Graduate Assistance

Of the many issues facing our society, global warming has the attention of most high profile change agents and millions of ordinary citizens. Why? Many people in the country now understand how dramatic the climate is changing and the impact that change has on life style choices and even the future existence of the earth. Therefore, the responsibility to secure the future is shared by most for the personal benefit of all. This is the context that should be used to incorporate the needed change to embrace cultural competence for improved literacy instruction. Few will dispute that cultural competence is becoming more important to practice as the enrollment of school aged children who are culturally and linguistically different increases. These students are categorized as different from the U. S. mainstream because of their ethnic origin, the language spoken at home, and the social class background experiences (Au & Raphael, 2000). This change in student profiles provides the reason to transform classroom curricula and to help develop culturally competent teachers who can meet the literacy needs of all children. Simply put, without hard work towards educational transformation in our society, we can grow apart. If growing apart is unappealing, then why not explore ways in which we can grow together as a nation? This paper addresses ways educational transformation can occur through a most influential person in the field of education— the literacy teacher. Eighty-five percent or the vast majority of teachers in the United States are white, middle-class, and monolingual English speakers (Kunjufu, 2002; Nieto, 1996). In most cases, their lives differ profoundly from the lives of their students. Although information gathering techniques are uncomplicated to develop, it is more challenging for teachers to learn how to interpret these findings and use them to positively impact students’ literacy achievement.

To make productive use of the gathered information, Derman-Sparks reports that teachers should avoid the “Pygmalion effect” to help them become culturally competent literacy instructors (as cited in Payne, 1991). The Pygmalion effect involves the teacher’s expectations. Often these expectations are communicated in verbal and nonverbal ways and many times without the teacher’s knowledge or ill intent. Unfortunately in some instances, these actions can influence children’s behavior and performance. In effect, children mirror the teacher’s expectations. When those expectations are negative, the response of students is also negative. Derman-Sparks also finds that racism or sexism in the classroom “affects kids’ ability to be successful because some of the energy they could use for learning, gets drained as they defend themselves emotionally” (p. 18). When teachers treat all students as competent, however, the students are likely to demonstrate competence (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Nieto, 1996). Teachers who teach to the highest standards provide academic challenges for their students and encourage all students to achieve. When teachers build on students’ prior knowledge or schemata and then provide appropriate scaffolding, students can move more easily from what they know to what they need to know. Building students’ prior knowledge and experiences provides opportunities for authentic learning (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Floden, 1991) and also improves student engagement (Miron & Lauria, 1998; Nieto, 1994). This teaching practice requires that teachers have an in-depth knowledge not only of the subject matter, but also of their students. To be effective, educators must invest time developing their understanding of literacy instruction as well as their awareness of their students’ cultures, backgrounds, and experiences. This comprehensive level of understanding is referred to as cultural competence and it indicates a willingness to accept alternative perspectives about what things mean (Lynch &

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Culturally Competent Literacy Instruction

Hanson, 1992). A growing body of research describes the knowledge bases needed for being culturally competent teachers in a diverse classroom. In addition, more specific knowledge bases in the area of literacy have been determined. Abt-Perkins and Rosen (2000) describe several knowledge bases for Language Arts and English teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Their list includes self-knowledge, cultural knowledge, linguistic knowledge, and methods for multicultural literacy education. In addition, Jackson (1998) emphasizes knowledge of home- school relationships in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms. SSEELLFF--KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE Before teachers can address the cultural and literacy needs of their students, they must first become aware of the influence of their own culture. Abt- Perkins and Rosen (2000) suggest that self- knowledge can be gained through “inquiry into cultural consciousness so that teachers discover their own assumptions and stereotypes that can hinder culturally responsive teaching” (p. 254). Further they suggest the need for teachers to “critique their own values pertaining to languages and dialects other than standard English, what counts as good literature, and the role they can play as English/language arts teachers in the success of students from diverse cultures in the schooling process” (p. 254). A teacher’s culture, language, social interests, goals, cognitions, and values— especially if different from the students’—could conceivably create a barrier to understanding what is best for children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Orange & Horowitz, 1999). Teachers can break through this barrier by reflecting on their self-knowledge and by learning to acknowledge and respect their students’ language, literacy, literature, and cultural ways of knowing. The following questions, developed by the first author and Howard (1999), may assist teachers in being aware of their self-knowledge and further reflecting on their backgrounds and dispositions so that they can more effectively work with students from diverse cultures.

1. What are my race, class, language, religion, and other important identities?

2. What are some of the traditions, objects, or foods that symbolize my family?

3. What are my earliest memories of racial differences?

4. When have I felt afraid or uneasy about a person or group of people?

5. When have I felt that I was a target of discrimination?

6. When do I feel that I know more than a person from a different culture?

7. Do I feel a sense of responsibility to reach out to a person from another culture?

8. Is color the first thing that I see in another and the last thing I want to talk about?

9. What community events have I attended of people from another culture?

CCUULLTTUURRAALL KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE Cultural knowledge is an understanding of the importance of culture in affecting students’ perceptions, self-esteem, values, classroom behavior, and learning. According to Abt-Perkins and Rosen, “Research in culturally relevant and responsible instruction clearly shows that knowledge of students’ family, community and socioethnic cultures—their languages, literacy practices, and values—can help teachers address the interests and build on the skills of their students” (2000, p. 254). Celebrating the cultural similarities among diverse cultural groups has been promoted by some educators as a way of uniting all cultural groups in the United States. However, it is not the similarities among the various groups that challenge people’s thinking, behavior, and beliefs; it is the cultural differences. Learning to acknowledge and understand cultural differences should be an ongoing process in a diverse society. The use of ethnographic inquiry enables teachers to learn about cultural differences from the point of view of their students and the communities in which they live. It also can help teachers develop an understanding and appreciation of diverse backgrounds and lifestyles (Spradley, 1979). LLIINNGGUUIISSTTIICC KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE To effectively reach all students, educators need to understand how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their classroom learning. They also need to know how second-language learning affects literacy acquisition. Although standard academic English is

the language of instruction in most public schools, it is not always the language of the children in the classroom. Many second-language learners from a wide array of languages have difficulty meeting the academic standards of the classroom, understanding the instruction, and engaging in active learning when the language of instruction is only English. In addition, when children speak varieties of English other that standard academic English, they too may encounter misunderstandings and miscommunications. Acceptance of the home language of students and identification of a process to help students move to a more standard form of English is an important part of literacy development. Delpit (1993) recommends that while educators should recognize and validate students’ home language, its use should not limit students’ potential. Au adds, “With regard to school literacy learning, proficiency in standard American English should be seen as a goal, not as a prerequisite to becoming literate” (1993, p. 129). KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE OOFF MMUULLTTIICCUULLTTUURRAALL MMAATTEERRIIAALLSS AANNDD LLIITTEERRAACCYY MMEETTHHOODDSS The use of multicultural children’s literature is one of the most powerful ways for schools to honor students’ culture and foster cross-cultural understanding. Teachers also can use multicultural literature depicting children’s worlds as a means to bridge home and school cultures. The work of Spears-Bunton (1992) and Willis and Johnson (2000) emphasizes the use of multicultural literature to improve student self-esteem, involvement and engagement, and academic performance in literacy. In each of these studies, the level of involvement and engagement of African-American and Latino students increased when culturally relevant literature and instruction were used in classrooms during English lessons. In addition, the power relations in the class shifted as African-American and Latino students, once reticent to respond, became vocal leaders of discussion. KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE OOFF HHOOMMEE--SSCCHHOOOOLL RREELLAATTIIOONNSSHHIIPPSS Another important aspect or teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students is knowledge of home and school relationships. Educators need to include parents and caregivers in their children’s literacy development. They also need to examine any preconceived notion they may have regarding home

literacy. For example, Auerbach’s review of ethnographic studies of family literacy reveals that educators often hold untrue assumptions about family literacy situations. Further, she reports multiple studies offering counterevidence that contests the idea that economically disadvantaged, minority, and immigrant families disvalue literacy development. She adds that “those families most marginalized frequently see literacy and schooling as the key to mobility, to changing their status and preventing their children from suffering as they have” (1995, p. 15). Conversely, however, some families of color do not trust schools and teachers. Such lack of trust often is born in part out of their personal experience. Parents may feel intimidated by school representatives or ashamed of their language, cultural or class differences; they also may have misunderstandings about the school system. A common notion for some parents of color is to think that the school is and should be primarily responsible for the education of children. Unfortunately, these parents believe that education is the key to ascension from poverty, but do not usually look at it as a realistic hope. As a result, little interest in school is shown as this belief is mostly viewed in an abstract form (Payne, 2005). CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN Culturally competent instruction at the very least is the acquisition of all of these knowledge bases. These knowledge bases—self-knowledge, cultural knowledge, linguistic knowledge, knowledge of methods and materials, and knowledge of home- school relationships—are extremely important in helping educators address the literacy needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. They help teachers develop a collaborative and culturally sensitive learning environment that encourages meaningful, engaged learning for all students in their classrooms. School administrators and classroom teachers should acquire cultural competence through the acquisition of these knowledge bases from teacher education programs or staff/professional development opportunities. As a result these culturally competent teachers would be highly trained to provide informed literacy instruction so that their students achieve academic success. What better way to grow together as a nation than to validate all children by meeting their literacy needs through culturally competent instruction?

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Abt-Perkins, D., & Rosen, L. (2000). Preparing English teachers to teach diverse student populations: Beliefs, challenges,

proposal for change. English Education, 32(4), 251-266. Au, K. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Au, K., & Raphael, T. (2000). Equity and literacy in the next millennium. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(1) 170-188. Auerbach, E. (1995). Which way for family literacy: Intervention or empowerment? In L. Morrow (Ed.), Family literacy:

Connections in schools and communities (pp. 11-27). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Delpit, L. (1993). The politics of teaching literate discourse. In T. Perry & J. W. Fraser (Eds.), Freedom’s plow: Teaching

in the multicultural classroom (pp. 285-295). New York: Routledge. Delpit, L. (1995). Education in a multicultural society: Our future’s greatest challenge. In L. Delpit, Other people’s

children: Cultural conflict in the classroom (pp. 167-183). New York: New Press. Floden, R. E. (1991). What teachers need to know about learning. In M. M. Kennedy (Ed.), Teaching academic subjects

to diverse learners. (pp. 181-202). New York: Columbia University Teachers College. Howard, G. R. (1999). We can’t teach what we don't know: White teacher, multiracial schools. New York: Teachers

College, Columbia University. Jackson, F. R. (1998). Seven strategies to support a culturally responsive pedagogy. In M. F. Opitz (Ed.), Literacy

instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students: A collection of articles and commentaries (pp. 57- 63). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Kunjufu, J. (2002). Black students middle class teachers. Chicago, Illinois: African American Images. Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (1992). Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children

and their families. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brooks Publishing Company. Miron, L. & Lauria, M. (1998). Student voice as agency: Resistance and accommodations in inner-city schools.

Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 29(2), 189-213. Nieto, S. (1994). Lessons from students on creating a chance to dream. Harvard Educational Review, 64(4), 392-426. Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of education. White Plains, New York: Longman. Orange, C., & Horowitz, R. (1999). An academic standoff: Literacy task preferences of African American and Mexican

American male adolescents versus teacher-expected preferences. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 43(1), 28-39.

Payne, L. (1991). Avoid the multicultural “tourist trap.” School Administrator, 48(4), 17-22. Payne, R. (2005). A framework for understanding poverty. Highland, TX: AHA Process Spears-Bunton, L. (1992). Literature, literacy, and resistance to cultural domination. In C. Kinzer & D. Leu (Eds.),

Literacy, research and practice: Views from many perspectives (pp. 393-401). Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference.

Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning. Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2007). The culturally responsive teacher. Educational Leadership, 64(6), 28-33. Willis, A., & Johnson, J. (2000, September). “A horizon of possibilities”: A critical framework for transforming

multiethnic literature instruction. Reading Online, 4(3). Retrieved May 13, 2007 from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/willis/index.html

This FLaRE Professional Paper was developed (June, 2007) by the following FLaRE Faculty Fellows (in alphabetical order):

Thyria Greene Ansley, Ph.D., Florida A & M University Lunetta Williams, Ph.D., University of North Florida

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and

administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Working with English Language Learners

He who knows no foreign language does not truly know his own. ~ attributed to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

TTOODDAAYY’’SS CCHHAALLLLEENNGGEE Literacy is a major focus in education today. As the students in our country and state become more diverse, providing effective reading instruction for all becomes more complex. The Florida Department of Education (FLDOE) reported that during the 2003-2004 school year, 282,066 English language learners attended public schools and 220 native languages other than English were spoken (FLDOE, 2004). Meeting the instructional needs of this increasing number of English language learners has become a challenge for educators. There are two essential questions teachers of English language learners should consider when planning for instruction: • How do I provide effective language and

reading instruction that aligns to the diverse needs of my students?

• How do I create an optimal learning environment to foster English language acquisition while respecting students’ heritage language?

EENNGGLLIISSHH LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE LLEEAARRNNEERRSS English language learners are a diverse group of students with varying strengths, needs, and educational experiences. Students come to school with different literacy and language skills in their heritage language, which may have an impact on their acquisition of a second language (oral and written). Students who are literate in their heritage language may be more successful in transferring their literacy abilities to English, whereas students who have difficulties reading in their heritage language may struggle in both languages.

According to research in language development, there is a continuum beginning with basic conversational skills and extending to academic language proficiency (Cummins, 1981). More specifically, Cummins described this continuum ranging from interpersonal communication to cognitive academic language proficiency. As English language learners begin to acquire the second language, they are developing their interpersonal communication. Proficiency of interpersonal communication takes two to three years for English language learners (Williams, 2001). Interpersonal communication may include describing a story read aloud, requesting assistance, engaging in simple conversations, and expressing feelings. This beginning communicative level is typically context embedded and cognitively undemanding (Williams, 2001). The other end of the language development continuum is cognitive academic language proficiency. In order for English language learners to be successful academically, they need to acquire this level of language, which takes 5-10 years to achieve (Cummins, 1981). With this in mind, how do teachers scaffold reading instruction as English language learners develop along the continuum? OORRAALL AANNDD WWRRIITTTTEENN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN It is possible to learn to read at a high level of proficiency in a second language, just as it is possible to become a proficient speaker of a second language (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1998). However, this is more likely true of learners who are literate and orally proficient in their native language. In a transitional language program, English language

learners are taught how to read in their heritage language while acquiring oral proficiency in English and then subsequently being taught to extend their skills to reading in English (Learning First Alliance, 1998). Transitional programs are more likely to be effective if appropriate resources are available, such as heritage language teachers and appropriate reading materials. If these resources are unavailable, English language learners should receive their initial literacy instruction in English with support focusing on building oral proficiency. If English language learners are to develop reading and writing skills that are comparable to those of their English-speaking peers, they must develop literacy skills as they continue to increase their oral English language proficiency (Hickman-Davis, Kouzekanani, Linan-Thompson, & Vaughn, 2003). There are a variety of instructional practices teachers can use to make instruction meaningful as students acquire the English language. It is important to keep in mind the students’ level of proficiency since varying degrees of support may be needed. Badia (1996) suggested the following techniques when teaching English language learners to read and develop oral language: • The Natural Approach – Teachers provide

students with meaningful experiences by learning new concepts and vocabulary through context. Students use visuals, such as objects, pictures, models, etc. to make connections.

• Language Experience Approach – Teachers use the students’ language and a shared experience to develop reading and writing. Students create a story orally based on a common experience as the teacher records the story. Students and the teacher read the story aloud, often rereading over a period of time.

• Activating Background Knowledge – Eliciting background knowledge before introducing the content provides students with opportunities to make connections and construct meaning.

• Using Realia – Using real objects through authentic experiences before introducing content will help students make connections to the lesson. Examples may include cooking a meal or growing a plant. This experience should relate to content of the text or instruction.

• Using Audiovisual Materials – Using Films,

DVD’s, and CD’s can supplement instruction and provide another venue for reinforcement of the new concept or content.

• Using Graphic Organizers – Using visual representations to introduce concepts can assist students making the abstract more concrete. Examples of graphic organizers include webs, Venn diagrams, and concept maps.

• Incorporating Interactive Instructional Practices – Structuring students into learning communities can foster oral language development. Teachers can guide student interaction through facilitated dialogue, think- pair and share, jigsawing, and brainstorming. Instructional conversations offer students opportunities to use, practice, and reinforce their oral language.

• Read-Alouds – Reading stories or poetry aloud provide students with a good model of oral language. In addition, the interactions and discussions throughout this activity can guide the students’ understanding of the text or concept.

English language learners may benefit from the same reading instruction as native English learners. However, curriculum and instruction may need to be adapted in order for the content to be comprehensible. Integrating various teaching techniques that support oral language and literacy will scaffold students’ learning by providing connections to existing knowledge. CCRREEAATTIINNGG OOPPTTIIMMAALL LLEEAARRNNIINNGG EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTSS Teachers may provide ELL students meaningful instruction by creating optimal learning environments based upon social constructivist theory, such as that of Vygotsky, which fosters learning by modeling, scaffolding, and helping students to construct meaning (Meyer, 2000). The goal of creating an optimal learning environment is to provide ELL students with opportunities to become independent thinkers and problem solvers. Meyer identified four “loads” that can hinder meaningful instruction for ELL students: cognitive

load, culture load, language load, and learning load. Being aware of these potential barriers can enable teachers to plan and provide instruction that focuses on reducing the barriers and truly meets the learning needs of their students.

Cognitive Load refers to the number of new concepts or vocabulary words being taught or embedded in a lesson or activity. ELL students can be inundated with unknown terminology, concepts, and vocabulary throughout the school day. To minimize this overload, teachers should assess students’ background knowledge with the purpose of learning what concepts the students know. Through this assessment, teachers can develop clear focus lessons connecting the unknown to the known. Culture Load refers to the relationship between language and culture and the amount of cultural knowledge required to comprehend oral and written language. English language learners need to learn the explicit meaning of words in English as well as the cultural interpretation of the words. To improve comprehension for ELL students, reading and vocabulary instruction should be embedded in authentic literacy experiences in order for these students to make culturally relevant and meaningful (Meyer, 2000). Language Load refers to the number of unfamiliar words encountered as an English language learner reads a text or listens to a teacher speak. The student’s level of English proficiency will determine the extent to which the teacher needs to differentiate instruction and scaffold the student’s learning. An effective way to improve understanding is “uploading” students with rich, engaging discussions and active demonstrations before reading texts. Providing different levels of

texts on the same topic can also help adapt instruction to meet the learning needs of English language learners (Meyer, 2000). Learning Load represents what teachers expect students to accomplish in the process of learning English. This includes how the students will receive instruction and how they will respond to a lesson or activity. To facilitate students’ participation in the use of the new language, visual aids and demonstrations may be necessary to activate students’ background knowledge. Awareness of students’ learning styles and needs can also help teachers ease the learning load (Meyer, 2000).

By creating an environment that promotes meaningful learning, students are more likely to be motivated and willing to take a risk. Working on reducing the cognitive, culture, language, and learning “loads” can facilitate growth and development of oral language and literacy. CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN To become a successful reader in a second language, students need appropriate reading instruction that meets their individual language and literacy needs. As English language learners acquire their second language orally and in writing, teachers must assess their level of proficiency, plan instruction that is comprehensible and appropriate, scaffold and support their learning, and offer opportunities for meaningful interactions and experiences.

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Badia, A. (1996). Language arts through ESOL: A guide for ESOL teachers and administrators. Tallahassee,

FL: Florida Department of Education. Burns, S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. (1998). Preventing reading disabilities in young children. Washington, DC:

National Academy Press. Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language

minority students. In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Los Angeles: California State University, Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center.

Florida Department of Education. (2004). 2003-2004 LEP student count by language. Retrieved May 26, 2004,

from http://www.firn.edu/doe/omsle/omsstat.htm Hickman-Davis, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Kouzekanani, K., & Vaughn, S. (2003). Effectiveness of

supplemental reading instruction for second grade English language learners with reading disabilities. The Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 221-237.

Learning First Alliance. (1998). Every child reading: An action plan. Retrieved May 26, 2004, from

http://learningfirst.org/publications/reading/ Meyer, L. (2000). Barriers to meaningful instruction for English learners. Theory into Practice, 39(4), 228-236. Williams, J. A. (2001). Classroom conversations: Opportunities to learn for ESL students in mainstream

classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 54(8), 750-757.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and

administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 2 Revised July 2006

Definition of Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency

Phonemic awareness — the in-the-head ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words. Phonics — the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. Fluency — the ability to read with accuracy, expression/phrasing, appropriate rate, and comprehension.

Key Elements of Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency Phonemic awareness instruction may include: segmenting, blending, deleting, identifying, or categorizing phonemes (NRP, 2000). Systematic phonics instruction should be integrated with other reading instruction to create a balanced reading program (NRP, 2000). Fluency is not the final goal in any overall reading program, but a gateway to comprehension. Fluent reading frees resources to process meaning (Allington, 1983, Fluency: The Neglected Reading Goal in Reading Instruction, The Reading Teacher, 36, 556-561). Accuracy refers to the ability to decode and comprehend words with few or no errors. Once accurate, fluency develops through plentiful opportunities for practice in which the task can be performed at a high rate of success (Zutell, 1998, Developing a Procedure for Assessing Oral Reading Fluency: Establishing Validity and Reliability, Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Convention of International Reading Association at Toronto, Canada). Expression refers to a particular manner of wording and pacing in speech to convey meaning. Fluent readers use appropriate tone and pitch in reading, and have the ability to group words appropriately into meaningful grammatical units. (T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges, 1995, The Literacy Dictionary, p.79)

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 3

Definitions

Accuracy: “The ability to identify letter-sound correspondences, blending patterns, spelling patterns, and word pronunciation correctly in order to decode” (A. Manzo & U. Manzo, 1993, Literacy Disorders Holistic Diagnostic and Remediation, p. 93). Automaticity: The ability to read words rapidly with little attention required to the word’s appearance (L. C. Ehri, 1998, Grapheme-phoneme Knowledge is Essential for Learning to Read Words in English. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy, pp. 3-40). Decode: “To analyze spoken or graphic symbols of a familiar language to ascertain their intended meaning. To learn to read, one must learn the conventional code in which something is written in order to decode the written message. In reading practice, the term is used primarily to refer to word identification rather than to identification of units of meaning” (T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges, 1995, The Literacy Dictionary, p. 55). Fluency: The ability to read quickly, smoothly, easily, and automatically without conscious awareness to the separate components of reading, such as decoding and word identification (M. S. Meyer and R. H. Felton, 1999, Repeated Reading to Enhance Fluency: Old Approaches and New Directions, Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 283-306). Inner Voice: Internal or silent speech one “hears” mentally while reading (F. Smith, 1973, Psycholinguistics and Reading). Phonemic Awareness: “The awareness of sounds (phonemes) that make up spoken words. Such awareness does not appear when young children learn to talk; the ability is not necessary for speaking and understanding spoken language. However, in order to learn the correspondences between letters and sounds, one must have an understanding that words are made up of phonemes. There are approximately 44 sounds presented by 26 letters or letter clusters in the English alphabet” (Harris & Hodges, p. 185). Phonics: “The rules or, more accurately, the generalizations that help readers understand what conditions certain letters or letter combinations will make certain sounds” (K. Beers, 2003, When Kids Can’t Read, What Teachers Can Do, p. 223). Rate Of Reading: “The speed at which oral or silent reading occurs, measured in words per minute” (Smith, 1973, p. 39). Regression: “A backward eye movement in reading when reading continuous text. The practice of rereading or involuntary going over material already read. Regression is a very common problem which handicaps reading efficiency” (Manzo & Manzo , p.382). Speed of Comprehension: “The rapidity with which one understands what is read, usually when reading silently, and is measured in relation to the number of passages successfully understood, not in words per minute” (Harris & Hodges, p. 239). Subvocalization: “The movements of the lips, tongue, and larynx during silent reading which can hinder fluent silent reading” (Harris & Hodges, p. 247). Vocalization: “Causing the vocal folds to vibrate during speech; Voicing” (Harris & Hodges, p. 275). Word Recognition: The process of determining the pronunciation and the meaning of a written word that has been previously encountered (Gunning, 1996, Creating Reading Instruction for All Children).

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 4 Revised July 2006

Procedures for Most Fluency Lessons:

• Give students copies of an appropriately leveled passage consisting of 50 - 200 words. • Read the text aloud while students read silently. Repeat as necessary. • Discuss the content. Ask how you used your voice, rate, and expression to help convey meaning. • Use “echo” or “choral” reading for students to read aloud. • When approaching proficiency, have students practice in pairs. • Share aloud as a group. • Give specific oral praise for reading proficiency.

Learner Modifications

Students for whom reading is difficult need many opportunities to experience the thoughts, vocabulary, and ideas of any content area. Since content knowledge is learned through rich, meaningful language, students do not need to be proficient in English to take advantage of learning content material (Au, 1993, Literacy Instruction in Multicultural Settings). Struggling readers can learn from audiobooks, easy to read text, and taped material specific to content knowledge. Texts are also available which scaffold information in the content areas and help to build background knowledge for understanding new concepts.

Content Area Considerations

• Help students with content specific vocabulary by creating word walls or word banks to encourage instant recognition of difficult words used repeatedly in units.

• Read the first part of the text aloud and have students follow along to allow them the opportunity to hear how informational text should be read.

• Allow students to works in pairs or groups as they practice reading aloud. • Provide supplemental texts within the content area on various reading levels to allow practice in

reading fluently.

Gettysburg Address

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation conceived in

Liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great

civil war testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure…

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 5

Phrase-cued Weekly Practice Sessions Practice sessions should take about 10 minutes a day and should be done several times a week. Passages should be selected based on each student’s instructional reading level. Make two copies of the passage, marking the natural phrase boundaries on one copy and leaving the other copy unmarked. Day 1 1. Select and distribute a marked text passage (100-250 words) written at the reading level of a

group of students. 2. Explain the format, informing students that good phrasing will improve their comprehension;

and with practice, they will become familiar with reading from marked text. 3. Demonstrate by reading the marked text aloud as students use their copies to follow along

silently. This can be done 2-3 times. 4. Encourage students to comment on what they observed about your phrasing and expression. 5. Have students use the marked text to read aloud chorally. They will have additional opportunities

to practice throughout the week. Day 2 1. Demonstrate by reading the marked text aloud. 2. Have students chorally read aloud from copies of their marked text two or three times. 3. Encourage students to comment on their reading and give them your feedback. 4. Discuss the content of the passage. 5. Have students practice reading aloud the marked text in pairs or small groups. 6. Encourage them to exchange constructive feedback. Day 3 1. Have students use the marked text to read aloud chorally. 2. Follow up by having students practice reading aloud in pairs or small groups. 3. You may wish to have students tape-record themselves, so they can assess their own reading. 4. Encourage students to find opportunities during the day to practice reading their marked text. Day 4 1. Distribute the unmarked version of the text. 2. Ask each student to read aloud the passage without the phrases marked. Give each student

feedback on his or her reading. 3. Have students practice reading the unmarked text in pairs. They may also tape-record themselves

and compare their various readings. Day 5 1. Meet with each student individually. Ask him or her to read the unmarked version of the text.

Note phrasing, appropriate pauses, expression, and reading rate. Give the student positive feedback.

2. Encourage students to take the passage home and read it to an adult.

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Features of Text that Influence Fluency

Helping a student to recognize the distinguishing features of narrative and non- narrative texts can help them learn to adjust the rate and phrasing when reading. Difficult or unusual text features may require scaffolding on the part of the teacher to assist students in making the adjustment. It is important that teachers read challenging text aloud to introduce academic language with complex language and text structures to students.

Narrative Text: Although narrative texts, such as stories, novels, or passages in content texts, are often interesting, they can cause difficulty if the events are not in chronological order or the flashback technique is used. Illustrations, photographs, or relevant documents can be helpful in aiding comprehension and fluent reading.

• Chronological or Sequential Order and the Use of Flashbacks • Reading Level of Material • Number of illustrations and/or pictures • Short Story • Interest

Non-narrative Text: The organizational pattern on non-narrative text can influence the ease with which a reader can demonstrate fluency. Charts, tables, and simple listing patterns may enhance fluency, while more complex patterns such as comparison/contrast or cause/effect may slow down the rate of fluency. If the teacher is aware of textual difficulties, he or she should make adjustments for those difficulties.

• Interest • Reading Level of Material • Number of Illustrations • Organizational Pattern

– Sequential or Chronological Order – Comparison and Contrast – Cause and Effect – Definition or Explanation – Enumeration or Simple Listing Pattern

• Whether the information is accurate and consistent (B. B. Armbruster & T. H. Anderson, 1981, Content Area Textbooks. Reading Education Report No. 23)

• The clarity and coherence of the information (Armbruster & Anderson, 1981)

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Align Each Student’s Reading Abilities to Appropriate Materials for Instruction.

Students in the intermediate and upper grades should be able to construct meaning from various forms of school-assigned printed texts such as content textbooks, supplementary materials, and fiction. As students mature, their reading preferences and needs change as well. In fact, 90 percent of the reading in life is informational (R. L. Allington, 2001, What Really Matters for Struggling Readers: Designing Research-Based Programs). For example, as students near the age of 15, they realize that in order to have a driver’s license, they must pass a written exam in addition to a performance evaluation. Each state prints a booklet of information produced to help would-be drivers prepare for this written exam, and most teenagers at some point obtain a copy to read, study, and review before taking the test. And while the booklet is printed on or about the sixth grade reading level, the material is more appropriate for an older student simply because it meets the older student’s need. To construct meaning from the various types of material, reading must be fluent. When a text is too difficult and students spend valuable time and energy on decoding and word recognition, they have little or no time and energy left to construct meaning. Students who are not fluent will benefit from initial instruction and immediate intensive intervention focused on learning phonics generalizations and decoding strategies. (More about this in a later section) One problematic characteristic of secondary classes is the wide range in reading abilities among the students, regardless of the class and/or grade level. For example, it is possible that in a sixth grade social studies class, the students’ reading abilities will range as widely as third grade to twelfth grade. In essence, teachers in the upper grades must realize that a student’s grade placement may not reflect his or her reading ability. With these varying reading abilities among students, teachers must first determine each student’s current reading ability in order to set each student’s reading goals. Teachers are then able to strengthen the performances of students who are reading well for their grade placements and give assistance that is more basic to students who are reading at levels significantly below their grade placements (B. D. Roe, B. D. Stoodt, & P. C. Burns, 1998, The Content Areas). Literacy assessments are used to determine the reading ability of each student. These assessments are vital in any reading program because they provide a collection of data that help content area and reading teachers determine problem areas and make

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instructional decisions. Many assessments are needed to obtain a complete picture of students’ abilities and possibilities. Materials are suitable for instructional purposes if the student can comprehend 75 percent of what he or she reads without any assistance from the teacher, as indicated by performance on well-constructed comprehension questions (Beers, 2003, When Kids Can’t Read, What Teachers Can Do). This is the student’s instructional level. Specialized assistance with vocabulary along with targeted comprehension strategies will help students increase their comprehension. When a student comprehends 50 percent or less of what he or she reads, the material is on his or her frustration level. At this level, students are too frustrated by the text to learn. When a student comprehends 90 to 100 percent of what he or she reads without any assistance from the teacher, the material is classified as being on his or her independent level. In order for struggling readers to develop fluency, they need to have many opportunities to read and reread materials at their independent level (S. J. Samuels, N. Schermer, & D. Reinking, 1992, Reading Fluency: Techniques For Making Decoding Automatic). Reading texts within their independent reading level:

• Helps establish the habit of reading; • Provides an opportunity for practice; • Communicates the importance of reading; • Familiarizes students with many types of reading materials; • Encourages the appropriate selection of materials; • Fosters engagement with printed materials.

Content Area Considerations: It is frustrating for content area teachers to find that their students cannot read the textbook that has been adopted and purchased by the state or district. They often have little control over the selection and no resources with which to purchase other materials better suited to their students’ reading levels. Supplement the textbook with other content-related material, have students bring in content-related texts of their own choosing, or make use of the varied levels of reading material in the school’s media center. Give students time in class to read materials on their level, provide opportunities for sharing oral readings, and encourage fluency in language by allowing discussions. If resources are limited, scaffold students’ fluency and comprehension by becoming familiar with before, during, and after reading activities to facilitate learning. After assessing their students, it is important that teachers understand that the instructional material often is not written at the grade level at which it is used. They also need to know whether their students can read at the level on which the textbook is written. The readability level of texts can be estimated using any one of a variety of different formulas available. Following are several of the more commonly used.

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Formulas for Determining the Readability Level of Text

The readability level of texts can be estimated using any one of a variety of different formulas available such as the Flesch-Kincaid, Fry, Spache, and Dale-Chall. Following is a brief description of each. Flesch-Kincaid Readability Formula:

“This index computes readability based on the average number of syllables per word and the average number of words per sentence” (T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges, 1995, The Literacy Dictionary, p. 85). It can be determined (for a PC) by inputting at least 100 words of text using Microsoft Word, Tools, spelling and grammar, check the grammar box, open options and check “readability statistics”. For MAC users: go to the word menu, preferences, spelling and grammar, and then readability. Fry Readability Formula:

“This method of estimating the difficulty level of reading material developed by Fry is based on the number of syllables and sentences in 100-word samples, with corresponding grade-level values from a graph” (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p.88-89). Also, the Fry Readability graph can be found at http://www.Discoveryschool.com. Spache Readability Formula:

“This method was originally published in 1953 for estimating the difficulty of primary level reading materials based on average sentence length in words and number of words” (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p. 237). Dale-Chall Readability Formula:

“This method is based on the percentage of words not on the Dale List of 3,000 Familiar Words and on the average number of words in sample sentences. Note: This method, developed by Dale and Chall, predicts 50 percent comprehension, with a table yielding corrected reading grade levels. A considerable number of modifications, extensions, and special uses of the formula have been suggested since the formula’s first publication in 1948, but it continues to be used primarily as originally published” (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p. 54).

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Considering Diversity: English Language Learners Considering Students with Special Needs

Fluency practice for English Language Learners involves: • Listening to models. This includes listening to teachers during an interactive read aloud, books

on tape or CD, and working with computer programs. • Rereading. Rereading improves a student’s accuracy, rate, phrasing, and prosody. • Shared reading. By reading and inviting students to read at the same time, English Language

Learners engage in a low-anxiety activity that scaffolds their phrasing in fluency, pronunciation, and intonation.

• Paired reading. Pairing proficient English speakers with English Language Learners provides students with peer models of fluent English reading.

Students with disabilities usually benefit from the following: • Rereading, especially with narrative and non-narrative texts; • More time on task; • Partner reading and rereading; • Additional response and more frequent progress monitoring. Rereading provides one way for students to increase their exposure to text and their time on task. Some of the procedures, such as books on tape, allow students increased flexibility and independence.

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Fluency Instructional Practices

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“Attention to meaning” is paramount in assessing fluency. — Mary Lee Prescott-Griffin and Nancy L. Witherell, 2004

WWHHAATT IISS FFLLUUEENNCCYY?? According to the National Reading Panel (NICHHD, 2000, p. 3-1), fluency is reading “…with speed, accuracy, and proper expression.” Put Reading First (Armbruster, 2001, p.21) characterizes fluent reading as natural sounding, conversational, smooth, and expressive and contrasts it with disfluent reading which is “word by word …choppy, and plodding.” Johns and Berglund (2002) stress “appropriate rate” instead of speed, an issue also addressed by Rasinski (2000), “Fluent and understandable reading, not fast reading, is the goal of our instruction. Fluent reading is often quick-paced, but not always. Sometimes…readers need to slow down and process texts more deliberately” (p. 150). Furthermore, fluency is the bridge between word identification and constructing meaning (Johns & Berglund, 2002). Thus, a good working definition of fluency follows: Fluency is the ability to read with accuracy, expression/phrasing, appropriate rate, and comprehension. WWHHYY IISS FFLLUUEENNCCYY IIMMPPOORRTTAANNTT?? Fluency is vital to comprehension, and it is one of the most common reading problems. Disfluent readers consume much of their mental energy attempting to decode text, leaving little attention for comprehension (Samuels, 1997; Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001; Rasinski, 2000). Similarly, disfluent readers most often lack the prosody, or

meaningful phrasing, that will aid comprehension. A slow, labored reading rate may indicate inadequate word recognition skills or “lack of sensitivity to the phrase—the natural unit of meaning in reading” (Rasinski, 2000, p. 150). Reading thus becomes a frustrating process for disfluent readers. The painful struggle leads them to avoid reading, which is the very activity which will improve their fluency. Thus, the student’s reading proficiency will decline. Reading rate certainly should be used as a diagnostic indicator when assessing students’ strengths and needs (Rasinski, 2000). WWHHAATT IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONNAALL PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS SSUUPPPPOORRTT FFLLUUEENNCCYY DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT?? There are several research based instructional practices that promote fluency development, all of which include two necessary ingredients: modeling and rereading of texts. Repeated Readings — Students reread short passages (50-200 words) from easy, high interest stories. An assistant (teacher aide, parent, another student, volunteer) records the speed and number of errors on a graph. Until their next timed turn, the students practice reading the same passage. This procedure is repeated until a predetermined words-per- minute criterion rate is reached. Having students keep a graph of their reading rates is a strong motivational tool as it is a visual record of their progress.

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Fluency

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There is a strong body of research to support the use of repeated readings. Samuels found in his study that as reading speed increased the number of word recognition errors decreased and the starting speed for the next selection was higher than the previous starting speed. “The fact that starting rates were faster with each new selection and fewer rereadings were necessary to reach goals indicates transfer of training and a general improvement in reading fluency” (1997, p. 377). Repeated reading provides the practice necessary to make word recognition skills automatic, and as the decoding barrier is broken, comprehension improves (Samuels, 1997). Use of Poetry — Rasinski (2000) espouses the use of authentic purposes for achieving repeated readings. One way to accomplish this is through practicing poetry for later performance. Finding the appropriate text is key to this process; brief, predictable reading materials that lend themselves well to oral interpretation and which are within students’ independent-instructional range should be used. Rhyming poetry is an excellent choice. Students can then reread the poetry with the purpose of preparing for the performance. Teachers can make the performance an event in many ways such as calling it Poetry Day and inviting parents, another class, and/or the principal and other school personnel. Choral Reading makes use of poetry for fluency development. As children learn the prosodic elements of the poems with which they are working, they also develop their awareness of syntactic patterns. Selections can be read in unison by the class, a line per child, a line or lines per groups. The teacher can display the poem on chart paper or give each student a copy from which to read. Reader’s Theatre offers another opportunity for authentic purpose for repeated readings. Reader’s Theater, as its name implies, relies solely on the readers’ voices to convey meaning; and this principle should guide

selection of stories for adaptation to scripts. Stories that present characters involved in a lot of conversation or thought will work better for reading than those which have a great deal of physical activity. As with poetry, the reader’s theater text should be within the reader’s instructional range. The class can be divided into repertory groups and given appropriate scripts which have at least four or five recurring roles. After the scripts (or stories on which the scripts are based) are read aloud by the teacher, the groups then meet on a daily basis to rehearse with their groups and take scripts home for further nightly practice. A practice schedule that is carefully implemented can result in students having read their scripts 15-20 times by the end of the week, when they perform for a real audience which, like the poetry performances, might consist of other classes, parents, school personnel, or the class itself. In order for Reader’s Theatre to accomplish the goal of repeated readings, avoid emphasis on props, costumes, and “learning” parts, and DO emphasize the importance of reading practice. Martinez, Roser, and Strecker note, “Readers Theatre seems to offer teachers a way to incorporate repeated readings within a meaningful and purposeful context” (1998, p.333). While circulating during “rehearsal,” the teacher can also maximize opportunities for modeling, even using echo reading; with echo reading the teacher reads a line or lines with correct phrasing and expression then asks the student to “echo” her reading. The process is repeated until the student demonstrates satisfactory reading of that particular passage. Modeling — It is imperative that teachers provide strong models of fluent reading to their students. They need to hear appropriate rate, phrasing, and expression put into practice as well as have opportunities to discuss and reflect upon how meaning is conveyed through the use of phrasing and expression (Rasinski, 2003; Richards, 2000). Paired Oral Readings — After passages are selected, students read them silently. Then

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they pair off and read the passage to each other three times in succession, with the listener giving feedback. The teacher can introduce paired reading by modeling it for the class with the assistance of a volunteer (Richards, 2000). Rasinski (2000) offers another version involving parents reading with their children 10 to 15 minutes each evening. The parent reads a passage to the child first; then they read it with the child several times; next, the child reads to the parent, with the parent providing positive feedback. Buddy reading is a similar activity in which an older disfluent student is paired with a younger disfluent student. The older student then has a real reason to practice as he prepares to read to and with the younger student using one of the younger student’s texts. The additional

practice builds the older student’s fluency, and the additional modeling and practice gained through the sessions benefits the fluency of the younger student as well. It’s a win-win situation. SSUUMMMMAARRYY Fluency is a vital component of the reading process. In order for comprehension to occur, readers must be able not only to decode and identify words but also be able to do so accurately with appropriate phrasing, expression, and rate. There are a variety of instructional practices available for teachers which promote reading fluency and motivation.

AADDDDIITTIIOONNAALL RREESSOOUURRCCEESS Allington, R. A. (2000). What really matters for struggling readers. Boston, MA: Longman Publishing. Beers, K. (2003). When kids can't read, what teachers can do. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Blevins, W. (2001). Building fluency: Lessons and strategies for reading success. New York:

Scholastic. Cunningham, P. M., & Allington, R. A. 2002. Classrooms that work: They can all read and write.

(3rd ed.). NY: Pearson Allyn & Bacon. Johns, J. L., & Berglund, R. L. (2002). Fluency: Questions, answers, evidence-based strategies.

Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing. Kuhn, M. R. & Steven A. Stahl, S. A. (2000). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial

practices. (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement Rep. No. 2-008). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.

Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. (2003). A focus on fluency. Retrieved March 22,

2005, from http://www.prel.org/products/re_/fluency-1.pdf Rasinski, T., & Padak, N. (2001). From phonics to fluency: Effective teaching of decoding and

reading fluency in the elementary school. New York: Addison, Wesley Longman.

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RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Armbruster, B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put reading first: The research building blocks for

teaching children to read. Washington, DC: Partnership for Reading. International Reading Association (IRA). (2002). Evidence-based reading instruction: Putting the

National Reading Panel report into practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Johns, J. & Berglund, R. (2002). Fluency: Questions, answers, evidence-based strategies. Dubuque:

Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Martinez, M., Roser, N., & Strecker, S. (1998). “I never thought I could be a star”: A Reader’s

Theatre ticket to fluency. The Reading Teacher, 52(4), 326-334. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). Report of the

National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Rasinski, T. V. (2000). Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 146-151. Rasinski, T. V. (2003). The fluent reader. New York: Scholastic Professional Books. Richards, M. (2000). Be a good detective: Solve the case of oral reading fluency. The Reading

Teacher, 53(7), 534-539. Samuels, S. J. (1997). The method of repeated readings. The Reading Teacher, 50(5), 376-381.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

A Project of the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Model Fluent Reading Students need to have a proficient, fluent reader (teacher or student) model fluent reading. Phrasing, emphasis, and tone are some of the aspects of fluency that can be modeled. Teachers may select to read daily newspaper and magazine articles, poems, short stories, letters and portions of novels. Because 90% of all adult reading is non- fiction (B. D. Roe, B. D. Stoodt, & P. C. Burns, 1998, The Content Areas), informational texts should be read orally often. Daily oral reading to students should be an integral part of the instructional program to:

• Stimulate language development. • Help students determine the natural flow of text. • Show that reading is pleasurable. • Demonstrate that print is meaningful. • Foster an interest in print. • Encourage students to become active listeners. • Build rapport. • Share the joy of reading. • Promote phonemic awareness.

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Echo Reading Echo reading is a type of modeling that is most appropriate for the student who needs the teacher to model fluent oral reading and needs to repeat the reading immediately in order to remember how the text sounded. The teacher reads a line of a story and the student echoes the teacher by reading the same line, imitating the teacher’s intonation and phrasing. Procedure: 1. The teacher selects a text of around 200 words that is near reading frustration level

for the student. 2. The teacher reads the first line of the text, accentuating appropriate phrasing and

intonation. 3. Immediately, the student reads the same line, modeling the teacher’s example. 4. The teacher and the student read in echo fashion for the entire passage, increasing

the amount of text when the student can imitate the model.

Modifications: 1. Echo reading is an effective intervention with repeated readings. After the first

reading, the teacher and student can echo read those sentences where there was a string of miscues or errors.

2. Echo reading can also be used in conjunction with “chunking,” so the student can hear the way the teacher chunks language into thoughts.

Content Area Considerations: • Choose sections of magazines or newspapers that employ “short takes,” very short

one-liners or phrases that illustrate a concept (such as TIME Magazine’s “Verbatim” Column). A fluent reader (or the teacher) should read one line, modeling fluency and intonation, and have readers who may feel intimidated by reading long passages read the next line.

• Read articles or passages aloud related to the content, employing the “think-aloud” strategy that shows students how to read fluently for meaning.

• Allow students to take turns reading short articles of their own choosing related to the content aloud to the class. Encourage them to practice reading the article at home until it can be read fluently to develop confidence.

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Provide Guided Oral Reading Opportunities

Below are several guided oral reading procedures that positively impact fluency.

