What is it and why is it important?
Agenda
• Introductions: Who am I & who are you all?
• Presentation of course (main components and expectations)
• Leadership: What is it and why is it important?
• Break (15 min)
• Power and ethics in leadership
Bio • Bennett Dwosh. Email: [email protected]
• Faculty Associate, School of Public Affairs
• Assistant Director, Corporate Development – ASU Enterprise Partners
• Manage the operations of the ASU EdTech Accelerator, an initiative that connects early-stage educational technology companies to ASU pilot opportunities to validate edtech effectiveness in exchange for equity considerations.
• Interests in transformational leadership and the effect of leaders in organizational performance across sectors
Our shared goals
• Increase your knowledge of core leadership concepts and theories so that you can explain their assumptions, logics, and objectives.
• Apply leadership concepts and theories to cases and real-world scenarios so that you can use them to analyze, understand and offer solutions to problems faced by leaders.
• Develop your own leadership skills including the abilities to effectively diagnose problems, communicate clearly about organizational goals, motivate others, manage diversity, and drive organizational change.
How we get there
• High expectations!
• Instructor: • Prepared; start and end class on time
• Constructive and timely feedback on assignments
• Highlight key points from assigned materials and supplement with insights from latest research
• Stimulate discussion and critical thinking about concepts and theories (e.g., through cases)
• I am here to facilitate the best environment possible for you to learn! I am flexible in setting up office hour appointments as YOU need.
How we get there
• High expectations!
• You:
• Prepared (read and think about the materials!); arrive on time
• Participate actively in class (cases, discussions etc.)
• Seek out information when in doubt: Ask questions, other class members, feedback.
• Complete assignments in due time (quizzes and papers)
• Late work and plagiarism will not be accepted!
Assignments
Assignment Weight in Final
Grade
Due Date
Participation 25% Ongoing
One-Time Current Event Lead & Weekly
Current Event Discussions
10% Weekly
Leadership Interview Assignment 20% November 21
Midterm 20% November 13
Final Exam 25% December 5
Scale
Grade Low High
A + 98 100
A 93 97.9
A - 90 92.9
B + 87 89.9
B 83 86.9
B - 80 82.9
C + 77 79.9
C 70 76.9
D 60 69.9
E 0 59.9
The Textbook
Leadership Interview
• Objectives: “Triangulate Leadership”
• Components:
• Identify and connect with a leader
• Develop interview questions for your conversations
• Reflect on the interview and analyze the applicability in relation to the ideas and theories discussed throughout the semester
• Additional guidelines will be provided in the coming week
Midterm and Final
• Cumulative exams
• Two parts
• Multiple-choice questions
• Essay questions
• = if you are prepared for class, complete assignments and reflect on feedback, you will be well prepared for the exam!
Questions or comments?
Leadership What is it and why is it important?
Significance
• Leadership Performance
• 30 % of employees are engaged (Chamorro-Premuzic)
• 50 % quit their job because of their manager (Chamorro-Premuzic)
• Collective action problems; align interest; rules and guidance
• Outcomes versus process (cf. ethics in leadership)
What is it?
• Leadership is …
Finish sentence and write it down. Present it to the person sitting next to you and discuss similarities or dissimilarities in your definitions.
Main perspectives
• Personality/traits: Special innate characteristics or qualities
• Behavior/act: Things that leaders do to affect organizational outcomes
• Skills: Capabilities that leaders need to be effective
• = complex phenomenon with multiple dimensions
Northouse 2016: 9
Definition
• Northouse: “… a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal”. (2016, 6)
• Four elements of leadership
• Process: Interactive; available to everyone
• Influence: How leaders affect followers (cf. ethics in leadership)
• Group: Context for leadership
• Common goals: Mutual purpose (cf. ethics in leadership)
What is it?
• Leadership is …
Go back to your definition of leadership. Discuss with the person sitting next you in what ways the four components of leadership as …
a process
involves influence
occurs within a group context
attends to common goals
… are represented in your definitions. Discuss whether – and if so the ways in which – you would revise your definition to include the four components.