1. Repeated Readings of selected texts is an activity where passages of texts are read and reread orally by students (S. J. Samuels, 1997, The method of repeated readings, The Reading Teacher, 50(5), 376-381). Structured repeated readings “foster increased fluency by reducing the number of miscues and increase the rate/speed due to increased automaticity” (R. L. Allington, 2001, What Really Matters for Struggling Readers: Designing Research-Based Programs, p. 73).

2. Paired Reading is an activity during which a less proficient reader is paired with a fluent

reader to read a selected passage together aloud.

3. Choral Reading is an oral interpretation of text, often poetry or songs, by a pair or group of students. This activity provides an opportunity to enjoy and learn, often from the collaborative effort of students in determining how to perform the poem rather than the performance itself (J. W. Gillet & C. A. Temple, 2000, Understanding Reading Problems). Also, choral reading helps build confidence and extend an enjoyable reading experience (M. F. Opitz & T. V. Rasinski, 1998, Good-bye Round Robin: Twenty-five Effective Oral Reading Strategies). It is important that teachers carefully select passages for this activity that are appropriate for the students’ interests, levels of reading, and ages (L. Walker, 2002, Teaching Tips for Choral Speaking). More information about Choral Reading is provided in the following pages.

4. Readers’ Theater is an oral reading of a script written by students using theatrical terms

and directions. The script is an adaptation of a selected passage or story rewritten as a script by students (C. Lynch-Brown, 1998, Literature Across the Curriculum). More information about Readers’ Theater is provided in the following pages.

5. Radio Reading is similar to Reader’s Theater except sound effects (background music,

footsteps, thunder, doors opening and closing, telephone ringing, animal noises, etc. are added (Lynch-Brown, 1998). Tape recordings made for audiences to hear later are optional. Another version of Radio Reading allows students to create or choose materials to communicate a message to their peers (F. Greene, 1979, Radio Reading; L. Searfoss, 1975, Radio Reading, The Reading Teacher, 29, 295-296). In modeling radio announcers, students must read with expression at a comprehensible rate so that the listeners can focus on meaning and enjoyment of the passage (Lynch-Brown, 1998). More information about Radio Reading is provided in the following pages.

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Choral Reading • Develops effective and fluent read aloud skills. • Improves sight vocabulary. • Helps students learn to pronounce new words by hearing others reading aloud at

the same time. • Provides supported and usually enjoyable reading practice. • Builds positive attitudes toward participation in groups. • Develops students’ imaginative abilities. • Helps students understand rhythm, meter, patterns, rhymes and characters of a

poem because it is well suited to poetry and rhymes.

Simple Ways To Utilize Choral Reading According to Lois Walker, “Contrast is the key when using the voice to interpret the meaning of a choral speaking piece. The possibilities are endless, but here are a few to consider:

Alternate : slow and fast lines, stanzas, or paragraphs loud and soft lines low and high voices

Emphasize: key words and phrases by reciting them in a louder or softer voice

Pause: for a specified number of beats before continuing the next line or phrase

Sound effects: clap or make other appropriate sound effects at the end of lines, stanzas, or paragraphs incorporate music when appropriate

Costumes and props: may add to the recitation as long as they are simple and easily handled” (Walker, n.d., A Choral Speaking Teacher’s guide from..., Retrieved July 8, 2006 from http://www.scriptsforschools.com/90.html).

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

All About Readers’ Theater

Readers’ Theater allows students to take any piece of literature, analyze it, and adapt it into a script. Here is where students get practice becoming fluent oral readers. They must understand the story before they can use their voices to convey that interpretation to others. Originally popular in college courses, Readers’ Theater is used as a fun, convenient and effective way to create interest in reading among students. There are many variations of this form of minimal theater, but they all share similar traits (C. Lynch-Brown, 1998, Literature Across the Curriculum).

Benefits of Readers’ Theater • Readers’ Theater helps students with decoding and reading fluency. • Readers’ Theater helps students develop appropriate intonation based on the

context of the passage. • Readers’ Theater improves how well students understand a passage through

repeated readings and interpretation. • Readers’ Theater encourages and requires teamwork among students. • Readers’ Theater allows students to learn to relate the information of a text through

dialogue rather than pure narration. • Readers’ Theater helps students learn to create setting, character, and emotion

through their voice and actions. • Readers’ Theater develops fluency, word recognition, and comprehension by

emphasizing expressive reading and repetition. Preparing A Readers’ Theater Script • Teacher or student finds and reads a good book. • Teacher or student selects a passage from the book using the following criteria:

o Is interesting (suspenseful, humorous, eventful) o Gives a general impression of what the book is about o Has two or more characters o Is two to five pages in length.

• Student rewrites the passage as a theater script using the following guidelines: o Uses a narrator to read unspoken parts. o Starts a new line with each change of character. o Writes the narrator’s or character’s name in parentheses at the beginning of the

speech to indicate who is to read these words. o Places directions as to how the speech is to be read in parentheses just before

the speech. o Leaves out the “he said,” and “she said” phrases.

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The War Prayer Mark Twain

Reader’s Theater Edition #5 Adapted for reader’s theater (or readers theatre) by Aaron Shepard For more reader’s theater, visit Aaron Shepard’s RT Page at www.aaronshep.com/rt ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Script copyright © 1995, 2002 Aaron Shepard. Scripts in this series are free and may be copied, shared, and performed for any noncommercial purpose, except they may not be posted online without permission. PREVIEW: A mysterious stranger attends a church service on the eve of war. GENRE: Fables (original), satire CULTURE: American (early 20th century) THEME: War and peace; patriotism READERS: 8 or more READER AGES: 12 and up LENGTH: 5 minutes ROLES: Citizens 1–6, Minister, Stranger, (Other Citizens) NOTES: The language of the original text has been highly simplified for this adaptation. Twain wrote the story in 1904–5, but after trying just once to publish it, he set it aside. He wrote a friend, “I don’t think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth.” CITIZENS serve as narrators. For best effect, place all CITIZENS in the center. Aaron’s Extras All special features are at www.aaronshep.com/extras. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CITIZEN 1: It was a time of great and uplifting excitement. The country was up in arms, and the war was on. CITIZEN 6: In our small town, every breast burned with the holy fire of patriotism. Drums beat, bands played, toy pistols popped, firecrackers hissed and spluttered. On every street, a fluttering wilderness of flags flashed in the sun. CITIZEN 2: Daily the young volunteers marched down the avenue, smart and fine in their new uniforms. Proud fathers and mothers and sisters and sweethearts cheered with voices choked with emotion. CITIZEN 5: Nightly we packed the public meetings, where patriotic speeches stirred our hearts to the deepest deep. At every other word, we burst in with cyclones of applause, even as tears ran down our cheeks.

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CITIZEN 3: A half dozen rash dissenters dared to disapprove of the war and cast doubt on its righteousness. But they right away got such a stern and angry warning that they quickly shrank from sight and offended no more. CITIZEN 4: It was indeed a glad and gracious time. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * CITIZEN 1: Sunday morning came and our church was filled. It was the day before the battalions would leave for the front. CITIZEN 6: The volunteers were there, their young faces alight with visions of glorious victory. Beside them were their proud and happy dear ones, as well as envious neighbors with no sons or brothers of their own to send forth to the field of honor. CITIZEN 2: The minister read a war chapter from the Old Testament. CITIZEN 5: Then an organ blast shook the building, and together we rose with glowing eyes and beating hearts to pour out that tremendous invocation. ALL (except STRANGER): God the all-terrible! Thou who ordainest, Thunder thy clarion and lightning thy sword! CITIZEN 3: Then came the minister’s prayer. CITIZEN 4: Never in our church had we heard the like of it for passionate pleading and moving language. MINISTER: Ever-merciful and benign Father of us all, watch over our noble young soldiers. Bless and shield them in the day of battle and the hour of peril. Bear them in Thy mighty hand, make them invincible in the bloody onslaught. Grant to them and to their flag and country imperishable honor and glory. . . . CITIZEN 1: An aged stranger entered from the back and moved up the aisle with slow and noiseless step. His long body was clothed in a robe that reached to his feet, and his white hair fell in a frothy waterfall to his shoulders. His rough face was unnaturally pale, almost ghostly. CITIZEN 6: With all our eyes on him, he ascended to the minister’s side and stood there, waiting. The minister’s own eyes were shut in prayer, and he went on unaware of the stranger. MINISTER: Grant us victory, O Lord our God, Father and Protector of our land and flag. Amen. CITIZEN 2: The stranger touched the startled minister on the arm and motioned him to step aside. The

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

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minister did so, and the stranger took his place. CITIZEN 5: For some moments he surveyed his spellbound audience, then spoke in a solemn voice. STRANGER: I come from the Throne of Heaven, bearing a message from Almighty God. CITIZEN 3: The words smote us with a shock. CITIZEN 4: If the stranger noticed, he gave no heed. STRANGER: You have heard your minister pray, “Grant us victory, O Lord our God.” The Lord too has heard this prayer, and He will grant it—if such is your desire. But first I am commanded to explain to you its full meaning. For it is not one prayer, but two—one spoken, the other not. Listen now to the silent prayer: “O Lord our God, help us tear the enemy soldiers to bloody shreds. Help us cover their smiling fields with their patriot dead. Help us drown the thunder of guns with the shrieks of their wounded. “God our Father, help us lay waste the enemy’s homes with a hurricane of fire. Help us send out their women and children and elderly to wander homeless in rags and hunger and thirst. “For our sakes who adore Thee, Lord, fill the hearts of the enemy with helpless fear and grief. Break their spirits, blast their hopes, and blight their lives. All this we ask in the spirit of Love, of Him Who is the source of Love. Amen.” (pauses) You have prayed it. If you still desire it, speak! The messenger of the Most High waits. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * CITIZEN 1: Afterward, we agreed the man must have been a lunatic. What he said made no sense at all.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

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Instructional Practices for Successful Fluency Development in Students

Radio Reading Radio reading, sometimes called “cooperative reading,” allows students to create or choose materials to communicate a message to their peers (F. Greene, 1979, Radio Reading; L. Searfoss, 1975, Radio Reading, The Reading Teacher, 29, 295-296). In Reading Radio, students read fluently for the purpose of performing and sharing a selected portion of text with others. Just as radio announcers do, students must read with expression at a comprehensible rate so that the listeners can focus on meaning and possible enjoyment of the passage. Six Steps to Successful Radio (Cooperative) Readings: Step 1: Assemble students into groups. Pass out scripts. Step 2: Ask students to read through their scripts silently. Then assign practice spaces

to each group. Groups may now break away and go to their practice spaces. Students discuss the story as a group. They need to focus on how each character feels in the situation. Explore possible ways a reader might communicate feeling through voice.

Step 3: Using cooperative learning, each group assigns parts and rehearses its script. Suggestions for improvements, additions or changes must come from the group. The teacher moves from group to group encouraging the readers.

Step 4: Ask readers to practice reading scripts at home. Suggest reading the script aloud with various family members.

Step 5: Allow groups to practice two or three times or until they feel ready for an audience.

Step 6: Schedule the group presentations. You might feature one group presentation per day for a week or hold a “Friday Festival” and present them all on a Friday afternoon.

NOTE: It is not necessary to include all class members in each cooperative reading presentation. Selected groups may rehearse scripts for presentations at different times throughout the school year.

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Content Area Considerations: • Have students create radio theater or readers’ theater from supplemental text

related to the content as a way to increase content comprehension and fluency. • Research projects could be rewritten and performed as talk show scripts or

National Public Radio “Science” segments, for example. • Have students rewrite the textbook material in radio or readers’ theater format for

presenting to younger students. • Interviews between historical figures or scientists can be written and performed for

the class. • Scripts can be performed for the school’s closed-circuit television or the local TV

“education” segments as authentic ways of incorporating fluency into the content area classes.

• Suggested content materials suitable for increasing fluency with performances: English/Language Arts: poetry (E. A. Poe’s The Bells), plays (see issues of

Weekly Reader’s READ Magazine), taking parts in short stories. Social Studies: Practice and deliver speeches, such as MLK’s I Have a Dream

or famous presidential addresses. Science: Debate concepts, reading aloud evidence to support position. Math: Have students take turns reading word problems aloud.

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Phonics Instructional Practices

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

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Don't waste time debating whether or not to teach phonics, spelling, grammar, and other “skills” of literacy. Do spend time discussing how to teach them in a way that

contributes to the learners’ “self-improvement.” — Dorothy S. Strickland, 1994

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When looking at reading instruction, phonics is probably one of the most controversial subjects among parents, teachers, and researchers. Although everyone agrees that phonics instruction is necessary, arguments seem to stem from varying philosophical stands regarding how much and when to start and end instruction. Stahl (1992) tells us that the inclusion of some type of phonics component is inherent in nearly all types of reading programs.

The education historian Nila Banton Smith (1965), states that phonics was initially used in reading instruction in the U.S. in 1790s. Later in the mid-1800s reading instruction made a shift with the introduction of the “word method” where students were encouraged to memorize whole words instead of analyzing words by sounds. In Beginning To Read, Adams (1990) states that while phonics knowledge is essential for children’s success with reading and writing, children must also be taught to read for purpose and meaning.

In 2000 the National Reading Panel identified several types of systematic phonics practices. The NRP report discusses synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics, analogy phonics, onset-rime phonics, phonics through spelling, and phonics in context instructional practices. Their findings on phonics instruction were that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than non-systematic or no phonics instruction. The report also states that the panel did not find any differences in the effectiveness of the different instructional practices.

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The term phonics addresses instructional practices that support the student’s development in assembling a cognitive working system that utilizes the sounds of spoken language and the letters and patterns of written language. Additionally, regardless of the kind of instruction students receive, all students are exposed to the relationship between sounds and letters in the process of reading. According to Stahl (1992), “Learning about words goes hand in hand with other learning about reading and writing” (p. 620). Moreover, he states that all students seem to go through stages that have been identified by Firth (1985). Those stages are logographic, alphabetic, and orthographic. In the logographic stage, learners see whole words embedded in a logo or a sign. For example, students in the logographic stage are likely to recognize McDonald’s because of the golden arches or Disney World because of a pair of black ears. In the alphabetic stage, learners start to use sounds and letters to identify words. In the last stage, the orthographic stage, Firth states that students begin to recognize patterns in words and use that knowledge to read words without sounding them out. After the orthographic stage, learners develop their ability to decode and comprehend words with very little attention to structure or pattern. IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONNAALL PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS TTHHAATT SSUUPPPPOORRTT PPHHOONNIICCSS

Although there are many instructional practices used to teach phonics to students, Stahl (1992)

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Phonics

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has identified nine guidelines of exemplary phonics instruction. Accordingly, exemplary phonics instruction:

1. Builds on students’ concepts about what reading is, how print functions, and what stories are, and their understanding of the process of reading.

2. Builds on a foundation of sensitivity to the individual sounds of spoken language.

3. Is explicit and direct. 4. Is integrated into a comprehensive core

reading program. 5. Focuses on reading words to construct

meaning, not learning rules. 6. May include onsets and rimes. 7. Uses students’ spelling approximations. 8. Develops independent strategic activities for

word recognition, focusing attention on the orthographic patterns of words.

9. Develops automatic word recognition skills so that students can devote their attention to comprehension, not words.

Taking a closer look at the nine guidelines proposed by Stahl, guideline one highlights the point that phonics instruction, generally, does not make sense to students that do not have a global sense of what reading is about. Additionally, students should have concepts about print, knowledge of purposes for stories and an overall idea of reading as a process prior to systematic study of sounds and letters. Once students have had exposure to stories and concepts about print they are more likely to benefit from an explicit and systematic phonics program.

Guideline number two alludes to the fact that exemplary phonics instruction is preceded by students having developed sensitivity to the individual sounds of spoken language. Students need to have a working knowledge that spoken words are made up of individual phonemes or sounds before learning the relationship between sounds and letters.

In guideline three, Stahl states, “good teachers explain what they mean very clearly” (p. 621). His point is that some phonics instruction is

ambiguous because many of the consonant sounds cannot be pronounced in isolation. Some of these misunderstandings can be handled by teachers simply working with written words instead of pictures. Students learn to read by reading words; and this can be accomplished with small groups, pairs, or individually with teacher support.

Stahl’s fourth guideline states that exemplary phonics instruction is integrated into a comprehensive reading program that provides rich and varied reading experiences. Stahl recommends that no more than 25% (maybe less) of the total reading instruction time should be invested on phonics instruction and practice.

In exemplary phonics instruction, guideline five brings to the forefront the importance of instruction focusing on reading words and not just learning rules. Efficient readers notice words by patterns not by categorizing them by rules. Moreover, Stahl reminds us that phonic “rules are not useful enough to be taught as absolutes” (p. 623). Rules may serve a purpose in assisting students in remembering patterns, but the rules should not be required to be committed to memory. Additionally, when rules are highlighted, they should be discussed as tentative, with exceptions being shared simultaneously with common patterns.

Exemplary phonics instruction may include instruction on onsets and rimes. In support of guideline six Adams (1990) tells us that letter- sound relationships are more consistent when we look at rimes than when we look at individual letters in isolation. Rime-based instruction is used successfully in a variety of reading programs. Almost 500 words can be derived from the following 37 rimes:

-ack -ain -ake -ale -all -ame -an -ank -ap -ash -at -ate -aw -ay -eat -ell -est -ice -ick -ide -ight -ill -in -ine -ing -ink -ip -ir -ock -oke -op -or -ore -uck -ug -ump -unk (Stahl, 1992, p. 623)

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Guideline seven states that exemplary phonics instruction may include the support of the development of temporary spelling (a.k.a. invented spelling). Although research is limited on the effects of temporary spelling, it does not seem to impede students’ reading and spelling abilities.

The eighth guideline states that exemplary phonics instruction promotes the development of independence and flexibility taking students from the logographic stage to the orthographic stage. According to Firth (1985), these transitions through the stages may be supported by writing and spelling. To promote independence and flexibility, students need to be taught when to incorporate such strategic activities as saying words slowly or looking for known parts in unknown words when reading.

Stahl’s ninth guideline for exemplary phonics instruction addresses automaticity and comprehension development. In other words, when effective phonics instruction is implemented, students are instructed on the purpose for phonics and the need for quick processing of words in light of comprehension. According to Samuels (1988), when students devote too much time to decoding words, attention will be drawn away from comprehending the text at hand. The understanding is also in place that good phonics instruction is generally completed by the end of second grade (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985).

Consequently, questions always arise regarding instructional practices that teach students phonics as a working system that they need to assemble, along with other systems, in order to efficiently and effectively process text when reading and writing. One instructional practice that is being used widely to promote phonics is the interactive word wall or interactive word charts. In the primary grades (K-2), many teachers are using interactive word walls to assist students in their acquisition of phonics, while in the intermediate grades (3-5), middle school, and high school, teachers are using interactive word charts to highlight patterns in more complex words. When

using interactive word walls to teach phonics, and support the development of phonemic awareness, teachers are selecting words and discussing the structure of words students are encountering or will be encountering in their reading and writing.

Similar to word walls is the use of interactive word charts with older students. With interactive word charts, teachers usually discuss with students and collaboratively generate word charts highlighting specific morphemic patterns, such as prefixes, suffixes, and Latin and Greek morphemes. Interactive word walls and interactive word charts are also used in many forms of word play and in interactive writing in the primary grades (Button, Johnson, & Furgerson, 1996). In interactive writing, students are encouraged (with strong support from the teacher) to say words slowly while the teacher and the student share the pen in writing the words to a message that is collaboratively composed. The interactive shared process supports the development of phonemic awareness through systematic and explicit phonics instruction.

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Although phonics instruction has been a controversial topic in literacy education, no one will deny the need for phonics instruction in learning to read and write. Virtually all reading programs or published series of materials reflect some aspect of phonics instruction. The question educators express seems to revolve around when and how long do we teach phonics. Even though the NRP states that two years is sufficient in the primary grades, is it necessary in the intermediate grades (3-5)? Is it necessary in middle and high school? Some programs approach the concept from a part to whole framework while others approach it from a whole to part perspective. Regardless of the approach selected, as educators, assessment tempered by knowledge and experience needs to guide our phonics instruction to support students in a bio-technological age. Many questions still remain to be researched.

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RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press. Anderson ,R. C., Hiebert, E. F., Wilkerson, I.A.G., & Scott, J. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers.

Champaign, IL: National Academy of Education and Center for the Study of Reading. Button, K., Johnson, M.J., & Furgerson, P. (1996). Interactive writing in a primary classroom. The

Reading Teacher, 49(6), 446-454. Firth, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K.E. Patterson, K.C. Marshall, &

M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia: Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). Report of the

National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Smith, N.B. (1965). American reading instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Samuels, S.J. (1988). Decoding and automaticity: Helping poor readers become automatic at word

recognition, The Reading Teacher, 41(8), 756-760. Stahl, S.A. (1992). Saying the “p” word: Nine guidelines for exemplary phonics instruction. The

Reading Teacher, 45(8), 618-626.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

A Project of the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Decoding: Word Patterns Objective: The students will decode print by using their knowledge of rimes and word patterns. Materials: Word-pattern book (a book that stresses a particular word pattern) at the students’ instructional

reading level, one for each student Removable highlighter tape

Lesson: Preview the book, finding words that contain the pattern the students are studying. Then, 1. Conduct a comprehension/vocabulary preview. 2. Discuss with students the prominent word pattern in the book, and the way the pattern is

pronounced. 3. Practice a few words in isolation. 4. If a student misreads a word during reading, place a finger over the onset of the word and

encourage the student to blend the sounds of the letters-in the rime. Then uncover the onset, and instruct the student to blend the initial sound with the ending word pattern she/he just read.

5. Have the student return to the beginning of the sentence containing the misread word and read

the entire sentence again correctly. 6. After reading, encourage comprehension by asking students questions about the content of the

story. Adaptations: This lesson may also be used for initial sound patterns, and blends and digraphs. The main objective is for students to use their knowledge of various word patterns to decode unfamiliar words. If the students are having a difficult time isolating the word pattern, use removable highlighter tape to cover the part of the words that contain the pattern(s) the students are studying, so that their attention will be drawn to that part of the word. Cover the words before the students begin reading. To ensure that English Language Learners comprehend what they read, discuss the content of the book and students’ background experiences with the topic and preview vocabulary. To further reinforce comprehension stop at various intervals throughout the selection to review what has happened to that point.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Change One Letter Objective: The students will use their knowledge of letter-sound correspondence and awareness of phonological sound placement to write and change words. Materials: One dry-erase board (white board), marker, and eraser for each student

Lesson: Tell the students they will be writing new words by changing one letter at a time. Say that they must listen carefully to discern which letter they will have to change. Then, 1. Give the students a word to write on their white board (e.g., man). Check all students’ boards to

make sure they have spelled the word correctly. Have the students track their index finger under the word man as they read it.

2. Tell the students that they should change one letter to make the word say mat. Do not tell the

students which letter to change! It is important that students listen to the placement of the sound in the word and change the letter according to their understanding.

3. Make sure all the students have changed the correct letter (changed n to t). If they have not, have

them write the word man again, and tracking a finger under the word man, say the word mat. Usually this is all it takes for the students to realize that it is n that needs to be changed to t.

Continue to have the students change one letter at a time to manipulate different parts of the word. Adaptations: Have the students add blends, change the vowel sound, or change two letters at a time. Have the students add only one letter, not changing the original (e.g., add one letter to man to make it say main) - they may give two different answers, depending on the students’ understanding of vowel patterns (they may write main or mane). What a great way to open a discussion on homophones!

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Word Pattern Match Objective: The students will match word cards that have the same ending pattern. Materials: Word cards (as many as possible) from the same familiar word pattern A second set of word cards with a pattern that is somewhat new to the group

Lesson: Review the concept of word patterns with the group. Then,

1. Read through all the word cards with the students, including words with a recently introduced pattern.

2. Pick three cards, two that share the pattern and one that does not.

3. Ask the students, “Is there a word in this group that has a pattern that doesn’t match the

others?”

4. On the table have the students sort the cards by word pattern.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the next three cards. Adaptations: Have students match word cards with rhyming picture cards. Include a card with a word that has the same ending word pattern, but is an “exception” (e.g., if the students are studying the -ea pattern, include the word great, which is an “exception”). Choose a second set of word cards for words that have a pattern similar, but not identical, to the first, to help the students learn to attend to all aspects of the word pattern. For English Language Learners, add pictures to the word cards to help the students match concepts with vocabulary.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Letters And Words Objective: The students will learn word patterns by creating and reading “real” words and nonsense words. Materials: Magnetic letter, one set per child or Sticky notes with onsets and rimes written on separate notes

Lesson: For this activity, the students will place different onset letters and blends in front of rimes. Choose a rime from which the students will build words (this can be a new rime, one that the students have learned previously, or one that is challenging for them). Then,

1. Have the students create the rime with magnet letters, or write it on a sticky note.

2. Tell the students to add a letter or two at the beginning of the rime (move a letter magnet or write a letter on a different sticky note) to create a word. Remind them that they can also use two letters at the beginning to create new words.

3. Have the students create at least 3-4 “real” words with that rime.

4. Then have the students create “nonsense” or “silly” words by placing other letters before

the rime (e.g., vide, kide, or thide). Continue with other rimes, as time permits. Adaptations: Some English Language Learners may have difficulty distinguishing real words from nonsense words, especially if their English language vocabulary is limited. Because the goal of the activity is to help students learn word patterns by creating words with a particular rime and reading them back, they may create both nonsense and real words, but you should always clarify which words are real and which are nonsense.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Fish For Word Patterns! (or Fish For Rimes!)

Objective: The students will match cards that have the same ending word pattern (rime). Materials: At least 20 word cards (more if the group is larger than 3), with rimes in sets of two (total of 20

cards, 10 or fewer rime sets). Make sure the words cannot be read through the back of the cards. Lesson: Read through all the word cards with the students. Review the rules for playing the game “Go Fish!” Explain that in this game, “matches” are words with the same rime. Then,

1. Shuffle all the cards, and deal three to each student.

2. Have the students check their cards for any pairs of words that have the same ending pattern (such as fat and cat). If a student has a “pair,” she/he places it on the table and reads the two words in order to keep them.

3. Continue playing the game as in “Go Fish”: The first student asks another student if

he/she has a card with the rime _____ (-at.) If the second student has an -at card, he/she gives it to the first student. If the student does not have the card, he/she says, “Go Fish!”

4. The fist student then picks a card from the face-down deck in the middle.

5. Continue the game with steps 2-4.

Adaptations: Make only two cards of each rime, use more complex/simpler rimes, or have students match vowel patterns or blends. Have an “exception” word (e.g., great) be the “shark” word (the losing card, similar to “Old Maid” but with the “exception” card being the losing card). For English Language Learners, add pictures where appropriate to help the students associate words and meanings to learn vocabulary.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Word Hunt Objective: Using an instructional-level book, the students will identify and write words that follow a specific rime or word pattern found in that book. Materials: Chart paper Instructional-level book for each student A pencil and paper for each student

Lesson: Before beginning this lesson, have the students read through a “decodable” text - one that incorporates a specific word pattern or rime (e.g., words that begin with str.)

1. Have the students read through the book again, either individually or in pairs, looking for words that follow the word pattern.

2. After the students find a word, have them read it and write it on their papers.

3. After students have found all the words, have them review by reading their lists as you

write them on chart paper. Have the other students check off words on their papers as they are called out.

Adaptations: Have students look for more than one word pattern, sorting them by writing the words in different columns. Or, have the students look for sight words that they have been studying. For English Language Learners, it is important that these students are familiar with the meaning of the words. To build vocabulary, be sure to go over word meanings and review the storyline before starting the word hunt.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Sticky Books Objective: The students will write and read words containing a specific word/spelling pattern. Materials: List of words containing a specific word/spelling pattern, for teacher use Sticky books for each student, consisting of a blank 3” X 9” tag board card (or 1/3 of a sentence

strip) with the appropriate number of sticky notes stapled at the left edge White boards, one for each student Dry-erase markers and erasers, one for each student Chart paper and permanent marker for recording words

Lesson: Tell the students they will be learning words containing a specific pattern (the _____ pattern). Review the sounds of the letters, if any are silent and how the pattern is read. Give students a few oral and/or written examples of words containing this pattern. Then,

1. Ask students to brainstorm words containing this pattern. Explain that they will have one, (two, three) minute(s) to write as many of these words as possible on their whiteboard.

2. Pass out the boards and markers. Set the timer. Instruct students to begin. 3. When the timer rings, have each student read his/her words to the group. Write the words on

a master chart paper list. Reread the master list with the students when all have given their words. Keep track of words the student may have brainstormed that have similar sounds when read, but contain different spelling patterns, to use later for comparison.

4. After rereading the words, provide clues to other words students might not have generated. 5. Give each student a sticky book with the beginning or ending word pattern written on the

tag board (leave sticky notes blank). Or, have students write the pattern on the tag board. 6. Have students write the remaining letters (onsets) on the sticky notes to complete the words

and the book. 7. Read the sticky books together. 8. Allow students to take their books home to read for practice.

Adaptations: Pencil and paper may be used to brainstorm word patterns if white boards are not available. Have students roll letter dice, using the rolled letter as the onset to add to the rime, to create words. Clarify if words created are real words or nonsense words. For English Language Learners, clarify the pronunciation and meaning of all words read and listed. Be sure to distinguish between real words and nonsense words, as well as clarify the meaning of any homophones or words with multiple meanings.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

S Blends

Objective: The students will read words with initial blends beginning with letter s (sn-, st-, sk-, sl-). NOTE: This lesson can be used with any type of blend, not just s- blends. Materials: Short-vowel words written on cards or paper (e.g., nap, top, kid, lip, lap) A pencil and paper for each student Small (1 X 1.5 inch) sticky notes with the letter s written on them

Lesson: Review short-vowel words that the students are able to read (e.g., nap, top, kid, lip, lap). Then,

1. Take a word card and place a sticky note with the letter s written on it in front of the word to make a new word (nap becomes snap). Read the new word together and have the students write the new word on their paper.

2. Continue placing the sticky notes in front of the other words, creating and rereading new

words with initial blends. Have the students write the new words on their paper.

3. After going through all the words, adding s, have the students read back all the words they have written.

Adaptations: Instead of providing word cards with short-vowel words written on them, dictate the words to the students and have them write the words on cards or paper. Have the students move the s to different positions in the word, such as the end of the word, to create plural or “silly” words. For English Language Learners, check to make sure the students understand the meanings of the original and new words.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Decoding: Short Vowels

Objective: The students will decode words with short vowel pattern.

Materials: Reading material at the students’ instructional reading level, containing words with short vowel

patterns Lesson: “Short” vowel sounds are the sounds a vowel makes when it does not say its name. The “short” sounds for all of the vowels are as follows: /a/ as in “cat,” /e/ as in “bet,” /i/ as in “bit,” /o/ as in “hot;” and /u/ as in “bug.” These sounds should be introduced and reviewed with students in a Word Analysis lesson before they begin to read the passage or book. Preview any short vowel or patterns that may appear in the book. Then,

1. Do a comprehension/vocabulary preview.

2. As students begin to read, assist them with any unfamiliar short vowel words, either by reminding them of the sound of the vowel or by reminding them of the short vowel pattern.

3. After decoding a word, remind students to go back to the beginning of the sentence and

read the entire sentence again.

4. Have the students continue reading and decoding any unfamiliar words.

5. After the students read the entire passage or book, discuss what happened in the story, and the students’ reaction to it.

Adaptations: If the students are having difficulty with particular short vowel words or patterns, write them on word cards to review during a Word Analysis lesson. For English Language Learners, be sure to preview any unfamiliar vocabulary and word meanings. The short sounds of vowels may be more difficult for these students; for example, as the differences between, the short sounds of e and i are very slight, and may not be present in their first language. Be sure to give students examples of words with these sounds, and show them how to position their mouth and tongue as they say these sounds.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Building Words With Blends

Objective: The students will match initial blends with word endings to read words. Materials: A variety of blends written on sticky notes (all the same color) A variety of matching word endings written on sticky notes (all the same color, but a different

color from the blends) A few cards with familiar words beginning with blends Chart paper with three columns, or large table space

Lesson: Tell students they will be making words with beginning blends and word endings using the sticky notes. Remind them that blends consist of two consonants that are read together quickly.

1. Review the cards with the familiar words beginning with blends. Say other familiar words with initial blends, if students need more examples.

2. Place the sticky notes in two columns on the chart paper or table: one for beginning blends and the other for word endings.

3. Tell the students to take turns selecting one sticky note from each column, placing them together, and reading the word built from the two sticky notes. If the word read is a nonsense word, the student should look to see if either the blend or ending could be switched with another to make a real word.

4. Place the created word in a third column. Continue Step 3 until all the words have been built. Then, have students read all the words in the third column.

Adaptations: Have the students add a sticky note of their own with a different blend, vowel, or ending, to make a different word. Have students write the words in their notebooks after building and reading them. This activity may also be adapted by writing the words with blends on cards and playing Concentration. Words are considered “matches” if they contain the same beginning blend and the student is able to read them correctly. For English Language Learners, check to make sure the students understand the meanings of the new words they are making. Also, be sure to distinguish between real and nonsense words, as well as teach the use and meaning of context-specific vocabulary (e.g., words with multiply meanings) to assist students in learning and reviewing vocabulary.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Pair That Sound!

Objective: The students will learn the multiple sound correspondences for a specific vowel pattern and will practice reading words using the differing sounds. Materials: Vowel pattern word cards separated into piles by similar vowel sound Vowel pattern word lists, for teacher use

Lesson: Tell the students they will read and match word cards with the same vowel sound. Then,

1. Show the students two cards, each containing one word from the differing sounds of the target vowel pattern (for example, “good” and “goose”). Read the words to the students. Explain that although the words are written with the same vowel pattern (“oo”), in each word the vowel pattern is pronounced differently.

2. Ask the students to read the two word cards, listening for and identifying the difference in the vowel pattern sounds.

3. Ask students to read the remaining word cards. Separate the cards into piles by similar sound.

4. Play Concentration with word cards. The object of the game is to turn over two words with the same vowel sound (for example, “good” and “look”).

5. Shuffle all the word cards and place them face down in rows. 6. Players take turns choosing two cards at a time, and reading the words on the cards. If the

two words have the same vowel sound, and they are read incorrectly should be returned to their original places.

7. Each student places his/her matching pairs in a separate pile, to be reread at the end of the game.

8. Students continue to take turns until all word pairs have been found. 9. Each student reads his/her matching pairs to the group.

Adaptations: This game may be adapted by having students read and match word cards that have the same vowel sound, but differing patterns representing that sound. For extra practice, have students write their word pairs in their notebooks. For English Language Learners, clarify the pronunciation and meaning of all words introduced. Be sure to review letters that have pronunciations or sounds in English that are different from or similar to students’ first language, as well as teach the use and meaning of context-specific vocabulary (e.g., homophones or words with multiple meanings).

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Word Study Boggle Objective: The students will review and write word patterns.

Materials: One dry-erase board (white board), marker, and eraser for each student Timer

Lesson: Tell students that for this game, they must write as many “real” words with the same ending rime as they can in 30 seconds. Hand out the materials. Then,

1. Have the students write the target rime at the top of their white boards.

2. Set the timer for 30 seconds, and tell the students to begin writing.

3. At the end of 30 seconds, tell the students to stop. Have each take a turn telling the group one word she/he wrote. As the student does this have the other students cross off the word if it is on their lists. If no other students have the same word, then the student who is reading places a tally point mark next to the word.

4. Have students count their tally marks. The student with the most marks wins. Or,

continue playing the game with another rime. Adaptations: Adjust the time or the difficulty of the rime. Less time will be more challenging as will more difficult rimes. Some English Language Learners may have difficulty distinguishing real words from nonsense words, especially if their English language vocabulary is limited. Allow them to create any words, both nonsense and real, assigning points for all words. It is important to discuss with them, however, the meanings of the words they have created, and whether the words are real.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Decoding: Consonant Blending and Digraphs

Objective: The students will decode unfamiliar words that contain consonant blends and digraphs by blending them with the remaining sounds/parts of the words. Materials: Reading material at the students’ instructional reading level

Lesson: Preview the book, finding words with blends and/or digraphs that may be unfamiliar to the students. Then,

1. Conduct a comprehension/vocabulary preview. 2. Instruct the students that one way to read words that contain two consonants side by side

(blends) or words with two consonants that make one sound (digraphs such as /th/), is to say the sounds of the two consonants or the digraph and blend the sounds with the sounds of the other parts of the word (i.e., say them quickly, one right after the other).

3. Instruct the students to look carefully at any unfamiliar word to identify word or vowel patterns before they say the sounds of the letters/patterns. For example, to decode street through blending, students should blend /s/ and /t/. Then the student can say all the sounds, /st/, /r/, /ee/, /t/, blend them, and state the word street.

4. Practice a few words in isolation. 5. Ask the students to begin reading. Tell them that as they come to unfamiliar words, they

should try blending the sounds together to read the word. 6. Tell students who misread a word to return to the beginning of the sentence containing

the misread word and read the entire sentence again correctly. 7. Encourage comprehension by asking students’ questions about the content of the story.

Adaptations: Because of the patterned nature of the English language, blending works best with parts of the word (beginning consonants and ending consonants, for example). It will be very difficult for students to be successful in decoding if they use blending as their only strategy. Rather, blending is much more successful when it is coupled with other decoding strategies to read entire words.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Decoding: Chunking

Objective: The students will use their knowledge of word parts within larger words to decode unfamiliar text. Materials: Reading material at the students’ instructional reading level

Lesson: Preview the text, identifying words that may prove challenging for the students. Identify parts of the words already familiar to students, to serve as a prompt if the students have difficulty with the whole word (e.g., the little word and is in the larger word stand). Then,

1. Conduct a comprehension/vocabulary preview. 2. Inform the students that if they find an unfamiliar word as they read, they should first look

for the parts of the word they are able to read: smaller words within the larger word, or prefixes or suffixes. Then they can blend the part of the word that they are able to read with the rest of the word.

3. Practice a few words in isolation. 4. When the students come to an unfamiliar word, remind them to look for familiar parts. 5. Tell students who misread a word to return to the beginning of the sentence containing the

misread word and read the entire sentence again correctly. 6. To encourage comprehension, discuss what happened in the story or the reading passage and

the students’ reaction to it. Adaptations: For teaching compound words, have the students look for the two smaller words that make up a larger word. As students are reading, record any unfamiliar words for additional practice at a later date. For English Language Learners, be sure to preview any unfamiliar vocabulary. To reinforce comprehension, stop at intervals throughout the text to review what has happened up to that point.

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Sample Intervention Lessons for Struggling Readers

Decoding: Analogy Objective: The students will decode unfamiliar words by drawing analogies (identifying and relating the information) to other words with similar patterns or parts. Materials: Reading material at the students’ instructional reading level

Lesson: Preview the book and note any words that may be new or difficult for the students. For unfamiliar words that have a common pattern, keep in mind familiar words with the same pattern.

1. Conduct a comprehension/vocabulary preview. 2. Have the students begin reading. Tell them that if they come to any words they do not know,

they are to look for familiar patterns in the word and think of other words that contain that pattern (e.g., if the students are having trouble with the word street, have them think of other words they know that have ee, such as bee or meet ).

3. Isolate the rime or vowel pattern. Have students say the sound(s) it makes, and blend the other sounds in the word with the rime or vowel pattern.

4. Have students continue reading. When they encounter other unfamiliar words, have them think of other words they know with the same ending or vowel pattern, and apply that knowledge to the unfamiliar word.

5. To encourage comprehension, discuss what happened in the story or the reading passage and the students’ reaction to it.

Adaptations: If the students have trouble with a particular pattern in a book, review the pattern during a Word Analysis lesson before rereading the book. As the students read, make a list of any unfamiliar words and review them later during a Word Analysis lesson. For English Language Learners, introduce any new vocabulary in the book that may be unfamiliar. To reinforce comprehension, stop at intervals throughout the selection to review what has happened up to that point.

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Phonemic Awareness Instructional Practices

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Phonemic awareness is both a precursor to and a result of learning to read. — Bill Honig, Linda Diamond, and Linda Gutlohn, 2000

WWHHAATT IISS PPHHOONNEEMMIICC AAWWAARREENNEESSSS?? Think about these words – telephone, phonograph, phonics. They all contain the Greek root phon. Can you guess what phon means? If you guessed (or already knew) it means sound, then you are correct. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound. The root phon has three phonemes - /f/, /o/, /n/. Speech is a continuous stream of phonemes. Phonemic awareness is “the ability to notice, mentally grab ahold of, and manipulate” (Yopp & Yopp, 2000, p. 130) the individual phonemes within that continuous stream. Students or potential readers need the awareness to be able to answer these questions. How do click and clack sound different? Can you hear the individual sound in click that is different from just one sound in clack? Can you blend the sounds /m/ and /i/ to form the word my? These tasks require phonemic awareness. RREESSEEAARRCCHH RREEVVIIEEWW Phonemic awareness, “the foundation upon which reading skills are built” (NCREL, 2004) begins to develop in the cradle as we realize some sounds are special. These special sounds are human speech. Noticing one’s own language and developing the ability to control it is called metalinguistic awareness. As we grow and experience language we develop the ability to identify and manipulate language in smaller, more discrete chunks.

Phonological awareness is a continuum of “sensitivity to any size unit of sound” (Yopp & Yopp, 2000, p. 130) and includes the ability to distinguish individual words in a stream of speech (Hempenstall, 2003), rhyme words, count syllables and separate parts of words (e.g., as in /ch/ and /air/ of chair). Phonemic awareness is a subset of phonological awareness and “concerns the structure of words rather than their meaning” (Hempenstall, 2003). One of the best predictors of successfully learning to read is phonemic awareness (NRP, 2000). Streams of speech flow seamlessly; individual “phonemes are folded into each other” (NRP, p. 2-11) and are articulated together. Young children may find it difficult to isolate each discrete phoneme in order to match it to a letter in a word. This difficulty makes explicit instruction “critical because … phonemic awareness is necessary for using phonics, the knowledge of specific letter- sound associations” (CIERA, 1998, p. 1). The English language uses 26 symbols or letters, alone or in various combinations, to represent the 43 vowel and consonant phonemes in our language. “Without phonemic awareness – [this] symbol system is arbitrary” (Yopp & Yopp, 2000. p. 131). Imagine trying to choose a symbol to represent a sound (phoneme) if you can’t identify the specific sound. The report of the Committee for the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children states that the development of phonemic awareness should be a priority goal in kindergarten classes (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Phonemic Awareness

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INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES THAT SUPPORT PHONEMIC AWARENESS Yopp and Yopp (2000) assert that phonemic awareness instruction should be:

1. only part of a broader literacy program, 2. deliberate and purposeful, 3. and child appropriate.

Phonemic awareness is critical but is not meaningful unless it is part of a more comprehensive reading program. Overemphasis on phonemic awareness alone will not serve our students well. Other elements of phonological awareness, such as rhyming or identifying separate syllables may provide a bridge to phonemic awareness and should not be ignored. Rhymes and syllables are larger chunks of sound that a student may identify more readily. Experience with larger chunks can lay the foundation for identifying individual chunks or phonemes. For generations, pre-school and kindergarten teachers have been developing their students’ phonemic awareness unintentionally as they sang songs and chanted rhymes with their young charges. As we have learned more about the role phonemic awareness plays in the reading process, we understand the need to provide deliberate and purposeful phonemic awareness instruction. For example, when reading Some Smug Slug (Edwards, 1996) the teacher should explicitly point out the alliteration patterns in phrases like “swallowtail swooshing” or “scolded a squirrel”. Child appropriate phonemic awareness instruction is “playful and engaging, interactive and social, and stimulates curiosity and experimentation with language” (Yopp & Yopp, p. 131). Teachers take advantage of children’s natural engagement with “storytelling, word games, rhymes and riddles” (p. 132) to provide opportunities to identify and manipulate individual sounds and sound patterns. For example, students can

create their own rhymes patterned after phrases like “beavers with fevers” or “chimp with a limp” in Who’s Sick Today? (Cherry, 1988). Teachers should consider the following when planning instruction (Yopp & Yopp, p.132-133).

• Unit of sound • Operation to be performed • Oral cues and concrete manipulatives

Yopp and Yopp (2000) suggest starting with rhyming words as the easiest unit of sound for students to hear and manipulate. They suggest moving on to syllables then onsets and rimes. An onset consists of all consonants in a word before the vowel and the rime being the rest of the word. For example, in the word brown /br/ is the onset and /own/ is the rime. In the word bear /b/ is the onset and /ear/ is the rime. Laying this foundation with larger units of sound provides the foundation some children need before they are able to identify and manipulate individual sounds, or phonemes. Several operations are possible when working with phonemes. They include:

• Matching — The ability to hear if the sounds are alike. Do cat and kite begin with the same sound?

• Isolation — The ability to isolate sounds. What is the beginning sound of cat? What is the ending sound in cat?

• Substitution — The ability to substitute one sound for another. What word would you have if you changed the /c/ in cat to /h/?

• Blending — The ability to blend sounds together. What word would you have if you blended /c/, /a/, and /t/?

• Segmentation — The ability to identify individual sounds. What are the sounds in the word cat?

• Deletion — The ability to identify words that have a sound removed. What word would you have it you left off the /c/ in cat?

Instructional practices specifically designed to develop phonemic awareness are usually oral.

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Cues, such as clapping for each sound heard, may support students as they identify each phoneme. Sometimes it is helpful to use concrete manipulatives, such as plastic disks, to represent each phoneme. The Russian psychologist David Elkonin (Joseph, 1998) developed a strategy for supporting students as they identify phonemes and blend them in the correct order. A rectangle divided in sections that correspond to the number of sounds is placed in front of the child. For example, the word bath has 3 phonemes - /b, /a/ and /th/ so a rectangle with 3 sections would be used.

Place holders are provided for each phoneme as well. These place holders can be plastic disks, beans, cubes, wood squares or anything else that will fit into the spaces for each phoneme. As the child articulates each sound, she moves a placeholder into the appropriate section of the box. In our example, bath, as the child articulates /b/ she would move a placeholder into the first box. As the child articulates /a/ she would move a placeholder into the middle box. Finally, as the child articulates /th/ she would move a placeholder into the last box. Elkonin boxes can be helpful when a child has difficulty identifying phonemes in the same order they occur in a

word. A teacher might help children identify beginning and ending sounds first, then the medial phoneme(s) until they are able to identify all phonemes in order. According to Joseph (1998), Marie M. Clay also recommends the use of similar strategies for developing phonological awareness and orthographic awareness. Clay has incorporated word boxes into the routines of Reading Recovery teachers who use word boxes to help students attend to sounds in spoken language and to match sounds to print. Word boxes are part of a comprehensive program to scaffold students’ learning from sounds to word identification and spelling. Joseph reported on his adaptation of Clay’s process in his study of word boxes to teach word recognition and spelling intervention for third and fourth grade students with learning disabilities. The six students in Joseph’s case study showed high levels of maintenance and transfer in word recognition and spelling after interventions with word boxes (Joseph, 1998). SSUUMMMMAARRYY Phonemic awareness concerns the “structure of words rather than their meaning” (Hempenstall, 2003); phonemes are some of the building blocks for that bridge. A variety of instructional activities that supports students as they develop the ability to identify and manipulate individual phonemes are some of the building blocks for that bridge.

AADDDDIITTIIOONNAALL RREESSOOUURRCCEESS Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I. & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young

children: A classroom curriculum. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Blachman, B. A., Ball, E. W., Black, R., & Tangel, D. M. (2000). Road to the code: A phonological

awareness program for young children. Baltimore: Brookes. Jordano, K. & Calella, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness songs & rhymes. Cypress, CA: Creative

Teaching Press. Honig, B., Diamond, L., Gutlohn, L., & Mahler, J. (2000). Teaching reading sourcebook for kindergarten through eighth grade. Novato, CA: Arena Press.

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RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA). (1998). Every child a reader:

Applying reading research in the classroom. Topic 2: Concepts of print, letter Naming, and phonemic awareness. Ann Arbor, MI University of Michigan School of Education.

Cherry, L. (1988). Who’s sick today? New York: Scholastic. Edwards, P. D. (1996). Some smug slug. New York: HarperCollins. Joseph, L. M. (1998). Word boxes help children with learning disabilities identify and spell words.

The Reading Teacher, 52(4), 348-356. Hempenstall, K. (2003). Phonemic awareness: What does it mean? A 2003 update. Retrieved

February 28, 2005, from http://www.educationnews.org/phonemic_awareness_what_does_it_.htm

Honig, B., Diamond, L., Gutlohn, L., & Mahler, J. (2000). Teaching reading sourcebook for

kindergarten through eighth grade. Novato, CA: Arena Press. National Reading Panel (NRP). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of

the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

North Central Regional Education Laboratory (NCREL). (2004). Phonemic awareness. Retrieved

March 8, 2005, from http://www.ncrel.org/rf/sbrr/phonemic.htm Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children.

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Yopp, H. K., Yopp, R. H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom.

The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 130-143.

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Blending Sounds

Give students several blank counters. Say a word, stretching each sound in the word. Students repeat the sounds slowly and move a counter for each sound. Then they say each sound faster, moving their fingers below the counters as they say the word. Teacher: “/fffaaannn/. Now say it again slowly and move one counter for each sound

in the word. Students: “/fffaaannn/.” (They move one counter each for /f/, /a/, and /n/ sounds.) Teacher: “Now let’s say each sound faster this time. Point to each counter. Move

your finger quickly under the counters as we say the word.” Teacher and students: “/ffaann/ (point to each counter). Fan.” (Slide finger under

counters when saying the word).

Blending Sounds

Give students letter tiles: f, a, n. Say the word fan, stretching each sound in the word. Students repeat the sounds slowly and move a letter for each sound. Then they say each sound faster moving their fingers below the letters as they say the word. Teacher: “/fffaaannn/. Now say it again slowly and move one letter for each sound in

the word.” Students: “/fffaaannn/.” (They move the letter f for /f/, a for /a/, and n for /n/.) Teacher: “Now let’s say each sound faster this time. Point to each letter. Move your

finger quickly under the letters as we say the word.” Teacher and Students: “/ffaann/ (Point to each letter). Fan.” (Slide finger under

letters when saying the word.)

Catch It

Students form a circle. The teacher says a one-syllable word, ship, and tosses a bean bag to a student. The student catches the bag and says the initial sound in the word, /sh/. The student tosses the bag to another student who catches it and says the medial

sound, /i/. The bag is thrown again and the student who catches it says the final sound, /p/. The group repeats the whole word, ship. Continue with other words.

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Take Off Cinderella

Play Take Off Cinderella after reading and discussing the story. Teacher: “Let’s play a game using some of the words from the story. If I ask you to

take off the /s/ sound in mice, you say my. Let’s try one. Take off the /m/ in midnight. What’s left?”

Students: “idnight.” Teacher: “Very good, idnight is correct.” The game continues with other words from the story such as coach, gown, wand, and

prince. Variation: Use words from any story.

Clueless

Divide the class into two teams. Pair students on each team. Place pictures on one- syllable words in a stack, face down. One pair selects the top picture (mop). The pair gives clues about the sounds in the picture’s name to all the members of the other team until they guess the picture’s name. Example of clues for mop:

Its name has three sounds. Its name begins with the /m/ sound. Its name ends with the /p/ sound. Its name has a middle /o/ sound.

The score is the number of clues that are given before the name is guessed. The team with the lowest score wins.

Clueless

Place several different objects on a table (a sock, pen, and book). One student chooses an object and says its name. Students say other words that end with the same sound as the object’s name. For example, the pen is chosen. Students say other words that end with the /n/ sound, such as can, moon, fun, and pumpkin.

Continue with other objects.

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Summing Up

Fluency fostered by phonemic awareness and phonics is a separate yet integral part of the reading process. Fluency results from a complex interrelationship of processes that is more than the sum of these components. Teachers who make fluency a part of their comprehensive reading program and implement instruction with engaging materials help students become proficient readers

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Vocabulary Instructional Practices

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“A word is not a crystal, transparent and unchanged, it is the skin of a living thought and may vary greatly in color and content according to the circumstances and the time in which it is used.” — Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1918

WWHHAATT IISS VVOOCCAABBUULLAARRYY?? Any child who is past the first grade could give a fairly accurate definition of vocabulary: the words you have to know to read a story. Secondary students might define vocabulary as a list of words given by the teacher in order to comprehend a given text. An engineer might define vocabulary as a working knowledge of the words necessary to succeed in his vocation. And to a poet, vocabulary is simply the stuff of life. The National Reading Panel penned a more formal definition: “Vocabulary is stored information about the meanings and pronunciations of words necessary for communication” (NICHHD, 2000). Other researchers have delineated various types of vocabulary, such as

• Listening vocabulary — the words needed to understand what is heard.

• Speaking vocabulary — the words used when speaking.

• Reading vocabulary — the words needed to understand what is read.

• Writing vocabulary — the words used in writing.

• Sight vocabulary — those words that can be identified without explicit decoding during reading (IRA, 2002, 112).

WWHHYY IISS VVOOCCAABBUULLAARRYY IIMMPPOORRTTAANNTT?? Although the importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension has been widely

recognized for years, vocabulary instruction has not been in vogue in professional literature until recently (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, p. 336). The sudden spotlight on reading has facilitated a deeper interest in all aspects of reading, including vocabulary; and researchers are now stating the obvious: “Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to reading comprehension; one cannot understand text without knowing what most of the words mean” (Nagy, p. 1). The research behind that statement is a bit more comprehensive than it first appears. Anderson and Freebody, vocabulary researchers, hypothesized in 1979 that there are three reasons that vocabulary knowledge is a good indicator of reading success:

1. Understanding words enables readers to understand passages.

2. Verbal aptitude underlies both word and passage comprehension.

3. Vocabulary knowledge may be related to a person’s store of background information (Irvin, p.115).

The bottom line? Nagy (2003) summarized Anderson and Freebody’s report, Vocabulary Knowledge, when he wrote: “The proportion of difficult words in text is the single most powerful predictor of text difficulty, and a reader’s general vocabulary knowledge is the single best predictor of how well that reader can understand text” (p. 1).

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Vocabulary

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RREESSEEAARRCCHH RREEVVIIEEWW Vocabulary acquisition, like reading itself, is a complex process. While many words are learned through context and everyday experiences with oral and written language, some vocabulary, particularly technical and subject-specific words, are often learned through direct instruction. (NICHHD, 2000). Vocabulary instruction becomes even more difficult when one considers that there are levels to knowing words. While some words are very familiar to students, other words may take repeated exposure to come to know. Researchers Beck, McKeown, McCasline, and Burkes report three levels of word knowledge: unknown, acquainted and established. They also contend that it is essential for students to have frequent encounters with a word and understand the connection between words and ideas before students begin to “own” a word (Irvin, p. 115- 116). It is important to note that superficial exposures to words, or looking up words in the dictionary does not provide students with the necessary connections or associations to establish words in a learner’s vocabulary storehouse. “Definitions alone can lead to only a relatively superficial level of word knowledge. By itself, looking up words in a dictionary or memorizing definitions does not reliably improve reading comprehension” (Nagy, pp.4- 5). What, then, is a teacher to do to increase vocabulary? IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONNAALL PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS TTHHAATT SSUUPPPPOORRTT VVOOCCAABBUULLAARRYY It is clear that not all instructional practices in the teaching of vocabulary are equally effective. The goal is to create a deep and lasting knowledge of words. Nagy in his book Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension suggests that teaching “redundancy of text” explains many past failures of vocabulary instruction. If texts contain unfamiliar words but these words do not hinder comprehension, then to spend instruction time on teaching those words would not improve comprehension.

In fact, “inferring the meanings of unfamiliar words in text is itself a major avenue of vocabulary growth” (Nagy, p.3). Nagy cites a study by Freebody and Anderson in 1983 that found that “one content word in six could be replaced by a more difficult synonym without significantly decreasing comprehension” (Nagy, p. 3). The overriding instructional practice, then, that supports the building of strong vocabularies is wide reading. Nagy goes so far as to say that what is needed to “produce vocabulary growth is not more vocabulary instruction, but more reading” (Nagy, p. 3). With that premise at the forefront of all instruction, there are sound practices that provide effective vocabulary growth.

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Research clearly points to the importance of making connections from known vocabulary to new vocabulary as well as activating readers’ experiential and conceptual background in vocabulary development (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, p. 338). Facilitating discussions with students in small groups, brainstorming concepts surrounding the new words and utilizing a variety of concept and webbing maps are effective in activating and sharing knowledge. Preparing students for new information by allowing them the necessary time to access associations they already have is key in facilitating long-term and deep vocabulary knowledge.

AACCTTIIVVEE PPRROOCCEESSSS VVOOCCAABBUULLAARRYY IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN

Although indirect instruction and wide reading is an important part of vocabulary acquisition, students must also have frequent opportunities for direct instruction.

Rupley, Logan, and Nichols, in an article titled “Vocabulary Instruction in a Balanced Reading Program” cite the following instructional guidelines from Blachowicz and Fisher, 1996; Blachowicz and Lee, 1991:

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• Select words for vocabulary instruction that come from texts students will read. Help students make connections between existing knowledge and new knowledge so students can encounter new words “in a confirmatory manner rather than as an unknown word.”

• Provide students with multiple opportunities to use new words in their speaking, listening, reading and writing activities.

• Help students learn new words by building a conceptual base through utilizing analogies, language features and other relationships to known words.

• Provide a variety of instructional strategies to help students retain the word knowledge, such as visual aides, kinesthetic associations, or mental pictures (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, p. 338-339).

VVOOCCAABBUULLAARRYY IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONNAALL TTOOOOLLSS There are a variety of instructional tools that can help students internalize words conceptually, but students should learn to use such strategies flexibly as a way to deepen vocabulary rather than as worksheets. No one tool will fit every student’s need or work in every context. • Word Sort — The teacher supplies a list

of words to students on index cards and, in small groups, students categorize and sort words based upon known associations.

• Concept Word Map/Web — Students work in small groups to learn connections among words by brainstorming and organizing words according to a map that they design or a blank one that is provided by the teacher. An example might be a key-concept word in the center of the page with rays connecting related words.

• Semantic Feature Analysis — The teacher lists several concept words that are related and can be compared to one another. Students find characteristics or features associated with the concept words. In a chart with rows and columns, the concept words are listed on the left side of the chart, and the features and characteristics are the column headings. This creates a grid, and features can be identified for each concept by adding + or – marks.

SSTTRRUUCCTTUURRAALL AANNAALLYYSSIISS AANNDD MMOORRPPHHOOLLOOGGYY Morphology is analyzing words according to their pronunciation, part of speech, prefix, suffix or root. Ryder in his vocabulary research found that students can increase their vocabularies by up to 20,000 words from grades three to seven by using a “combination of context clues and morphological analysis” (Irvin, p. 117). Showing students how to analyze words deepens their sense of word knowledge and provides them with an additional tool for unlocking word meanings. Provide students with charts of common roots, prefixes and suffixes as a reference to help them in their word study. Point out the meanings of word parts in new words, and remind students to use their knowledge of prefixes and suffixes when encountering an unfamiliar word. SSUUMMMMAARRYY The connection between a strong vocabulary and comprehension is irrefutable. Students who read widely and understand how words represent concepts have a distinct advantage over students who know few words and are unable to access word meaning. By activating background knowledge, providing frequent exposure to new words and showing students how to use vocabulary tools such as maps and webs, teachers can help students increase their vocabulary skills and knowledge.

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RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension

and teaching: Research reviews (p. 77-117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Beck, I., McKeown, M. & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction.

New York: Guilford Press. International Reading Association (IRA). (2002). Evidence-based reading instruction: Putting the

National Reading Panel report into practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Irvin, J. L., Buehl, D. R, & Klemp, R.M. (2003). Reading and the high school student: Strategies to

enhance literacy. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Nagy, W. (2003). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Urbana, IL: National

Council of Teachers of English. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). Report of the

National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Rupley, W., Logan, J. & Nichols, W. (1999). Vocabulary instruction in a balanced reading program.

The Reading Teacher, 52(4), 336-346.

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Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

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Interesting Research Facts

Research demonstrates that children learn most words ____________, through reading, writing,

listening, and talking (S. A. Stahl, 1986, Three Principles of Effective Vocabulary Instruction,

Journal of Reading, 29(7), 662-668).

We have ______ mental vocabularies: phonological (we use when we listen and talk) and

orthographic (we use when we read and write) (Clark, 1993, The Lexicon in Acquisition).

By age _______, most children have an oral vocabulary of up to 14,000 words (Clark, 1993, The

Lexicon in Acquisition).

Nagy and Anderson (1984) concluded that high school graduates know ____________ words (W. E.

Nagy & P. A. Anderson, 1984, How many words are there in printed school English?, Reading

Research Quarterly, 19, 304-330).

Until ________, we learn about 3,500 new words a year, for a total of about _____________ words

(L. R. Gleitman, 1988, Invitation to Cognitive Science).

Johnson (2001) suggests that the fact that an individual’s vocabulary may increase from 14,000

words at age 6 to 100,000 words as an adult means many words are learned through

______________________ use rather than ________________ instruction (D. Johnson, 2001,

Vocabulary in the Elementary and Middle School).

Children who do not think about or __________ a word after initial instruction are ____________ to

add it to their vocabulary repertoire. (I. L. Beck, C. A. Perfetti, & M G. McKeown 1982, Effects of

Long Term Vocabulary Instruction on Lexical Access and Reading Comprehension, Journal of

Educational Psychology, 74, 506-521).

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

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Eight Guidelines for Vocabulary Instruction 1. Extended periods of instructional time must be devoted to vocabulary growth (National Reading Panel

Report, 2000). 2. Independent reading should be encouraged and facilitated (W. E. Nagy, 1988, Teaching Vocabulary to

Improve Reading Comprehension). 3. Words important to the understanding of the text (passage-critical words) should be directly taught

(C. Snow, M. Burns, & P. Griffin, 1998, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children). 4. Word learning must be active (S. A. Stahl, 1986, Three Principles of Effective Vocabulary Instruction,

Journal of Reading, 29(7), 662-668). 5. Students should have multiple exposures to a word to learn it well (National Reading Panel Report,

2000). 6. Word study activities facilitate vocabulary growth (G. Miller, 1996, The Science of Words). 7. Relating new words to students’ background experiences contributes to vocabulary growth (M. Graves

& B. Graves, 1994, Scaffolding Reading Experiences; W. E. Nagy, P. A. Herman, & R. C. Anderson, 1985, Learning Words from Context, Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 233-253).

8. Phonic analysis, structural analysis, and contextual analysis help students independently acquire new

words (J. Allen, 1999, Words, Words, Words; D. Johnson & F. Baumann, 1984, Word Identification, In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Reading, 583-608).

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Alignment of Guidelines of Vocabulary Instruction with NRP Instruction Methods

Vocabulary Instruction Guidelines

NRP Instruction Methods

Examples of Vocabulary Instructional Practices that

Support Guidelines 1. Vocabulary Growth Deriving Word Meanings

Text Revision Concept Method Association Method Discussion, Current Events Literature Circles, Read Aloud

10 Most Important Words Word Bank I Heard a Word Personal Storytelling

2. Independent Reading Wide Reading Passage Integration Training Text Revision Literature Circles Discussion Flexible Grouping

Vocab Day Sticky Notes ID Vocabulary Enricher Vocab Bookmark

3. Passage-Critical Words Pre-Instruction of Vocabulary Words

Vocab Attention Please! 10 Most Important Words Known-Acquainted-Unknown Graphic Organizers

4. Active Word Learning Elaborate/Rich Instruction TOAST Method (test, organize,

anchor, say, test) Basic Mnemonic Techniques Interactive Vocabulary Techniques

Readers Theatre, Storytelling Vocab Attention Please! 10 Most Important Words Known-Acquainted-Unknown Graphic Organizers Word Bank

5. Multiple Exposure to Words

Wide Reading Computer/Multimedia Instruction Association Methods Basic Mnemonic Techniques

Graphic Organizers Word Bank I Heard a Word Word Chains

6. Word Study Activities (Practice with Meaningful Use)

Elaborate/Rich Instruction Dictionary/Glossary Basic Mnemonic Techniques Association Method

Word Analysis Word Bank I Heard a Word Word Sorts Graphic Organizers

7. Connections to Background Experiences

Contextual Analysis Task Clarification Association Method

Vocab by Analogy Word Chains Word Sorts Graphic Organizers

8. Expanding Vocabulary Through Phonic, Structural and Contextual Analysis

Deriving Word Meanings Roots/Affix Analysis Decoding Instruction Basic Mnemonic Techniques

Graphic Organizers Word by Analogy Word Chains Word Bank I Heard a Word

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

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Vocab Bookmark

Description: A Vocab Bookmark (adapted from Brown, Phillips, and Stephens, 1993, Toward Literacy) is a bookmark made from laminated paper with spaces for students to list unfamiliar words when they encounter them in their reading. There is space to put the page number where the word was located so that students can go back to it easily. This is a one way for students to make their own vocabulary lists. Students can identify new words while reading and write them on the Vocab Bookmark with a vis-à-vis pen. That way, the bookmark can be reused. Students can immediately interact with new terms encountered. Procedures: 1. The teacher models finding unfamiliar words while reading and how to record them on a

bookmark. The bookmarks can be pre-made or students can make their own. 2. On the bookmark, students list new words or unusual words that may be used in an unfamiliar

context. 3. On the bookmark, students list the page number where the word was found. 4. The new words can be put in their vocabulary notebooks where students define them and

demonstrate how to use them, or the teacher may wish to have students complete some active word learning activities (See another variation, Vocab Day, below).

Vocab Day

Please date your entry. From your bookmark, choose three new or unusual words from your reading group book which you have encountered during reading. 1. Please include the page number where you found the word in your reading book. 2. Write a definition for the word (using your own words, not the dictionary’s). 3. Put the new or unusual word in a sentence. 4. Write one synonym for the new or unusual word (a similar word). 5. Write one antonym for the new or unusual word (an opposite word). 6. Draw a picture that illustrates the new word. 7. Make a simile with the new word. 8. Use the word in speaking 10 times before the end of the day. 9. Give the new word to a friend.

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Activities You Can Do

Rereading Self-correcting Use a thesaurus Use a dictionary

Ask someone Substitute a word that makes sense

Look for word parts you know

Vocabulary Bookmark

Name:___________________________

Interesting or Unknown Words

As you read, write new or unusual words which you come across. You may refer back to these words on Vocab Day.

Questions While Reading

Before Reading

• What do I already know about this subject/topic?

• What do I know about this genre? • What do I know about this author? • What do I think is going to happen in

this book?

During Reading • Am I understanding what I’ve read? • Are my predictions correct? • Do I need to change my prediction? • Is this book like other books I’ve

read? • Do I need to use fix-up strategies?

After Reading

• What were the big ideas in this book? • What new did I learn from this book? • Do I need to seek more information

to help me better understand this book?

• Do I still have questions?

Word Page # ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

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Passage Critical Words

• Teachers should directly teach passage-critical words (C. Snow, M. Burns, & P. Griffin,

1998, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children). • Teachers do not need to teach every unknown word. • Teach the words important to the understanding of the text or words students are likely to

encounter again, outside the specific text. • This is in contrast to the grade level word list method which predominates in schools. This

method treats all words as if they are integral to the understanding of the text (W. E. Nagy, 1988, Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension).

• Teach only 8 or 10 words per week (B. B. Armbruster, F. Lehr, & L. Osborn, 2001, Put Reading First: The Research Blocks for Teaching Children First).

Critical Word Cloze

1. Read the cloze passage with words missing. 2. Independently, complete the cloze. 3. Share with group.

Nall was so _____________. She was _______________ to the ______________ with Charkle. She would ____________ a _____________ ______________ so she could ______________ out _______________. Charkle ____________ her ___________ out the ______________. “______________, Charkle,” jibbed Nall ______________ly. “Now we can _____________ out ____________ together!” _____________ Charkle ___________ly.

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Vocab Attention Please! Description: Vocab Attention Please! makes students aware of important terms prior to reading. Lack of vocabulary knowledge is an obstacle for many students. Often they skip over unfamiliar words and lack a full understanding of what they read. Vocab Attention Please! allows students to self-assess and helps them set a purpose for reading. It is also an assessment tool for teachers, helping them determine how much vocabulary instruction and practice will be needed. Procedure: 1. The teacher selects the most important terms from the reading, being careful to limit them to a manageable

number (5-9), and prepares a Vocab Attention Please! form (Students can also keep these terms in a learning log). These terms can be displayed on a word wall.

2. The teacher writes Vocab Attention Please! on the board, and the students assess their familiarity with

each term using a form/log (Is it known, unknown, or are they acquainted with the word). 3. Then the teacher describes the importance of the terms within the context of the topic to be learned in

order prepare students for the reading selection. 4. As the students read the selection, they pay special attention to the Vocab Attention Please! terms and

write information about them on the form/log. 5. The teacher then engages the class in a discussion of the terms to further clarify and develop their

understanding of the words.

adapted from Elaine Stephens & Jean Brown, 2000 A Handbook of Content Literacy Strategies: 75 Practical Reading and Writing Ideas

Example Before we read the following text on describing statistical data with graphs, determine whether you know the word, are acquainted with it, or if it is unknown to you. Place an “x” on the line depending upon your knowledge of each word. If you are acquainted with the word or it is unknown to you, please prepare for the reading ahead of time, and focus on these words in the context of the reading to make each word known.

Known Acquainted Unknown Frequency Distribution Bimodal Bar Graph Histogram Stem & Leaf Frequency Polygon Positively skewed Negatively skewed

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This Page Intentionally Left Blank

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Foolish Nonsensical Idiotic Absurd Asinine Boneheaded Loony Zany Wacky Witless Crazy Stupid Goofy

Preposterous

Silly Decide where each of these words should be placed along the line – closer to Preposterous or Silly

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The Snakes

I once saw two snakes, northern racers,

hurrying through the woods, their bodies

like two black whips lifting and dashing forward;

in perfect concert they held their heads high

and swam forward on their sleek bellies;

under the trees, through vines, branches,

over stones, through fields of flowers,

they traveled like a matched team

like a dance like a love affair.

Mary Oliver, 1983 American Primitive, p. 48

Vocabulary Word Map

What Is It? A vocabulary word map is a visual organizer that helps students engage with and think about new terms or concepts in several ways. How Does It Work? The new term goes in the middle of the map. Students fill in the rest of the map with a definition, synonyms, antonyms, and a picture to help illustrate the new concept. Help Me Visualize a Vocabulary Word Map. Got a good graphic for me?

Circle three words you think Mary Oliver chose deliberately to express meaning not usually found in traditional definitions of the word. “What other word could she have used?”

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Frayer Model The Frayer Model is a graphic organizer used for word analysis and vocabulary building. This four- square model prompts students to think about and describe the meaning of a word or concept by:

• Defining the term, • Describing its essential characteristics, • Providing examples of the idea, and • Offering non-examples of the idea.

This instructional practice stresses understanding words within the larger context of a reading selection by requiring students, first, to analyze the items (definition and characteristics) and, second, to synthesize/apply this information by thinking of examples and non-examples.

Steps to the Frayer Model: 1. Explain the Frayer model graphic organizer to the class. Use a common word to demonstrate

the various components of the form. Model the type and quality of desired answers when giving this example.

2. Select a list of key concepts from a reading selection. Write this list on the chalkboard and review it with the class before students read the selection.

3. Divide the class into student pairs. Assign each pair one of the key concepts and have them read the selection carefully to define this concept. Have these groups complete the four- square organizer for this concept.

4. Ask the student pairs to share their conclusions with the entire class. Use these presentations to review the entire list of key concepts.

Learn More:

Frayer, D., Frederick, W. C., and Klausmeier, H. J. (1969). A Schema for Testing the Level of Cognitive Mastery. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education Research.

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Semantic Feature Analysis The Semantic Feature Analysis instructional practice asks students to identify key words in a reading selection and relate these words to the major concepts of the text. Using a graphic matrix, students . . .

• List the key words of a reading selection. • Identify the meaning and properties of these key words. • Group key words into logical categories. • Relate the words (and categories) to one another.

This instructional practice makes a special effort to draw on a student's past knowledge and experiences to define and relate the key terms. Steps to a Semantic Feature Analysis:

1. Select a topic or concept from a reading selection for student analysis. Introduce the Semantic Feature Analysis graphic organizer (See below) as a tool for recording reading observations.

2. Help students list key vocabulary words related to the topic down the left hand column of the chart. Next, assist students in listing the properties or features of the topic across the top row of the chart.

3. Once the matrix is complete, review all the words and properties with the students and have them carefully read the text selection.

4. While reading, students place check marks in the matrix when a vocabulary word reinforces one of the properties of the topic.

5. After reading and completing the matrix, have students share their observations. Encourage discussion about differing results. Ask students to identify which vocabulary words best communicate the essential properties of the topic.

Example:

Learn More:

• Johnson, D. D. & Pearson, P. D. (1984). Teaching Reading Vocabulary. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

• Lenski, S. D., Wham, M. A., & Johns, J. L. (1999). Reading and Learning Strategies for Middle and High School Students. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

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Active Word Learning Instructional Practices Word Bank A word bank is a collection of words organized around a theme, topic, or unit. The teacher begins the new unit, topic, or theme asking students what terms they can think of that are related to the topic. Activating students’ prior knowledge, each student contribution triggers additional terms that expand the initial word bank. Procedures: 1. The teacher describes a word bank. 2. The teacher introduces a new topic to the class. 3. The teacher models adding words to a word bank. 4. Students brainstorm terms that they recognize being related to the topic/study. 5. Each new word is written on a 5” x 7” index card, with a definition written on the back and an

illustration. 6. As new vocabulary words are learned, they are added to the word bank.

adapted from Elaine Stephens & Jean Brown, 2000 A Handbook of Content Literacy Strategies: 75 Practical Reading and Writing Ideas

I Heard a Word A variation of the word bank is “I Heard a Word”. 1. Students can sign up each day to present a word to the class. 2. Have students use the following format in the presentation. 3. Have students record all of the words presented in vocabulary notebooks. 4. All students record all of the words their classmates have presented. I heard the word _____, and it was used in this sentence: ________________________________________________.

• I thought it meant _________________________.

• I found out it meant________________________.

• The sentence I wrote is______________________.

• The association I made is____________________.

Source: Miami Dade County Public Schools, Division of Language Arts/Reading, 2000

Wild About Words, A Teacher’s Desktop Vocabulary Handbook

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 78 Revised July 2006

Word Chain

In this instructional practice students connect and organize 5-7 new vocabulary words after they have been introduced by the teacher. In most content areas, new vocabulary words are related to other new words or previously learned words. A word chain provides a structure which allows students to explore relationships among words, understand how they can be used, and remember their meanings. This requires higher-level thinking, so teachers need to model this instructional practice with the whole class before asking them to do it independently. Procedures: 1. Select 5-7 new vocabulary words that are related to the same concept. 2. Model how to develop a word chain based on their relationships and connections. (Words can be

associated with each other in several ways; therefore, more than one word chain can often be created using the same words).

3. The students (in pairs) are given a set of words. They explore how the words are related or connected to each other. Then they develop a word chain to demonstrate their relationship.

4. In pairs, they share their word chains with the class, describing the connections. Each student writes a short paragraph using the new words in a way that demonstrates their connection.

adapted from Elaine Stephens & Jean Brown, 2000

A Handbook of Content Literacy Strategies: 75 Practical Reading and Writing Ideas

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 79

Concept of Definition Map

R. M. Schwartz & T. E. Raphael, 1985, Concept of Definition: A Key to Improving Students’ Vocabulary, The Reading Teacher, 39(2), 198-205

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Common Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes Root Meaning Examples act do action, actor, react, enact aud hear audience, audition, auditorium cred believe credit, credulous, incredible dic speak dictate, predict, contradict, verdict graph write autograph, paragraph, photograph loc place locate, dislocate, allocate man hand manual, manufacture, manipulate mot move motor, demote, motion ped foot pedal, pedestal, pedestrian pop people population, popular, populace port carry export, import, portable sign mark signal, signature, significant spec see inspect, spectacle, suspect tract pull, drag attract, subtract, tractor, contract volve roll involve, revolve, evolve Prefix Meaning Examples ad- to adapt, add, addict an- not anorexia, anonymous, anarchy auto- self autograph, automobile, autobiography co- together cooperate, coincide, coauthor de- opposite deplete, descend, deactivate dis- opposite disagree, disgust, disarm for- not forgo, forbid, forget il- not illegible, illogical, illiterate im- into immediate, immigrant, illogical ir- not irregular, irresponsible, irreconcilable mal- bad malice, malfunction, maladjusted mis- bad misfortune, misbehave, misconduct pro- before program, prologue, prognosis re- again rewrite, redo, relive sub- under submarine, submerge, subject trans- across transcribe, transfer, translate un- not unhappy, uncertain, uncomfortable Suffix Meaning Examples -ade action or process parade, escapade, blockade -age action or process voyage, marriage, pilgrimage -ant one who immigrant, merchant, assistant -cle small particle, cubicle -dom state or quality act freedom, wisdom, boredom -ent one who superintendent, regent, resident -er one who writer, reader, painter -ful full of joyful, careful, fearful -ic relating to historic, comic, poetic -less without tireless, careless, ageless -ly every weekly, daily, monthly, yearly -ment state or quality of amusement, instrument, ornament -or one who auditor, doctor, actor

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Vocabulary Growth

Teachers need to devote instructional time to vocabulary growth (NRP, 2000). Extended periods of time devoted to vocabulary instruction will ensure better understanding of words. Read aloud to students and discuss selections before, during, and after you read. Teachers should foster word consciousness and encourage students to play with words by engaging them in word play.

B. B. Armbruster, F. Lehr, & J. Osborn, 2003, Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks of Reading

Instruction – Kindergarten through Third Grade, (2nd Edition)

Vocabulary Growth Through Extended Periods of Instruction

• Model the use of dictionaries, thesauruses, glossaries, footnotes, and handbooks.

• Connect individual words to a larger concept, especially one that is based on background knowledge.

• Show why some words are more difficult to understand (and require deeper analysis) than others.

• Use word walls—a specific chart on the wall for listing new or unfamiliar words so students can see and use them often.

• Point out multiple meanings of words.

• Use memory links to help students remember words (visuals, objects, stories, graphic organizers).

• Teach specialized vocabulary before beginning content area study.

• Show students how to use context to find meaning.

• Facilitate the use of highlighters and sticky-notes to help students identify unfamiliar vocabulary words for further study.

J. Allen, 1999 Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12

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Independent Reading

Teachers should encourage and facilitate independent reading. The amount of reading, especially independent reading has a profound effect on the comprehension, fluency, and understanding of the material being read. Some students seem to be independent readers from the age of three, while others are struggling to be independent readers in high school. As educators, we directly identify struggling readers as those who have limited vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Teachers need to create an environment to support independent reading by every student so that they can build their oral and written vocabularies.

W. E. Nagy, 1988 Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension

Amount of Time Spent Reading and Reading Achievement of 5th graders (N=155)

Percentile

Rank Minutes of Text Reading Per Day

Estimated number of words read per year

98 90 70 50 20 10

90.7 40.4 21.7 12.9 3.1 1.6

4,733,000 2,357,000 1,168,000 601,000 134,000 51,000

R. C. Anderson, P. T. Wilson, & L. G. Fielding, 1988

Growth in Reading and How Children Spend Their Time Outside of School Reading Research Quarterly, 23(3 ), 285-303

Importance of Reading & Vocabulary

“You can’t build a vocabulary without reading. You can’t make friends if you never meet anybody, but stay with yourself all of the time. In the same way, you can’t build up a vocabulary if you never meet any new words. And to meet them, you must read. The more you read, the better. A book a week is good, a book every other day is better, a book a day is still better. There is no upper limit. Keep on reading. Keep on meeting unfamiliar words on printed pages. Keep on getting acquainted with the faces of words.”

R. Flesch & A. H. Lass, 1996 The Classic Guide to Better Writing, p. 105

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Considering Diversity and Vocabulary for English Language Learners

When working with English Language Learners, consider their level of English proficiency and their prior knowledge relevant to a text.

Support the foundation for comprehension by scaffolding English Language Learners to develop an extensive vocabulary in English.

When teaching to promote vocabulary development of English Language Learners:

• Activate prior knowledge. Help students make connections between what they already know and what they are reading in English. Use graphic organizers when appropriate.

• Teach new vocabulary words in a useful context. Gather realia (artifacts) and audio-visual materials to help explain new words. Provide abundant opportunities for students to use the new words in meaningful contexts in written texts and to use them in discussions.

• Explicitly and systematically teach cognates. Display cognates in the classroom for reference. For example, if students know posible (po-see-b-le) in Spanish, they can easily learn the new word possible in English. Research shows that cognates translate to English 90% of the time.

• Teach for strategies in independent word learning. English Language Learners need explicit vocabulary instruction that includes synonyms, examples, non-examples, and comprehensible definitions.

• Have high expectations. Avoid over-simplifying vocabulary lessons.

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Comprehension Instructional Practices

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“Children who have been provoked to reach beyond themselves, to wonder, to imagine, to pose their own questions are the ones most likely to learn to learn.” — Maxine Greene, 1988

WWHHAATT IISS CCOOMMPPRREEHHEENNSSIIOONN?? The National Reading Panel (NICHHD, 2000) defines reading comprehension as “a cognitive process that integrates complex skills and cannot be understood without examining the critical roles of vocabulary learning and instruction on its development.” The panel goes on to emphasize that “active interactive strategic processes are critically necessary to the development of reading comprehension” (p. 4-1). Durkin (1993) refers to comprehension as the “essence of reading” while Hodges (1999) claims that reading is the result of three elements: “predicting what is anticipated in the context, confirming the prediction, and integrating the information into a schematic bank” (p. 1). The Literacy Dictionary (1995) lists five definitions, including one suggesting that “meaning resides in the intentional problem- solving, thinking processes of the interpreter” (p. 39). Louise Rosenblatt (1976) would support this definition, arguing that “the reader counts for at least as much as the book or poem itself” (p. v). It is clear from the myriad of definitions that reading comprehension is a highly complex process which integrates multiple strategies used by the reader to create meaning from the text. The process is aided by the reader’s prior knowledge and personal experiences, vocabulary knowledge, and independent use of reading strategies. Working together, these factors enhance the reader’s ability to comprehend text.

WWHHYY IISS CCOOMMPPRREEHHEENNSSIIOONN IIMMPPOORRTTAANNTT?? Without comprehension, the act of reading is reduced to the mechanics of phonics and phonemic awareness used to pronounce a series of unrelated words on a page. Without comprehension, meaning never occurs. The ability to comprehend text and construct meaning from the text are essential skills vital to successful participation in our information focused society. Ultimately, the goal of all reading instruction is comprehension. RREESSEEAARRCCHH RREEVVIIEEWW Research indicates that comprehension is improved when students receive explicit vocabulary and reading strategy instruction. Students also benefit from instruction in cooperative learning strategies. Additionally, research suggests that teachers benefit from professional development focused on training teachers how to teach specific comprehension strategies (NICHHD, 2000). Comprehension is improved when students demonstrate a solid understanding of the vocabulary used in the text. While phonics and phonemic awareness are necessary to help students decode words, research indicates that unless the word already exists in the student’s oral vocabulary, comprehension may be impeded. It appears that “oral vocabulary is a key to learning to make the transition from

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Comprehension

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oral to written forms” (NICHHD, 2000, p. 4- 3). Harvey and Goudvis (2000) explain that reading is a process of decoding and making meaning (p. 5). Thus, when students encounter unfamiliar vocabulary in text, they utilize their phonics and phonemic awareness skills to “hear” the word in their head, but they also need to activate prior knowledge of the word in order to translate the sound of the word into meaning. Proficient readers recognize when meaning breaks down and apply specific strategies as needed. Teaching students to identify when meaning breaks down during the reading process and providing them with direct instruction on specific reading strategies to compensate for the breakdown becomes essential to helping students reach comprehension (Taylor, Pearson, Clark, & Walpole, 1999; Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; NICHHD, 2000). Expert teachers introduce strategies, explain their purpose, model their use, and provide time for students to practice strategies until the students use them independently. With practice and support, students will begin to monitor their own comprehension and use strategies in independent reading. Self- monitoring strategies can be taught in the primary grades with additional strategies added to the students’ repertoire as the students begin to independently self-monitor (Schwartz, 2002). In addition, research supports the need to provide professional development designed to inform teachers about how to prepare students for comprehension by introducing the text and purpose for reading, modeling the thinking process as it applies to reading, encouraging students to ask and answer questions, and providing multiple opportunities for students to actively engage in the comprehension process (NICHHD, 2000, p. 4).

IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONNAALL PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS TTHHAATT SSUUPPPPOORRTT CCOOMMPPRREEHHEENNSSIIOONN In general, students benefit from direct instruction of reading strategies (Beers, 2003, Irvin, Buehl, & Klemp, 2003; Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; NRP, 2000; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997; Langer, 1995). The following are some suggested strategies. Activating prior knowledge: When students are provided opportunities to link their own experiences and knowledge to new information, they are better able to comprehend text. Students need direct instruction about how to make connections between the text and themselves, the world, and other texts. Additionally, teachers need to provide information which activates the students’ prior knowledge when introducing the text. Beers (2003) refers to this as “frontloading meaning.” Incorporating anticipation guides and K-W-L charts (What I know, What I want to know, and What I learned) are two strategies that help students activate prior knowledge and provide a purpose for reading. Asking and answering questions: Teaching students how to ask questions before, during, and after reading also improves comprehension. Too often teachers assign text and instruct students to answer the questions at the end of the section. Students can be taught how to construct questions that “clarify meaning; speculate about text yet to be read; determine an author’s intent, style, content, or format; locate a specific answer in the text or consider rhetorical questions inspired by the text” (Keene & Zimmerman, 1997, p. 119). Visualizing: Visualizing text is the process of creating pictures in our minds of what is taking place on the page. Helping students incorporate strategies that create pictures of text will help improve comprehension. There

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is even evidence to support the theory that visualizing is part of the process of inferring (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997). Modeling visualization strategies and providing students opportunities to create visual images of text and discuss the images they see in their minds as they read helps students develop comprehension. Organizing text information: Students who are able to organize text information comprehend text more clearly than do students who cannot. Graphic organizers are useful in helping students comprehend text by identifying relationships between ideas, determining sequence, and developing concepts. They provide a visual means for the students to organize text as well as providing structure for determining meaning from text. Graphic organizers can take the form of charts, graphs, pictures, or other graphics that help students organize information. Story frames are useful tools in helping students read narrative text, while two-column note charts focus on cause-and-effect or problem- solution and are beneficial for expository text (Irvin, Buehl, & Klemp, 2003). Again, it is important that the teacher utilize the graphic organizer in such a way as to encourage active participation. It helps when the teacher verbalizes relationships, allows for student discussion and input, and helps students make inferences and predictions (Merkley & Jefferies, 2000). Understanding text structure: As students progress from kindergarten through high school, they are subjected to more complex reading and differing text types. Students benefit when teachers show them how to read different text types. Teaching students how to use textual clues such as headers, subtitles, bold letters, etc., helps students to better

comprehend the text. Additionally, helping students identify transitional words can provide students with clues to help them interpret text (Irvin, Buehl, & Klemp, 2003). Summarizing text: Students often have difficulty deciding what is important in text and putting it in their own words. Modeling summarization in class and providing students with opportunities to summarize are important comprehension activities. One activity is to divide the text into chunks and have groups of students work together to summarize each chunk. Another is to teach underlining strategies by placing text on the overhead and modeling how to underline (Schoenbach, Greenleaf, Cziko, & Hurwitz, 1999). Participating in cooperative learning: Students benefit from cooperative activities by sharing ideas and strategies to help each other comprehend the text (NICHHD, 2000). Group activities reinforce listening skills and allow students to share strategies. Flexible grouping designed around individual student reading and strategy levels, dependent on the specific task at hand is preferred (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). SSUUMMMMAARRYY The act of reading requires students to incorporate a myriad of strategies in order to comprehend text. Students can be taught these strategies and should be provided time to practice the strategies until they become part of an internalized system of response to text. Effective teachers are able to identify the strategies that will most benefit their students, model those strategies, provide guided practice of the strategies, and encourage student independence.

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RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Beers, K. (2003). When kids can’t read what teachers can do. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Durkin, D. (1993). Teaching them to read (6th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1997). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children.

Portsmouth: Heinemann. Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E., Eds. (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and

writing. Newark: IRA. Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance

understanding. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Hodges, J. (1999). The effect pre-knowledge of the text has on miscues in reading. (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No. ED427305). International Reading Association (IRA). (2002). Evidence-based reading instruction: Putting the

National Reading Panel report into practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Irvin, J. L., Buehl, D. R., & Klemp, R. M. (2003). Reading and the high school student: Strategies to

enhance literacy. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Keene, E. O., & Zimmerman, S. (1997). Mosaic of thought: Teaching comprehension in a reader’s

workshop. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Langer, J. A. (1995). Envisioning literature: literary understanding and literature instruction. New

York: Teachers College Press. Merkley, D. M., & Jefferies, D. (2000) Guidelines for implementing a graphic organizer. The

Reading Teacher, 54(4), p. 350-357. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). Report of the

National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Rosenblatt, L. (1976) Literature as exploration (4th ed.). New York: MLA. Schwartz, R. M. (1997). Self-monitoring in beginning reading. The Reading Teacher, 51(1), p. 40-

48. Schoenbach, R., Greenleaf, C., Cziko, C., & Hurwitz, L. (1999). Reading for understanding: A guide

for improving reading in middle and high school classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Taylor, B. M., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K. F., & Walpole, S. (1999). Effective schools, accomplished

teachers. The Reading Teacher, 53(2), p. 156-160.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

A Project of the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

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Strategic Activities Used by Proficient Readers

“Reading has come to be characterized as a range of flexible, adaptable strategies rather than a scope and sequence of skills….The term strategies refers to conscious and flexible plans that readers apply and adapt to particular tasks and texts.”

B. Hinson, 2000 New Directions in Reading Instruction, p. 10

• Comprehension Monitoring • Questioning • Visualizing • Making Connections • Inferring and Predicting • Determining Importance • Summarizing

The National Reading Panel suggests that “when readers are given cognitive strategy instruction, they make significant gains on measures of reading comprehension over students trained with conventional instruction procedures.”

National Reading Panel Report, 2000, p. 4-40

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National Reading Panel Summaries of Scientific Studies on Comprehension Instruction

Type of Instruction

Definition and Rationale for Instruction

Why Instruct? Procedures Taught or Practiced

Comprehension Monitoring

Readers develop an awareness of the cognitive processes involved during reading and learn to monitor how well they comprehend. Learners become aware of whether they are understanding a text and what steps they should take to correct comprehension.

To enable readers to use comprehension strategies.

Teacher demonstrates awareness of difficulties in understanding words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Students are taught to: • formulate what is causing them difficulty. • use think-aloud procedures to show where/when

difficulties occur. • look back/forward in text to solve problems. • paraphrase text in more familiar terms.