Assigned vs emergent leadership
Assigned
• Based on occupation of formal position in organizational context
• Department heads
• CEOs
• Team leaders
Emergent
• Origins from the perception of others
• Emerges over time
• Communication behaviors (initiating new ideas, seeking others’ opinions)
• Traits (dominance, intelligence, confidence)
Leadership Power and ethics
Power
• Power
• The capacity or potential to influence others
• The ability to affect others’ beliefs, attitudes and actions
• Clear link to ethics
• Good: Get followers to work together to reach shared goals
• Bad: Coercion to benefit special interests
Positional power: Derived from office or rank (cf. assigned leadership)
Personal power: Derived from being seen as likeable or knowledgeable (cf.
emergent leadership)
NB! The six bases of power are not mutually exclusive. Northouse 2016: 11
Power, ethics and leadership
• Influence dimension: Leaders have an impact on the lives of followers
• Differences in power and control: Create ethical responsibility for leaders
• Sensitive to followers’ own interests and needs
• Establish and reinforce organizational values (an ethical climate)
Ethics
• Ethics concern:
• Values and morals an individual or society ascribes as desirable or appropriate
• The virtuousness of individuals and their motives
• Ethical theories:
• Conduct and character
Conduct: Consequences
Northouse 2016: 334
Conduct: Consequences
• Ethical egoism: Create greatest good for oneself (regardless of how it affects others)
• Utilitarianism: Create greatest good for greatest number
• E.g., distribution of scarce resources to maximize benefits to the greatest number of people while hurting the fewest
• Altruism: Show concern for the best interest of others (even when it runs contrary to own interests)
Conduct: Duties
This perspective …
• Considers not only the consequences but also whether a given action itself is good
• Focuses on leaders’ actions and moral obligations to do the right thing (e.g., telling the truth, keeping promises and being fair)
Character
• Focus on who leaders and followers are as people
• Not what to do, but what to be
• Present in disposition but practice makes good values habitual (e.g., fairness, honesty, integrity, justice, courage, humility)
What should leaders do?
Northouse 2016: 341
Respect others
• Treat others as ends not means to leaders’ personal goals
• Respect other people’s values and decisions (e.g., listen closely to followers)
• Allow others to be themselves and understand their needs and desires (empathy)
• Value individual differences (tolerance)
Serve others
• Help others pursue their legitimate interests (e.g., mentoring)
• Clarify, nurture and integrate the vision with followers
• Make decisions that are beneficial to followers’ welfare
Show justice
• Be concerned with issues of fairness and justice in decision making (e.g., distribution of benefits; distributive justice)
• Treat followers in equal manners
• Provide clear and reasonable arguments for special considerations
Manifest honesty
• Be authentic as a leader (credible commitment)
• Tell the truth and do not deceive followers or customers/users
• Acknowledge and reward honest behavior in the organization
Build community
• Concern for common good (not special interests)
• Take into account different purposes of the organization
• Do not coerce followers to ignore their intentions in order to benefit the leader’s personal goals
Dark side: Destructive behaviors
• Destructive and toxic sides of leadership: When leaders uses leadership for purely personal ends
• Coercion, derailment, unethical or counterproductive behaviors
• Often coexist with bright sides
• 30-60 % of leaders act destructively (Chamarro-Premuzic)
Case: Wells Fargo
• Read article ‘The Leadership Blind Spots at Wells Fargo’
• Outline the timeline of the scandal and identify unethical behaviors as described in the text
• Discuss the following questions with the person(s) sitting next to you:
• Which power relations are at play in Wells Fargo?
• Which kind of moral reasoning did the top management express? (hint: consequences versus duties)
• Did the leadership act ethically in crafting a healthy banking culture? If yes, why? If not, what should they have done differently? (hint: compare timeline and the actions of the leadership with the virtues emphasized by the ethical leadership perspective)