Graphic Organizers

Readers are instructed to make graphic representations of text material to visually (spatially) represent super-ordinate and more important subordinate ideas of text. Readers improve memory and comprehension for text. Graphic organizers include semantic and expository maps, story maps, story schema and graphic metaphors.

To enable readers to use external organization aids that can benefit their understanding.

Teachers show readers how to create graphic organization of ideas. Examples include: • graphic metaphor such as making an umbrella for

main ideas and putting details below. • maps of expository text by placing main concept

center of a circle and writing in related ideas from survey of text.

Mental Imagery

Readers are instructed to make an image to represent the text content. The constructed image serves as a memory representation of the reader’s interpretation of the text. Readers improve memory and comprehension for text.

To enable readers to use imagery.

Teachers ask readers to construct an image(s) that represents the content. This is most often done at the sentence level.

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Type of Instruction

Definition and Rationale for Instruction

Why Instruct? Procedures Taught or Practiced

Multiple Strategies

Multiple-strategies instruction takes place primarily through the student practicing a given strategy with feedback from the teacher. The teacher may initially explain and model the strategy. Readers improve reading ability and academic achievement.

To enable readers to learn to coordinate several processes in order to construct meaning from texts.

Teacher guides the reader in applying and practicing strategies while reading a passage. Teacher models each strategy in the context of reading a text. Then student applies strategy. Some strategies include: • monitoring comprehension. • question generating during reading. • summarizing main ideas & drawing conclusions. • clarifying word meanings or confusing text. • predicting what might occur later in text.

Prior Knowledge

Students possess considerable knowledge of the world that they can use to comprehend what they are being taught and what they read. Prior knowledge aids comprehension by creating expectations about content, thus directing attention to relevant parts, enabling the reader to infer and elaborate on what is being read. Readers improve memory and comprehension for text.

To provide readers with opportunities for developing relevant knowledge for texts to be read.

Teachers encourage students to: • compare their lives with situations in text, either

prior to or during the reading. • predict about content based on prior knowledge,

often prior to reading. • practice answering inferential, postreading questions

by drawing on text and prior knowledge. • monitor adequacy of answers to text questions.

Question Answering

This strategy instruction assists students learning from text, focuses student on particular content, and can facilitate reasoning. Teaching students to look back in text when they cannot answer a question facilitates their learning. Students can learn to discriminate questions that can be answered based on text versus those that are based on their own knowledge and require generation of inferences or conclusions.

To enable readers to answer questions, to make inferences.

Teacher asks students to: • answer questions during or after reading text. • look back to find answers to questions that they

cannot answer after one reading. • analyze questions with respect to whether the

question is tapping literal information covered in text, information that can be inferred, or information in reader’s prior knowledge.

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Type of Instruction Definition and Rationale for Instruction

Why Instruct? Procedures Taught or Practiced

Question Generation

Goal is to teach readers to become independent, active, self-questioners. The assumption is that readers will learn more and construct better memory representation when self-questions are asked during reading. Question generation should increase students’ awareness of whether they are comprehending text. Readers learn to generate and answer inferential questions.

To enable readers to generate questions or inferences.

Students are taught to: • generate questions during reading (questions should

integrate information across different parts of the text). • evaluate their questions about whether questions

covered important material and whether they themselves could answer the questions.

Teachers provide feedback on the quality of the questions asked or assist students in answering questions generated.

Summarization

The aim of summarization instruction is to teach readers to identify the main idea of a paragraph or series of paragraphs. The reader needs to use prior knowledge of the content, to generalize, and to make inferences that go across sentences and beyond the text. Readers improve memory and identification of main ideas.

To enable readers to summarize texts.

Students are taught to: • summarize by deleting trivial and redundant

information and to identify or generate a main idea. • first summarize individual paragraphs and then

construct a summary of summaries or a spatial organization of the paragraph summaries.

Vocabulary- Comprehension Relationship

The aim of vocabulary instruction is designed to promote word knowledge that will enhance text comprehension. Explicit instruction and reciprocal teaching methods can be used to teach strategies for discovering the meanings of unfamiliar words in text. Readers learn word meanings and improve comprehension.

To enable readers to better comprehend through increased word knowledge.

Teacher: • models being a word detective, looking for contextual

clues to find word meaning by analyzing words and word parts, or by looking at surrounding text.

• elaborates on word meanings and uses them in diverse contexts, adding activities to extend the use of learned words beyond the classroom.

Learning tasks provide definitions, knowledge, fluent and multiple access to word meanings and context interpretations.

Research has identified different instructional practices and methods for building comprehension skills, which are included in this module. Of course, the teacher is the critical decision maker when determining which approaches are best suited to the needs of the students. Teachers should remember that no new instructional practice or method should be embraced uncritically; there is no one instructional practice that is the key to unlocking student success. However, when implementing any classroom practice, a reflective and well-informed teacher is the ultimate key to student achievement.

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References by Strategy On the chart below, several of the references are listed that were used to create this comprehension component. For easy reference, the pages are given where you can read more about each of the seven strategies included in this component. Space has been included for you to add references from your school or personal professional library.

Professional Book Comprehensi on Monitoring

Making Connections Visualizing

Inferring & Predicting Questioning

Determining Importance

Summarizin g

I Read It, But I Don’t Get It Ch 4 & 5 Ch 6 pg 53-54 Ch 8 Ch 7 pg 24-31

Mosaic of Thought Ch 10 Ch 4 Ch 7 Ch 8 Ch 6 Ch 5 Ch 9 National Reading Panel Report

pg 4:69 – 4:71 pg 4:83 – 4:85 pg 4:76– 4:77 pg 4:86 – 4:90 pg 4:92 – 4:94

Nonfiction Matters pg 72-73 pg 84-86 Ch 3 pg 75-84

Strategies That Work pg 16-20 and 82-85 pg 3-4, 68-80 Ch 8 Ch 8 Ch 7 Ch 9 Ch 10

Reading and the Middle School Student pg 172-187 pg 171 pg 171-2 pg 170-1

Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom

pg 67-76 pg 45-57 pg 58-66 pg 92-97

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Lesson Ideas for Teaching Comprehension Monitoring Strategic teaching of comprehension monitoring involves:

• Helping students understand their responsibility in comprehension. • Helping students note when confusion occurs. • Helping students learn and apply fix-up strategies flexibly and adaptively.

Reading and thinking aloud hold many benefits for teaching this strategy. Among those are showing students that proficient readers experience comprehension roadblocks, use more than one fix-up strategy, listen to their inner voice to help them monitor and repair comprehension, and learn fix-up strategies from other readers. Teacher modeling helps the invisible process of reading become “visible” through thinking aloud. Model these strategies as often as needed and provide many opportunities for guided practice, feedback, and reflection.

1. Highlighting Confusing Text – (from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 41) Distribute two different colored highlighters. Students will read through the text (Handout S3-101 – The Restless Decade, as an example) and highlight in one color the parts they understand well enough to help another student understand. Then they will highlight the parts that are confusing in the other color. Model this strategy with a short piece of text. After all finish reading and highlighting the text given, ask volunteers to show their text. Note that different students understood or were confused by different parts. Ask students to write about or discuss how this helped them. This mini-lesson helps students understand that we all experience comprehension problems and need to identify those problems before we can solve them.

2. Clink or Clunk – (from Reading Strategies Across the Curriculum by Dr. Lisa Troute, Palm

Beach County) Using a two-column note format, students record information that either clinks or clunks while reading. Model reading aloud and stop to record information on your two-column chart (chart paper or overhead) with headings of Clink and Clunk. Under the Clink column jot down concepts or information you understand well enough to explain to classmates. In the Clunk column, record information they want explained to them. After reading, partners get together to help each other understand the Clunks. If needed, have pairs form groups of four to further explain Clunks. An example is provided in your handouts (Handout S3-102 – Clink or Clunk), however a preprinted form is not needed for students.

3. Comprehension Constructors – (from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 59-60) Once students

can identify when meaning breaks down, they need to learn strategies to repair comprehension. The procedures outlined in this activity, and the next, work well to model and provide guided practice in applying the fix-up strategies. Cris Tovani’s list of fix-up strategies gives support for both the teacher and student. (See System of Strategic Actions, Handout S3-103) Using Handout S3-103 – Comprehension Constructor, model for students how you construct meaning when you get to a confusing part of the text. Complete each sentence on the constructor as you think aloud and explain the strategies you use.

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After modeling, have students try this procedure as you rove the class, conferencing with students about their comprehension monitoring and application of fix-up strategies. Conferencing with students is very important to provide feedback and guidance during their practice and for you to assess how well they are applying the strategies. Help students understand that not every fix-up strategy works in every situation and that the strategy must match their purpose for reading. Readers need to decide which one will help and be ready to try others.

4. Huh? Sticky Note Coding – (adapted from Strategies That Work, p. 82-85) Students benefit

from and enjoy coding text to track their reading journey. In a mini-lesson format using read and think alouds, the teacher models the process of marking sections of text that are confusing with a small sticky note coded, “Huh?”. There are several options and variations to this lesson. A fix-up strategy could be modeled (See Handout S3-103 – System of Strategic Actions and Handout S3-104 – Listening to the Inner Voice), such as reading on. For example, if the confusion is clarified by reading on, the teacher models moving the sticky note to the text that clarified and marking a checkmark through the code, “Huh?”. An extension of this is to have students jot down a quick note about their confusion on the sticky note and/or write down strategies used to fix-up comprehension problems. Another variation is to have students use other codes to mark text. (See Handout S3-105 – Text Coding) The important thing is to help students be able to identify where the problem occurs. Identification of the problem is the first step in correcting it

5. Other Strategies –Explicit teaching of the strategies outlined in the other 6 sections of this

Comprehension component will further strengthen students’ ability to monitor and repair comprehension.

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The Restless Decade The decade of the nineteen twenties was at one and the same time the gaudiest, the saddest, and the most misinterpreted era in modern American history. It was gaudy because it was full of restless vitality burgeoning in a field where all of the old rules seemed to be gone, and it was sad because it was an empty place between two eras, with old familiar certainties and hopes drifting off like mist and new ones not yet formulated. It was misunderstood because so many of its popular interpreters became so fascinated by the things that floated about on the froth that they could not see anything else. Most of the tag lines that have been attached to it are wrong. It was, we are assured, the period when everybody did fantastic things. Everybody detested Prohibition, patronized bootleggers, made atrocious gin in the bathtub and worse beer in the basement, and, inspired by the products of these activities, danced the Charleston. Everybody bought stocks on margin or Florida lots on binder clauses and confidently expected to become rich before old age set in. Everybody put his moral standards away in moth balls, so that neither the scandalous doings in Washington nor the murderous forays of the Chicago gangsters seemed very disturbing. Everybody, in short, was off on a prolonged spree, and the characteristic figure of the era was the Flapper, the girl who bobbed her hair and wore short skirts with nothing in particular beneath them and put in her time piling in and out of open cars populated by collegians in coonskin coats. It makes an entertaining picture—it made one at the time, in a way, for the people who were in it— but it is at best only a partial picture. The first thing to remember is that the word “everybody” is much too inclusive. There were a great many people in the United States in the nineteen twenties, and most of them were serious, hard- working people who did their best to earn a living, bring up polite children, live decently by the best light they had, and lay away a few dollars for their old age. Most of them never saw the inside of a speakeasy, most never really tried to make gin or beer at home, and anyone over the age of twenty- six who danced the Charleston regretted it immediately—it was an exercise in all-out acrobatics rather than a dance, and only the young could manage it. Acceptance of the Prohibition law was so widespread that repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment was not voted, or ever seriously considered, until after the decade had ended. Certainly the vast majority bought neither stocks, bonds, nor Florida real estate and never had the faintest notion that with a little luck they could soon stroll down Easy Street. They were just as deeply disturbed by Teapot Dome and Al Capone as anyone would be today, and if these and other phenomena helped to destroy confidence in public leadership, it ought to be added that the kind of leadership that was given to the American people in those years was pretty poor. Nevertheless, the decide did have its own peculiar character—because it was a time of unending change.

Catton, B., 1965 A Restless Decade

American Heritage, 16(5)

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CLINK CLUNK

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System of Strategic Actions “A reader’s ultimate purpose it to gain meaning. In order to do this, readers must monitor their comprehension, and when meaning breaks down, they need to repair it.”

Cris Tovani, 2000 I Read It, But Don’t Get It, p. 57

• Make a connection between the text and:

o Your life. o Your knowledge of the world. o Another text.

• Adjust your reading rate: slow down or speed up. • Visualize. • Reread. • Make a prediction. • Stop and think about what you have already read. • Ask yourself a question and try to answer it. • Reflect in writing on what you have read. • Use print conventions. • Retell what you’ve read. • Notice patterns in text structure.

Comprehension Constructor

I am confused by (copy the text that is confusing for you) __________________________________ _________________________________________ Page ___________________________________ I am confused because (try to diagnose why you are confused) ______________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________ I will try (record different fix-up strategies you try) _______________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________ I understand (explain how your understanding is deeper as a result of the fix-up strategies you’ve used) ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

Cris Tovani, 2000

I Read It, But Don’t Get It, pp. 59-60

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Listening to the Inner Voice

Cris Tovani helps her students listen to their inner voice to monitor comprehension. She describes four different types of voices that readers hear.

• Reciting Voice – The reader hears this voice when he is only reciting words and not drawing

meaning from the text. • Conversation Voice – This voice has a conversation with the text. It represents the reader’s

thinking as she talks back to the text in an interactive way and can take two forms: • Interacting Voice – This voice inside the reader’s head makes connections, ask questions,

identifies confusions, and agrees and disagrees with ideas. This voice deepens the reader’s understanding of the text.

• Distracting Voice – This voice inside the reader’s head pulls him away from the meaning of the text. It begins a conversation with the reading but gets distracted by a connection, a question, or an idea. Soon the reader begins to think about something unrelated to the text.

Cris Tovani, 2000 I Read It, But Don’t Get It, p. 45

Behaviors That Impede Comprehension • The inner voice inside the reader’s head stops its conversation with the text, and the reader only

hears his voice pronouncing the words. • The camera inside the reader’s head shuts off, and the reader can no long visualize what is

happening as she reads. • The reader’s mind begins to wander, and he catches himself thinking about something far

removed from the text. • The reader cannot remember or retell what she has read. • The reader is not getting his clarifying questions answered. • Characters are reappearing in the text and the reader doesn’t recall who they are. (The same

applies to reoccurring ideas and concepts in nonfiction.) Cris Tovani, 2000

I Read It, But Don’t Get It, p. 48

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Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 105

Text Coding

Coding text helps students interact with text as they read and think about what is known, what is new, and what is confusing. It’s important that the symbols match the purpose for reading, be easy to draw, and make sense to the students. Students may even create their own symbols. When introducing text coding, begin with 2-3 codes, model the process, and support students for guided practice. Encourage reflection and discussion about how text coding helps them enhance their reading. Suggestions for nonfiction text:

? I have a question about this part.

! I knew this before I read it here.

+ I didn’t know this, but now I do. It’s new information.

Suggestions for fiction text:

☺ I liked this part because…

I think this part is sad because…

? I have a question about this part.

* This is an important part because…

⇔ This connects/relates to me because…

!! This part is interesting to me because…

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 106 Revised July 2006

Lesson Ideas for Teaching Questioning Thinking aloud is one of the best ways to model/teach question generating. Yet some teachers need practice thinking about the questions generated during reading because it’s a natural strategy we employ, almost subconsciously. As you read, listen for your inner voice and the questions that “pop” into your mind and be ready to model and share use of this strategy with students. The National Reading Panel summaries of research suggest that the following procedures are effective in teaching students to generate questions:

• Ask students to generate questions during reading and integrate information across different parts of the text.

• Ask students to evaluate their questions about whether questions cover important information, are answered from the text, or if they are inferential.

• Provide feedback to students on the quality of the questions asked and assist students in answering the questions generated.

Text and topic selection for modeling and for students’ first practice with questioning is important. As with learning any new comprehension strategy, the text should be written at the students’ independent reading level. Begin with topics that are familiar to the students. It is difficult to ask questions if we know nothing about a topic. Your participants would probably find it easy to generate a list of deep and thoughtful questions about literacy but would be hard pressed to compile a comparable list on quantum mechanics. Sometimes students need time to explore a new subject and build background knowledge before generating thoughtful questions (Harvey, 1998). Because questioning lends itself to students facilitating authentic discussion of text, it is a useful strategy to encourage students to apply in literature circles. As students gain independence in applying this strategy, facilitate their use of the strategy with a variety of situations and texts—level and genre. Scaffold support as needed by students. When confusion arises, help students think through the process and be ready to model your thinking and questioning. Encourage students to work together when extra support is needed. See Handouts S3- 109-110– Supporting Students through Scaffolding and Supporting Students in Comprehension. 1. I Wonder Why – (from A Handbook of Content Literacy Strategies, p. 74-5) This activity engages students in actively reading and generating questions. The teacher models asking “I wonder” questions during a read and think aloud mini-lesson. Encourage students to add their own “I wonder…” statements and to pose possible answers. Discuss how wondering and thinking of possible answers help improve comprehension and set the purpose and motivation to read on in search of answers to our wonderings. As students begin guided practice, they may also use sticky notes to respond to the text writing their “I wonders” and/or possible answers. As a follow-up, encourage students to identify the types of questions they are generating (see QAR in #3 below). For a sample lesson that includes teacher-student dialogue during the lesson, see Cris Tovani’s book, I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 87-94.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 107

2. Before, During & After – (adapted from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 94) Demonstrate how good readers generate questions before, during, and after reading. Use different pieces of text over several lessons to model asking authentic questions. Show how you ask questions before reading to access your prior knowledge, predict what you will discover as you read, and to preview text. During reading, demonstrate how readers question the text, predict and revise, infer, and connect. After reading, share the lingering questions you still have, noting that these questions might not be easily answered. You may chart your questions to show when you generated them. (See Questioning Before, During, and After – Handout S3-110). For guided practice, ask students to create a similar three-column chart and record their questions before, during, and after reading. For more suggestions for Before, During, and After reading questions, see handouts Handout S3-111 – What Proficient Readers Do Before, During & After Reading & Handout S3-112 – Questioning to Become a Better Reader. 3. Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) – (from Supporting Struggling Readers and Writers, p. 156-162) Select a text and create questions that represent each of the four different types of questions. First, introduce QAR with visual aid. (See Handout S3-113 – Question Answer Relationships). Using the selected text and questions, model identifying and answering a question at each level. Then ask a new question and ask the students if the answer is in the text or not. Facilitate the discussion of how students found the answer and how their use of QAR helped. Repeat this with several types of questions. In the next practice session, have student pairs work together to identify question types. Continue guided practice as needed. Encourage students to discuss how this strategy would be useful in other reading situations. 4. Modeling with Think Alouds – (from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 87-88) Demonstrating self- questioning through think alouds is an effective way to teach students how to generate questions. Select an appropriate text to read aloud to students. While reading, stop to share your thoughts as questions pop into your mind. (You might want to read text and formulate questions in advance.) Write your questions on a class chart. After stopping several times to share and record your questions, ask students if they have any questions. Record theirs on the chart and discuss. Continue to read, recording questions that arise. At the end of the read aloud, review the questions and facilitate discussions about this strategy. Remind students that reading is an active process and that by generating questions before, during, and after reading, they will increase their understanding and memory of the information read. For future lessons and guided practice, have students read a different type of text and record their questions in the margins (on sticky notes) or on separate paper. During guided practice, the teacher roves through the classroom to observe students’ questions and offer feedback as needed. 5. Identify Burning Questions – (adapted from Nonfiction Matters, p. 24) After reading and noting questions while they read (similar to lesson #1) ask students to post their “burning” questions that have not been answered in their reading on a designated bulletin board. Peers read the bulletin board and add answers and/or ideas about their classmates’ questions. At the day’s or week’s end, review the bulletin board as a class and identify unanswered questions for discussion or future research.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 108 Revised July 2006

6. Coding Text – (from Nonfiction Matters, p. 24) Have students code their text while reading by writing question marks in margins or on sticky notes to keep track of questions that occur while reading. As with other strategies, this strategy should be explained and modeled first by the teacher. Students may also jot down their questions on sticky notes instead of just marking with a “?”. When finished reading, students pair up to discuss questions. For more in depth exploration of their questions, students sort the questions on sticky notes into categories such as questions to predict, questions for the author, and questions to clarify. As a class, discuss how marking and/or jotting down questions helps readers interact with and understand the text. 7. Charting Types of Questions – (from Mosaic of Thought, p. 111) This lesson is an extension of the previous learning task. Again students will record/tally their questions before, during, and after reading. They will also record/tally them in categories such as if the questions clarify meaning, have no certain answers, focus on the author’s intent, etc. (See Recording Before, During, and After Reading Questions, Handout S3-114). When reflecting on questions the students generated, it is beneficial for them to note which questions are literal (can be answered in the text) and which ones are inferential (will be more challenging to answer). For more information on questioning the author, see p. 320 – 325 in Reading Strategies and Practices, A Compendium. 8. Reciprocal Teaching – (from Reading for Understanding, A Guide to Improving Reading in Middle and High School Classrooms, p. 79-98) This activity promotes long term learning and encourages students to share responsibility for leading discussions about text. (See Reciprocal Teaching, Handout S3-115) The teacher models and instructs how to use the four strategies of predicting, question generating, clarifying, and summarizing. After guided practice, students assume responsibility for facilitating small group discussions by making predictions, asking questions, clarifying confusing text, and summarizing. Teacher modeling and guided practice are crucial to help students lead authentic discussions. As responsibility is released to students, the teacher should observe and monitor carefully, ready to support as needed. QuIP (Questions Into Paragraphs) – (from Guided Comprehension, p. 135 & 161) After students read and generate questions while reading nonfiction, model how their questions can lead to research and writing. Have students select a topic to explore and generate three broad questions related to it. Using the QuIP grid (See Handout S3-115 – QuIP Research Grid), ask students to record the topic and questions, then locate 2 sources in which to find the answers. After recording the sources and answers, have them synthesize the information into a paragraph. This could be expanded into a larger research project after students become familiar with the process.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 109

Supporting Students through Scaffolding Scaffolding is a term that refers to providing greater support for students during initial instruction and then gradually releasing responsibility to the student as learning increases. Cognitive development exists on a continuum according to Vygotsky (1978, Mind and Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes). At one end of the continuum a student cannot function even with assistance and at the other end of the continuum a student functions independently with the middle range of being able to function only with assistance. Scaffolding closes the gap between what students already know or can do and what they can learn (S. S. Rothenberg & S. S. Watts, 1997, Students with Learning Difficulties Meet Shakespeare: Using a Scaffolded Reading Experience, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40, pp. 532-542). Think of how children learn to swim (or ride a bike). You provide support throughout the learning process, arms ready to keep them from sinking (or falling). As they gain ability and confidence, they can swim further with less support from you. Eventually you aren’t needed at all and your students try more difficult strokes, swimming in the deep end and even jumping off the high dive. Scaffolding in the classroom is analogous to teaching swimming. Provide students with much support during initial instruction, give assistance during guided practice, and encourage independence in applying the strategies in a variety of situations, but be ready to help if they start sinking. Just as learning to swim takes a long time with a great deal of teaching, modeling and coaching, learning to successfully apply comprehension strategies takes many lessons and the learning curve will vary from student to student. Some guidelines for scaffolding include:

• Give assistance before, during and after reading • Make invisible cognitive skills visible (think aloud) • Encourage students to consider how they know what they know • Facilitate students making connections to previous and future learning • Provide opportunities to apply new skills in a variety of settings • Support students when confusion arises • Include opportunities for students to think back over lessons and identify what is clear and

what is still confusing • Remember that support is needed and given on a continuum, with the greatest need and

support occurring during initial instruction • Understand that to help students become proficient, many lessons and guided practice

experiences will be needed

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 110 Revised July 2006

Supporting Students in Comprehension

Before Reading: Access Prior Knowledge Preview Text Set Purpose for Reading Predict and Anticipate (feedforward)

During Reading:

Monitor Comprehension Think about and Connect with Text Question Text, Author, and Self Note Important Details and Summarize Predict and Infer Revise and Confirm Predictions and Inferences

After Reading:

Review and Evaluate Text and Information Learned Apply Ideas Learned Share Content in Various Ways and Format

(i.e. discussions, visual representations, group project, lab report, chart or diagram, graphic organizer, etc.)

Other:

Model, Model, Model and Scaffold Support Provide appropriate Initial Instruction and Practice Provide Variety of Text for Guided Practice Provide Time to Apply Strategies across Content Areas Provide Opportunities to Discuss and Write about Content

Questioning Before, During, and After Reading

Questions I Have Before Reading

Questions I Have During Reading

Questions That Linger After Reading

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 111

What Proficient Readers Do Before, During and After Reading Before Reading Good readers…

During Reading Good readers…

After Reading Good readers…

Access prior knowledge and experiences • Think about what they

already know about the topic.

• Think about what ideas and words might appear in the text.

• Relate text to their world knowledge, text knowledge and personal experience.

Determine importance in text • Set a purpose for

reading. • Make decisions based on

genre of the text. o Is it a story? How

should I read it? o Is it science? How

should I read it? o Is it an article? How

should I read it? o Is it directions? How

should I read it? Draw inferences • Make initial predication

using title, cover, illustrations, knowledge of topic, or preview of the text and illustrations.

• Anticipate what the story might be about.

• Form an initial hypothesis or an opinion about the text.

Access prior knowledge and experiences • Combine text information with

background knowledge to learn new information.

• Use schema to enhance understanding and to store information in long-term memory.

Determine importance in text • Identify main ideas or theme. • Use text features to determine

importance o (bold or italicized print, figures,

photographs, heading, insets). • Utilize text structure to determine

importance. o Recognize cause and effect o Compare and contrast

information o Recognize story structure o Recognize chronological order o Recognize problem/solution

Draw inferences • Make, confirm and alter predictions. • Form and support opinions. • Create personal interpretations. Ask questions to confirm understandings • Question to clarify meaning (words

& ideas). • Question the author and key theme. Use sensory images • Create or use images from all senses. • Visualize information from text,

illustrations and diagrams, etc. • Adapt images based on others’

responses and incorporate new information while reading.

Synthesize information • Connect ideas from

several different sources. o Text-to-text o Text-to-self o Text-to-world

• Sequence ideas and story events.

• Summarize information.

• Draw logical conclusions based on text and other knowledge.

• Make generalizations. • Form and support

opinions. • Classify and categorize

information. • Sort and prioritize

information in long- term memory.

• Retell story events or key facts.

• Consider author’s viewpoint, purpose, and style.

• Create personal interpretations.

adapted from research by E. O. Keene & S. Zimmermann, 1997, Mosaic of Thought and R. L. Allington, 2000, What Really Matters for Struggling Readers

Created by Volusia County Schools, Reading and Language Arts

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 112 Revised July 2006

Prompting Questions to Become a Better Reader

Before Reading Prompts These questions help prepare the

mind for reading

During Reading Prompts These questions help you

understand what you are reading at the level of the word, sentence,

section and the whole text

After Reading Prompts It’s important to check how much

you understand & remember. Think about which questions help you read. Use them again and/or

try other ones. Why are you reading? • For enjoyment? • To get information? If you have to get information, what will you be expected to do with it? • Answer comprehension

questions? • Note the main points and/or

summarize? • Follow instructions? What is the text about? • Use titles, headings,

subheadings, illustrations, or skim the first few pages to help find out what the text will be about.

What do you already know about the topic? • It helps to add new information

to what is already known. It is like adding flesh to a skeleton. The skeleton is made up of all the bits of information you pull from memory. The flesh is the new information you get from reading.

How will you go about reading? • Listen to yourself read and

make a picture of the information in your mind.

• Change the mind picture as you read and learn more information.

• Try to work out the meaning of new words or guess and read Reread sections that do not make sense.

Where will you pause to think about what you have read? • Pause at the end of a sentence,

paragraph, or section to see which helps you to remember what you have read.

• If you lose the meaning of what you are reading, go back and reread.

How do you figure out a new word? • Listen to yourself read in your

mind as though you were reading aloud.

• Use punctuation and text clues to work out the meaning of a sentence.

Do you form mind pictures as you read? • The picture can change with

new information. • It helps to describe the picture

to others. Will you imagine yourself in the story or in the time that you are reading about? • Ask yourself how you would

feel, or what you would see or do.

Will you ask questions while reading? • What will happen next? • What has told me this? Will you remind yourself why you are reading and how you are reading? • This helps you focus when you

lose concentration.

What did you learn? • What new information did you

discover? • What was the story about? How did the author help make reading easier? • How were facts presented to

help you learn? • What clues in the story helped

you understand the plot? What reading strategies helped you while you were reading? • Visualizing? • Summarizing? • Predicting and confirming? Did you learn anything new or unusual? Why did the author write this material? • To entertain you? • To inform you? • To persuade you? How will you remember the information? Try these memory strategies: • Describe the main ideas briefly. • Connect new information to

what you already know. • Draw a picture of the ideas. • Think about when the ideas

could be used. • What new words were found in

the text? • When might you use the new

words in the future? • What words did you find hard

to read?

adapted from J. Hancock, 1999, The Explicit Teaching of Reading Created by Volusia County Schools, Reading and Language Arts

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 113

Question-Answer Relationships

Right There The Author and You

The answer is right in the text. Usually the answer is easy to find and words from the question will be used in the text where the answer is.

+

The answer is NOT right in the text. You need to think about what the author has told you and what you already know. Put both of these things together to answer the question.

Think and Search On Your Own

The answer IS in the story, but in several places. Search the text for all the pieces or clues and combine them to answer the question.

The answer is NOT in the text, it’s in your head. You don’t even have to read the text to answer the question! These questions are answered from your own experience.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 114 Revised July 2006

Recording Before, During, and After Reading Questions

Before Reading During Reading After Reading

Questions with answers in the text

Questions with answers I must find by thinking about the book and my own experience

Questions with no certain answers

Questions to clarify meaning

Questions about what’s coming next in the book

Questions about the author’s intent

Questions about the author’s style

Questions about the author’s format

E. O. Keene & S. Zimmerman, 1997

Mosaic of Thought, p. 113

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 115

Reciprocal Teaching Reciprocal teaching is a process developed by cognitive researchers Annemarie Palinscar and Ann Brown (1984, Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension-fostering and Comprehension-monitoring Activities, Cognition & Instruction, 1, pp. 117-175) that helps students monitor and improve their comprehension by practicing and internalizing four cognitive strategies most used by proficient readers. The teacher and student take turns acting as group leader, facilitating authentic discussion and using one of these four strategies:

Questioning Summarizing Predicting Clarifying

Features of Reciprocal Teaching • Reading is understood as a problem-solving activity requiring the reader’s mental engagement

and awareness of his/her own reading process. • The invisible becomes visible by explicitly teaching students how to use critical cognitive

strategies. • Students practice the strategies with the goal of internalizing them over time. • Students have access to the help of their peers and teacher. • Students learn and practice cognitive strategies in the context of purposeful reading rather than

in isolation. R. Schoenbach, C. Greenleaf, C. Cziko & L. Hurwitz, 1999

Reading For Understanding, A Guide To Improving Reading in Middle and High School Classrooms, p. 79-98

QuIP Research Grid Topic:

A n s w e r s Questions Source: Source:

1.

2.

3.

M. McLaughlin & B. Allen, 2002 Guided Comprehension, p. 161

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 116 Revised July 2006

Lesson Ideas for Teaching Visualizing Visualization is the process, or result of, mentally picturing objects or events that are normally experienced directly (Harris & Hodges, 1995, The Literacy Dictionary). When readers construct an image to represent text content, the image serves as a memory representation of the readers’ interpretation of the text, thus improving memory and comprehension of text (National Reading Panel Report, p. 4-76). “Visualizing brings joy to reading. When we visualize, we create pictures in our minds that belong to us and no one else” (S. Harvey & A. Goudvis, 2000, Strategies that Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding, p. 97). Readers’ images created from text come from their emotions as well as their senses.

1. Visualizing with Vivid Text – (from Strategies That Work, p. 100-101) Select a section of text that provides compelling descriptions and read it aloud to students. Ask them to tell or act out what they see. Encourage elaboration of details and discussion of how this helps them understand the text. After discussions, ask students to sketch and color their images. Then have students share their sketches and explain special details included.

2. Visualizing Practice – If students need more initial practice with visualizing, present the

scenario below and ask the questions on the OH to facilitate visualization. (See Handout S3- 118 - Visualizing Activity).

A man put down $10.00 at the window. The woman behind the window gave back $4.00. The person next to him gave him $3.00 but he gave it back to her. So when they went inside, she bought him a large bag of popcorn.

3. Interactive read aloud/ Think Aloud – (from Mosaic of Thought, p. 141-142) Select a text

for read aloud. Before the lesson, read over the text and note the imagery evoked by various sections of text. At the beginning of the lesson, explain that good readers create mental images to help them comprehend text. Tell your students that you will stop occasionally during the reading to think out loud explaining the images in your mind and how it helps you understand the text.

After modeling the process for several visualizations, ask for student volunteers to share images they have as you read. When you see that students have a basic understanding of visualizing, have them work in pairs to take turns reading and thinking aloud to practice with assigned text. After all students finish reading, facilitate a small group or class discussion of their connections and reflections on how visualization improves comprehension. Discuss when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations. You may have students depict their images through artistic, written, dramatic or spoken responses.

4. Visualizing Information – (from Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom, p. 45-51) In her Reading Strategies book, Judith Irvin says, “Visual information displayed in a social studies textbook can be flipped over and ignored or studied and incorporated. What students do with the visual information is the important ingredient to comprehending text. Takes, Rakes, and Smith, 1995, suggested that a teacher can help students use information on increasingly interactive levels.” Students need explicit instruction on how and why to use the visual information provided by the authors of content text to help students make meaning.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 117

She suggests a five-step strategy to accomplish this (See Handout S3-118 – Using Visual Information to Improve Comprehension)

Step 1: Preview the text, noting all visual information presented. Step 2: Ask how the visual information relates to the text or why the

author included this information. Step 3: Generate questions raised by the visual aids. Step 4: Read the text. Step 5: Go back and review visual aids in the text, evaluating their

importance. After practicing this strategy several times and with a variety of content text, ask students to reflect on how this helps them and how it might be beneficial in other reading situations.

5. Sticky Note Visualization – (from Strategies That Work, p. 95-96) This strategy may be

modeled by the teacher during a read and think aloud mini-lesson. While reading aloud to students, stop when the text evokes a mental image and share what you see with your students. Explain how this helps you make meaning and mark the text with a sticky note, jotting down a few words to explain your vision. Next have students practice the strategy independently or with a partner. After practice, encourage students to share images and discuss how it helped them comprehend. Discuss how the strategy could be used in other reading situations.

6. Visualizing in Nonfiction Text – (adapted from Strategies That Work, p. 101) Nonfiction

text often relies on the concepts of size, weight, length, distance, and time to explain important information. Visual support to aide comprehension is provided for students in the form of photographs, charts, diagrams, and graphs. Find several examples of comparison in nonfiction text to show students how visualizing helps readers understand the information given. Next have students work in pairs to find other examples of comparisons in nonfiction text. Ask students to share one of their finds and explain the mental imagery that increases comprehension.

7. Readers’ Theatre – Using published plays and readers’ theatre text or skits created from

selected classroom text, have students read and act out stories. This is a fun, active way to encourage students to see what the author describes in text.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 118 Revised July 2006

Visualizing Activity A man put down $10.00 at the window. The woman behind the window gave back $4.00. The person next to him gave him $3.00 but he gave it back to her. So when they went inside, she bought him a large bag of popcorn. Ask students to tell what they see happening in this scenario. You may ask questions such as these to facilitate visualization and discussion of their images: 1. How many people are in the scene? 2. Where might they be? 3. Who could they be? 4. How old are they? 5. Why did the woman give the man $3.00? 6. Why did he give it back? 7. What time of day did this happen? 8. What do you think each person was wearing?

taken from a demonstration by Dr. Kyleen Beers in Palm Beach County

Using Visual Information to Improve Comprehension of Content Text • Step 1: Preview the text, noting all visual information presented. • Step 2: Ask how the visual information relates to the text or why the author included this

information. • Step 3: Generate questions raised by the visual aids. • Step 4: Read the text. • Step 5: Go back and review visual aids in the text, evaluating their importance.

Judith Irvin, 2002 Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom, pp. 45-51

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Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 119

Lesson Ideas for Teaching Text Connections Teaching students to build connections from their lives and the world around them to the text involves accessing prior knowledge. The National Reading Panel defines prior knowledge as knowledge that stems from previous experience. “This knowledge is a key component of schema theories of reading comprehension. Schema theory holds that comprehension depends upon the integration of new knowledge with a network or prior knowledge” (National Reading Panel Report, 2000, p. 4:83). Schema theorists stress the importance of teachers helping students access and/or build on prior knowledge (schemata) before, during and after reading. To teach connecting to text, begin by sharing your connections to text through use of read and think aloud (See learning tasks # 2 & 3 below). Model how you integrate new information with prior experiences to enhance comprehension of text. Text selection for modeling and for initial practice is important. As with learning any new comprehension strategy, text should be written at students’ instructional reading level. Additionally, it is helpful to begin with exciting fiction text that has strong imagery or nonfiction text to which students can easily relate. For example, text on geometric figures, weather, or war might promote easier connections than text on asymptotes, quantum physics, or ergo-economics. After successful practice, students should practice this strategy with more challenging text and across all content areas. Encourage students to discuss using this strategy in other reading situations.

1. Class Connections – (adapted from Mosaic of Thought, Ch. 4) Create a class chart noting the use of the three different connections. As students learn how to use this strategy, record the connections students find during class and/or small group discussions. Encourage students to share their reflections of how connecting helps them increase their understanding of the text. Teacher’s connections may also be added to the chart to continue modeling. Discuss when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations. (See Class Connections, Handout S3-122)

Student Text Type of Connection Billy Tangerine – protecting crops

from freeze TS – I’ve helped my grandfather protect orange trees during a freeze.

Tamara Fanny’s Dream – visit from fairy godmother

TT – Cinderella also had a visit from her fairy godmother because she wanted to go to the ball.

Chang Rocks & Minerals – sedimentary rocks are formed in layers

TS & TW – I’ve seen layers of rocks in mountains on vacation and in magazine photographs.

This approach and the one described below in #7 work well in literature circles to facilitate authentic discussions of text.

2. Before, During & After Reading:

Before reading – Explain to students that good readers preview text to identify the topic and to think about what they already know about the topic. Model this for students during a read/think aloud. Then ask students to share their prior knowledge and/or

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 120 Revised July 2006

connections to the content. Activating prior knowledge is crucial when connecting to text. You may help students do this by using activities such as brainstorming, mindstreaming, A-Z lists, anticipation guides, and KWL charts. Whichever ones you use, encourage students to keep those ideas in mind as they read and after reading help them connect the new knowledge to the “old.”

During reading – Explain to students that good readers continue to access prior knowledge and think about how the text connects to their lives while they read. Again, model this for students using a read/think aloud and then ask students to practice the same with a partner. (You may also use the strategies described in lesson ideas # 3-8 below for during reading connections.) After reading – Explain that good readers reflect on what they have read and how it relates and applies to their lives. Once more model this for students and then encourage them to share and/or write their final thoughts on how the text relates to their lives.

3. Interactive read aloud/ Think Aloud – Select text for reading aloud. Before the lesson, read the text and note connections you make. First explain to students that good readers think about the text they are reading and how events and information in the text connect to their lives. Tell students that you will stop occasionally during the reading to think out loud, explaining your connections to the text and how it helps you comprehend. After modeling the process for several connections, ask for student volunteers to stop you as you continue reading so that they may share their connections. When you see that students have a basic understanding of connecting to text, have them work in pairs to take turns reading and thinking aloud to practice with a specific text assigned. When all have finished reading, encourage students to share their connections and to reflect on how connecting improves comprehension. Discuss when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations.

4. Sticky Note Coding – (from Strategies That Work, p. 3-4) As with the other strategies

outlined in this section, this idea can be modeled through a read and think aloud mini-lesson. Read to your students and share your connections to show your interaction with and enjoyment of text. “There is nothing more powerful than a literacy teacher sharing her passion for reading, writing, and thinking. Passion is contagious. Kids will respond” (Harvey, 1998).

After teaching students about the three different types of connecting to text, show them how to use sticky notes to mark and note connections. While reading aloud, stop when you make a connection to place a sticky note by the text connection. On the sticky note, code the type of connection (TS = text to self, TT = text to text, TW = text to world) and jot down a few words to explain your connection. Next have students practice this independently or with partners as you monitor their progress. After practice, encourage students to explain when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations.

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Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 121

5. Double-Entry Diaries – (from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 115) Using an overhead of

Connecting with Double-Entry Diaries (Handout S3-122), model using a double-entry diary to record your connections. While reading and thinking aloud to students, stop to record the text to which you connect and identify what memory is triggered. After modeling several times, ask a few volunteers to read and think aloud while you record their connections or have students practice on their own if you see they are ready to try independently. After practice, ask students when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations.

6. Draw Your Connection – After discussing connections, ask students to select one

connection and draw a picture illustrating the connection. Invite students to share their drawings in pairs or small groups and to explain their connection.

7. How Connecting Helps Comprehension – (adapted from Strategies That Work, p. 182-3)

Create a class chart noting the connection and how it assisted comprehension. In small or large groups, have students explain their connections and how comprehension improved. Discuss when, where, and how this strategy might be useful in other reading situations. (See How Connecting Helps Comprehension, Handout S3-122)

Text

(Summary) Reminds me of Helps me understand Type of

Connection Math – Tree Diagrams

Charts we created in 3rd grade about all kinds of pizzas you could make

How to use tree diagrams to find out the possible number of combinations

TS & TT

Social Studies – Watsons Go to Birmingham, Joey was present when Birmingham church was bombed

The terrorist attack on New York Trade Center

How Kenny must have felt worrying about Joey’s safety

TW

Holes – Stanley tells his mother he is enjoying “camp”

When I lied to my mom that I wasn’t being picked on at school.

How he wants to protect his mother so she doesn’t worry about him.

TS

8. Writing Reflections – After reading and discussing connections, ask students to write a reflection on one connection and explain how it helps comprehension. Example: When I read _______, that reminded me of ____________. That helped me understand ______________. Depending on students’ connections, they might want to share their writings.

Connections are a natural transition into writing. Connecting activates memories about which the student might want to write. In addition, by looking at text-to-text connections as in author studies, students begin to see and explore author’s craft—thinking like writers. Modeling a particular author’s craft would be a natural extension. Other extensions that link comprehension and writing would include study of author’s purpose, character traits and motivation, theme, point of view, comparing different versions of stories, and comparing different views/thoughts on a theme.

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Handout S3 - 122 Revised July 2006

Class Connections Student Text Type of Connection

adapted from E. O. Keene & S. Zimmerman, 1997 Mosaic of Thought

Connecting with Double-Entry Diaries Direct quote and page number This reminds me of… 1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

adapted from C. Tovani, 2000 I Read It, But Don’t Get It

How Connecting Helps Comprehension Text (Summary) Reminds me of… Helps me understand… Type of Connection

adapted from S. Harvey & A. Goudvis, 2000 Strategies that Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding

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Lesson Ideas for Teaching Inferring and Predicting “Inferring is a tool we use to go beyond the text, to leverage prior knowledge and create connections among various details and concepts we have learned, to draw conclusions based on the text and our full array of life experience and knowledge” (p. 152). Individuals’ life experiences, logic, wisdom, creativity, and thoughtfulness, set against the text they are reading, form the crux of new meaning. Because each person’s experiences are different, the art of inferring takes the reader beyond the text to a place only he or she can go” (pp. 147-148) (E. O. Keene & S. Zimmerman, 1997, Mosaic of Thought). Have you heard teachers utter these lines before? “Read between the lines.” “What assumption or conclusion can you draw?” “Try harder, you know the answer.” Students do “try hard.” But are they being shown how to think about the text and how to read between the lines? Through strategic instruction teachers can help students learn how to draw on prior knowledge and textual evidence to make inferences about the text. When modeling and facilitating discussions on inferring, help students see that inferring is based on facts observed (or read) and what the reader has learned from similar prior experiences.

1. Daily Inferring – Students use inference daily to read moods of those around them. Helping students to think about how they make these inferences will springboard into inferring about illustrations and then text. Begin by facilitating student discussions of how they read the expressions, body language, and voice tone of family and friends. This can be accomplished by the teacher or student acting out an emotion and having students infer the mood and explain why they think this. Or pose questions such as, “How do you know when a family member is mad (upset, excited, happy, scared, etc.)?” Point out that students are inferring, accessing prior experiences to draw a conclusion or make an assumption. Next use photographs or illustrations from classroom text and ask students to infer what is happening in the picture. Again, encourage them to explain how they arrived at the particular idea and give supporting evidence from the picture to show their thoughts while inferring. After practice with pictures, read aloud a short text that lends itself to inference (See Handout S3- 125 for suggested books) and ask students to share their inferences and reasoning.

2. Inferring to Understand Content Text – (adapted from Strategies That Work, p. 111-112)

Two-column notes can be used to demonstrate how inferences can be drawn from facts. Begin with a mini-lesson to model this strategy. Remind students what inferring means and how readers draw on prior knowledge and connect new knowledge to infer. Display the two- column note page and explain to students that as you read you will take notes on important facts and jot down inferences you make. (See below and Two Column Notes for Inferring- Handout S3-126) During the modeling, be sure to think aloud to model your thought processes. After modeling, ask for volunteers to read aloud and help fill in the two columns. When students understand the process, have them work in pairs or groups of three to continue practicing. At the lesson’s end, encourage students to discuss how inferring helped them understand the concepts and information presented in the text.

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Handout S3 - 124 Revised July 2006

Facts (Something we can Inferences (Interpretation) see and observe)

Apatosaurs are slow. The T-rex will catch them. Bacteria decay the banana. Bananas rot if left out too long. The cavalry was outnumbered 3 to 1. They will lose the battle. The penny landed on heads 11 A penny will land on heads out of 20 flips. about 50% of the flips.

3. Three-Column Notes – (adapted from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 105) This learning task is similar to the previous one. However, three columns are used to emphasize the fact that inferences are based on textual evidence and prior knowledge. Using the same procedures listed in #2 above, use the three column headings shown below to chart information used to make inferences. (See Three Column Notes for Inferring, Handout S3- 126)

Textual Evidence Prior Knowledge Inference There are fewer than I’ve only seen one in Few people see Florida 50 Florida panthers. Florida. panthers in the wild. in the wild. Tallahassee is 127 miles Average speed limit It should take about two from here by I-10. along I-10 is 65 mph. hours to drive there.

4. Cartoons – Comics and cartoons rely on inferred meaning for the laughs. Collect comics from the local newspaper that are appropriate for your students. Have partners read the comics together and identify the inference(s) that can be drawn from the story. Share in small groups.

5. Predicting – (adapted from R. Routman, 1994, Invitations: Changing as Teachers and

Learners K-12, p. 117-118) Among the best open-ended questions are prediction questions. Students predict from prior knowledge, past experiences, and what they read in text. AND they predict from what they already know about literature and authors. Select a text that provides several “cliffhanger” moments. Start by reading aloud the first section of text, stopping at the first cliffhanger. Ask students to predict what might happen next and support their prediction with both textual evidence and prior knowledge. Read on to the next cliffhanger. Stop and ask students to “tell a friend” about their prediction now. They might revise their prediction based on new textual evidence. Facilitate discussion of their predictions. Continue in this fashion, reading, revising, and discussing how predictions are made. You may also ask students to write their predictions and explanations (including supporting details from text and prior knowledge)

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Suggested Books for Modeling and Practicing Inferring Strategy

Though inferring is a strategy that can be used with most any text in your classroom, here are a few suggestions from Strategies That Work that might help you get started. Bull Run by Paul Fleischman – In this collection of vignettes about different characters connected to the first battle of the Civil War, the reader must infer who they are, where they are, what they are doing and why. Dateline: Troy by Paul Fleischman – Contemporary newspaper articles are linked with ancient historical events, and the reader needs to infer the connection between the two. Dandelion by Eve Bunting – Because the woman and her daughter in this pioneer family are so stoic, the reader must infer how the characters really feel about their increasing isolation. Encounter by Jane Yolen – A fictionalized account of Columbus’s arrival in the New World, from a Taino boy’s perspective, nudges readers to understand his culture’s plight. Fables by Arnold Lobel – Twenty original tongue-in-cheek animal fables poke a little subtle fun at the human condition. Great for inferring the moral of a story. George and Martha by James Marshall – A short story relates the antics of two lovable hippos. The writing omits enough to require readers to infer on practically every page. Good Dog Carl by Alexandra Day – One of a series of wordless picture books about a dog who take cares of a baby. The reader must visualize the pictures between the book’s illustrations. Jumanji by Chris Van Allsburg – A brother and sister play a jungle board game, which becomes frighteningly real. The Rag Coat by Lauren Mills – A young girl loses her father at an early age. Readers must draw inferences about her feelings as well as about the outcome of the story. Rose Blanche by Roberto Innocenti – This story of a young German girl who passes a concentration camp on the way to school each day leaves lots of gaps that the reader must fill in, particularly in regard to the ambiguous ending. Teammates by Peter Golenbock – This moving story of teammates Pee Wee Reese and Jackie Robinson brings up multiple themes from racism to friendship that readers infer. Tight Times by Barbara Shook Hazen – A boy desperately wants a pet, but times are rough in his house. Even the title requires inferential thinking.

S. Harvey and A. Goudvis, 2000 Strategies that Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding, pp. 204-206

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Handout S3 - 126 Revised July 2006

Two-Column Notes for Inferring

Facts Inferences (Something we can see and observe) (Interpretation)

adapted from S. Harvey & A. Goudvis, 2000 Strategies that Work

Three-Column Notes for Inferring

Textual Evidence Prior Knowledge Inference

adapted from C. Tovani, 2000

I Read It, But Don’t Get It

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Lesson Ideas for Teaching Determining Importance

One of a teacher’s most important roles is to model and think aloud, then guide students through practice and application. Teachers should model and have students practice in a variety of text— genre and difficulty. This strategy is very beneficial to use when reading content area text. Math teachers help students discriminate irrelevant information in word problems by modeling determining importance. Though modeling is most frequent at the beginning of any strategy study, teachers should continue to model for the whole class, small groups or individuals as the support is needed to scaffold student learning. The following learning experiences allow for small group instruction, so that the teacher provides for students’ individual needs and students collaborate to determine what’s important. 1. Only 3! – (From Strategies That Work, pp. 132-133) For students who struggle with this skill

and those who tend to highlight almost all of the text, giving them a specific number of sentences, words or ideas to mark helps them “dig for the essence” of the text. Give students a one-page expository piece and three small sticky notes (or Sign Here flags). Ask them to read the text and use the sticky notes to mark the three most important details. Then have them show their marked information to a partner and justify the text marked. Offer students the option to move their sticky notes if they change their minds after discussing with their partner. Discuss as a whole group. Follow-up may include more practice with another text and/or having students write explanations in the margin telling why they selected the information as most important.

2. Text Structure – (adapted from Strategies That Work, p. 132-134) When readers note the text structure of various types of nonfiction, sifting out the important information becomes easier. While reading text that shows cause and effect relationships, students will recognize that many of the essential ideas will tell why something happened. (For example, in a book about the Titanic, many of the important facts will tell reasons why the ship sank or why so many people died.) Teaching students this strategy involves two parts. First students must learn to identify the type of expository text and then practice searching for that particular type of information. To help students learn the types of expository text, you may have them preview and sort various samples of text and discuss the major types, helping them note signal words and other text cues that are characteristic of that structure. Or you may use Text Structure (Handout S3-130) and Text Cues (Handout S3-130) and sample text to tell them about the different types. You may also share and review Handout S3-131 – Demystifying Nonfiction Text.

After students are able to identify the type of text, display one type of text explaining that you notice the text structure. (Example: With text about hurricanes and tornadoes you might say, “I notice several cue words and details given that tell how these storms are alike and different. This must be a compare/contrast type of expository text. As I read, I will look for important information that tells me the similarities and differences of hurricanes and tornadoes.) Read aloud the text and mark the important details, relating back to the type of text when applicable. For follow-up, complete a graphic organizer for this particular type of text with the students. See Handout S3-132 - Graphic Organizers for Information Text for various expository text graphic organizers.

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Handout S3 - 128 Revised July 2006

3. Interesting VS Important – (from Nonfiction Matters, Harvey, p. 82-84) In Nonfiction Matters, Stephanie Harvey shares this insight, “Ironically, identifying important information in exciting, well-written expository text can be troublesome, because compelling details may grab the imagination and lead readers astray.” This learning activity uses two-column notes to help students distinguish between interesting and important facts. Select a nonfiction text appropriate to grade level and subject. Begin by explaining that there can be a difference between information that is important and information that is interesting. Interesting information can be important and vice versa, but they are not always the same. Before, during, and after reading, good readers make decisions as to what information is important and needs to be remembered. Using an overhead or chart of the two-column note page (See Interesting or Important? Handout S3-133), model thinking aloud and recording the facts you find interesting and important as you begin reading the selected text. Share how you determine importance. After modeling, ask for volunteers to help you add more information to the chart as you continue reading aloud. Encourage students to discuss their reasons for placing information in each column. Next have students work in pairs to continue the reading and entering information on their own charts. At the lesson’s end, facilitate discussions about this strategy and how it helped them understand the text.

4. Selective Highlighting – (from Mosaic of Thought, p. 86) Select an appropriate nonfiction piece and copy one page of the text for each student (Make an overhead also). Begin by reading aloud and talking through the reasoning process for selecting important ideas as you highlight important words, phrases or sentences. Stephanie Harvey offers guidelines for students when highlighting. (See Hints for Highlighting and Handout S3-133)

For guided practice ask for student volunteers to continue reading aloud and telling you what to highlight or have students work in small groups. Encourage students to explain reasons for selecting the text to highlight. Finally discuss how this helps students comprehend and how it could be used in other reading situations. For students who seem to struggle, work with them individually or in small groups and have the students concentrate on one sentence at a time, just highlighting important words or phrases. As their ability and confidence grows, expand the amount of text.

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5. Coding Text for Note Taking – (adapted from Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom, p. 92-97) Coding text is another way to help students interact with content and to mark important information. Teach this strategy by modeling it with text displayed on an overhead or chart while you read and think aloud. Follow with guided practice for students and end with discussion about how the strategy helped the students. To code the text, use symbols to mark and respond to information as you read. For example:

Knew this already! Important information

+ Supporting detail Ex Example of important concept ? Don’t understand this

Students may make up their own codes. Just remind them to keep the codes simple and include a key for the benefit of others if needed. Normally students are not allowed to write in their textbook. Alternatives are for students to code on a 1 – 1.5 inch strip of scrap paper placed in the valley of the textbook, on sticky notes, or on transparency overlays with erasable felt-tip markers. Encourage students to notice the difference between coding text on a familiar topic and an unfamiliar topic. Noting important ideas of text on an unfamiliar topic can pose a challenge because so much of the information is new and surprising (or hard to comprehend).

6. Reading with a Purpose – (from I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 24 – 26) Refer to a copy of The House, Handout S3-134, to each student. Ask students to read the story and use a pencil to circle the important facts. After all have finished, give each student a pink highlighter (or pink crayon) and ask them to reread the story, this time highlighting (or underlining) only the information the robber would find important. Have the students read the piece a third time, this time using a blue highlighter (or crayon) to mark information that would be important to a prospective home buyer. Ask students what they noticed about the three times they marked important information. Point out that this is probably easiest when they read with a purpose, searching for specific information. Discuss how this strategy could be useful in other reading situations.

7. Integrating Writing – Learning tasks # 2, 3 and 5 previously described lend themselves to

follow-up lessons in writing expository text. As students note the structure and format of nonfiction text, they can model nonfiction authors’ craft and apply in their own writing. (See Strategies That Work, p. 122-124 and 126-130 for more ideas.)

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Handout S3 - 130 Revised July 2006

Text Structure “Understanding expository text structures gives readers a better shot at determining important information when reading nonfiction.”

S. Harvey, 1998 Nonfiction Matters, p. 78

Fiction has a single structure, with a beginning, middle and end. Most teachers and students are familiar with story maps and plot diagrams. Expository text structures vary widely, sometimes within the same chapter. Examples of expository text structures are:

• sequence/directions • listing/description • compare/contrast • cause/effect • definition/explanation • problem/solution • persuasion/argument • question/answer

Text Cues

Some common signal words and their corresponding text structures are: Cause/Effect Comparison/Contrast

since in like manner because likewise this led to similarly on account of the difference between due to as opposed to may be due to after all for this reason however consequently and yet then, so but therefore nevertheless

Question/Answer Sequence Problem/Solution

how until one reason for that when before a solution what after a problem where next possible answer why finally who lastly how many first/last the best estimate then it could be that on (date) one may conclude at (time)

adapted from Harvey, 1998 Nonfiction Matters, p. 211

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Demystifying Nonfiction Text

“The features of nonfiction alert the reader to important information. . . . These words and phrases, like stop signs, warn readers to halt and pay attention. Proficient adult readers automatically attend to these textual cues. Young readers don’t; they need to have them pointed out.”

S. Harvey, 1998 Nonfiction Matters, p. 77

Features of Nonfiction

Fonts and Special Effects Textual Cues Titles For example Headings For instance Boldface Print Such as Color Print In conclusion Italics Most important Bullets But Captions On the other hand Labels Therefore In fact Graphics Text Organizers Diagrams Index Cutaways Preface Cross Sections Introduction Overlays Table of Contents Distribution Maps Glossary Word Bubbles Appendix Tables and Charts Graphs Framed Text Illustrations and Photographs Capture the reader’s eye and interest Support text to enhance comprehension Provide visual clues for understanding and memory

adapted S. Harvey, 1998 Nonfiction Matters, p. 77

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Handout S3 - 132 Revised July 2006

Graphic Organizers for Informational Text

Graphic organizers provide tools for organizing important information and are particularly appropriate for expository text. Teaching students to use graphic organizers develops students’ ability “to remember what they read and may transfer in general to better comprehension and achievement in social studies and science content areas” (National Reading Panel Report, 2000, p. 4- 75).

D. S. Strickland, K. Ganske, & J. K. Monroe, 2002 Supporting Struggling Readers and Writers, p. 152

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Revised July 2006 Handout S3 - 133

Interesting or Important?

What’s Interesting? What’s Important?

Hints for Highlighting Important Information

• Look carefully at the first and last line of each paragraph. Important information is often contained there.

• Highlight only necessary words and phrases, not entire sentences. • Don’t get thrown off by interesting details. • Note cue words. They are almost always followed by important information. • Pay attention to nonfiction features that signal importance such as illustrations, text cues,

graphics and special font effects. • Pay attention to surprising information. It might mean you are learning something new. Decide if

it’s important as well as surprising. • Make notes in the margin to emphasize a pertinent highlighted word or phrase. • When finished, check to see that only one-third (at most one-half) of the paragraph is

highlighted.

adapted from Harvey, 1998 Nonfiction Matters

and Harvey & Goudvis, 2000 Strategies that Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding

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Handout S3 - 134 Revised July 2006

The House

J. W. Pichert & R. C. Anderson, 1977 Taking Different Perspectives on Story

Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, pp. 309-315

The two boys ran until they came to the driveway. “See, I told you today was good for

skipping school,” said Mark. “Mom is never Home on Thursday,” he added. Tall hedges hid the

house from the road so the pair strolled across the finely landscaped yard. “I never knew your place

was so big,” said Pete. “Yeah, but it’s nicer now than it used to be since dad had the new stone

siding put on and added the fireplace.”

There were front and back doors and a side door which led to the garage which was empty

except for three parked 10-speed bikes. They went in the side door, Mark explaining that it was

always open in case his younger sisters got home earlier than their mother.

Pete wanted to see the house so Mark started with the living room. It, like the rest of the

downstairs, was newly painted. Mark turned on the stereo, the noise of which worried Pete. “Don’t

worry, the nearest house is a quarter mile away,” Mark shouted. Pete felt more comfortable

observing that no houses could be seen in any direction beyond the huge yard.

The dining room, with all the china, silver, and cut glass, was no place to play so the boys

moved into the kitchen where they made sandwiches. Mark said they wouldn’t go to the basement

because it had been damp and musty ever since the new plumbing had been installed.

“This is where my dad keeps his famous paintings and his coin collection,” Mark said as they

peered into the den. Mark bragged that he could get spending money whenever he needed it since

he’d discovered that his dad kept a lot in the desk drawer.

There were three upstairs bedrooms. Mark showed Pete his mother’s closet which was filled

with furs and the locked box which held her jewels. His sisters’ room was uninteresting except for

the color TV which Mark carried to his room. Mark bragged that the bathroom in the hall was his

since one had been added to his sisters’ room for their use. The big highlight in his room, though,

was a leak in the ceiling where the old roof had finally rotted.

taken from C. Tovani, 2000 I Read It, But I Don’t Get It, p. 25

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Lesson Ideas for Teaching Summarizing In the section on Determining Importance, we explored the first step toward summarizing. Once students learn how to identify important information in text, they are ready to learn the challenging task of summarizing. Summarizing is defined as:

• Deciding what is most important in a text and putting it in your own words (Reading for Understanding, p. 55).

• Identifying the main or central ideas of text (National Reading Panel Report, 2000, p. 4:93). The National Reading Panel suggests that summarization be taught through the application of rules “to delete trivial and redundant information; to use superordinates; and to identify or generate a main idea” (National Reading Panel Report, 2000, p. 4:93). 1. What’s the Big Idea? – (from Supporting Struggling Readers and Writers 3-6, p. 165) Select

appropriate familiar text and divide the text into main sections. (Select short text and divide into 5-10 sections of 1-3 paragraphs each.) Through read and think alouds, model how you determine the main idea of the first section of text. Record your summary sentence on an overhead. Model again with the next section of text. After modeling with several sections, ask students to help you determine the main idea of the next section and create a summary sentence. Continue in this fashion until the entire text is completed. Read over summary sentences and ask students to help determine one main idea. Compose and record the sentence. Repeat this procedure in future mini-lessons, gradually releasing responsibility to students to create these summaries in pairs on small groups.

2. Oral Summarizing – (from Reading and the Middle School Student, p. 207) This activity can be

used as an introduction to summarizing and/or for students who are struggling with summaries. Begin by summarizing everyday events before summarizing text. Model how you would summarize an event in your life. After modeling this orally, write summary on chart paper or overhead and display for students as an example. Then help the class summarize an event in their lives such as what they did last night, what happened in PE or the lunchroom, a lab experiment, what they studied in math or history class, what they saw on a field trip or at a school program, etc. Continue practicing oral summarizing of familiar events, discussing how decisions where made as to what information was important enough to include and what information was irrelevant.

3. Underlining and Summarizing – (from Reading for Understanding, p. 87-8) Select a section of

nonfiction text with a length of 5-10 paragraphs. Display the first paragraph on an overhead. While reading aloud, model identifying and underlining key phrases. At the end of the paragraph, compose and record a summary sentence using some of the key information underlined. After modeling one-two more times, ask students to help you repeat the procedure with the next few paragraphs. When students understand the process, have them complete the text in pairs or small groups. After underlining key phrases together, have them compose summary sentences individually and then work as a group to share and create a one summary sentence. Rove and provide support and feedback during practice. After all are finished, discuss the application of this strategy. You might compile a class list of “good summary guidelines” such as 1) Good summaries are shorter than the original text. 2) Good summaries contain all the most important information but leave out most details and examples used to illustrate key points.

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Handout S3 - 136 Revised July 2006

4. Cooperative Note-taking to Summarize – (from Reading for Understanding, p. 125-6) Learning to take notes is important for secondary students and for studying content area text. After lessons on Underlining and Summarizing detailed in the previous activity, have students work together to compile notes for content area text. Using assigned text, groups break the text into small sections, read individually, and then compose main ideas together to create notes. Students may record their notes on overheads to share with classmates at the end of the lesson. When sharing their notes, facilitate discussions about what each group considered important and how the decisions were made.

5. Sorting and Connecting Ideas – (developed by Elizabeth Gehron, FLaRE, 2000) This learning

task provides a visual representation of how details relate to main ideas. Read aloud a short fictional text to students. At several points (three-four times maximum), stop and ask students to identify main ideas or events. Write each one on a sentence strip or 5 x 8 index card. When finished reading, have students read all of the main ideas recorded. Facilitate a discussion and sorting of the sentences. Students will easily see how some events go together and will be able to place them in a chronological order leading to one or a few main events/ideas. Help them identify the supporting details and turn these over, leaving only the main ideas. Discuss how the author provides supporting details to explain the big ideas. In repeated lessons, gradually release responsibility to student pairs or small groups to apply this procedure to assigned text. This lesson could be a springboard into a writing lesson about supporting details.

6. Hierarchical Summaries – (from Reading and the Middle School Student, p. 207-8) This

learning activity will help students practice and learn note-taking skills for content area reading. The five steps to this procedure are:

Step 1: Students skim three to four pages of text, reading headings only. Step 2: Students make a skeleton outline using a capital letter for every subsection

designated by a heading. Step 3: Students read material in full. Step 4: For each section, students use the pertinent words from the heading that reflect

the main idea of the section. Step 5: Students write 1-3 detail sentences under each main idea.

As with other learning activities, teacher should model first and then guide students through practice. Students can work together to discuss and create their notes.

7. Margin Notes – (from Strategies That Work, p. 147) Students use brackets to mark text and

sticky notes to synthesize main ideas. Using appropriate text and modeling through read and think alouds, display an overhead of the selected text. While reading aloud to students read a paragraph or two and then explain that you will synthesize what you read by writing about the essence or main idea of the text. Bracket the important text you will summarize and then write a brief summary of the text in the margins. (Students may use sticky notes if they can not write in the margins.) Share how you determined the gist of the text and how you composed your summary phrase. Continue modeling and ask students to help you summarize until students are ready for supported practice. Have students work in pairs or small groups to continue reading and summarizing text. Depending on their ability and confidence in summarizing, encourage them to bracket and summarize small amounts of text at a time (one-two paragraphs). Rove the room providing feedback and support as students practice. When all finish, facilitate a discussion of how this process worked for students and how it helped comprehension.

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8. Summarizing and Personal Response – (from Strategies That Work, p. 149-150) As students

become better summarizers, encourage them to further synthesize by writing responses to text explaining deeper reflections of the text. These reflections may be their perspective on a central theme, a new insight that springs from the text essence or an “Aha!” they had while reading. Ask students to fold a piece of paper in half horizontally (hamburger fold) and explain that they will write their summary on the top half of the paper and then write a response to the essence of the text on the bottom half. Discuss synthesizing and some of the insights and “Ahas!” you and your students have thought of during past reading experiences. Have students read the text independently and then discuss the essence of the text in small groups. Ask students to write their summaries and responses individually. After all finish writing, ask volunteers to share their written responses and discuss students’ insights.

9. Limited Summaries – Various sources describe giving students a limit for their summaries.

This can be a challenging, but fun way to help them condense information. When asking students to summarize, limit the number of words or sentences they can use in a summary. For example:

• A summary sentence may have only 10-15 words. • Your summary paragraph may have only 4-5 sentences. • Words cost $1 each. Write the cheapest summary sentence possible. • Select two words from the text as your summary. Be ready to explain how these two words

summarize the passage. • Write five words on your exit card (3 x 5 index card) that summarizes what you learned in

class today.

There are many other “short summaries” referenced in professional materials written about supporting students in comprehension, such as those that provide a formula (for example: summary cinquains, haiku, 1-2-3-2-1, pyramid summaries, etc.). These “recipes” can help students practice condensing information, but it is important to remember that we still need to teach students how to condense through modeling and explicit explanations of how to determine the essence of text.

10. SQ3R is a well-known instructional practice that involves skills such as summarizing, self-

questioning, and text review. This instructional practice works well with content area text. It includes five steps. (See SQ3R, Handout S3-138)

11. Reciprocal Teaching is another well-known strategy that involves summarizing. See the

section on Questioning, Strategy activity #8. 12. Graphic Organizers are additional tools to help students summarize text. See the section on

Determining Importance for examples.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S3 - 138 Revised July 2006

SQ3R SQ3R is a well-known instructional practice that involves skills such as summarizing, self-questioning, and text review. This instructional practice works well with content area text. It includes these five steps:

• Survey: Skim chapter before reading to get an idea of the central theme/concept. • Question: Create questions using boldface headings. • Read: Read the text to locate answers to your questions. • Recite: Paraphrase main ideas and give supporting details. Check back in the text to

confirm your ideas. • Review: Look back over subheadings and recall main points and as many supporting

details as possible.

To Improve Comprehension of English Language Learners in English: • Activate prior knowledge. Help students make connections between what they already know

and what they are reading in English. Use graphic organizers when appropriate. • Discuss new vocabulary and concepts. Use realia (artifacts) and hands-on activities before,

during, and after the lesson. • Clarify interpretations. Encourage students to think about and elaborate vocabulary and

concepts to the extent possible. • Scaffold student’s learning. Graphic organizers and interactive read alouds are two examples

of scaffolds. To the extent possible, provide support in the students’ heritage languages. This can be done through reading summaries in the heritage language, reading with a language partner, or listening to books on tape.

• Summarize frequently in comprehensible language. • Restate key concepts by using synonyms, cognates, paraphrasing, and visual information.

Encourage students to summarize. • Plan structured oral activities. Encourage students to talk about what they are reading to

improve comprehension. • Frequently progress monitor comprehension. Assess comprehension in a variety of ways,

such as having students respond in journals, create projects, retell stories, illustrate texts, etc. English Language Learners may understand more than they can produce orally or in written form. Reception generally precedes production.

L E A D I N G

I N D I C A T O R

S P O T L I G H T

Early Reading Proficiency

A Companion Series to Beyond Test Scores: Leading Indicators for Education

Lindsey Musen

May 2010

About the Leading Indicator Spotlight series of research briefs

Improving student outcomes and closing achievement gaps takes time – more time than is often allowed in typical big-city political environments. Education leaders and community members need a way to monitor how much – if any – progress is being made in their schools and school systems before the results show up in indicators like student test scores, when it is often too late to intervene effectively.

Leading indicators that signal early progress toward academic achievement allow education leaders, especially at the district central office level, to make decisions about supporting student learning that are less reactive and more strategic. The concept of leading indicators builds on existing efforts by school districts to use data to inform systemwide decision making.

The report Beyond Test Scores: Leading Indicators for Education, published by the Annenberg Institute in 2008, looks at four school districts that are in the vanguard of data-informed decision making. The report examines how these districts – Hamilton County (Chattanooga, Tennessee), Montgomery County (Maryland), Naperville (Illinois), and Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) – are developing and using leading indicators for education.

The Leading Indicator Spotlight series of research briefs is designed to accompany Beyond Test Scores. Each brief examines in detail one leading indicator identified in the study and answers the questions: • Why is this indicator useful for monitoring academic achievement? • How do school districts measure this indicator? • How can districts act on this indicator for intervention and reform?

About the Author

Lindsey Musen is a development associate at the Boston Plan for Excellence. She holds a Master’s in Urban Education Policy from Brown University and a B.A. from Wesleyan University. She has worked in higher education administration, educational publishing, and education research and serves on the Board of Directors for Limitless Horizons Ixil, where she supports fundraising and opera- tions for community development work in Chajul, Guatemala.

Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University

Box 1985 Providence, Rhode Island 02912

233 Broadway, Suite 720 New York, New York 10279

www.annenberginstitute.org

© 2010 Brown University

Introduction

In Beyond Test Scores: Leading Indicators for Edu- cation, Foley and colleagues (2008) define lead- ing indicators as those that “provide early signals of progress toward academic achieve- ment” (p. 1) and stress that educators “need leading indicators to help them see the direc- tion their efforts are going in and to take correc- tive action as soon as possible” (p. 3). The authors identify early reading proficiency as one leading indicator that is commonly used by school districts. This brief in the Leading Indi- cator Spotlight series will discuss why this indi- cator is useful, how this indicator is measured by school districts, and how districts can put data about this indicator into action for intervention and reform.

Why use early reading proficiency as a leading indicator?

Learning to read and write opens doors to progress and prosperity across a lifetime.

– National Institute for Literacy, 2009

The significance of early grades Throughout the K–12 school experience, chil- dren continue to build upon prior knowledge to develop grade-level academic skills and knowl- edge. However, students who fall behind in the early grades have a harder time catching up, making it particularly important to identify struggling students early. Reading improvement changes most dramatically in the early years and slower in later years. In other words, there is greater potential for learning reading skills in the early grades. With each additional year, gains in reading are smaller and smaller (Francis et al. 1996).

The potential for rapid learning in the early grades comes as no surprise to scholars of cogni- tive development. “All cultures that provide formal schooling for their children begin it between ages five and seven” (Eccles 1999, p. 32). This is also the time (age six to eight), that many children around the world begin working (Heckt 1999) and that children develop the ability to cooperate and to coordinate points of view with others (Rogoff 1990).

By third grade, students are expected to know the fundamentals of reading and be able to apply their reading skills across the curriculum. Students are not being taught how to read any- more in third grade. Instead, teachers use writ- ten text to teach other material, such as science, history, math, or literature. This shift from “learning to read” to “reading to learn” is extremely difficult for children who have not mastered basic reading skills. As they get older, struggling readers find themselves with less and less access to texts that are getting more and more complicated.

First-grade reading scores are fairly reliable pre- dictors of future reading scores (Juel 1988). This means that readers scoring at the 80th per- centile in first grade will probably score near the same percentile in fourth grade. One study found that retention in first grade is correlated more powerfully with reading skills than with IQ (Wilson & Hughes 2009). This signifies that many students are being held back not for their intelligence level, but for their reading skills.

Reading skills in third grade are highly predic- tive of future academic performance. One study found that 74 percent of third-graders who read poorly are still struggling in ninth grade (Fletcher & Lyon 1998), and another found

Early Reading Proficiency

2 Early Reading Proficiency

that high school graduation can be reasonably predicted by knowing third-grade reading scores.1

A person who is not at least a modestly skilled reader by the end of third grade is quite unlikely to graduate from high school. Onlyagenerationago, thisdidnotmatter so much, because the long-term economic effects of not becoming a good reader and not graduating from high school were less severe. (Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998, p. 21)

Early reading skills, therefore, affect not only graduation rates, but also economic prospects for students and communities.

Literacy in the twenty-first century

The ability to read and write is fundamental to full participation in American society. Our nation of farmers and mechanics has been transformed into one in which economic, civic, and social success depend on educa- tional attainment for all, particularly in literacy.

– National Institute for Literacy, 2009

Literacy has emerged as key to success in twenty-first-century America. People with higher literacy skills have higher salaries, higher employment rates, higher civic participation rates, lower public assistance rates, and lower crime rates than people with lower literacy skills (National Institute for Literacy 2009; Kutner et al. 2007). A generation ago, literacy skills, a high school diploma, and a college degree weren’t as important, as our economy was built on agriculture and manufacturing. However, we are now living in a knowledge-based, globally competitive economy. This new economy demands higher literacy skills, creates a greater portion of jobs that require advanced learning, and depends on individuals to manage their daily lives using highly sophisticated systems.

A study about the economics of education con- cluded,

Most employers today cannot compete suc- cessfully without a workforce that has solid academic skills. . . . Employers need workers who have mastered reading processes that allow them to locate information and use higher-level thinking strategies to solve problems. (Carnevale&Desrochers 2003, p. 40)

In the book Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, Snow, Burns, and Griffen (1998) describe our changing society through the lens of literacy demands. The authors sug- gest that there is a rising demand for literacy accompanying the development of technology and an increasingly competitive, increasingly global, knowledge-based economy. Moreover, they remind us that unless we address the liter- acy gap among children, the economic gap between social classes will only increase.

Enjoyment and self-esteem While children in elementary school recognize reading as important, their success hinges upon their enjoyment of reading, motivation to read, and confidence in their own aptitude. Unfortu- nately, competence beliefs tend to decrease between first and fourth grade as children become more aware of themselves and compare themselves to their peers (Wigfield et al. 1997).

In a longitudinal study of literacy development in first through fourth grade, Juel (1988) found that poor readers reported that they do not read often outside school because they don’t enjoy reading and would rather do other things.

When asked whether they would rather clean their room or read, only 5 percent of the good readers said they would clean, whereas 40 percent of the poor readers pre- ferred to clean–onechild stated, “I’d rather clean the mold around the bathtub than read.” (p. 139)

1 For reviews, see Slavin et al. 1994.

Annenberg Institute for School Reform 3

Therefore, children who are reading at grade level or who see themselves as skilled readers are more likely to spend their time reading, which reinforces and improves reading skills.

Furthermore, achievement, interest, and com- petence beliefs in reading are highly correlated for third-graders. Children’s competencies affect interest in material as well as competency beliefs as early as third grade (Rathbun, West & Husken 2004). The students who enjoy reading the most and have confidence in their reading abilities are also the students who score the best on reading tests. This suggests that struggling readers in early grades might avoid reading due to lack of engagement and lack of confidence. With less reading practice and less interest in reading, low-performing readers fall further behind their classmates each year, leading to lower graduation and college-going rates.

How can early reading proficiency be measured?

This indicator is measured using a variety of early reading proficiency assessments. Together, these assessments measure: • Reading comprehension • Language comprehension • Background knowledge • Linguistic knowledge • Phonology • Syntax • Semantics • Decoding • Cipher knowledge • Lexical knowledge • Phoneme awareness • Alphabetic principle • Letter knowledge • Concepts about print

The Reading Assessment Database, published by sedl in 2006, provides an interactive sum- mary chart of early reading proficiency assess- ments (Wren & Litke 2006).2

Typically, statewide standardized testing begins in third grade because it is challenging to accu- rately and thoroughly test younger children. Very young children have short attention spans, typically express their knowledge through inter- active ways rather than through paper and pen- cil activities, develop cognitively in uneven and episodic ways, and are highly influenced by environmental factors (Guddemi & Case 2004). Therefore, testing needs to be administered carefully, frequently, and in short amounts of time.

New products have been released since 2006 that allow teachers to record assessment data electronically during test administration. One urban district is using a handheld device from which data can be uploaded to the server for immediate feedback, sharing, and interactive analysis.3

Intervention and reform: How can districts put data into action?

One district in California utilized student moni- toring, lowered class sizes, and explicit instruc- tion to improve first-grade reading scores (Menzies, Mahdavi & Lewis 2008). A midsized district in Oregon achieved success by using a

systematic integration of effective practices, including capacity building professional development, schoolwide positive behavior support, early literacy, early intervention, and special education evaluation and iden- tification using student responsiveness to intervention. (Sadler & Sugai 2009, p. 35)

2 See interactive chart at <www.sedl.org/reading/rad/chart.html>.

3 Boston Public Schools has selected Wireless Generation mCLASS: Reading 3D for use in kindergarten through second grade.

4 Early Reading Proficiency

Districts that gain self-awareness through data analysis can take the appropriate steps towards reform. The topics described in this section have been put forth in the field as levers for change.

Teacher quality and professional development Low early reading scores are often addressed by improvements to human capital. Despite gaps in school readiness, strong teaching practices can significantly improve students’ academic skills. Economist Eric Hanushek said, “The difference between a good and a bad teacher can be a full level of achievement in a single school year” (Haycock 1998, p. 5). In Tennessee, researchers found that fifth-grade students are still affected by the quality of their third-grade teacher (Sanders & Horn 1998). A Texas study found that students assigned to highly effective teach- ers three years in a row scored more than two standard deviations higher than students assigned to three lower-performing teachers in a row (Ferguson 1997).

During the 1990s, school districts in the El Paso area in Texas that invested heavily in improving teaching quality were able to increase scores of all subgroups and significantly narrow the achievement gap between White and minority students (Haycock 1998). Teachers have the crucial role of implementing all new initiatives in the classroom, creating a supportive learning environment, and directly educating children. Elementary school teachers who understand how different children learn to read, can teach varied strategies for developing reading skills, and can build confidence in students as readers will be able to influence the success of the dis- trict down the road.

Birth to five: Early childhood education and family engagement Children enter kindergarten with varying levels of literacy. Districts with lagging early reading proficiency scores might consider outreach and programming for young children. Between birth and age five, the cognitive development of the child is shaped by early experiences within the family and in early childhood education set- tings.

Language skills upon entering kindergarten are the basis for reading development in the follow- ing grades. Children entering kindergarten with “oral language proficiency and early abilities in processing print do better in learning to read in first, second, and third grades” (Scarborough 2001, cited in National Institute for Literacy 2008, p. xiv). According to Denton and West (2002),

Children who recognize their letters, who are read to at least three times a week, who recognize their basic numbers and shapes, and who demonstrate an understanding of the mathematical concept of relative size as theyenterkindergartendemonstrate signifi- cantly higher overall reading and mathe- matics knowledge and skills (in terms of an overall scale score) in the spring of kinder- gartenand the springof first grade thanchil- drenwhodonothave these resources. (p. x)

These skills can be developed both in the home and in early childhood education programs.

Early childhood programs can produce large short-term benefits for children on intelli- gence quotient (IQ) and sizable long-term effects on school achievement, grade reten- tion, placement in special education, and social adjustment. (Barnett 1995, p. 25)

While early childhood programs have the potential to decrease the school readiness gap and improve long-term outcomes for a school

Annenberg Institute for School Reform 5

district, programs for low-income families have long waiting lists and vary in quality (Magnuson & Waldfogel 2005).

Parents with higher literacy skills are more likely to read to their children several times a week and are more involved in their children’s school- ing (Kutner et al. 2007). Therefore, children of parents with lower literacy skills are more likely to enter kindergarten with fewer language abili- ties. While engaging families in the district, school districts can encourage parents to read to their young children and offer literacy classes to adults. A district’s outreach to parents of young children can have significant benefits later on as the children enter school.

Curriculum and instruction While reading percentiles are generally stable for students across grades, there is evidence that reading skills can be improved by excellent and relevant curriculum and instruction programs. In Florida, an evaluation of the Reading First pro- gram found that the program had a tremendous impact on first grade students (Conner et al. 2009). Slavin and colleagues (1994) review a series of successful programs that improve early reading competence. However, no single cur- riculum or pedagogy will work for all children. The district can support teachers in delivering the curriculum by suggesting adaptations for dif- ferent learners.

Analyzing early reading proficiency data can help districts understand if there are particular reading skills that are weak at the district or school levels. These data can also help districts learn if certain populations are struggling with particular reading skills. For example, English learners might need extra support with vocabu- lary; students with special needs might need extra support with decoding. In learning about district-, school-, teacher-, or student-level deficits, appropriate modifications can be made to curriculum and instruction.

Assessment and early intervention Assessment is essential to determine how dis- tricts are succeeding with early reading and to help students and teachers understand their own strengths and weaknesses. Identifying and addressing students’ academic challenges early saves students years of struggle and isolation. Early reading proficiency scores can identify which students are right for early intervention programs, rather than relying on teacher referral alone. Snow, Burns, and Griffen (1998) found that when children’s reading problems are diag- nosed and addressed early, their reading achievement improves.

Districts can use different assessment methods to collect various relevant kinds of information and use historical trends to set future goals. Teachers are also continually assessing their students to understand how easy or challenging the work is, how comfortable or anxious stu- dents are, and how each child learns. Every day, teachers collect valuable information that can be channeled to improve instruction. Allowing teachers time to document and share this student-centered information with team members would help districts provide appropri- ate student-level support.

Out-of-school time and community partnerships Early reading proficiency scores are determined not just by school practices, but also by what happens outside of school. In a 2005 longitudi- nal study, Schacter and Jo found that “during the summer vacation children who are econom- ically disadvantaged experience declines in reading achievement, while middle- and high-income children improve” (p. 158). The authors found that high-interest activities involving reading for young children after school and over the summer can prevent read- ing loss and sometimes even result in reading gains.

6 Early Reading Proficiency

These programs are often offered by community organizations, libraries, and summer camps. Strong partnerships between school districts and out-of-school-time programs can ensure collaboration in reaching district goals and pro- gram development in areas of need. Districts can also reach out to families to encourage read- ing in the home, access to reading materials, library visits, and enrollment in out-of-school- time programs that align with district goals.

Looking to the future

These recommendations are drawn from nation- wide data and a patchwork of excellent studies and meta-analyses. However, there aren’t enough case studies of districtwide reading reform that demonstrate a thorough system of evaluation, thoughtful reform efforts, and demonstrated success, which would help iden- tify patterns of successful data-driven reform. Most case studies are driven by the promotion of particular products or services, and most quantitative studies contain data on just a small slice of reading reform. The field would greatly benefit from additional case studies of districts that have demonstrated positive outcomes as a result of changes to policy and practice that go beyond the adoption of a particular program.

Early reading proficiency can serve as a useful leading indicator for academic success in the later grades. Districts that can effectively evalu- ate early reading proficiency as a leading indica- tor will be taking an important step toward large-scale reform through data-driven decision making.

References

Barnett, W. S. 1995. “Long-Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Cognitive and School Outcomes,” Future of Children: When School Is Out 5, no. 3:25–50.

Carnevale, A. P., and D. M. Desrochers. 2003. Standards for What? The Economic Roots of K– 16 Reform. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Conner, C. M., L. J. Jakobsons, E. C. Crowe, and J. Granger Meadows. 2009. “Instruction, Student Engagement, and Reading Skill Growth in Reading First Classrooms,” Elemen- tary School Journal 109, no. 3.

Denton, K., and J. West. 2002. Children’s Read- ing and Mathematics Achievement in Kinder- garten and First Grade. nces 2002–125. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Educa- tion, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.

Eccles, J. S. 1999. “The Development of Children Ages 6 to 14,” Future of Children: When School Is Out 9, no. 2 (Fall). Available for download at <www.princeton.edu/ futureofchildren/publications/journals/ article/index.xml?journalid=48andarticleid= 232andsectionid=1518>

Ferguson, R. 1997. Evidence That Schools Can Narrow the Black-White Test Score Gap. Wash- ington, DC: Brookings Institute.

Fletcher, J. M., and G. R. Lyon. 1998. Reading: “A Research-Based Approach.” In What’s Gone Wrong in America’s Classrooms, edited by W. M. Evers, pp. 49–90. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.

Annenberg Institute for School Reform 7

Foley, E., J. Mishook, J. Thompson, M. Kubiak, J. Supovitz, and M. K. Rhude-Faust. 2008. Beyond Test Scores: Leading Indicators for Edu- cation. Providence, RI: Brown University, Annenberg Institute for School Reform. Available for download at <www. annenberginstitute.org/WeDo/leading_ indicators.php>

Francis, D. J., S. E. Shaywitz, K. K. Stuebing, B. A. Shaywitz, and J. M. Fletcher. 1996. “Devel- opmental Lag Versus Deficit Models of Read- ing Disability: A Longitudinal, Individual Growth Curves Analysis,” Journal of Educa- tional Psychology 88:3–17.

Guddemi, M., and B. Case. 2004. Assessing Young Children. Assessment Report. San Antonio, TX: Pearson Education. Available for download at <www.pearsonassessments. com/pai/ai/research/resources/ tmrsresources?ResourceId=AssRep| mpanel2_0>

Haycock, K. 1998. Good Teaching Matters: How Well-Qualified Teachers Can Close the Gap. Washington, DC: Education Trust.

Heckt, M. 1999. “Mayan Education in Guatemala: A Pedagogical Model and Its Political Context.” In Learning, Knowledge, and Cultural Context, edited by L. King, unesco Institute of Education. Hamburg, Germany: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Juel, C. 1988. “Learning to Read and Write: A Longitudinal Study of 54 Children from First through Fourth Grades,” Journal of Educational Psychology 80, no. 4.

Kutner, M., E. Greenberg, Y. Jin, B. Boyle, Y. Hsu, E. Dunleavy, and S. White. 2007. Liter- acy in Everyday Life: Results from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy. nces 2007-480. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.

Magnuson, K. A., and J. Waldfogel. 2005. “Early Childhood Care and Education: Effects on Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readi- ness,” The Future of Children: When School Is Out 15, no. 1.

Menzies, H. M., J. N. Mahdavi, and J. L. Lewis. 2008. “Early Intervention in Reading: From Research to Practice,” Remedial and Special Education 29, no. 2.

National Institute for Literacy. 2008. Developing Early Literacy: Report of the National Early Lit- eracy Panel. Washington, DC: National Insti- tute for Literacy. Available for download at <www.nifl.gov/nifl/news_events/nelp01-08- 09.html>

National Institute for Literacy. 2009. National Reading Achievement Goals Inform Early Liter- acy Instruction. Press release, <www.nifl.gov/ news/nelp01-08-09.html>. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.

Rathbun, A., J. West, and E. Germino Husken. 2004. From Kindergarten through Third Grade: Children’s Beginning School Experiences. nces 2004-007. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.

Rogoff, B. 1990. “Explanation of Cognitive Development through Social Interaction: Vygotsky and Piaget.” Chap. 7, Apprenticeship in Thinking, pp. 137–150. New York: Oxford University Press.

Sadler, C., and G. Sugai. 2009. “Effective Behavior and Instructional Support: A Dis- trict Model for Early Identification and Pre- vention of Reading and Behavior Problems,” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 11, no. 1.

8 Early Reading Proficiency

Sanders, W., and S. Horn. 1998. “Research Findings from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (tvaas) Database: Implications for Educational Evaluation and Research,” Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 12, no. 3: 247–256.

Schacter, J., and B. Jo. 2005. “Learning When School Is Not in Session: A Reading Summer Day-Camp Intervention to Improve the Achievement of Exiting First-Grade Students Who Are Economically Disadvantaged,” Jour- nal of Research in Reading 28, no. 2:158–169.

Slavin, R. E., N. L. Karweit, B. A. Wasik, N. A. Madden, and L. J. Dolan. 1994. “Success for All: A Comprehensive Approach to Preven- tion and Early Intervention.” In Preventing Early School Failure, edited by R. E. Slavin, N. L. Karweit, and B. A. Wasik. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Snow, C. E., M. S. Burns, and P. Griffin. 1998. Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Chil- dren. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Wigfield, A., J. Eccles, K. Yoon, R. Harold, A. Arbreton, C. Freedman-Doan, and P. Blumen- feld. 1997. “Change in Children’s Compe- tency Beliefs and Subjective Task Values across the Elementary School Years: A 3-year Study,” Journal of Educational Psychology 89, no. 3.

Wilson, V. L., and J. N. Hughes. 2009. “Who Is Retained in First Grade? A Psychosocial Per- spective,” Elementary School Journal 109, no. 3.

Wren, S., and B. Litke. 2006. Reading Assess- ment Database for Grades PreK–3, <www.sedl. org/pubs/catalog/items/read02.html>. Austin, TX: sedl.

Providence Brown University Box 1985 Providence, RI 02912 T 401.863.7990 F 401.863.1290

New York 233 Broadway Suite 720 New York, NY 10279 T 212.328.9290 F 212.964.1057

www.annenberginstitute.org

Developmental Stages of Reading Students progress through the developmental stages as they become more proficient readers.

These developmental stages are not determined by grade level but by a student’s experiences,

understanding, attitude, and the expectations that the student has for reading and writing.

Learning is continuous; the goal is to see where students are, notice their strengths and then teach

for change (Pinnell & Fountas, 1998). While these categories are roughly age related, it is

obvious that there is a great deal of overlap. At the same time, the majority of students should be

proficient readers by age nine. Students who do not appear to be making satisfactory progress

must have immediate intensive intervention with a strong diagnostic component and continuous

assessment, preferably at an early age. The intervention must help students achieve accelerated

progress in learning the critical skills of literacy. It must be well timed and consistent.

Developing readers generally enjoy reading, since most of their experiences with texts have

involved being read to by family members or caregivers. Books represent pleasure and

entertainment for them. Many children will have favorite stories they like to hear again and

again.

Developing readers will often pick up a book and approximate reading by holding the book the

right way, stopping the reading while they turn the page and finishing the story exactly on the

last page. Through this, children learn that texts give readers cues to reading, that print on a page

matches certain words, that pictures support the story, that books are read from front to back, that

text flows from left to right and that reading is an authentic activity. When children “read” books

in this way, they are preparing themselves to become readers.

Developing readers know that print carries meaning and they are aware of sources of print

around them – in books, on products, on labels, on signs, etc. While they recognize many of

these words in context, they may not carry over this knowledge when they see the words in

isolation.

Developing readers are acquiring basic book handling skills and are just learning that

illustrations and books tell a story. Concurrently, the necessary phonological awareness skills are

developing. These include the concept of spoken word; rhyme recognition and production;

syllable blending, segmentation and deletion; and phoneme isolation, blending, segmenting and

deleting. Developing readers many also know letters, sounds and high frequency words. They

use pictures and rely on their knowledge of oral language. With developing readers, teachers use

a variety of delivery models and text to support the whole group, small groups and individuals in

reading. The focus is on systematic and explicit instruction. Beginning books for this level

should have natural language, a clear matching of pictures to text, repetitive text and

predictability. Decodable books should also be used. At this stage students often memorize the

text as part of the developmental process. This stage occurs for most students between the ages

of 5 and 7.

Early readers enjoy listening to stories and have favorite books that they seemingly never tire

of. Children at this stage know that books can provide them with entertainment and information

and they see themselves as capable of reading them.

Early readers are beginning to rely on semantic and syntactic cueing systems to predict events,

and can retell sequences of events. These children are interested in developing their print

abilities. They like to have their stories transcribed, which they can read back to a teacher or

parent.

To help early readers develop knowledge of how writing reflects spoken words, it is necessary to

create environments where children are surrounded by print. Teachers or parents need to show

examples of how print is used and give children plenty of opportunities to read books

successfully, particularly pattern books and books with detailed illustrations.

Early readers are in the stage when conventional reading is beginning to occur. These students

are developing strategies for reading and self-correction. The teacher’s role is to deliver explicit

and systematic instruction in decoding, vocabulary development and comprehension. Once the

teacher has introduced the text, these children can read appropriately selected materials. This

stage occurs for most students between the ages of 6 and 8.

Transitional readers can read some texts independently and successfully. Children at this stage

of reading often enjoy books by a favorite author, including books in a series, and it is during this

period that children come to recognize characteristics of various genres.

At this stage, their knowledge of sound-letter correspondence is growing, and they can recognize

and write letter groups such as blends and digraphs. Their knowledge of sight words is also

growing, and they can read these words in both familiar and unfamiliar contexts.

As they read, transitional readers use all four cueing systems to help them make meaning. They

are able to self-monitor their reading, identifying and correcting miscues, and can substitute

words that make sense when they are unsure of a text. At this level, children are reading silently.

As part of their literacy program, teachers should introduce chapter books and simple novels and

ask students to retell the plots of stories they have read.

Transitional readers should also recognize phonics generalizations and have a growing

vocabulary. Transitional readers have gained enough control of reading so that self-correction is

automatic. They have a large core of known words that are recognized automatically and have

flexible ways of problem solving words. Reading is phrased and fluent at appropriate levels, and

reading strategies are used effectively, flexibly and efficiently.

Transitional readers use the illustrations to gain additional meaning and interpret the meaning in

an informational text. They understand how to read differently in a variety of genres. Silent

reading gradually becomes a natural form of behavior. This stage occurs for most students

between the ages of 7 and 9.

Self-extending readers have arrived at a point where they have built up an extensive sight

vocabulary and thus are free from the time-consuming word analysis that may have occurred at

previous stages. These readers can read a range of texts for a variety of purposes, read silently,

link new information with existing knowledge and adjust their style of reading to reflect the type

of books being read.

This is a critical stage in reading. Some children may begin to lose their enthusiasm for reading

because books may appear too challenging or they no longer find themselves as captivated by

story. In these cases, we must select books that children enjoy and that they can read

successfully. Children need to continue to confirm reading as an act that entertains them, that

brings them satisfaction, that adds to their knowledge and that is undertaken for genuine reasons.

Self-extending readers have systems in place for learning more about the reading process as they

read so that they build skills simply by encountering different genre with a variety of new

vocabulary. They are in a continuous process of building background knowledge and realize that

they need to bring their knowledge to their reading. They make text-to-text, text-to-world, and

text-to-self connections and become absorbed in books. They sustain their reading over texts

with many pages that may require many days or weeks to read. They use many sources of

information flexibly, such as meaning, structure of the language, phonics, word knowledge,

author’s intent or purpose, and prior knowledge, including the illustrations to interpret and use

information from both expository and narrative texts. They read silently and fluently. This stage

occurs for most students between the ages of 8 and 10.

Advanced readers read texts independently and silently. The style of reading they choose

reflects the material being read and these readers monitor their reading for understanding.

These students can read a range of books, as well as novels that reflect other cultures, other

times, and other ways of looking at the world. They are capable of interpreting complex plots

and characterization and need to be challenged to move ahead on their own, using fiction,

nonfiction and computers.

Advanced readers consistently go beyond the text being read to form their own interpretations

and apply understandings in other areas. They acquire new vocabulary through reading and use

reading as a tool for learning in content areas. They actively work to connect texts for deeper

understanding and finer interpretation. At this level the reader knows how to direct his attention

depending on the kind of text being read. For example, he may read a text primarily to gain

information or for pleasure. Attention is focused in specific ways, and the goal is to increase

knowledge. These readers sustain interest and understanding over long texts and read silently

over extended periods of time. They begin to notice writing styles and develop favorite topics

and authors that form the basis of lifelong reading preferences. This stage occurs for most

students about the age of 10 and higher.

Differentiated Reading Instruction: Small Group Alternative Lesson

Structures for All Students

Guidance Document for Florida Reading First Schools

Marcia Kosanovich, Karen Ladinsky, Luanne Nelson, Joseph Torgesen

Differentiated Reading Instruction: Small Group Alternative Lesson Structures for All Students

OVERVIEW

Purpose of this Document This document was prepared to provide guidance to Reading First Coaches and Teachers regarding alternative lesson structures for providing small group, differentiated instruction to students in grades K-3 within Reading First schools in Florida.

Importance The motivation for the development of this document stemmed from specific weaknesses in student reading outcomes and observations of classroom practices during the first two years of implementation of Florida’s Reading First program (2003-2004 & 2004-2005).

Of special concern is the fact that more than half of the first grade students in Reading First schools are not able to meet the February benchmarks for phonemic decoding skills (as assessed by the Nonsense Word Fluency Measure from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS®), and almost half still cannot meet these February benchmarks at the beginning of second grade. Furthermore, students in Reading First schools show an overall relative decline in oral reading fluency (ORF) during the first and second grade, so that too few (46%) meet grade level expectations in ORF at the beginning of third grade (compared to 72% and 56% at the beginning of 1st and 2nd grade, respectively). Overall, the data suggest that students in Reading First schools are consistently “losing ground” relative to grade level expectations in word-level reading skills (accuracy and fluency) between the beginning of first grade and the beginning of third grade. In contrast, the percentage of students that meet grade level expectations in oral language vocabulary actually increases from the end of kindergarten (39%) to the end of third grade (47%).

In response not only to these student data but also to observations of methods (i.e., lesson structures) used during small group, teacher-led instruction, it is recommended that Reading Coaches and Teachers participate in training and have access to continued support in the use of alternative lesson structures to provide small group, differentiated instruction and targeted interventions to struggling readers.

DIFFERENTIATION

What is Differentiated Instruction? Differentiated instruction is matching instruction to meet the different needs of learners in a given classroom. The range of instructional need within one classroom is large. In order to accommodate these instructional needs, it is recommended that teachers plan for: • small group, differentiated instruction • ample student practice opportunities in the form of Reading Centers

When is Differentiated Instruction Implemented? Differentiated instruction is implemented during the designated block of time for reading instruction. Usually, whole group instruction is provided, and then classrooms and instruction are organized in the form of Reading Centers. Reading Centers are special places organized in the classroom for students to work in small groups, pairs, or individually. Students practice, demonstrate,

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and extend learning independently of the teacher at Independent Student Centers or students are provided with explicit instruction by the teacher at the Teacher-Led Center. Students frequently work at Independent Student Centers while the teacher conducts small group, differentiated, explicit instruction at the Teacher-Led Center. This document focuses on the different types of lesson structures recommended for implementation at the Teacher-Led Center (for more information about Independent Student Centers, please see http://www.fcrr.org/activities/).

How is Differentiated Instruction Implemented with Small Groups? Differentiated instruction is implemented at the Teacher-Led Center. The Teacher forms small, flexible groups based on student data and observations. The classroom is organized in terms of time (number of days per week and number of minutes per day) for each small group. The Teacher determines the appropriate small group lesson structure for each group. Differentiating instruction at the Teacher-Led Center requires the Teacher to use data to form small, flexible groups so that each group meets the specific needs of the students assigned to it, in terms of: • size of each group(e.g., 3-5 for struggling readers, 5-7 for other students, etc.) • number of days per week each group attends the Teacher-Led Center (e.g., daily, twice/week, 3 times/week) • number of minutes per day (e.g., 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, etc.) • type of lesson structure for each group (i.e., Skills-Focused Lesson or Guided Reading) • content and level of the lesson (i.e. area(s) of reading skill and level of instruction)

ALTERNATIVE LESSON STRUCTURES

What are Alternative Lesson Structures for Differentiating Instruction? Alternative lesson structures refer to the different activities that are implemented with students in a small group setting at the Teacher-Led Center. It is critical for Teachers to alter small group instruction based on the instructional needs of students. For this to occur, it is recommended that teachers increase their knowledge and proficiency using at least two types of lesson structures: Guided Reading and Skills-Focused Lessons. Although other lesson structures might be created by blending aspects of these two types, all teachers should be able to create small group lessons using at least these two main types of lessons.

A. Guided Reading

Using Guided Reading as an Alternative Lesson Structure for Differentiating Instruction Observations during regularly scheduled site visits conducted by the Florida Center for Reading Research (FCRR) as well as continuous observations conducted by Reading First Professional Development (RFPD) coordinators suggest that the dominant lesson structure currently being used to provide differentiated instruction during the 90 minute block is the “guided reading” format. As outlined in the work of Fountas and Pinnell, “Guided Reading is a context in which a teacher supports each reader’s development of effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty” (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996, p. 3). The structure of a typical Guided Reading lesson roughly follows the following pattern:

Selecting the text Introducing the text Reading the text Discussing the text

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Teaching for strategic activities Extending meaning (optional) Word Work (optional)

In broad overview, a typical Guided Reading lesson occurs as students read text that has been selected to be at an appropriate level of difficulty. The teacher’s role is to provide supports to students in the appropriate use of a variety of strategies to identify words and construct meaning from the passage. Instruction from the teacher is provided primarily through questioning students and scaffolding more accurate responses when they make errors during reading. Guided Reading provides a context in which the teacher can monitor and guide the student’s application of specific skills in decoding and comprehension to construct meaning while reading.

There are many reasons why Guided Reading is an important lesson structure for teachers to implement at the Teacher-Led Center. The Guided Reading lesson structure provides teachers the opportunities to: monitor how well students are applying skills to reading text, encourage and support application of skills during text reading (e.g., word level skills and comprehension skills), engage students in thinking about the meaning of text, and build a sense of reading as a meaningful, enjoyable activity.

At the same time, Guided Reading may not be the appropriate lesson structure to implement with all small groups of students, especially struggling readers, since it typically emphasizes discussing the meaning of text rather than building specific word analysis skills. Due to this emphasis, Guided Reading may not be the best lesson structure for providing focused and systematic instruction in specific skills and knowledge the student is struggling with (i.e., letter-sound fluency, blending, suffixes, multi-syllable strategies, etc.). Students who have fundamental knowledge gaps, particularly in the skills necessary to apply phonemic decoding skills during reading, require focused learning opportunities to help them become accurate and fluent readers so that they will enjoy reading and be able to focus their attention on the meaning of the text. Many of the “leveled books” used during Guided Reading lessons may not actually provide good supports for instruction that emphasizes explicit development of skills in phonemic awareness and phonics as an important foundation for the development of initial reading accuracy leading to reading fluency. Finally, during a Guided Reading lesson, it is difficult to build in the systematic review of critical knowledge and skills that struggling readers need.

B. Skills-Focused Lessons

Using Skills-Focused Lessons as an Alternative Lesson Structure for Differentiating Instruction Given the strengths of the Guided Reading lesson structure in the hands of a skillful teacher, it is clear that such lessons should continue to play a role in providing differentiated instruction and support during the 90-minute reading block. However, it also seems important to consider other lesson structures that might be more effective in providing explicit and systematic instruction for students who do not yet have the necessary skills and knowledge to be integrated together in the reading of text. These Skills-Focused Lessons would be provided in order to help insure mastery of elements like letter-sound knowledge, phonemic decoding strategies, critical vocabulary, or reading comprehension strategies.

Skills-Focused Lessons are teacher-planned lessons that provide the opportunity for more systematic and focused practice on a relatively small number of critical elements at a time (e.g., unknown consonant digraphs, vowel teams, r-controlled vowels, etc.). They would also provide the opportunity

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for sustained, systematic, and interesting “word work” (e.g., Beck, 2006) in order to build fluency and confidence in the application of these skills to reading words. These lessons could draw upon lesson formats and content from the core reading program to reinforce knowledge and skill that was only weakly learned when it was taught in the whole group format. In schools that serve a high proportion of poor and minority students, it does not seem reasonable to expect that most students will be able to master many of the skills they are taught if they are only presented and explained during whole group instruction. Many students will need explicit re-teaching of both knowledge elements and skills, as well as extended opportunities to practice the application of these skills in a variety of contexts ranging from individual words, to phrases, to sentences, to connected text. Skills- Focused Lessons will be successful to the extent that they are fast-paced, interactive, and targeted appropriately on critical skills for each reading group.

There is not one set format that a Skills-Focused Lesson follows. Rather, these lessons could be closely aligned with results from the DIBELS® progress monitoring measures (particularly for letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, and reading fluency) as well as other assessment data. Resources that may be utilized to implement Skills-Focused Lessons include curriculum maps (http://reading.uoregon.edu/appendices/maps.php), Core Reading Program activities, K-3 Student Center Activities, Just Read, Florida! K-3 Reading Academy Guide, or activities drawn from Supplemental or Intervention reading programs. Another source for developing Skills-Focused Lessons would be teacher oriented books that provide examples of how to deliver explicit instruction and practice in early reading skills such as Bringing Words to Life (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002), Making Sense of Phonics (Beck, 2006), and Comprehension Process Instruction (Block, 2004).

The following information includes a kindergarten example and a first grade example of how students and activities at the Teacher-Led center and at the Independent Student Centers may be organized. The activities at the Student Centers are from the K-3 Project referenced earlier in this document.

C. Lesson Structure Examples

Alternative Lesson Structures to Differentiate Instruction in Kindergarten: Example One Using assessment data from DIBELS® and classroom observations as guidance, Mrs. Tyson will select appropriate activities from the school’s core program to deliver additional support during Teacher-Led small group lessons. For a more intensive instructional focus in phonemic awareness and phonics for some of the students, the teacher will use the reading intervention program adopted by the school. In order to achieve the necessary instructional intensity and support, 3 of the groups will contain only 3-4 students while the remaining two groups will have 5-7 students. Although these groups are highly focused on specific skills, word meaning should always be addressed during the lessons. In addition to the instruction described below, all students will receive daily whole class instruction in phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension, as well as some phonemic awareness activities, from the comprehensive reading program. Other grouping practices, such as student pairs and one-on-one instruction, are also used to support reading instruction. Membership in these groups will change as students’ needs change.

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Group Members: Kylie, Nate, Rosa

Minimum Meeting Frequency: Daily

Lesson Structure: Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: This group is at high risk and requires intensive work in phonemic awareness and phonics. Because they were at high risk on the phonemic awareness measure, they may require segmenting and blending at the syllable level followed by onset and rime blending. Phonics activities should target learning letter names and fluency and accuracy in identifying letter-sound correspondences with attention to matching and identifying initial, final and medial sounds.*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Syllables-Segmenting: Syllable Graph (PA.023) Students sort pictures by the number of syllables and glue on a graph. - Onset and Rime: Say it Now (P.048) Students play a blending game to make words using onsets and rimes.

Group Members Kershawn, Ellie, Michael

Minimum Meeting Frequency Daily

Lesson Structure Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: These students still require intensive support but the emphasis should be at a higher level in the phonological awareness developmental hierarchy. Phonemic awareness instruction should target phoneme segmentation and blending in two and three phoneme words. Phonics instruction will emphasize letter-sound correspondences and the use of Elkonin boxes and counters will facilitate the transition from sounds to letters, and beginning blending skills.*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Phoneme Segmenting: Say and Slide Phonemes (PA.055) Students orally segment words using counters and Elkonin Boxes. - Letter-Sound Correspondence-Object Letter-Sound Matching (P.027) Students match the initial sounds of objects to letters.

Group Members Ethan, Jabari, Jenna, Jacob

Minimum Meeting Frequency 3 times/week

Lesson Structure Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonics and Fluency

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: These students are performing at grade level with phonemic awareness and can receive extensive work in letter- sound correspondence with a focus on medial vowels. Word work activities should focus on phoneme segmentation and blending at the individual phoneme level for 3-4 phoneme words. Fluency with these skills should be emphasized as well as fluency with high frequency words.*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Letter-Sound Correspondence: Letter Stamp Mini-Books (P.031) Students make medial sound letter books using letter stamps. - Word Study Blending: Draw-A-Card Word Game (P.066) Students make words using consonant and vowel cards.

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* Using the scope and sequence and the students’ assessment data as guidance, the teacher will select appropriate lessons and materials from the comprehensive reading program, a supplemental reading program, or an intervention program that will effectively address the identified instructional focus for each group.

ALTERNATIVE LESSON STRUCTURES TO DIFFERENTIATE INSTRUCTION IN FIRST GRADE: EXAMPLE TWO Using assessment data from DIBELS® and classroom observations as guidance, Mrs. Rodriguez will select appropriate activities from the school’s core program to deliver additional support during Teacher-Led small group lessons. For a more intensive instructional focus in phonemic awareness and phonics for some of her students, the teacher will use activities from the reading intervention program adopted by the school. Although these groups are highly focused on skills required for reading accuracy, discussion of word meanings should also be included when talking about individual words. In addition to the instruction described below, all students will receive daily whole class instruction in phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension, as well as some phonemic awareness activities, from the comprehensive reading program. Other grouping practices, such as student pairs and one-on-one instruction, are also used to support reading instruction. Membership in these groups will change as students’ needs change.

Group Members Connie, Teresa, Joe, Karl, Sean

Minimum Meeting Frequency 3 times/week

Lesson Structure Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Fluency

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: This group is at low-risk on measures of phonemic awareness and phonics. The small group instructional focus could be on reading decodable text, fluency, and extended discussion with leveled text as well as focused practice using word lists made up of words with phonic elements already learned (and the new ones being learned).*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Word Study: High Frequency Words, Word Baseball (P.090) Students play a baseball game reading words. - High Frequency Words: Fluency, Word Wiz (F.015) Students read high frequency words in a timed activity.

Group Members Pete, Marcia, Meghann, Elissa, Liz, Randee

Minimum Meeting Frequency Twice a week

Lesson Structure Guided Reading and/or Skills- Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonics, Vocabulary, & Reading Comprehension

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: These students have met the benchmark for word reading/decoding. Guided Reading would be an appropriate lesson structure for this group. Additionally, small-group instruction for these students could focus on more advanced phonics and word study (e.g., multisyllabic words) while emphasizing word meaning.*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Syllable Patterns: Word Syllable Game (P.095) Students play a game by reading and counting syllables in words. - Word Study: High Frequency Words, Word Fishing (P.089) Students play a ‘fishing’ game by reading words.

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Group Members Dora, Daniel, Eliza, Rodney

Minimum Meeting Frequency Every day

Lesson Structure: Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, & Word Reading

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: The students in this group are Ms. Rodriguez’s most struggling readers. They will work toward the goal of segmenting three-phoneme words into individual phonemes, although they may need to develop some prerequisite skills first (e.g., onset-rime blending and segmentation). In addition, they will learn letter-sound correspondences and directly practice blending letter sounds in CVC words. She will also teach students to read both phonetically regular and high frequency words so that they can read sentences as quickly as possible. The teacher will emphasize word meaning during instruction.* The students in this group will probably need intervention in addition to the instruction they are receiving during the reading block.

Independent Student Center Activities: - Letter-Sound Correspondence: Letter-Sound Bingo (P.044) Students play an initial sound bingo game - Onset and Rime: Say It Now (P.048) Students make words by playing an onsets and rimes game.

Group Members Alex, Antwon, Delia, Angela

Minimum Meeting Frequency Every day

Lesson Structure: Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Word & Sentence Reading

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: The students in this group are also struggling both in phonemic awareness and in phonics. Ms. Rodriguez will work with them on segmenting three- and four-phoneme words into individual phonemes. This instruction will integrate letters as soon as possible so students can begin blending letter sounds to read words (e.g., CVC, CCVC, and CVCC words). She will also teach students to read both phonetically regular and high frequency words so that they can read sentences as quickly as possible. Students may practice applying blending skills by reading decodable text. Word meaning will be emphasized.* The students in this group may need intervention in addition to the instruction they are receiving during the reading block.

Independent Student Center Activities: - Phoneme Segmenting- Say and Slide Phonemes (PA.055) Students orally segment words using counters and Elkonin Boxes. - Onset and Rime: Word Swat (P.054) Students use a flyswatter to match onsets and rimes to make words.

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* Using the scope and sequence and the students’ assessment data as guidance, the teacher will select appropriate lessons and materials from the comprehensive reading program, a supplemental reading program, or an intervention program that will effectively address the identified instructional focus for each group. GENERAL CONCLUSION It is important to note that observational studies of teachers who are effective in teaching early reading skills to all students employ both the kind of explicit and systematic instruction embodied in Skills-Focused Lessons, and the integrative and supported reading experiences that are characteristic of Guided Reading lessons to meet the needs of all their students. They are skilled at making judgments about which kinds of instruction are most important at different points for individual students. Less effective teachers tend to focus more exclusively on one or the other of these two broad kinds of instruction, and thus are not as able to effectively meet the needs of all their students. We encourage all Reading First teachers to reflect carefully on the individual needs of students and to employ the particular type of lesson structure that will be most effective in meeting their needs for differentiated instruction.

Group Members Larah, Gerry, Chris, Tina, Jay

Minimum Meeting Frequency Three times a week

Lesson Structure: Skills-Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonics & Paragraph Reading

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: The students in this group have met the benchmark for phonemic awareness but are identified as slightly below grade level on the assessment of word reading/decoding. Ms. Rodriguez will review letter sounds with them, and they will work on blending letter sounds to read words. She will also emphasize word meaning. Students will practice applying blending skills by reading decodable text. The teacher will build students’ skills so that they move from word reading to sentence reading, until finally they are reading paragraphs and stories.*

Independent Student Center Activities: - Word Study Blending: Spin-A-Word (P.068) Students use a spinner, blend sounds, and make words. - Word Study Segmenting: Say and Write Letters (P.074) Students orally segment words and match corresponding letters on spaces in Elkonin Boxes. - Word Study High Frequency Words: Word Checkers (P.088) Students play a checker game reading the words on the squares.

Group Members Natalia, Felicia, Rey, Clarissa, Jade, Aaron

Minimum Meeting Frequency Twice a week

Lesson Structure: Guided Reading and/or Skills- Focused

Instructional Focus: Phonics, Reading Comprehension, & Vocabulary

Small Group Lesson at the Teacher-Led Center: These are Ms. Rodriguez’s most advanced learners–all have met the benchmark for word reading/decoding. Guided Reading would be an appropriate lesson structure for this group. Additionally, small-group instruction for these students could focus on more advanced phonics and word study (e.g., multisyllabic words) while emphasizing word meaning.

Independent Student Center Activity: - Syllable Paterns: Multisyllabic Words (P.093) Students make words from syllable puzzle pieces. - Moropheme Structures: Compound Word Puzzles (P.097) Students fit together puzzle pieces to form compound words.

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REFERENCES Beck, I.L. (2006). Making sense of phonics: The hows and whys. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002) Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Block, C.C, Rodgers, L.L., & Johnson, R.B. (2004). Comprehension process instruction: Creating reading success in grades K-3. New York, NY: The Guilford Press

Fountas I., & Pinnell G.S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational.

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Issue 5

Students of Today Achieving Results

Research & Resources for English Learner Achievement

Special Anniversary Edition December 2007

The DevelopmenT of liTeracy in SeconD-language learnerS

Key Points Implications Resources

WriTTen by: Diane auguST, ph.D. cenTer for applieD linguiSTicS

prepareD by: yee Wan, eD.D SanTa clara counTy office of eDucaTion

In the STARlight The Development of Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Key Findings from

the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth and Instructional Implications1

Key Points This edition of Starlight is based on a report of the National Literacy Panel

on Language Minority Children and Youth entitled Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners. The report is the culmination of a process that began in the spring of 2002, when the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences staff selected a panel of thirteen experts in second-language development, cognitive development, curriculum and instruction, assessment, and methodology to review the quantitative and qualitative research on the development of literacy in language-minority students. These experts formed the National Literacy Panel on Language- Minority Children and Youth.

Development of Literacy An important finding is that by and large, for language-minority children, word-level components of literacy (e.g., decoding, spelling) either are or can be (with appropriate instruction) at levels equal to those of their monolingual peers. However, this is not the case for text-level skills, like reading comprehension, which rarely approach the levels achieved by their monolingual peers. Findings also suggest that oral language skills are an important dimension of literacy development. Although phonological processing appears to play more of a role than second-language oral proficiency on word-level reading skills, having well-developed second- language oral proficiency is associated with well-developed text-level skills such as reading comprehension.

The Role of First-Language Literacy in Second-Language Literacy Development There is ample research evidence that certain components of second- language literacy development (e.g., word and pseudo-word reading, cognate vocabulary, reading comprehension, reading strategies, spelling, and writing) are related in important ways to performance on similar components in the first language and that well-developed literacy skills in the first language can facilitate second-language literacy development to some extent.

Also, studies comparing English only instruction to primary language instruction show that English Learners taught in their home language and in English perform better, on average, than English Learners instructed only in their second language when measuring English reading.

Classroom and School Factors Unfortunately, there are very few experimental studies that examine the development of literacy in language-minority students; thus research has failed to provide a very complete answer to what constitutes high-quality literacy instruction for these students. However, what is evident from the existing research is that—as is true for language-majority students— focusing instruction on key components, such as phonemic awareness, decoding, oral reading fluency, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and writing, yields clear benefits. Some of the instructional research shows that enhanced teaching of these various elements provided an advantage to second-language learners. The more complex programs that were studied typically tried to teach several of these elements simultaneously and were also usually successful.

Another important finding is that successful instructional approaches do not improve the literacy skills of second-language learners as much as they do those of first-language learners. Thus, to learn literacy with maximum success, students need to have command of the kinds of literacy skills and strategies emphasized in these studies, as well as sufficient knowledge of oral English. It is not enough to teach reading skills alone, but instruction must teach these component skills while fostering extensive oral English language development. That the oral English development provided in most programs is insufficient can be seen in studies that have revealed the success of many second-language learners in developing word recognition, spelling,

and decoding skills while continuing to lag behind their first-language peers in reading comprehension and vocabulary. The more promising of the complex literacy instruction routines that have been studied (such as “instructional conversations”) provide instructional support of oral language development in English, along with high-quality instruction in literacy skills and strategies.

The studies reviewed also suggest that, in addition to developing oral English proficiency, some adjustments to the common instructional routines are beneficial. Although the nature of such adjustments needs to be explored more directly in future research, studies suggest the importance of considering appropriate ways of using the native language within instructional routines. They also point to the advisability of altering curriculum coverage depending on the similarity between English and the native language and the students’ levels of attainment of their native language (e.g., some letter– sound correspondences do not need to be re-taught if already mastered in a native language that shares these correspondences with English), and of fine-tuning instructional routines to take into consideration students’ level of English proficiency. For example, the adjustments might include (a) identifying and clarifying difficult words and passages within texts to facilitate the development of comprehension; (b) consolidating text knowledge through summarization; and (c) giving students extra practice in reading words, sentences, and stories. Some studies also revealed the value of instructional routines that include giving attention to vocabulary, checking comprehension, presenting ideas clearly both verbally and in writing, paraphrasing students’ remarks and encouraging them to expand on those remarks, providing redundancy, and using physical gestures and visual cues to clarify meaning.

Findings from studies of classrooms and schools designated as effective identify attributes related to positive student outcomes. While there is a need for experimental investigation into the ultimate effectiveness of these approaches, they indicate that, to a great extent, the attributes overlap with those of effective schools for native English speakers, such as implicit and explicit challenging of students, active involvement of all students, providing activities that students can complete successfully, and scaffolding instruction for students through such techniques as building and clarifying student input and using visual organizers, teacher mediation/feedback to students, and classroom use of collaborative/cooperative learning. In many cases, however, there are techniques related to second-language acquisition such as sheltered English and respect for cultural diversity. For example, the SIOP model was explicitly developed for second-language learners and “... offers a framework for teachers to present curricular concepts to English-language learners through strategies and techniques that make new information comprehensible to the students. While doing so, teachers develop students’ language skills across the domains of reading, writing, listening, and speaking.” (Echevarría & Short, 2006, p. 201)

Despite the importance of teaching, there were very few studies (5) that focused on professional development. The results demonstrate that creating change in teachers is a time-consuming process that requires considerable investment on the part of the change agents, as well as the teachers. The professional development efforts studied took place over extended periods (1–3 years); all involved many meetings and workshops or an intensive summer program; and, in some cases, follow-up in classrooms. In addition, outside collaborators with expertise (university researchers) assisted. The studies indicate that, consistent with previous findings, teachers found professional development to be most helpful when it provided opportunities for hands-on practice, with teaching techniques readily applicable to their classroom, in-class demonstrations with their own or a colleague’s students, or more personalized coaching. Other means to improve the quality of teaching included collaboration between special education teachers and resource specialists.

In the STARlight Finally, several studies show the progress schools can achieve by having staff work together to address specific school issues. These studies highlight the importance of mobilizing staff to focus on the needs of language- minority students, even when the students are few in number, and provide evidence that a concerted school effort involving outside agents (researchers and specialists) and school personnel (principals, specialists, and classroom teachers) can make a difference in student outcomes. One study (Au and Mason, 1983) highlights the importance of supporting teacher change and the need for support systems that are intensive, elaborate, and enduring to accomplish this goal. Two critical tools in supporting teacher change were a classroom implementation checklist and grade-appropriate benchmarks used to assess student progress.

Individual Factors It is critical to keep in mind that language-minority students are a highly

heterogeneous group, and that instruction must be designed to take such differences into account. Students’ development of literacy is influenced by a range of individual factors, including age of arrival in a new country, educational history, socioeconomic status (SES), cognitive capacity, interests, and concerns.

This point is highlighted by the differential effects of instruction on students with differing levels of English proficiency. Students are less able to take advantage of interventions geared to promote incidental learning (learning in which there is no explicit teaching such as Silent Sustained Reading) in English if the materials (e.g., text or videos) are beyond their English proficiency levels. Moreover, teaching students strategies of various types is not as effective for students who do not have the requisite levels of language proficiency.

Implications • Focusing instruction on key components of literacy, such as phonemic

awareness, decoding, oral reading fluency, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and writing, has clear benefits.

• Given that English-language learners have more difficulty acquiring text-level skills, efforts to build their comprehension and writing should be targeted intensively throughout the years of schooling.

• The need to develop stronger English language proficiency in concert with literacy argues for an early, ongoing, and intensive effort to develop this proficiency. The oral proficiency skills associated with reading comprehension include vocabulary knowledge, listening comprehension, syntactic skills, and the ability to handle meta-linguistic aspects of language (such as providing definitions of words).

• The studies reviewed also suggest that, in addition to developing oral English proficiency, other adjustments to the common instructional routines are beneficial. While the research provides some insights into what these adjustments might be, the nature and strength of such adjustments need to be explored more directly in future research.

• Given the relationship between first- and second-language literacy skills and the benefits of bilingual instruction in developing English literacy, bilingual approaches should be considered as one good avenue for developing English literacy skills.

• Teachers should consider individual differences when planning instruction for language minority students. These students are not a homogeneous group, but differ in many ways including age of arrival in a new country, educational history, socioeconomic status (SES), cognitive capacity, interests, and concerns. The importance of considering such factors is highlighted by the finding that levels of English proficiency in individual children influence the success of instructional approaches.

• Given the limited amount of research on best methods for instructing second-language learners, the individual differences inherent in this group of learners, and the multiplicity of contexts in which these students are educated, it is important that districts, schools, and teachers assess second language learners to determine what skills and knowledge are lacking and whether interventions designed to build these skills and knowledge are effective.

1Excerpts of this document are from August, D. & Shanahan, T. (Eds.) (2006). Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners and are used with the permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates:

August, D. & Shanahan, T. Introduction and Methodology (pp. 1; 13-18) August, D. & Shanahan, T. Synthesis: Instruction and Professional Development( pp. 353-359)

Questions for Reflection

1. How well does your school or district cover the six essential components of literacy, including phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and writing? What is the research base for the school-wide and instructional practices that are used?

2. What modifications does your school or district make to literacy instruction that is effective with monolingual speakers to make it more appropriate for second-language learners? What additional modifications might be used to make instruction more appropriate for these students? In responding, make sure you consider how you might build on first language literacy if students are literate in their first language, ensure students comprehend the text they are listening to or reading, and develop students’ oral English proficiency in the context of literacy instruction.

3. The experimental research literature does not do a good job of describing methods for differentiating instruction for second-language learners who are educated in heterogeneous classrooms. Given your knowledge of the research literature on teaching the component skills of literacy and your experience with heterogeneous classrooms, how would you differentiate instruction for these students?

4. Changes made at the school or district level can make it easier for classroom teachers to do a better job of building literacy in second language learners. What school- or district-level changes might help teachers ensure second-language learners develop solid literacy skills? Examples might include creating a center for newcomers, finding ways to encourage interaction between first and second language learners to help second language learners acquire oral language proficiency, establishing a school- or district-wide committee to assess how various groups of English- language learners are progressing and making programmatic changes where necessary.

Resources Center for Applied Linguistics web site: http://www.cal.org/

August, D. & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy

Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Block, C.C., Gambrel, L.B., Pressley, M. (Eds.) (2002). Improving Comprehension Instruction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Gold, N. (2006). Successful Bilingual Schools: Six Effective Bilingual Programs. San Diego: San Diego County Office of Education.

Graves, M. F. (2006). The Vocabulary Book. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

References August, D. and Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing Literacy in Second

Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Echevarria, J. & Short, D. (2006). School Reform and Standards- Based Education: A Model for English-Language Learners. The Journal of Educational Research, 99 (4), 195-210

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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Produced and designed by San Bernardino County Superintendent of Schools To download copies of the STARlight publications and access additional information

visit http://www.elresearch.org

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Vygotsky Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development

“The only good kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of development and leads it; it must be aimed not so much at the ripe as at the ripening functions.”

Lev Vygotsky Thought and Language (revised edition), 1986, p. 188

VVYYGGOOTTSSKKYY IINN CCOONNTTEEXXTT Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, is most noted in the pedagogical world for his research related to thought and language development. Vygotsky was born in 1896 to a middle class Jewish family in the town of Orscha in Belorussia. His father, manager of a bank, was well educated, actively supported the local library through monetary gifts, and provided his children with an unconventional education. Lev Vygotsky was educated at home by tutors until the junior high school years when he attended the Jewish gymnasium. Vygotsky excelled at the gymnasium, and his writings show that he was an accomplished intellectual as a teenager. Even though Vygotsky had the highest academic credentials for admission to the University of Moscow, his Jewish heritage limited his opportunity to participate. He was accepted to the Medical School of Moscow University by a lottery process, which allowed for three percent placement of Jewish students. Soon after gaining entrance, he changed his major graduating in 1917 with a degree in law; and upon graduation Vygotsky became a teacher in a provincial school near his parents’ home. Then, in his mid twenties and with declining health, he took a position at the local teacher’s college (Vygotsky, 1978; 1986). Vygotsky’s doctoral thesis and subsequent lectures elevated him to academic prominence in his late twenties. His genius was immediately recognized by Alexander Luria who provided a research fellowship at the Moscow Academy of Psychology.

Although Vygotsky never received formal psychological training, he was recognized as an original thinker about methods of psychological study. Conflicting philosophies and theories existed in Russia and throughout the world concerning the emerging science of psychology in the 1920’s and 30’s, including those of Piaget (constructivism), Watson and Skinner (behaviorism), Freud (psychoanalysis), Koffka (Gestalt psychology), and Montessori. Vygotsky espoused the belief that the field of psychology could not limit itself to direct evidence only, but should take into account the unseen conscious mind (Bodrova, & Leong, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978; 1986). The political climate following the Russian revolution and the ascendancy of communism limited the advancement of the science of psychology. Pressure was put on Vygotsky, and others, to adapt their theories to comply with Marxist ideology. Even so, Vygotsky continued to lecture, conduct research, and publish in the field of psychology. At the time of his death from tuberculosis in l934, he had written 180 works in a variety of fields (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s work remained unknown in America for decades. His work was not published in English until 1962, when the monograph, Thought and Language, was first translated. Intensive decade- long projects at Harvard University and The Massachusetts Institute of Technology have provided educators and researchers with translated, edited scholarly versions of Vygotsky’s work. Many more manuscripts remain to be translated (Bodrova, & Leong, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978; 1986, 1987).

TTHHEE VVYYGGOOTTSSKKIIAANN FFRRAAMMEEWWOORRKK A summary of the Vygotskian framework includes these basic underlying principles: • Children construct knowledge. • Development cannot be separated from its

social context. • Learning can lead development. • Language plays a central role in mental

development (Bodrova & Leong, p. 8). TTHHOOUUGGHHTT DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT AANNDD SSOOCCIIAALL IINNTTEERRAACCTTIIOONNSS Social context is critical to the development of mental processes and the acquisition of knowledge. Vygotsky had unique insight concerning how children can learn mental processes through shared experiences with adults. No longer do we consider cognition as internal mental processes only accessible to the individual (Bodrova & Leong). According to Vygotsky, social interactions have a profound effect on how and what people think. The close relationship between first-born children and the parent usually results in a child with a larger vocabulary than subsequent children. Social interactions are powerful motivators and provide models of language and problem solving. Similarly the larger structures of the family, school, and the wider cultural context of the society affect the way a person thinks (Pressley, 2002). A baby born in Africa who daily rides upon the back of its mother as she cultivates a garden will have different thought and language patterns from a child who rides a subway daily to nursery school in Chicago. IINNNNEERR SSPPEEEECCHH AANNDD TTHHOOUUGGHHTT Vygotsky wrote about the concept of inner speech as the brief words and fragments of speech that support the thought processes of adults as they engage in routine and complex tasks. He observed that inner speech was more evident in complicated tasks than in simple tasks. Other psychologists have noticed that some people actually subvocalize their inner speech when engaged in highly challenging tasks. Sokolov found that subvocalization of reading became more intense as texts and associated tasks that were assigned became more challenging (Pressley, 2002).

DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT OOFF IINNNNEERR SSPPEEEECCHH Vygotsky learned that young children under the age of two years do not associate language with thought. By two years of age, children begin to exhibit what is known as egocentric speech. Egocentric speech occurs when preschoolers talk about their actions as they are performing them. For example, a toddler may say, “I’m washing my hands” as they rub their hands back and forth under a water faucet at a sink. Just as with inner speech, the amount of vocalization increases as the task becomes more difficult. Egocentric speech becomes more “covert and abbreviated” as children mature but can reappear when the child faces a difficult task. This phenomenon is evident in school aged children as well. Children who read text automatically or fluently usually read silently; but when words are encountered that are difficult, subvocalization may reappear as a tool to support thinking for word solving. Teachers often notice students “sounding out” difficult words while reading (Pressley, 2002, p 95). TTHHEE ZZOONNEE OOFF PPRROOXXIIMMAALL DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT ((ZZPPDD)) The National Research Council in How People Learn provides this summary of Vygotsky’s original work concerning the zone of proximal development:

The zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). What children can do with the assistance of others is even more indicative of their mental development than what they can do alone (p. 85).

The zone of proximal development embodies a concept of readiness to learn that emphasizes upper levels of competence. These upper boundaries are not immutable, however, but constantly changing with the learner’s increasing independent competence. What a child can perform today with assistance she will be able to perform tomorrow independently thus preparing her for entry into new and more demanding

collaboration. These functions could be called the “buds,” rather than the fruits of development. The actual developmental level characterizes mental development retrospectively, while the zone of proximal development characterizes mental development prospectively (Vygotsky, 1978. pp. 86-87) (Brandsford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 81).

Newman, Griffin, and Cole (1989) provide deeper understanding of the ZPD with the following ideas:

1. Both the child and the teacher struggle to understand each other within the zone.

2. Knowledge is co-constructed by the child and the adult within the zone.

3. No matter how many times we describe the goal of instruction the child will probably not fully understand it until he has learned the particular concept, skill, or strategy. (Bedrova & Leong, p. 44)

SSCCAAFFFFOOLLDDIINNGG AANNDD MMOODDEELLIINNGG Students require intensive instructional support when learning important skills and strategies that are challenging and in the zone of proximal development. The gradual release of responsibility model requires variable amounts of assistance. In the first stage, the teacher has high responsibility for modeling and explaining the learning task. In the second stage, the teacher and student share responsibility for learning. The student practices or approximates the task, and the teacher gives constructive feedback. When students are ready for the third and final stage, they take on all or nearly all of the responsibility for the work. This model of gradual release is known as scaffolding. Teachers who assess students to provide the right amount of challenge and reflect on how they can provide just the right support and its gradual release will have students who attain high levels of achievement (Morrow, Gambrell, & Pressley, 2003).

FFUURRTTHHEERR IIMMPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS FFOORR IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN The instructional practice of using “think alouds” is related to the development of inner speech. Pressley reports that, “there were a number of American analyses suggesting that the development of self- directive speech plays an important role in the development of children’s self-regulation (e.g., Kohlber, Yaeger, & Hjertholm, 1968; Patterson & Mischel, 1976; Wozniak, 1972).” Pressley also notes that subsequent studies by Meichenbaum and Asarnow (1979) demonstrated that “comprehension strategies could be taught to middle-school students who could decode but were experiencing difficulties understanding what they read.” Today we would describe these instructional practices as “think alouds” to teach the in-the-head strategies or self- talk needed to maintain comprehension. Teacher modeling of self-talk regulation or think alouds is effective for teaching: main idea, sequence of events, and characterization (Pressley, p. 247-248). CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN The major learning from Vygotsky is that cognitive skills and strategies are taught from one generation to the next. Parents and teachers lead students to think and act in ways that they would not know or discover on their own. Children learn from listening and talking with a more knowledgeable person, but they also require scaffolding through demonstration, and actual participation in the task or activity in a realistic context. Effective teachers know that they cannot leave learning to discovery but must structure activities at the just-right level and support learning through conversation, modeling, and active participation in tasks (Pressley, 2002).

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience,

and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kohlberg, L., Yaeger, J., & Hjertholm, E. (1968). Private speech: Four studies and a review of theories. Child

Development, 39, 691-736. Newman, F., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1989). The construction zone: Working for cognitive change in school.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morrow, L. M., Gambrell, L. B., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (2003). Best practices in literacy instruction (2nd ed.).

New York: Guildford Press. Patterson, C. J., & Mischel, W. (1976). Effects of temptation-inhibiting and task-facilitating plans on self-

control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 209-217. Pressley, M. (2002). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching (2nd ed.). New York:

Guildford Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.).

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language (Rev. ed.). A Kozulin (Ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R. W. Reiber & A. S. Carton (Eds.), (Trans., N. Minick), The

collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 1: Problems of general psychology. New York: Plenum. Wozniak, R. (1972). Verbal regulation of motor behavior: Soviet research and non-Soviet replications. Human

Development, 15, 13-57.

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March 2001

March 2001 | Volume 58 | Number 6

Helping All Students Achieve Pages 12-15

Grading for Success

To truly measure achievement, grading practices should grow

from a philosophy of teaching and learning that respects

student differences and reflects individual growth.

Carol Ann Tomlinson

Teachers who want to help all students succeed in academically

diverse classrooms often tell me, "I know I'm losing students when I

teach as though they were all alike. I want to learn to be a more

flexible teacher so that I can reach more of them. But even if I could figure out how to do that,

how would I grade them?"

I find it difficult to answer this complex question because the questioner often wants a short

answer, a ready solution. I don't know how to supply the quick fix. To me, grading grows from

a philosophy of teaching and learning. It reflects what a teacher believes about learning.

Whom Do I Teach? To start thinking about grading, let's look at the classroom through the students' eyes. Philip,

Xavier, and Anda sit among 30 peers. They are individuals, but they also are representative of

other students.

Philip has some significant learning problems. Reading is an uphill climb; sitting still is a battle.

Philip knows that some of his classmates struggle, too, but he still feels different and out of

place. Too much print makes too little sense, and there is too much sitting, facing front, and

listening.

Xavier speaks little English. He listens with a furious concentration, especially early in the day.

Sometimes he seizes on a word or phrase, separating it from the long stream of speech. He

silently repeats the words, but they don't sound the same as when the speaker said them.

Sometimes Xavier feels winded from his efforts to listen.

Anda learns fast and remembers well. She wants to ask many questions in class about what

she reads and about what the book doesn't say. The questions seem to puzzle her classmates,

and the teacher seems more on stride when Anda is quiet, so Anda mostly entertains her

questions on her own. The days are long.

Their names and needs may vary, but in today's classrooms, I am likely to teach students akin

to Philip, Xavier, and Anda. To teach them well, I need to see school through their eyes.

How Do I Teach? If I reflect on Philip, Xavier, and Anda, my next question is not "How do I grade them," but

rather "How do I teach them?" There are many answers to that question. The short answer is

"By figuring out where they are in knowledge, understanding, and skill and moving them on

from there." This seems easy, but it requires that I know the landscape of the curriculum;

figure out what each student understands and does not understand about a particular topic,

skill, or domain; and design focused and powerful learning experiences to guide each student

through the next learning stage.

If I consistently give any of the students work that is too difficult, they succumb to a frustration

born of hopelessness. If I consistently give any of them work that is too easy, they march in

place. I have to work steadily to gain a sense of the evolving readiness of each student and to

provide escalators of learning opportunity to ensure their growth.

I also need to connect what I teach to what students care about through their experiences or

personal inclinations. Interest lures students to learning. I have to understand student interest

and build on it, even as I invite students to discover new interests.

In addition, I must develop learning opportunities that students can approach in varied ways.

Students learn differently, so I need to consider that one student will work best alone and

another will work best with a partner, that one student may fare best with concrete, hands-on

learning and another may be drawn to abstract, minds-on learning. I strive to offer enough

routes to knowledge, understanding, and skills-acquisition that each student can find his or her

way to reach learning goals. When it is time to formally assess student learning, I will need to

provide various ways for students to express what they have learned.

What we know of how people learn leaves little room for debate about whether these

approaches make sense. They do. Sole reliance on generic teaching and assessing often falls

short of what students can achieve through personalized teaching. Who I teach should shape

how I teach because who the students are shapes how they learn. I can't successfully teach

Philip, Xavier, and Anda as though they are identical to one another or to their classmates.

Where Do I Teach? If I am going to teach students in ways that acknowledge both their singularities and their

commonalities, I must establish a classroom environment that strengthens both the group and

its individual members. I must build a sense of community, establish purpose, and ensure

safety.

Community evolves through planning and shared experience. Every student must enter the

room every day feeling that every individual is valued and that mutual respect is not

negotiable. Community is based on the belief that every individual has something important to

contribute to the group.

Our purpose in the classroom will stem from my ability to invite students to journey together

with a shared purpose. From day one, I need to make clear and reinforce that we work hard in

this classroom so that every person can reach his or her potential. Clear goals guide our work.

Students' goals may differ at times because each learning journey differs, but the intent is the

same. Each student should be involved, with the teacher's help and the support of peers, in

trying to learn as much and at as high a degree of quality as personally possible. Each student

must accept responsibility for working hard, reaching for excellence, and seeking assistance

when needed.

Each student must also take responsibility for classroom operations that help them and their

peers succeed. For example, they need to learn how to use their time well, to set and monitor

learning goals, and to assist with distributing supplies and arranging the room for work. They

need to learn to listen, to help one another, and to participate in solving classroom problems.

As the teacher, I lead this endeavor and provide scaffolding and partnership for each student.

To learn, students must feel safe. Aiming for excellence means that students will sometimes

"fail." I teach each student that failure is not a catalyst for punishment, but rather, it is a way

to find out how to improve. Students must know that their teacher teaches for success.

Students must also believe that they can be themselves and that they can learn at their own

pace, as long as they are working their hardest. Give students a demanding, yet achievable,

dream and provide them with road maps and partners for reaching that goal. Our knowledge of

what compels students to persist in the face of difficulty clearly suggests that we will lose

Philip, Xavier, and Anda in an environment lacking in community, purpose, and safety.

To commend learning to these three students and their peers, I must know the sequence of

powerful understandings and skills in a subject, figure out where my students are in that

sequence, and craft learning opportunities and assessments to match students' needs. Like the

students, I sometimes fall short of my goals. Those aspirations, nevertheless, guide my

teaching and give it coherence.

Given that sense of what it means to teach academically diverse learners well, I now have a

sense of how to grade them.

Grading and Student Success Grading, as we typically practice it, is more about charting circumstances of student birth and

experience than it is about documenting growth. It is more about control than empowerment.

Under such a system, Philip receives quarterly reminders that he does not measure up. Xavier

is deemed a failure because he cannot understand the language in which he is taught. Anda

learns that excellence requires little effort or intellectual risk. How many days, semesters, or

years should we expect Philip and Xavier to persevere when substantial academic growth only

converts to a D or an F? Why should we expect Anda to embrace hard work when she earns an

A without serious effort? My beliefs about teaching must extend to grading, which is, after all, a

communication tool that should serve learning.

So where does a philosophy of responsive teaching take me when it's time to grade Philip,

Xavier, and Anda? What actions do I take so that grading encourages these learners and their

peers? I've reached several conclusions:

● I need to grade for success in the same way that I teach and assess for success. That

doesn't mean students can't be unsuccessful. It means their degree of success must

reflect the degree of their own growth.

● If much of the time I give a student work appropriate for his or her current needs, I

must then grade the student's work on the basis of clearly delineated criteria for quality

work on that task. It makes little sense to assign an appropriately challenging task and

then grade a student on something else. So when it's feasible, I align activities,

homework, products, and other assessments with student need. When I grade those

assignments, I note in my grade book the differentiated assignment and the student

grade on that assignment. When I give all students the same task (for diagnostic

purposes, for purposes of benchmarking student standing relative to common goals, or

because I simply could not find the time and energy to differentiate the work), I'll make

a note in my grade book and enter the more normative grade.

● I need to give students consistent, meaningful feedback that clarifies for them—and for

me—present successes and next learning steps. Using such methods as student self-

assessments based on pre-established criteria, teacher-student conferences about

specific work, mutual goal setting, and written teacher comments with student responses

may be more helpful than assigning a letter or number grade.

● I need to look for growth patterns over time when I assign report card grades. If I

expect my students to work consistently at tasks that are a little too difficult for them, I

must also know that they will occasionally hit snags. If a few snags are followed by a

solid success, I should weigh the impact on future learning of allowing the snags to

obliterate the success.

● On report cards, I need to find a way to show individual growth and relative standing to

students and parents. I can accomplish this by working with colleagues to develop report

cards that use checklists of escalating competencies that allow me to report specific

progress, combined with notations of where students of a similar age generally perform

on those checklists.

Or colleagues and I can work to develop report cards that note, for example, that an A means

excellent growth, a B means very good growth, a C means some growth, a D means little

growth, and an F means no observable growth—coupled with a notation that a 1 means the

student is working above grade level in the subject, a 2 means the student is working at grade

level in the subject, and a 3 means the student is working below grade level in the subject. A

student might then, for example, earn an A1 or a B2 in reading or science, indicating both the

student's personal growth and the student's standing relative to peers or curriculum

benchmarks.

I can also accomplish the same end by attaching a note to the report card or conducting parent-

student conferences. Doing so allows me to explain that the student's grade takes into account

both differentiated and common tasks, to show how the grade reflects both, and to interpret

what the grade means for the particular student's learning.

Individual Success When we compare students like Philip and Xavier with other students, we may be tempted to

see them as failures. Will they be more likely to persist and succeed as learners if we

continually ask them to work on standardized tasks that ignore their needs and their learning

preferences or if we provide learning opportunities that match their needs? If we believe the

former, then standardized grading seems logical. If we accept the latter, then grades must, at

least in part, reflect the boys' growth.

When we compare Anda with other students, we say she is successful. Will she be more likely

to embrace the challenge that accompanies genuine learning if we continually give her

unchallenging work or if we offer her tasks that help her learn to persist in intellectual

struggles?

Life gets the most out of us—and we out of it—when it asks us to be the best we can be, rather

than what someone else can be. Can grading be a part of efforts to help all students succeed?

Absolutely, when it grows from a philosophy of teaching for maximum individual growth.

Carol Ann Tomlinson is Associate Professor of Educational Leadership, Foundations, and Policy at the Curry

School of Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903; [email protected]. She is coauthor with

Susan Demirsky Allan of Leadership for Differentiating Schools and Classrooms (ASCD, 2000).

Copyright © 2001 by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

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Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 3

Primary & Secondary Diagnostic Instruments NOTE: The following list of assessment instruments was generated through a review conducted by the Just Read, Florida! Office in consultation with the Florida Center for Reading Research (FCRR). * This chart is not a statement of endorsement. Rather, it serves as a resource to inform users of the growing pool of diagnostics appropriate for grades K-12 that meet psychometric standards. Each of the instruments listed below meet criteria for reliability and validity.

Appropriate Grade Range Test Design Administration Major Components Diagnostic

Instruments Primary 4-12 Criterion Norm Referenced

Available in CD or Online Individual Group Time PA Phonics Fluency Vocab Comp

(CTOPP) Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing

K-3 ALL YES YES 30 min

YES

(DAR) Diagnostic Assessment of Reading

2-3 ALL YES YES 20-30 min

YES YES YES YES

(ERDA) Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment

K-3 YES YES 45-90 min

YES YES YES YES YES

(EVT) Expressive Vocabulary Test

K-3 ALL YES YES 10-25 min

Oral

Fox in a Box K-3 YES e-reporting YES 30 min

YES YES YES YES Listening

(GMRT) Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, 3rd ed.

PreK-3 ALL YES YES YES 55- 105 min

Level PR

Level BR

Reading YES

(GORT-4) Gray Oral Reading Test-4

1-3 ALL YES YES 20-30 min

YES YES

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 4 Revised July 2006

Appropriate

Grade Range Test Design Administration Major Components Diagnostic Instruments

Primary 4-12 Criterion Norm Referenced

Available in CD or Online Individual Group Time PA Phonics Fluency Vocab Comp

(GRADE) Group Reading Assessment & Diagnostic Evaluation

PreK-3 ALL YES scoring & reporting

YES YES 45-90 min

Levels P & K

Level K Reading; Levels 1-

A

Levels 1-A

Nelson Denny (Forms G & H)

ALL YES administer YES 15 min; 20

min

YES Reading YES

(PPVT-III) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - III

PreK-3 ALL YES YES 12 min

Oral

(SDRT) Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, 4th ed.

1-3 ALL YES YES 100 min

YES Grades

1-4

Reading YES

(TOWRE) Test of Word Reading Efficiency

1-3 ALL YES YES 5-10 min

YES YES

(WDRB) Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery

K-3 ALL YES YES 50-60 min

YES YES Reading YES

(WRMT) Woodcock Reading Mastery Test

K-3 ALL YES YES 10-30 min

YES Reading YES

The review of assessment instruments included the examination of the following resources: • 2002 Analysis of Reading Assessment Instruments for K-3 • 2002 Commissioner’s (Texas) List of Reading Instruments: Recommendation for Approval • 2002 Florida Department of Education’s list of approved diagnostic measures

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 8 Revised July 2006

4 Types of Assessment and Appropriate Uses

An effective and comprehensive reading program includes the following four types of assessments to accomplish four purposes:

Screening – Assessments that provide a first picture of the student’s preparation for grade-level reading instruction; they help identify the students who will need extra help in order to make adequate progress in reading during the year. Screening measures are conducted at the beginning of the school year with all students to identify those likely to need extra or alternative forms of instruction.

• Screening assessments are not enough! Early identification of students who are having problems in reading needs to be followed by instructional interventions in order for students to achieve grade-level reading outcomes.

• Examples may include: o Degrees of Reading Power (DRP) o Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), grades 2-12.

Progress monitoring – Assessments that determine if students are making adequate progress or need more intervention to achieve grade level reading outcomes. These assessments are conducted a minimum of three times a year or on a routine basis (e.g., weekly, monthly, or quarterly) using comparable and multiple test forms to (a) estimate rates of reading improvement, (b) identify students who are not demonstrating adequate progress and therefore require additional or different forms of instruction, and/or (c) compare the efficacy of different forms of instruction for low- progress readers and thereby design more effective, individualized instructional programs for those at-risk learners.

• Progress monitoring assessment data help identify when and which students begin to “get off the reading grade level track,” and when we need to make necessary modifications to instruction or provide additional instructional intervention to keep them at grade level reading outcomes.

• Examples, may include: o Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) o Florida Oral Reading Fluency (FORF) o Maze.

Diagnostic – Assessments that help teachers plan instruction by providing in-depth information about students’ strengths and needs. Diagnostic measures are conducted at any time during the school year when more in-depth analysis of a student’s strengths and needs is needed to guide instruction.

• Diagnostic assessment data will tell us: o What important beginning reading skill students have mastered or not mastered. o On which skills they need additional instructional intervention. o How much instructional intervention are the students going to need (e.g., small group,

additional modeling, extra practice time). o Which students have similar instructional needs and can form an appropriate group for

instruction. • Examples may include:

o Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (SDRT) o Diagnostic Assessment of Reading (DAR).

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Outcome – Assessments that provide a bottom-line evaluation of the effectiveness of the reading program.

• Outcome assessment data tell us where we are, where we want to be, and what path to follow to reach our goal.

• Examples may include: o Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test of Reading (FCAT) grades 3-10 o Stanford 9, grades 3-10.

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Uses of Assessment in a Data-driven Classroom

Type of

Assessment Definition and Rationale for

Assessment Why Assess? Sample of Instruments Utilized

Screening

Screening assessments are administered to determine which students are at risk for reading difficulty and who will need additional intervention. Teachers need to know which students are in need of immediate intensive intervention in order to prevent reading failure.

All students should be assessed at the beginning of the school year to determine whether they are at-risk for reading difficulty, on target for grade level achievement or in need of additional enrichment.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) grades K-3 Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), grades 2-12 Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test of Reading (FCAT) grades 3-10

Progress Monitoring

Progress monitoring assessments determine if students are making adequate progress or need more intervention to achieve grade level reading outcomes. Both parents and educators need to know whether students are making progress in a given program.

All students should be assessed on an ongoing basis so that teachers can maintain flexible grouping options and effectively plan whole class activities.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) grades K-3 Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), grades 2- 12 Florida Oral Reading Fluency (FORF) Maze

Diagnosis

Diagnostic assessments help teachers plan instruction by providing in-depth information about students’ skills and instructional needs. Teachers must be aware of each student’s specific strengths and weaknesses in order to plan effective instruction for each individual student.

Students who do not respond to interventions should be assessed as needed to plan additional instructional interventions.

Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment (ERDA) grades K- 1 and 2-3 Diagnostic Assessment of Reading (DAR), grades 2-3, 4- 12

Outcome Measurement

Outcome assessments provide a bottom-line evaluation of the effectiveness of an instructional program. All educational stakeholders need to be aware of the efficacy of various instructional approaches.

All students should be assessed at the end of the school year to determine the impact of the reading program and instruction.

Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test of Reading (FCAT) grades 3-10 Stanford 9, grades K-12

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Recommended Uses of Student Data

By Teachers • Parent conferences • To identify students in need of more instructional assistance • To determine if students are improving with extra assistance • To set up reading groups, select appropriate materials, and make instructional changes as

needed • Academic Improvement Plans (AIPs)

By Principals • To identify where extra resources and support are needed in specific classrooms, grade levels • To evaluate the effectiveness of new or continued reading programs, supplementary reading

programs, and instructional practices • To evaluate the effectiveness of building-level instructional practices for organization and

management By District Staff

• To identify schools in need of additional resources (personnel, reading program materials, instructional techniques)

• To compare student outcomes across grade levels where resources are the same and where different

• To enhance professional development opportunities targeting student outcomes and student needs

Data-driven Classroom Instruction

Purpose When To Assess Who To Assess Use Of The Results Screening

Start of the year

All students

Determine groups or class schedule Define status: low progress average progress high progress

Monitoring Progress

On going, over the course of the year

All students

Provide: differentiated instruction grouping options whole class activities

Diagnosing As needed

Students who do not respond to interventions

Plan additional instructional interventions

Measuring Outcomes

End of the year

All students

Determines impact of reading program and instruction

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Florida Oral Reading Fluency (FORF)

http://www.fcrr.org/forf_mazes/forf.htm Florida Oral Reading Fluency (FORF) measures consist of on-grade-level passages that students read aloud while being timed for one minute. Two passages are administered at each of the assessment periods and are averaged to get a score of words read correctly in one minute (wcpm). This score reflects a student’s accuracy and fluency. That score can then be compared to a risk levels chart to serve as an indicator for level of instruction. This is an individually administered measure.

General Directions for Administering FORF Measures

1. Only individuals who have been trained to administer Oral Reading Fluency by a trained facilitator are to administer the FORF measures. For a list of trained Facilitators, go to [email protected].

2. Be sure to download and copy both passages for each assessment interval. Two passages are to be administered and averaged to get the final score. If PMRN is used to report scores, only the averaged score will be entered.

3. Remember that the student reads each passage for one minute each.

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Florida Oral Reading Fluency Grade 6 – Assessment 1

Passage One

The Class-Assignment

Steve and Nancy had paired up for the class assignment before they knew what it was, just

because they were good friends. Then Mrs. Lang announced the assignment.

“This year, for take your child to work day, we’re going to do something different. You’ll

switch parents! And then write a report about your experience. I’ll make it worth your while, too—if

you do a good job, I’ll let you drop your lowest quiz score this semester.”

Which meant Steve would go see what Nancy’s mom did and Nancy would go see what

Steve’s dad did.

“Aw, man,” Steve said, looking over at Nancy.

“What’s wrong?” Nancy asked, a little irritated. “There’s nothing wrong with working for the

post office.”

“Yeah, but—”

“Yeah, but nothing. Besides, I don’t even know what your dad does. I’ll bet it’s not that

exciting.”

Steve laughed. “Okay, if you say so, Nan. My dad’s a rock star.”

Nancy snorted. “What you said—if you say so. Your dad’s not a rock star. He’s an insurance

salesman.”

Steve shrugged. “Rock star, former rock star—what’s the difference? Insurance is something

he does between gigs. Just wait and see. While I go deliver some mail, you’ll be hanging out with

the cool people.”

Doubt crept into Nancy’s eyes, along with a gleam of anticipation. Nancy’s mom’s name was

Shirley, although Steve called her Mrs. Saunders. Every morning at 7:00 a.m., she drove her mail

truck to the start of her neighborhood route and left it parked there.

“I like to walk,” she told Steve, who nodded and said, “Yes, Mrs. Saunders.”

Now that he was here and his grade counted on it, he might as well be polite, even though he

would probably be bored stiff. At least at his dad’s studio, he could’ve played video games.

“Besides,” she said as they walked past brick houses with little green lawns, “the houses are so close

together that it’s faster this way. Thanks for carrying the bag.”

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Score Interpretation: A student scoring in the high risk range needs intensive intervention that includes explicit and systematic instruction. A student scoring in the moderate risk range needs supplemental instruction in the form of more practice and more teacher support, the student scoring in the low risk range should be able to succeed in regular classroom curriculum without any special instructional considerations.

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Mazes http://www.fcrr.org/forf_mazes/mazes.htm

Mazes are composed of a variety of passages with mixed genres and styles. The passages begin with a complete sentence. For every remaining sentence, the 7th word is replaced with a word choice. The word choice is composed of 3 words: one correct and 2 distracters. Distracters must be within one letter in length of the correct choice and do not place high demands on comprehension. However, students must be monitoring the general meaning of the passage to select the correct response. Students have 3 minutes to complete each passage. There are 2 passages administered at each of the assessment periods and they are averaged to obtain a score. As with the FORF, a risk level chart is used to determine the level of instruction indicated by performance on the maze measure. Mazes measure fluency, comprehension and vocabulary and are group administered.

General Directions for Administering Maze Measures Mazes are group administered and students read the passages silently.

1. Directions for administering mazes are included with the two passages to be administered. 2. Be sure to download and copy both passages for each assessment interval. 1. Two passages are to be administered and averaged to get the final score. The score is the

number of correct responses the student gets. This averaged score is entered into whatever data management system is being used. At this time, the PMRN is not available for mazes.

4. Remember that the student reads each passage for 3 minutes. 5. Be sure that students do not go back to passage 1 when they are to be starting passage 2.

Monitor students to make sure they have moved to the second passage before beginning the timing for passage 2.

6. Scoring keys for each passage are available at this site.

Frequently Asked Questions 1. What are Mazes?

Mazes are group-administered measures used for progress monitoring upper grade students in reading. They are composed of FCAT – like passages. The passage begins with a complete sentence. For every remaining sentence, the 7th word is replaced with a word choice. The word choice is composed of 3 words: one correct and 2 distracters. Distracters must be within one letter in length of the correct choice and do not place high demands on comprehension. However, students must be monitoring the general meaning of the passage to select the correct response.

2. What is the purpose of using the mazes?

Mazes provide another optional progress-monitoring tool for use in middle and high school. As mentioned in #1, students must be monitoring the general meaning of the passage to select the correct response, so this tool does measure comprehension and vocabulary. Mazes may be used in conjunction with the Florida Oral Reading Fluency Measure or by themselves.

3. What materials are needed to conduct the mazes measure?

For each assessment period, the directions for administration, the 2 maze passages and the scoring keys will be posted on the 2 websites www.fcrr.org/forf_mazes and www.florida- achieves.com, for download. The test examiner needs a stopwatch to time the administration.

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4. What are the administration procedures for mazes?

The mazes are group or individually administered 3 times a year following the same assessment windows as the Florida Oral Reading Fluency (FORF) measure. (See the PMRN Assessment calendar for your school.) The specific student instructions are located on the cover page of each student booklet. Administer the maze task for 3 minutes for each of two passages. Students complete the task independently, reading along and circling correct maze choices. At the end of the three minutes, students must stop. There is a stop sign at the end of each passage. After passage 1 is completed, be sure that all students have located passage 2 in their booklet and are not still on passage 1. This is a common error.

5. How do I interpret the maze scores and how were they derived?

The colored risk levels chart included with your data was developed from a study that FCRR conducted last spring on a large sample of students in Florida. The number that is included under maze raw score is simply the average number of correct responses for the two passages. The risk levels are general indicators of the chances that a student will be considered to be making adequate progress toward grade level expectations. They also indicate the amount of instruction a student should receive. A student scoring in the high-risk range needs intensive intervention that includes explicit and systematic instruction. A student scoring in the moderate risk range needs supplemental instruction in the form of more practice and more teacher support, the student scoring in the low risk range should be able to succeed in regular classroom curriculum without any special instructional considerations. Please remember that one assessment should not be used to make critical decisions about students’ instructional plans. The instructor should look at more than one data source when determining curriculum and instruction for any one student.

6. What are the procedures for being trained to administer the Mazes measures?

Several individuals were trained at the July 06 Leadership Conference. Check with your district to see if there is someone in your district who might be available to assist you with the maze administration. In addition, the training manual can be downloaded from the FCRR website.

7. How do I get the maze measures?

The maze passages and scoring keys for each of the three assessment windows will be accessible from the Florida Achieves Website www.florida-achieves.com and from FCRR at www.fcrr.org/forf_mazes, approximately 2 weeks prior to each assessment window. The mazes for each assessment window will remain posted until the end of the data entry date for that window.

8. Where do I report my students’ scores?

At this time, maze scores may not be entered into the PMRN; therefore, each district will determine their own system for reporting the data.

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Handout S4 - 18 Revised July 2006

Maze High School – Assessment 1

Passage Two

HOME IS IN YOUR HEAD If you had the opportunity, would you pack your bags and leave for a foreign country at a

moment's notice?

As the son of military personnel, I / at / me qualified as a “military kid,” or

child / glove / tank of an active-duty military employee. My happy / family / paint

moved across the globe every two at / we / or three years, which meant that we

had / met / at to adapt to different climates, new groups / shirts / forks of friends, and

foreign cultures. When you're / close / thank a military kid, home is where

and / we / the navy sends you, and for every touchdown / lighthouse / fireplace, a liftoff

awaits around the corner.

European Vacation

My touch / holds / family moved to Gaeta, Italy, in 1983, when / pool / glad I was six

years old, just one / log / top month before I began first grade. Gaeta is / at / to located

between Rome and Naples in and / why / the southern region of Italy.

I listened / attended / thanked Joshua Barney Elementary, which was a Department

of / we / low Defense school for the children of military employees / catching / distance.

My friends consisted of Italian neighbors let / it / who spoke little or no English and

the / we / my American classmates who spoke little or no / yes / at Italian. Still, we had a

lot of fun / week / play together. We attended field trips to Rome to / of / and Pisa,

where we could inspect / borrow / little Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling up close,

or / be / at scale the Leaning Tower's floors, all in / the / we the name of education.

Although my trust / school / basic was basically the same as any American

basements / elementary / lifeguard school, I had different after-school activities

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than / pour / stand my friends in America. We liked be / at / to hang out in the

ruins of / a / we a 200-year old abbey. Bombs had taken / burnt / nearly destroyed the

abbey during World War II. My friends / throwing / lights and I uncovered frescoes and

rust / tear / wall paintings that had lain buried beneath the / put / our rubble for dozens

of years. I hand / cold / felt like I was digging into history even / tent / went when I was

wasting time with my / at / our friends!

Next Stop: Florida!

After four years / plate / slope in Italy, my father was assigned if / or / to a

base in Jacksonville, Florida. Returning to / at / me America sent me into culture

trunk / shock / chant. In America, I could understand close / every / heard conversation

I heard in the supermarket, learn / every / patch store accepted American dollars, and

all / our / she television was in English! Also, many at / in / of my new friends in Florida

were military hard / kids / lean themselves, so we already had a lot / mat / tan in

common. They were familiar with garage / living / oceans a life “on the move” and

many / hold / lean of them had recently moved to Florida, just / kind / note like me.

My family lived in Florida clean / shout / until 90. I can still remember the

day my / at / on father came home from work, called a should / family / nickle meeting,

and announced that we would at / or / be moving to an island smack-dab in

the / him / our middle of the Bering Strait.

He paused / sleeps / framed a moment before explaining that the / and / pro

Bering Strait is located in the westernmost region / blanket / writer of Alaska. Another

move across the / far / act world!

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Handout S4 - 20 Revised July 2006

Maze High School – Assessment 1

Passage Two

Answer Key

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Handout S4 - 22 Revised July 2006

Observation as Evaluation

Anecdotal Records Good teachers constantly engage in kidwatching to evaluate students, but seldom record their observations. According to C. Bush and M. Huebner, “recording these observations is an absolute necessity because teachers may forget previous behaviors as new ones appear” (1979, Strategies for Reading in the Elementary School, p. 355). An anecdotal record is the recording of a description of an observed significant incident in which the description and interpretation are separate. The anecdotal record should by recordings of what the child said or did – not interpretations. Almost any observation that can shed light on a student’s literacy behavior is a suitable entry for an anecdotal record, including notes on strategies, miscues, interests, interactions, and work habits (L. K. Rhodes, March 1990, Anecdotal Records: A Powerful Tool for Ongoing Literacy Assessment, Paper presented at the National Council of Teachers of English Spring Conference). Recording several observations of a student as he or she performs in the classroom reveals a great deal of information about the student and how this information can be used to plan his or her instructional program.

Sample Checklist for Reading Name of Student _____________________________ Date _______________ Never Seldom Occasionally Frequently

Appears comfortable while reading

Uses a card or finger to follow while reading

Word by word reading

Subvocalizes while reading

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Student’s Self-report Checklist on Strategies for Learning from Text

Self-evaluation Name of Student______________________________ Date _________________

Usually Often Sometimes Never While reading … I visualize what I read

I am easily distracted.

I whisper/mumble the words I “hear” in my head.

I move my lips while making little or no sound as I “hear” the words in my head.

I use a card, piece of paper or my finger as my guide.

I sound words out before I read them.

I sound words out as I read them

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Handout S4 - 24 Revised July 2006

Reading Miscue Inventory

1. Select a passage of interest to the student that is different enough so that miscues will be made. The

student reads into a tape recorder for 10 to 15 minutes. The examiner is not allowed to provide any assistance to the reader. While the student is reading, the examiner records errors on the worksheet.

2. Only five types of errors are recorded: substitutions, omissions, insertions, reversals, and repetitions.

However, these errors are broken down into fine detail.

3. After reading, the student is asked to retell the information in as much detail as possible. The examiner may ask probing questions. It is also helpful to tape this for further analysis.

4. Following the session, the examiner plays the recording of the session, checking to see if miscues

were correctly identified. The miscues are then analyzed in detail. This analysis begins with the asking of nine questions about each miscue.

1. Dialect: Is a dialect variation involved in the miscue? 2. Intonation: Is a shift in intonation involved in the miscue? 3. Graphic Similarity: How much does the miscue look like what was expected? 4. Sound Similarity: How much does the miscue sound like what was expected? 5. Grammatical Function: Is the grammatical function of the miscue the same as the

grammatical function of the word in the text? 6. Correction: Is the miscue corrected? 7. Grammatical Acceptability: Does the miscue occur in a structure that is grammatically

acceptable? 8. Semantic Acceptability Does the miscue occur in a structure that is semantically acceptable? 9. Meaning Change: Does the miscue result in a change of meaning?

5. Finally the examiner evaluates the reader’s retelling. Identify ways in which the miscues affected the

reader’s comprehension. Provide a written analysis of the results.

Y. M. Goodman, D. Watson, C. Burke, 2005 Reading Miscue Inventory: From Evaluation to Instruction

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Multidimensional Fluency Scale Student’s Name _____________________________ Date _____________ Text Selection:____________________________________________ Directions: Use the scale in all four areas to rate reader fluency. Circle the number in each category that best corresponds to your observations. Scores will range from 4 to 16. Scores of 9 and above indicate that fluency has been achieved for the grade level of the passage read. Scores of 8 and below indicate that fluency may be a concern. Phrasing

1. Monotonic with little sense of phrase boundaries; frequent word-by-word reading. 2. Frequent two and three-word phrases, giving the impression of choppy reading; improper

stress and intonation that fails to mark ends of sentences and clauses. 3. Mixture of run-ons, mid-sentence pauses for breath, and possibly some choppiness;

reasonable stress/intonation. 4. Generally well phrased, mostly in clause and sentence units with adequate attention to

expression. Accuracy

1. Word recognition accuracy is poor: generally below 85%. Reader clearly struggles in decoding words. Makes multiple decoding attempts for many words, usually without success.

2. Word recognition accuracy is marginal: 86%-90%. Reader struggles on many words. Many unsuccessful attempts at self-correction.

3. Word recognition accuracy is good: 91%-95%. Self-corrects successfully. 4. Word recognition accuracy is excellent: 96%. Self-corrections are few but successful as

nearly all words are read correctly on initial attempt. Smoothness

1. Frequent extended pauses, hesitations, false starts, sound-outs, repetitions, and/or multiple attempts.

2. Several “rough spots” in text where extended pauses, hesitations, etc. are more frequent and disruptive.

3. Occasional breaks in smoothness caused by difficulties with specific words and/or structures. 4. Generally smooth reading with minimal breaks, but word and structure difficulties are

resolved quickly, usually through self-correction. Pace

1. Slow and laborious. 2. Moderately slow (or overly and inappropriately fast). 3. Uneven mixture of fast and slow reading. 4. Consistently conversational and appropriate.

adapted from J. Zutrell & T, V. Rasinski, 1991

Training Teachers to Attend to Their Students’ Oral Fluency Theory Into Practice, 30, pp. 211-217

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Handout S4 - 26 Revised July 2006

5-Point Fluency Scale for Oral Reading

Student _________________________ Grade _________ Teacher ______________

1 2 3 4 5

Word-by-word

Some word-by- word, some 2-3 word phrases

Phrases; some word-by-word

Mostly in phrases

Phrasing consistently used

Long pauses between words; struggles with words

Some hesitations; sounds out words; disrupts flow

Some smooth, some choppy

Generally smooth; may exhibit difficulty with some words

Generally smooth; good use of self- corrections

Reading in monotone

Reads mostly in monotone

Combines uses of expression with monotone

Appropriate expression throughout much of the piece

Appropriate expression; intonation maintained throughout

Little evidence of use of punctuation

Shows some use of punctuation

Shows some use of punctuation, but still ignores some

Use of punctuation is generally good

Uses punctuation consistently

Rate is generally slow and laborious

Slow rate Rate varies

Rate is generally conversational

Rate in conversational and consistent throughout

Date Level Selection Comments

from J. L. Johns and R. L. Berglund, 2002

Fluency: Questions, Answers, and Evidence-Based Strategies

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Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 27

The One Minute Read

1. Provide the student with an appropriately leveled passage (100 - 200 words). This should be

within the student’s identified independent level. 2. Use a timer and stop the student after one minute. 3. Determine the number of words read, subtract the number of incorrect words read, and this

results in Correct Words Per Minute (CWPM) 4. Refer to the chart to see the grade equivalency of the student

Silent Reading Rate Chart

Below is information on silent reading rates. According to R. P. Carver, this rate is considered in tandem with comprehension (1990, Reading Rate: A Review of Research and Theory).

Silent Reading Rates for Students in Various Grades Who Understand the Material

Grade WPM Grade WPM 1 < 81 7 175 - 185 2 82 – 108 8 186 - 197 3 109 – 130 9 198 - 209 4 131 – 147 10 210 - 224 5 148 – 161 11 225 - 240 6 162 – 174 12 241 – 255

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Median Annual Oral Reading Rate

Increases for Students in Grades 4 through 8 Fall Winter Spring

Grade Percentile WCPM WCPM WCPM 75 125 133 143 4 50 99 112 118 25 72 89 92 75 126 143 151 5 50 105 118 128 25 77 93 100 90 171 185 201 75 143 160 172 6 50 115 132 145 25 91 106 117 10 73 81 90 90 200 207 213 75 175 183 193 7 50 147 158 167 25 126 134 146 10 106 116 124 90 208 217 221 75 183 196 198 8 50 156 167 171

25 126 144 145 10 100 113 115

from J. L. Johns and R. L. Berglund, 2002

Fluency: Questions, Answers, and Evidence-Based Strategies

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TOWRE

Test of Word Reading Efficiency Purpose: To provide participants with an opportunity to assess students individually in decoding

and sight-word recognition skills. Time: 5 minutes Materials: Stopwatch, timer, or watch with a second hand, Description: The TOWRE measures the reader’s ability to pronounce printed words accurately and fluently. For 45 seconds, the student reads as many words as possible from a list of words that progressively become more difficult. The test administrator counts the correct number of words. Using the student’s date of birth, the test provides a chart giving the student’s reading efficiency level. The test is designed to assess “both fluency and accuracy of print-based word reading strategies,” in other words, decoding without using context. The authors of the TOWRE suggest that other authentic forms of assessment be used as a complement to this tool if the purpose is to assess ultimate literacy goals in the classroom. Using the TOWRE as an exercise is an excellent way to highlight the importance of practice to students. The participants should notice that the number of nonsense words they can successfully read each time increases.

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Handout S4 - 30 Revised July 2006

TOWRE

Test of Word Reading Efficiency

Preparing the Tests: Type or print the test on a separate sheet of paper and make copies to use as answer sheets to record the student’s responses. Directions: First, give each student a copy of the chart below. Be sure to point out to the students that the words are nonsense, or made-up words. Next, explain to the student that he or she should read as many words as possible within 45 seconds. Use a stopwatch or other timer to time the student. Put a check mark on the answer sheet beside each word the student reads incorrectly or skips. Count a word correct if the pronunciation is correct according to common sound-spelling relationships.

Phonemic Decoding Efficiency imp barp cratty ga stip trober ko plin depate ta frip glant om poth sploosh ig vasp dreker ni meest ritlun

pim shlee hedfert wum guddy bremick lat skree nifpate baf felly binbert din cirt cabom nup sline drepnort fet dreef shratted

bave prain pofent pate zint smuncrit herm bloot pelnador dess trisk fornalask chur kelm fermabalt knap strone crenidmoke tive lunaf emulbatate

from J. K. Torgesen, R. Wagner, & C. Rashotte, 1999 Test of Word Reading Efficiency

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The Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation

Directions for Administering the Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation

1. Have one test sheet for each student in the class that is to be assessed. THIS TEST IS STRICTLY ORAL. The child should not see the words on the list.

2. Assess students individually in a quiet place.

3. Keep the assessment playful and game-like.

4. Explain the game to the student exactly as the directions specify.

5. Model for the student what he or she needs to do with each of the practice words. Have them break apart each word with you.

Students are given the following directions upon administration of the test:

“Today we're going to play a word game. I'm going to say a word and I want you to break the word apart. You are going to say the word slowly, and then tell me each sound in the word in order. For example, if I say old: you should say /o/-/l/-/d/. (The teacher says the sound, not the letters.) Let's try a few words together. “

The practice items are ride, go, and man. The teacher should help the student with each sample item, segmenting the item for the student if necessary and encouraging the student to repeat the segmented word. The student is then given the 22 item test. If the child responds correctly, the teacher says, “That's right” If the student gives an incorrect response, he or she is corrected. The teacher provides the appropriate response. The teacher circles the numbers of all correct answers.

The student's score is the number of items correctly segmented into all constituent phonemes. No partial credit is given. For instance, if a student says “/c/-/at/” instead of “/c/-/a/-/t/,” the response may be noted on the blank line following the items but is considered incorrect for the purposes of scoring. Correct responses are only those that involve articulation of each phoneme in the target word.

Teachers may gently provide the correct answer to the child after incorrect response. For example:

If the child responds with a partial segmentation (“/d/-/og/”), the teacher should record the response as given, then say something like: “That's close, but you only separated some of the sounds. Please separate all of them like this: dog is /d//o//g/”.

If a child restates the word, encourage separation of sounds saying, “Yes, the word is dog. Can you tell me all the sounds you hear in the word dog?” If the child continues to restate the word, record that response.

If the child responds by spelling the word, say “Wow! You spelled that word! Very good, but what I am asking you to do is tell me all of the sounds, not the letters in the word.” Let the child try again and record that response.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 32 Revised July 2006

If a child shrugs, restate the item and encourage a response. Then, if no response is obtained, provide the correct response before moving to the next item.

Some children have phonological delays; their articulation is not fully developed. It is not uncommon to see a kindergartner or first grader who has difficulty with the /s/ and/or /r/ sounds. A child may pronounce sat, for example, as that. If a child responds "/th/ -/a/ - /t/" for sat, score the response as correct, but note the articulation problem.

Students who segment all or nearly all of the items correctly (17-22 items correct) may be considered phonemically aware. Students who correctly segment some items (7-16 correct) are displaying emerging phonemic awareness. Students who are able to segment only a few items or none at all (0-6 items correct) lack appropriate levels of phonemic awareness. Without intervention, those students scoring very low on the test are likely to experience difficulty with reading and spelling. These students should be provided with considerable linguistic stimulation that focuses on the sound structure of their spoken language in conjunction with their reading programs.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 33

Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation

Student's name _______________________________________ Date _______________

Score (number correct) ________________

Directions: Today we're going to play a word game. I'm going to say a word and I want you to break the word apart. You are going to tell me each sound in the word in order. For example, if I say “old,” you should say “/o/-/l/-d/.”

(Administrator: Be sure to say the sounds, not the letters, in the word.) Let's try a few together.

Practice items: (Assist the child in segmenting these items as necessary.) ride, go, man

Test items: (Circle those items that the student correctly segments; incorrect responses may be recorded on the blank line following the item.)

1. dog _________________________ 12. lay _________________________

2. keep _________________________ 13. race _________________________

3. fine _________________________ 14. zoo _________________________

4. no _________________________ 15. three _________________________

5. she _________________________ 16. job _________________________

6. wave _________________________ 17. in _________________________

7. grew _________________________ 18. ice _________________________

8. that _________________________ 19. at _________________________

9. red _________________________ 20. top _________________________

10. me _________________________ 21. by _________________________

11. sat _________________________ 22. do _________________________

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 34 Revised July 2006

Answer Key Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation

Student's name_______________________________________ Date:_____________

Score (number correct)___________________________

Directions: Today we're going to play a word game I'm going to say a word and I want you to break the word apart. You are going to tell me each sound in the word in order. For example, if I say “old,” you should say “/o/-/l/-/d/.”

(Administrator: Be sure to say the sounds, not the letters, in the word.) Let's try a few together.

Practice items: (Assist the child in segmenting these items as necessary.) ride, go, man

Test items: (Circle those items that the student correctly segments, incorrect responses may be recorded on the blank line following the item.)

1. dog __________/d/ - /o/ - /g/_______ 12. lay ____________/l/-/a/___________

2. keep __________/k/ - /e/ - /p/ _______ 13. race __________/r/- /a/- /s/_________

3. fine __________/f/-/i/-/n/__________ 14. zoo ___________/z/ - /oo/_________

4. no __________/n/- /o/___________ 15. three __________/th/- /r/ - /e/________

5. she __________/sh/- /e/__________ 16. job __________/j/- /o/ - /b/________

6. wave _________/w/ - / a/ - /v/_______ 17. in ___________/i/ - /n/__________

7. grew _________/g/- /r/- /oo/_______ 18. ice __________/i/-/s/____________

8. that _________/th/- /a/- /t/_________ 19. at ___________/a/- /t/___________

9. red __________/r/- /e/- /d/________ 20. top _________/t/- /o/- /p/__________

10. me __________/m/- /e/__________ 21. by __________/b/-/i/____________

11. sat __________/s/ - /a/- /t/________ 22. do __________/d/- /oo/__________

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 36 Revised July 2006

The Gates MacGinitie Test

(see http://www.riverpub.com/products/group/gmrt4/overview.html ) If you would like to know the general reading level of your students throughout the school year, take a look at the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test. The objective information obtained from the GMRT, complemented by teachers' evaluations and other sources of information, can be a basis for:

• Organizing students into appropriate instructional groups. • Selecting students for individual diagnosis and special instruction. • Identifying students who are ready for more advanced instruction. • Placing new students into proper instructional programs. • Evaluating the effectiveness of instructional programs. • Reporting student progress to parents, teachers, and the community.

Diagnostic Assessment of Reading

Six Tests of Reading and Language: • Word Recognition • Word Analysis • Oral Reading • Silent Reading Comprehension • Spelling • Word Meaning

Multilevel, ungraded format Administered and scored simultaneously Reveal strengths and weaknesses Takes 20-30 minutes to administer

Developmental Reading Assessment

The Developmental Reading Assessment provides teachers with a method of assessing and documenting primary students’ development as readers over time within a literature-based instructional program. The DRA is designed to be used in K-3 classrooms. The assessments are conducted during one-on-one reading conferences as children read specially selected assessment texts. A set of 20 stories, which increase in difficulty, are used for the assessment. The DRA evaluates two major aspects of reading: accuracy of oral reading and comprehension through reading and retelling of narrative stories.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 37

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

Ages: 2-6 through 90+ Administration time: 10-15 minutes Scores/Interpretations: Age-based standard scores (M=100, SD= 15). Percentiles, NCEs, stanines, and age equivalents PPVT-III is a measure of receptive vocabulary for standard English and a screening test of verbal ability. This individually administered, norm-referenced instrument is offered in two parallel forms for testing and retesting. PPVT-III features are:

• Objective and rapid scoring • Quick administration time • Clear black and white line drawings • No reading or writing required of examinee • National norms extended to include ages 2-6 to 90+ years • Items reviewed by a multicultural panel • Numerous stimulus words: 204 items in each form • Items arranged in 17 sets of 12 items each • Many illustrations for gender and ethnic balance

Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test

The Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (SDRT) is a group administered, norm-referenced multiple choice test that assesses vocabulary, comprehension, and scanning skills. The SDRT is administered mid-year to students in grades 4-10 and provides information on student progress, targets individual students who are in need of additional reading support. The SDRT provides a grade-level equivalent for each student’s overall reading level and vocabulary, comprehension, and scanning skills. The overall reading level is compared to the student’s grade level, including month of instruction, to determine how a student is doing compared to the expected reading level:

• Above, at, or close to grade level: No more than one year below grade level • Below grade level: More than one year below grade level, but no more that three years

below grade level at grades 6-10 and two years below grade level at grades 4 and 5 • Significantly below grade level: More than three years below grade level at grades 6-10;

more than two years below grade level at grades 4 and 5

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 38 Revised July 2006

Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation Age range: PreK-Adult Administration time: 45-90 minutes ( can be administered as one session or multiple, shorter sessions) Scores/Interpretations: Percentile ranks, standard scores, grade equivalents, normal curve equivalents, stanines, and growth scales values GRADE measures these areas: Level P (Pre-kindergarten)

• Phonological awareness (sound matching and rhyming) • Visual skills (picture matching and picture difference) • Verbal and picture concepts • Listening comprehension

Level K (Kindergarten)

• Phonological awareness • Early literacy skills ( print awareness, letter recognition, same/different words) • Phoneme-grapheme correspondence • Word reading • Listening comprehension

Levels 1,2,3

• Word reading • Word meaning (Level 1 & 2 only) • Vocabulary (Level 3 only) • Sentence comprehension • Passage comprehension • Listening comprehension

Levels 4 through 6, M (Middle School), H (High School), A (Adult)

• Vocabulary • Sentence Comprehension • Passage comprehension • Listening comprehension

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 39

Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery

Ages: K- adult Time to administer: 50-60 minutes for all ten tests, individual Scores/Interpretations: Raw scores, age equivalent scores, grade equivalent scores, standard scores, percentile ranks Skills assessed:

• Letter and word recognition: picture-word matching and letter and word naming • Word attack: a test of cipher knowledge; the student pronounces unfamiliar/novel words • Reading vocabulary: name words and give either a synonym or an antonym • Passage comprehension: reading comprehension; how comprehension is assessed varies

depending on level of assessment; in early grades, the student points to a picture that represents a passage; in later grades, a modified cloze technique is used

• Incomplete words: phonological awareness; student hears a word with a phoneme missing and must identify the complete word

• Sound blending: a test of phoneme awareness; students hear phonemes of a word separated by pauses and they must synthesize and say the correct word

• Oral vocabulary: provide antonym or synonym for words presented orally • Memory of sentences: repeat sentences presented orally • Visual matching: matching numbers from 1 to 3 digits

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 40 Revised July 2006

Degrees of Reading Power (DRP)

Degrees of Reading Power is a test that will measure students’ construction of meaning from text and the ability to fill in conceptual gaps in text. • The Degrees of Reading Power (DRP) Program is the basis of a highly regarded line of reading

comprehension tests for students in grades 1 –12+. • The tests are criterion-referenced and allow precise tracking of a student’s reading development

over time. • Primary and Standard DRP tests are holistic measures of how well students understand the

meaning of text. Test results are reported on a readability scale – the same scale that is used to measure the reading difficulty of printed material.

• By linking students’ DRP test scores with the readability values of books, teachers are able to locate, assign, or recommend textbooks, literature, and popular titles of appropriate difficulty to their students.

• Advanced DRP tests extend the definition of reading comprehension by assessing how well students are able to reason with textual materials.

The DRP is a criterion referenced and norm referenced test; raw scores are converted to DRP scores (an index of the most difficult text a student can read), normal curve equivalent (NCE) scores, percentiles, and stanines. Alternate form and test-retest reliability measures were in the .90 range. DRP norm data closely resembles data from the 1983-1984 NAEP. For more information, see http://www.tasa.com/.

Primary and Standard DRP Tests

Primary and Standard DRP tests are single-objective tests measuring comprehension. Graded passage reading comprehension is measured using a modified cloze technique. These tests consist of carefully constructed nonfiction paragraphs and/or passages on a variety of topics. Words have been intentionally omitted from these paragraphs and passages. The student’s task is to fill the conceptual gap by selecting the correct word from a set of multiple choice options. See examples:

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 41

Primary DRP Test Some days the weather is very hot. The _____1______ is high. Everyone feels warm then.

1. a. Wall b. Plane c. Step d. Temperature

Poison ivy may look beautiful. But touching it can cause itching. People need to be able to recognize poison ivy. Then they can avoid it. The leaves of poison ivy grow in groups of three. People should watch for this _______1______. Color can also be a clue. Poison ivy leaves are deep red in spring and fall. In summer, they are shiny green. In winter, there are no leaves at all. The plant is bare. However, it can still do harm— even in the dead of winter. The _______2______does not matter. People must be careful year round. 1.

a. Pattern b. Grass c. Flower d. Trail e. Motion

2.

a. Action b. Animal c. Position d. Area e. season

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Handout S4 - 42 Revised July 2006

Standard DRP Test

Sample Standard DRP Test Passage

1 a) wind b) boats

c) weight d) wires e) experience

2 a) levels b) cost

c) standards d) waves e) deck

3 a) stands b) floods

c) wears d) turns e) supports

4 a) narrow b) rough c) long d) deep e) straight 5 a) crossed b) rough c) lighted d) planned e) positioned

6 a) work b) material c) time d) power e) space 7 a) burned b) emptied c) secured d) shared e) lowered

Bridges are built to allow a continuous flow of highway and railway traffic across water lying in their paths. But engineers cannot forget that river traffic, too, is essential to our economy. The role of ___1___ is important. To keep these vessels moving freely, bridges are built high enough, when possible, to let them pass underneath. Sometimes, however, channels must accommodate very tall ships. It may be uneconomical to build a tall enough bridge. The ___2___ would be too high. To save money, engineers build moveable bridges.

In the swing bridge, the middle part pivots or swings open. When the bridge is closed, this section joins the two ends of the bridge, blocking tall vessels. But this section ___3___. When swung open, it is perpendicular to the ends of the bridge, creating two free channels for river traffic. With swing bridges, channel width is limited by the bridge’s piers. The largest swing bridge provides only a 75-meter channel. Such channels are sometimes too ___4___. In such cases, a bascule bridge may be built.

Bascule bridges are drawbridges with two arms that swing upward. They provide an opening as wide as the span. They are also versatile. These bridges are not limited to being fully opened or fully closed. They can be ___5___ in many ways. They can be fixed at different angles to accommodate different vessels.

In vertical lift bridges, the center remains horizontal. Towers at both ends allow the center to be lifted like an elevator. One interesting variation of this kind of bridge was built during World War II. A lift bridge was desired, but there were wartime shortages of the steel and machinery needed for the towers. It was hard to find enough ___6___. An ingenious engineer designed the bridge so that it did not have to be raised above traffic. Instead it was ___7___. It could be submerged seven meters below the surface of the river. Ships sailed over it.

Foundations and Applications of Differentiating Instruction: Competencies Four and Five

Revised July 2006 Handout S4 - 43

Features of Advanced DRP Tests: • Advanced DRP tests are not timed although most students will complete a test within a class

period. • All Advanced DRP tests measure the same construct of reading—students’ ability to reason

with prose. • Advanced DRP scores are criterion-referenced, indicating the difficulty of material with which

students are able to reason successfully. • Results can be used to select instructional materials, set performance standards, and measure

growth. • In addition to criterion-referenced test scores, student performance on Advanced DRP tests may

be reported in terms of percentiles, stanines, and Normal Curve Equivalents (NCEs).

Advanced DRP Test Sample Advanced DRP Test Passage

Bridges are built to allow a continuous flow of highway and railway traffic across water lying in their paths. But engineers cannot forget that river traffic, too, is essential to our economy. To keep boats moving freely, bridges are built high enough, when possible, to let them pass underneath. Sometimes, however, channels must accommodate very tall ships. It may be uneconomical to build a tall enough bridge. To save money, engineers build moveable bridges. ___36___

Bascule bridges are drawbridges with two arms that swing upward. They provide an opening as wide as the span. They are also versatile. These bridges are not limited to being fully opened or fully closed. They can be fixed at different angles to accommodate different vessels. ___37___

In the swing bridge, the middle part pivots or swings open. When the bridge is closed, this section joins the two ends of the bridge, blocking tall vessels. But this section turns. When swung open, it is perpendicular to the ends of the bridge, creating two free channels for river traffic. With swing bridges, channel width is limited by the bridge’s piers. The largest swing bridge provides only a 75-meter channel. Such channels are sometimes too narrow. In such cases, a bascule bridge may be built.

In vertical lift bridges, the center remains horizontal. Towers at both ends allow the center to be lifted like an elevator. One interesting variation of this kind of bridge was built during World War II. A lift bridge was desired, but there were wartime shortages of the steel and machinery needed for the towers. It was hard to find enough material. An ingenious engineer designed the bridge so that it did not have to be raised above traffic. Instead it was lowered. It could be submerged seven meters below the surface of the river. Ships sailed over it. ___38___

a) However, other ships cannot proceed.

b) Only railroad traffic can use such bridges.

c) Tall ships can then be accommodated at an acceptable cost.

d) Therefore, n o more than two ships a day can be accommodated.

e) However, the currents are often too strong for small ships.

a) Highway traffic need not be

halted. b) They can be used with greater

flexibility than swing bridges allow.

c) Even so, tall-masted schooners cannot pass.

d) Thus, bascule bridges have few, if any, advantages.

e) Hence, only long drawbridges are useful where river currents are strong.

a) Thus a swing bridge would have

been b) The river was too narrow for any

other kind of bridge. c) Hence, the bridge had to be at

least seven meters wide. d) The channel created for them

was wider than a swing bridge

“… the biggest mistake of past centuries in teaching has been to treat all children as if they were variants  of the same individual, and thus to feel justified in teaching them the same subjects in the same ways.” 

Howard Gardner  in Siegel, J., & Shaughnessy, M. F. (1994). 

Educating for understanding. Phi Delta Kappan, 75(7), p. 564 

T TE EA AC CH HI IN NG G T TO OD DA AY Y  More than any other generation, today’s educators  have the opportunity to significantly influence  student learning. Recent research and technological  advances provide teachers with information and  access to effective pedagogy, world knowledge, and  cultural differences that may have separated  students in the past. Gone are the days when  educators grouped children according to intellectual  abilities and native languages. In contrast, today’s  learners are diverse students who bring a variety of  experiences, languages, and cultural differences to  the classroom. Therefore, today’s teachers must  differentiate instruction by crafting lessons that  meet the needs of all students and designing  classroom curriculum that celebrates cultural  differences. Responsive Teaching is one method  teachers are using to meet these goals. 

W WH HA AT T I IS S R RE ES SP PO ON NS SI IV VE E T TE EA AC CH HI IN NG G? ?  Responsive Teaching is “a teacher’s solid (and  growing) understanding of how teaching and  learning occur, and it responds to varied learners’  needs for more structure or more independence,  more practice or greater challenge, a more active or  less active approach to learning, and so on”  (Tomlinson & Eidson, 2003, p. 2). Responsive  teachers are knowledgeable about the expectations  of their curriculum and how students learn. In most  classrooms, students’ abilities range from severely  below grade level to significantly above grade level.  These teachers work hard to identify each student’s  independent, instructional, and frustration reading  levels. By identifying an accurate instructional  level, these teachers can provide appropriate  instruction and support each student as he or she  learns. Additionally, responsive teachers use  assessments to screen, monitor, and diagnose 

reading progress so that each student works at his or  her fullest potential. Assessments are used to inform  instruction as “a healthy part of effective teaching  and successful learning” (Chappuis & Stiggins,  2002, p.40). This type of learning environment is  treated as a “[C]ome as you are party” (Soderman,  Gregory, & McCarty, 2005) where differences are  acknowledged and a community of learners are  celebrated. 

Responsive teachers are guided by the connections  to four instructional elements: the student, the  environment, the content, and the instruction  (Tomlinson & Eidson, 2003). These elements  comprise an instructional system where each is  equally important. If one component is omitted,  then learning is diminished. In the following  sections, each element is discussed in greater detail. 

T TH HE E S ST TU UD DE EN NT T  Our students are diverse and come to our  classrooms with a variety of differences. They bring  native cultures and unique experiences that  contribute to the learning environment. These  variations include gender, culture, cognitive  abilities and social skills. While these differences  provide opportunities for enrichment and growth, it  can be very challenging to meet the needs of all  these learners. Responsive teachers analyze their  students’ differences and discover ways to  capitalize on each student’s strengths and enhance  learning. 

T TH HE E E EN NV VI IR RO ON NM ME EN NT T  In order to provide optimum learning opportunities,  a literate environment is crucial. This environment  includes the physical arrangement of the classroom,  the materials used, various grouping practices, and a 

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence  Professional Paper 

Responsive Teaching

culture for creating safe learning. Responsive  teachers create a healthy learning environment so  that all students feel valued and accepted. 

Developing a literate environment for all  learners  The physical arrangement of the classroom is  critically important for the responsive teacher.  Teachers should plan for large and small group  areas. These areas might include space for  workstations, shared reading activities, classroom  library, tables for small group instruction, and a  large group meeting area. Other items might also  include charts that support reading and writing  instruction, a word wall or chart, and examples of  student work. The responsive teacher recognizes  that the items (charts, word walls, and classroom  library) must be used in conjunction with teaching  to create a literate environment; the items in  isolation do not make a difference in student  learning. It is the responsive teacher who makes the  difference. 

Materials  The literate environment includes a host of on­line  and off­line reading materials. These materials  might include newspapers, magazines, picture  books, novels, and poetry books. The responsive  teacher tailors instruction to individual student’s  needs by using a variety of reading materials. The  materials are selected using student interest, varying  reading levels, and different literary genres that  include expository as well as narrative text  (International Reading Association, 2000). Having  diverse materials in the classroom increases the  likelihood of students reading on his or her  instructional level as well as the possibility of  creating life­long readers. 

Groupings  Teachers who use responsive teaching are  responding to student needs. This quest may call for  large group, small group, or individualized  instruction. Large group instruction addresses a  curricular need for all or most of the students in the  class. This type of instruction might include  introducing a new concept, modeling a new skill, or  shared reading/writing activities. Small group  instruction is typically a homogeneous grouping for  a specific purpose. Students who gather in small  group instruction may be grouped according to  academic needs, social needs, interests, or learning 

preferences. Curriculum for small group instruction  might include remediation of a specific skill,  advanced instruction for those interested in a  particular topic, or a specific type of instruction  based on learning preferences. Individualized  instruction is provided for students who need  specific one­on­one time with the teacher.  Responsive teachers use a variety of flexible  grouping practices based on student needs.  Regardless of the grouping practice (large group,  small group, or individualized), the purpose is to  maximize student learning. 

Culture for learning  Students in a responsive classroom are part of a  learning community. Each is a valued member of  the classroom where needs are addressed and  differences are celebrated. The classroom is a  physically and emotionally safe environment that is  filled with learning opportunities. The responsive  teacher creates a non­threatening environment  where student learning is carefully scaffolded so  that each learner is successful. The responsive  classroom is a safe culture that promotes academic,  social, emotional, and physical learning experiences  (Tomlinson, 1999). 

T TH HE E C CO ON NT TE EN NT T  Today’s teachers are highly knowledgeable  educators who must demonstrate pedagogically  sound instructional techniques in a variety of  content areas. Responsive teachers participate in  continuous learning experiences through  professional development opportunities, taking  university courses, and attending professional  organization conferences. By participating in these  (and other) opportunities, teachers update their  content knowledge and instructional techniques. 

Engaging Content  Responsive teachers have great knowledge of  children and learning as a process. They understand  that learning is a social event and that children need  time to interact with each other and the teacher  through discussions and hands­on activities. At any  given moment, a visitor walking into one of these  classrooms might expect to see children gathered in  small groups working on a science project,  discussing a novel together, or tutoring each other  in math. Children in these classrooms set goals for  themselves and make decisions about their own  learning. In responsive classrooms, children

develop confidence and a sense of self­efficacy.  While responsive teachers are still the leaders or  managers of these classrooms, they do not feel the  need to direct each learning opportunity. They  support students when they need it and step back  when they are no longer needed. 

Understanding the developmental process of  children is critical to responsive teaching.  Responsive teachers plan instruction that meets the  needs of their students based on the developmental  stage in which students are operating. The  curriculum in a responsive classroom should  provide a moderate challenge for students, but not  frustrate them. It should also be motivating and  interesting. 

Monitoring Progress  Responsive teachers provide responses to students  that is “specific, descriptive, and immediate” (Black  & William study as cited in Chappuis & Stiggins,  1998, p. 42). Telling students what they are doing  well and helping them develop their strengths will  increase motivation and learning. Using  constructive language and offering children ways to  improve their performance is productive. A  detailed, timely response to students helps them  define their learning goals. Chappuis and Stiggins  (2002) call this process assessment for learning.  High­quality, formative assessment can have a  profound impact on student achievement and is a  healthy part of effective teaching (Chappuis and  Stiggins, 2002). 

T TH HE E I IN NS ST TR RU UC CT TI IO ON N  The student is at the heart of responsive instruction.  The responsive teacher closely monitors the  student’s progress and adjusts the curriculum  accordingly. For example, if the student is  demonstrating a high level of proficiency  concerning the concepts, then the teacher offers  instruction that is more challenging. However, if the  student demonstrates a lack of mastery of the  presented skills or knowledge, then additional  assessment and instruction is needed. The teacher  closely monitors student progress by assessing the  skills and/or knowledge and providing appropriate  instruction based on the assessment results. 

Intensive Instruction  For the student who has continued difficulty  learning the concepts, the Response to Intervention 

model might be employed. The Response to  Intervention (RTI) model is more than an attempt to  limit unnecessary placement of students in Special  Education services. RTI focuses on making data­  based decisions to improve instruction for all  students. The model calls for intentional assessment  and data collection, a solution­seeking process, and  a three­tiered approach linking instruction with  assessment.

•  Tier 1: The teacher provides evidence­based  instruction in the classroom. Student  progress is monitored on a weekly basis  using appropriate assessments.

•  Tier 2: The teacher responds to students  whose progress is less than desired. These  students receive different or additional  support from the teacher or another  educational professional in a small group  setting. Student progress continues to be  monitored through appropriate assessment  techniques.

•  Tier 3: The teacher responds to those  students whose progress continues to be  insufficient in Tier 2 with instruction that is  more intensive. This instruction can be  provided in a variety of ways: small group,  individual, or another professional  educator). If the student continues to be  unsuccessful, then special services may be  investigated. 

Instruction for the Whole Child  The responsive teacher provides classroom  instruction that centers on the individual as a whole:  the student’s academic, social, emotional, and  physical needs. A student in the responsive  classroom feels a sense of belonging and actively  participates in classroom instruction. The teacher is  careful to support the social and emotional aspects  especially when academic and physical needs are  great. 

Curriculum is intentionally designed and progress  carefully monitored, in order to ensure learning  success. The responsive teacher responds to student  needs. 

S SU UM MM MA AR RY Y/ /C CO ON NC CL LU US SI IO ON NS S  In Thesaurus.com, the word “responsive” means  active, compassionate, perceptive, sensible, and  willing. The responsive teacher is all of these

things. Learning in a responsive classroom is active  and the responsive teacher actively seeks to remain  up to date in his or her content knowledge and  instructional practices. The responsive teacher is  compassionate and finds strength in the cultural  differences of his or her students. He or she is  perceptive, tuning into each student’s strengths and 

areas of need. He is sensible, staying focused on the  learning objectives for his or her students and  providing a variety of learning opportunities.  Finally, the responsive teacher is willing to create a  safe learning environment using sound instructional  techniques in a variety of content areas for each and  every student. 

R RE EF FE ER RE EN NC CE ES S  Chappuis, S., & Stiggins, R.J. (2002). Classroom assessment for learning. Educational Leadership, 60(1), 40– 

43. 

International Reading Association. (2000, October). Excellent reading teachers: A position statement of the  International Reading Association. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(2), 193­200. 

Siegel, J. & Shaughnessy, M. F. (1994). Educating for understanding. Phi Delta Kappan, 75(7), 563­566. 

Soderman, A., Gregory, K., & McCarty, L. (2005). Scaffolding emergent literacy (2nd ed.). Boston, MA:  Pearson Education Inc. 

Tomlinson, C.A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Upper Saddle  River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 

Tomlinson, C. A., & Eidson, C. C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating  curriculum. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 

This FLaRE Professional Paper was developed (June, 2007) by the following FLaRE Faculty Fellows (in alphabetical order): 

Charlotte J. Boling, Ph.D., University of West Florida  Gwyn W. Senokossoff, Ph.D., USF St. Petersburg 

FLaRE Center  Teaching Academy – Suite 403  University of Central Florida  4000 Central Florida Blvd  Orlando, FL 32816­1250 

Phone: 407­823­4785 FAX: 407­823­4682  http://flare.ucf.edu 

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and  administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Adolescent Literacy: What Is It and How Might You Support Its Development?

Across the country, there is a perception that our adolescents are not learning the knowledge and skills needed to effectively function in today’s global economy. This perception is fueled by reports such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress. In response to this crisis, federal and state governments have recently introduced programs and policies to help promote the development of adolescent literacy. These government initiatives have refocused the education community on the challenges and promises of developing advanced literacy among adolescents. The purpose of this paper is to present a summary of key issues associated with adolescent literacy and invite discussions among stakeholders about effective adolescent literacy reform. WWHHAATT IISS AADDOOLLEESSCCEENNTT LLIITTEERRAACCYY??

Literacy development is a complex, multi-layered, and ongoing process that does not end in elementary grades. Today’s literacy demands are expanding exponentially. Adolescents are expected to process and critically evaluate incredibly large amounts of information in print and multi-media formats.

Adolescent literacy refers to “the set of skills and abilities that students need in grades 4 through 12 to read, write, and think about the text materials they encounter” (Berman & Biancarosa, 2005, p. 6). It incorporates multiple literacies—e.g., information literacy, scientific literacy, numeracy, technological literacy. Adolescent literacy requires one to understand content not only literally but critically. It is more than an emphasis on content-area reading, decoding, and comprehension. It goes beyond memorizing facts, bubbling in answers, or reading just a list of words. It embodies the complex interdependence of reading, writing, speaking, listening, and thinking in adolescents’ construction of knowledge about academic disciplines and the world in general. WWHHAATT AARREE SSAAMMPPLLEE OOBBSSTTAACCLLEESS TTOO PPRROOMMOOTTIINNGG AADDOOLLEESSCCEENNTT LLIITTEERRAACCYY??

Addressing the nation’s adolescent literacy crisis is a challenge. There is no quick fix or silver bullet to remedy this situation. Preparing students for the literacy demands of society will require a monumental federal and state focus on adolescent literacy.

The following are sample obstacles to the development of adolescent literacy: • Reader Obstacles

o Limited language proficiency o Poor decoding skills and fluency o Poor vocabulary o Underdeveloped background and content-specific

knowledge

o Poor knowledge and use of strategic activities for comprehending

o Decreased motivation to read academic texts o Peer pressure not to participate in reading

• Instructional Obstacles o Conflicting views on literacy instruction o Poor or inadequate decoding, vocabulary, and

comprehension instruction o Limited opportunities to develop vocabulary, strategic

activities for processing content-specific text, and overall background knowledge

o Limited access to varied texts o Disconnection between literacy and content areas o Lack of resources o Lack of support for adolescent literacy o Lack of sufficient knowledge/expertise of reading

instruction among many content teachers o Difficulty developing curriculum that is relevant and

stimulating to adolescents o Reading materials become increasingly more abstract,

dense, and complex • Organizational Obstacles

o The pressure to teach large amounts of content o Changes in school structure and culture from

elementary to secondary setting o Pressure to teach to high stakes tests o Limited resources for on-going, in-depth professional

development opportunities HHOOWW CCAANN TTEEAACCHHEERRSS PPRROOMMOOTTEE AADDOOLLEESSCCEENNTT LLIITTEERRAACCYY?? Achieving high levels of literacy among adolescents is a multi-faceted endeavor. Policy-makers, administrators, curriculum advisors, teachers, parents, students, and the community at large should work together to facilitate continuing development of literacy among adolescents.

According to the International Reading Association’s position paper on adolescent literacy (1999), the development of adolescent literacy requires the following:

• A wide variety of relevant and motivating material. • Instruction that builds adolescents’ skills and desire to

read increasingly complex materials. • Assessment that reveals their strengths as well as their

needs. • Expert teachers across the curriculum. • Reading specialists to assist those learners who

experience difficulty.

• Teachers who understand the complexities among individual adolescent readers.

• Homes and communities that support adolescents’ learning.

Motivation is key to adolescent students’ participation in classroom literacy events. In order to develop advanced literacy, adolescents need to learn in environments that promote active engagement in text and discussion, scaffold their use of academic language, and provide many opportunities for them to use their skills and knowledge. There are three primary instructional practices that promote student motivation to develop their literacy skills: (1) making connections to students’ lives (e.g., Alvermann & Phelps, 1998); (2) creating supportive learning environments where students are given choice in learning tasks (e.g., Alvermann, 2001), and (3) inviting and giving students opportunities to interact with text and others in ways that stimulate questioning, visualizing, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying (e.g., Alvermann & Moore, 1991).

The teacher can also draw upon some of the out-of-school literacy practices to motivate students. To do this, the teacher needs to include opportunities to access the materials the students want to read and time to expand their interests in reading. Popular culture materials as well as other relevant reading materials need to be present in the classroom. Students who may not be interested in the materials that are typically included in the curriculum may be producing much literate activity outside of school. They may be engaging in multiple literacies that involve different kinds of text (i.e., newspapers, magazines and the web). These multiple literacies may involve popular culture such as books, movies, magazines, and music that occupy the available time that adolescents have outside of school. If some of this popular culture is allowed into the classroom, it serves to motivate and draw in students who may be otherwise disinterested in school-based literacy.

Students need to have time to read what they want and read what they need to read. Even with the assignments that need to be done, there should be choice. An instructional practice such as the Quick Book Share (Eldridge, 1998) gives students the right to speak about what they have read and to make suggestions to the rest of the students about what they read and why they enjoyed it. Then the students make selections as to what they want to read next. After reading, they need time to share their responses to the book as an adult would, not be quizzed on the book. This instructional practice gives choice, time to talk and discuss the books and creates a community of learners, a literacy club, which fosters student’s self-efficacy and sense of belonging, two critical aspects that adolescents seek. Other instructional practices such as Family Reading in cross-age tutoring projects also bring the out-of-school literacy experiences into the classroom (Handel, 1995). The “family” consists of the older reader who may not be a strong reader, supporting a younger reader. The desire to be fluent and the feedback from the younger student’s appreciation lead to increased self-satisfaction and self-efficacy for the older student. This has benefits for the younger student as well.

Teachers of adolescents face many of the same demands as elementary school teachers; however, the shortened class time schedule, separated content area courses, increased student to teacher ratios, reduced parent support, and the increase of peer influence make this stage of learning both critical and unique. Teachers of adolescents need to have the knowledge to

integrate reading within the content fields, while also providing instruction that is appropriate for the linguistically, culturally, and developmentally different student population. Teachers also need adequate and appropriate materials that meet students’ interests and represent a wide range of complexity.

Knowledgeable and experienced literacy specialists, who are able to help teachers acquire these skills, are essential. All teachers need to be able to use informal assessments to know students’ strengths and areas of growth to begin instruction. They need to be able to provide opportunities for adolescents to read and discuss reading ideas. All school-based teachers must be knowledgeable about materials in order to provide choices that are appropriate for diverse students. Besides having the knowledge-base, teachers who have a love of reading and are able to model reading for students are those who most likely can support student progress. Teachers need to create learning environments that allow students to engage in critical and collaborative examinations of texts as they construct meaning. Biancarosa and Snow (2004) identify 9 elements of effective adolescent literacy programs at the instructional level. These include:

• Direct, explicit instruction in strategic activities for comprehending such as summarizing and visualizing to help students develop effective knowledge and use of strategic activities. As Kyleen Beers (2003) states repeatedly, telling isn’t teaching. Students need to be taught the mental processes involved in comprehending. Teachers can use “think aloud” to demonstrate what they do when comprehending a text.

• Effective instructional principles embedded in content to strengthen the literacy and content area connections. Students must be shown that strategies learned with their reading/language arts teacher can be applied in content area courses. Content area teachers must teach students to read material in a manner appropriate to the discipline. In addition, content area teachers must teach students to read like a historian, biologist, mathematician, and so on.

• Motivation and self-directed learning which includes student motivation to read and learn as well as instruction and teacher support for students to become independent thinkers. Well-constructed anticipation guides, for example, provide a set of potentially provocative statements that can actively involve students with text and motivate them to read in light of the generalizations (Tierney, Readence, & Dishner, 1995).

• Text-based collaborative learning which provides students with opportunities to discuss and interact with others about what they are learning in class. Say Something (Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988) is an instructional practice that keeps adolescent readers thinking as they read. Students are placed in small groups, take turns reading something, and occasionally stop and “say something” about what they read.

• Strategic activity tutoring by experts for students who need individualized, intensive literacy and content instruction.

• Diverse texts to build students’ knowledge of varied text structures. Varied experiences with diverse texts (e.g., media, electronic) in a variety of genres that provide

authentic examples can help increase students’ motivation.

• Intensive writing across the content areas, not just to communicate but to facilitate learning from content areas. Students need sustained opportunities to read and write a wide range of texts and to develop their abilities as readers and writers.

• A technology component to provide support for literacy and content-area instruction and to help develop student motivation and engagement. Technology can help provide support for struggling readers and also help prepare adolescents for the ever-changing world.

• Ongoing formative assessment of students in order to meet students’ academic and social needs. The kind of literacy tasks discussed in this paper requires assessments that are varied and diagnostic. Asking comprehension questions, multiple choice items, fill in the blank responses may not be the best assessment vehicles. Checking for fluency in oral and silent reading will help a teacher to determine if decoding and comprehension skills are adequate. Having students retell what they read checks for what they remember rather than test items that the teacher thought important. Exploring a student’s understanding of key vocabulary in a text and the background knowledge he or she has regarding the content of a text will inform a teacher about where processing for comprehending may need support.

These components alone are not sufficient to ensure successful promotion of literacy at the secondary level. They need to be complemented by infrastructural support at the administrative level. HHOOWW CCAANN PPRRIINNCCIIPPAALLSS PPRROOMMOOTTEE AADDOOLLEESSCCEENNTT LLIITTEERRAACCYY??

The principal is a cornerstone of literacy reform. Principals need to develop a school infrastructure with a literacy focus and plan to incorporate literacy across the curriculum; in other words, they need to create a culture of literacy in schools and encourage active learning. We need to build educators’ capacity to provide adolescent literacy instruction. Principals can make provisions for effective, content-based literacy instruction professional development.

According to Biancarosa and Snow (2004), a comprehensive adolescent literacy program should also include the following six infrastructural elements:

• Extended time for literacy, with a minimum of two to four hours of instruction across the content areas. This time is to be spent with varied texts and a focus on developing literacy effectively. In order to maximize effectiveness of literacy instruction in content areas, it is important to put in place school structure and environment that differ from the way traditional secondary schools are organized and operate. For example, instead of having multiple classes of 50 minutes each per subject, schools may reorganize their scheduling to have 100-minute blocks of class where reading/language arts and content areas (e.g., science, history, and math) are integrated. This will allow teachers and students time needed for more in-depth, truly inquiry-oriented, interdisciplinary learning and discussion.

• Professional development that is ongoing and targeted and it should involve classroom teachers, literacy coaches, support personnel, librarians, and administrators. Current research has shown that effective teachers produce better student achievement, especially when it is targeted to classroom instruction or a specific content area (e.g., Darling-Hammond & Youngs, 2002; Estrada, 2005; Langer, 2000). Effective professional development helps develop a professional collaborative school community, facilitates the implementation of standards and curricular demands, and produces positive student outcomes.

• Ongoing summative assessment of students and programs for accountability and research purposes. Assessment results should be shared in a timely fashion with teachers and be used to plan for instruction.

• Teacher teams that are transdisciplinary to help plan, implement, and reflect on instruction.

• Leadership from knowledgeable teachers and administrators. The principal’s commitment, vision, and enthusiasm are a must for a successful literacy reform.

• A comprehensive and coordinated literacy program which includes all content areas and collaborations between the immediate school community, and the larger community in general.

HHOOWW CCAANN PPOOLLIICCYY--MMAAKKEERRSS HHEELLPP PPRROOMMOOTTEE AADDOOLLEESSCCEENNTT LLIITTEERRAACCYY??

To support adolescent literacy instruction, policy makers must enact policies that provide clear standards, goals and guidelines, as well as adequate funding and resources, while at the same time not handcuffing teachers and administrators and taking away their autonomy to select reading materials, adopt instructional approaches and use assessment. Teachers are empowered when they are treated as expert professionals who can make independent, informed instructional decisions. Related to this, the National Association of State Boards of Education (2005) recently provides guidelines for policy makers. Specifically, it states that policy makers should do the following:

(a) strategically use data to identify student needs, design cohesive policies, and evaluate quality of implementation and impact;

(b) provide guidelines for and resources to districts and schools to ensure that teachers have the preparation and continuous professional development to provide effective content-based literacy instruction;

(c) encourage districts and schools to develop literacy plans that infuse research-based literacy support strategies in all content areas; and

(d) provide state guidelines and oversight to ensure strong implementation of comprehensive quality literacy programs.

CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN

Adolescents deserve quality education that will best prepare them for the 21st century and for a productively meaningful life in a democracy. This requires coordinated efforts and unwavering commitment from all stakes holders, including parents, teachers, administrators, and policy makers. The future of our nation depends on a succession of well-prepared citizenry and workforce.

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Alvermann, D. (2001). Effective literacy instruction for adolescents. Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference.

Alvermann, D. & Moore, D. (1991). Secondary school reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Person (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (vol. 2, pp. 951-983). New York: Longman.

Alvermann, D. E. & Phelps, S. F. (1998). Content reading and literacy: Succeeding in today's diverse classrooms. (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Beers, K. (2003). When kids can’t read. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Berman, I., & Biancarosa, G. (2005). Reading to achieve: A governor’s guide to adolescent literacy. Washington, DC: NGA Center for Best Practices.

Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. (2004). Reading Next - A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report from Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining ‘highly qualified teachers’: What does ‘scientifically-based research’ actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31(9), 13–25.

Eldridge, B. H. (1998). The quick book share. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 41(6), 473-474.

Estrada, P. (2005). The courage to grow: A researcher and teacher linking professional development with small-group reading instruction and student achievement. Research in the Teaching of English, 39(4), 320-364.

Handel, R. D. (1995). Family reading at middle school. Journal of Reading, 38(7), 528-540.

Harste, J. C., Short, K. C., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors: The reading-writing connection. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Langer, J. A. (2000). Excellence in English in middle and high school: How teachers’ professional lives support student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 397-439.

Moore, D. W., Bean, T. W., Birdyshaw, D., & Rycik, J. (1999). Adolescent literacy. A position statement for the Commission on Adolescent Literacy of the International Reading Association. Available Online at http://www.reading.org/downloads/positions/ ps1036_adolescent.pdf.

National Association of State Boards of Education. (2005). Reading at risk: The state response to the crisis in adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Tierney, R., Readence, J., & Dishner, E. (1995). Reading strategies and practices: A compendium (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

This FLaRE Professional Paper was developed (June, 2006) by the following FLaRE Faculty Fellows (in alphabetical order):

Zhihui Fang, Ph.D., University of Florida Joyce Fine, Ed.D., Florida International University

Jill Jones, Ed.D., Florida Atlantic University Linda Ray, Ph.D., Florida Gulf Coast University

Vicky Zygouris-Coe, Ph.D., University of Central Florida

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and

administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Teaching Adolescent Writers

WWrriittiinngg WWeellll In the executive summary of Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools – A Report to Carnegie Corporation of New York, Graham and Perin state,

“Writing well is not just an option for young people—it is a necessity. Along with reading comprehension, writing skill is a predictor of academic success and a basic requirement for participation in civic life and in the global economy. Yet every year in the United States large numbers of adolescents graduate from high school unable to write at the basic levels required by colleges or employers. In addition, every school day 7,000 young people drop out of high school (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2006), many of them because they lack the basic literacy skills to meet the growing demands of high school curriculum (Kamil, 2003; Snow & Biancarosa, 2003)” (2007, p. 3).

UUnnddeerrssttaannddiinngg WWrriittiinngg aass aa PPrroocceessss Literacy includes both reading and writing skills, thus meager writing proficiency is an intrinsic part of our national literacy crisis. The reciprocity of reading and writing development is intrinsic to the learning processes. Reading gives purpose to writing. Writing gives purpose to reading. Understanding writing as a process can benefit both student and teacher (Zinsser, 2001). To begin, a process is steps that are taken, or actions that occur, while making sense of something. These steps, or actions, are recursive and work together while reading and writing. To envision this reciprocal relationship, consider the working systems of reading as a process likened to working systems exercised in writing as a process. In both, four main activities emerge:

• Thinking (predicting and anticipating) • Executing (taking action) • Rethinking (searching further)

• Adjusting (self-correcting) These strategic activities illustrate the interrelationship of these dynamic systems across the content area (Puig & Froelich, 2007).

Learning as a Process across Content Areas

Thinking (predicting and anticipating)

Reading: Forming meaningful predictions Writing: Forming/composing meaningful text Math: Forming meaningful estimations Science: Forming meaningful hypothesis

Executing (confirming or rejecting)

Reading: Checking meaningful predictions Writing: Constructing meaningful text Math: Constructing meaningful equations Science: Constructing meaningful experiments

Rethinking (searching further)

Reading: Revisioning/searching further to maintain meaning

Writing: Revisioning to maintain or elaborate text intentions

Math: Revisioning to match estimation Science: Revisioning hypothesis based on results/

experiment

Adjusting (self-correcting)

Reading: Self-correcting to maintain meaning Writing: Self-correcting/editing to maintain text

intentions or outcomes Math: Self-correcting to align estimation Science: Self-correcting/adjusting to form a

meaningful conclusion

Puig & Froelich, 2007, p. 31

There are varying levels of understanding and layers of sophistication within each strategic activity, unique to each learner. Understanding this relationship between the learner and these strategic activities may support the instructor in making sound instructional practice decisions (Puig & Froelich, 2007). The literacy working systems are known as the graphophonic, lexical, schematic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic systems (Puig & Froelich, 2007). Basically, the graphophonic working system

is the ability to use textual codes to understand print. The lexical working system draws upon words the writer knows and feels comfortable using. Meanwhile, the schematic working system of the writer uses background knowledge to make meaning or to adopt, even temporarily, the role of the learner constructing understanding. The syntactic working system enables the writer to use language structures that will best fit the purpose of the writing, thereby enhancing the meaning of the text generated. Making meaning in new ways with the semantic working system utilizes words and phrases that enhance and expand meaning or refine it in explicit terms. The pragmatic working system is what brings it all together within a specific context, writing situation, or rhetorical situation. All of these working systems interact within a context (Weaver, 2002). This reciprocity is adolescent literacy development, in essence, literacy learning. EEffffeeccttiivvee AAddoolleesscceenntt WWrriittiinngg IInnssttrruuccttiioonn Reading is often viewed as an invisible process; writing can provide a window into this process. How can this occur? There are many writing processes and not all writers follow the same steps or order (Atwell, 1998; Lyons & Pinnell, 2001). A good start is employing strategic writing activities. These could include the following: Predicting and anticipating (prewriting) activities for students involve interpreting the writing situation and analyzing the audience in order to identify the purpose for writing. As adolescent writers begin collecting ideas for the writing, they may identify what details need to be included. Decisions regarding the appropriateness or sufficiency of details in the writing situation are ascertained through understanding of the audience. Without audience analysis, there is no particular reason to decide to include one detail or another (Fountas & Pinnell, 2006; Lyons & Pinnell, 2001). Writing as a process must be demystified for developing writers. Successful writers usually have some audience in mind throughout their writing process. “We comment on student writing to dramatize the presence of the reader, to help our students to become that questioning reader themselves” (Somers, 1982, p. 148). During writing, choices of what words to use and how to structure sentences are made by constantly reflecting on the needs of the audience within the

writing situation. When the audience is hidden, then the writer does not have guidance to make word choices. Another challenge when the audience is not explicit or analyzed, the default audience becomes the teacher, who changes every hour or so for most adolescents. What is the best word choice in science class is not always the best word choice in language arts. The language arts teacher appreciates long, complex sentences, while the science teacher looks for short, direct statements of fact. The strongest message the adolescent writer may get is fear, because mystification makes every decision a guess. This could be avoided by scaffolding the students through the process of analyzing their audience for their writing pieces (Fountas & Pinnell, 2006; Lauer et al., 2000; Spandel, 2005). Instruction after writing provides the very best opportunity for teaching. Instead of grading first drafts and expecting students to somehow know something more, students should engage in discussions of the writing decisions with other writers, preferably experienced writers. Responses need to optimize choice and recognize that the adolescent made a decision, and can make better writing decisions with more information. Drafts should not be graded. They should be treated as a work in progress that can be used to develop the writer’s strengths. An instructional reader’s response to the writing is most effective in helping adolescent writers grow into their many roles as writers (Atwell, 1998; Lyons & Pinnell, 2001; Spandel, 2005; White, Lutz, & Kamusikiri, 1996). Using an instructional response method, the teacher must recognize and restate the focus. Restating the focus means not only identifying the topic, but the overall assertion the writer is making about the topic. Once the focus is described, the teacher must assist the adolescent writer in assessing the focus: is it clear and maintained? The adolescent writer works with the teacher to diagnose the strengths and needs of the focus. Finally, the teacher directs the adolescent writer on ways to make the focus more effective in the specific writing context (Lauer et al., 2000). When working through an instructional reader’s response, begin with focus, because a paper without focus often needs the greatest amount of revision. Logically, advice in development and organization will be moot if the paper has no focus. Second, the teacher works with the student to describe how the

paper is developed—actually identify the details, examples, proofs that are used to clarify the focus. The purpose of those details is to develop the focus. To diagnose the use of details, the adolescent writer and the teacher ask: is this detail appropriate for the audience? Will the audience be able to use this detail to better understand the focus? The teacher can then direct the adolescent writer in ways to improve the details to achieve a specific purpose, recognizing the decisions that were made while working through the processes. Revising development means including more details or support, or doing more research (Lauer et al., 2000; Spandel, 2005). On first draft, it is often sufficient to work through focus, development, and organization using an instructional reader’s response. Look at the organization and describe the organizational pattern the adolescent writer has used. It is at this stage that one can see the logical flow of ideas. Logical flow is accomplished through the use of transitions to connect ideas. Logical flow of ideas is also dependent upon the purpose for the writing: focus often appears at the end of a narrative, while it may appear at the beginning of an expository writing with the purpose of explaining. Diagnose the places in the essay where the ideas do not flow logically. Direct the adolescent writer in ways to clarify ideas that do not seem to flow (Lauer et al., 2000). Conventions and mechanics are often an issue in first drafts. Teachers should look for overall patterns that indicate a lack of understanding of conventional structures rather than quantifying every error in a draft. Students who work through writing as a process often edit their own mistakes (Shaughnessy, 1977; Spandel, 2005). Keep each draft adolescent writers generate because writing growth is much more evident in multiple drafts of the same paper. It is also easier to recognize student misunderstandings of conventional patterns when the same errors are maintained through several writing samples. Understanding and utilizing these strategic activities and instructional practices will establish effective instruction for adolescent writers. SSuummmmaarryy In Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools – A Report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (Graham & Perin, 2007) researchers identified

eleven elements of writing instruction that have been found to be effective for supporting adolescent students to write well and to use writing as a tool for learning (Lindemann & Anderson, 2001). These include:

• Strategic Activities – Involves modeling strategic activities for students to use when planning, revising, and editing their compositions.

• Summarization – Involves intentionally teaching students how to summarize texts.

• Collaborative Writing – Uses instructional arrangements in which adolescents work together to plan, draft, revise, and edit their compositions.

• Special Product Goals – Assign students specific, reachable goals for the writing they are to complete.

• Technology – Use computers as instructional supports for writing assignments.

• Sentence Combining – Involves teaching students to construct more complex, sophisticated sentences.

• Predicting and Anticipating – Engages students in activities designed to help them generate or organize ideas for their composition.

• Inquiry Activities – Engages students in analyzing immediate, concrete data to help them develop ideas and content for a particular writing task.

• Writing Workshop (Process Writing Approach) – Interweaves a number of writing instructional practices in a workshop environment that stresses extended writing opportunities, writing for authentic audiences, personalized instruction, and cycle of writing.

• Study of Models – Provides students with opportunities to read, analyze, and emulate models of good writing.

• Writing for Content Learning – Uses writing as a tool for learning content material.

As we recognize and assess the key qualities of writing products, we must caution ourselves that these products are not an end in themselves. Writing instruction for adolescents creates a safe environment that validates the taking of risks by guiding students through in-the-head strategic activities that are not easily measured (Shaughnessy, 1977).

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS

Atwell, N. (1998). In the middle: New understandings about writing, reading, and learning. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle

and high schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Fountas, I., & Pinnell, G. (2006). Teaching for comprehending and fluency: Thinking, talking, and writing

about reading, K-8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Lauer, J., Lundsford, A., Atwill, J., Clemens, T., Hart-Davidson, W., Jacobs, D., et al. (2000). Four worlds of

writing (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Lindemann, E., & Anderson, D. (2001). A rhetoric for writing teachers. NY: Oxford University Press. Lyons, C., & Pinnell, G. (2001). Systems for change in literacy education: A guide to professional development.

Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Puig, E. A., & Froelich, K. (2007). The literacy coach: Guiding in the right direction. Boston, MA: Allyn and

Bacon. Shaughnessy, M. (1979). Errors and expectations: A guide for the teacher of basic writing. NY: Oxford

University Press. Somers, N. (1982). Responding to student writing. College Composition and Communication, 33(2), 148-156. Spandel, V. (2005). The 9 writes of every writer: A guide for teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Weaver, C. (2002). Reading process and practice. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. White, E., Lutz, W. D. & Kamusikiri, S. (1996). Assessment of writing: Politics, policies, practices (Research

and scholarship in Composition 4). NY: Modern Language Association. Zinsser, W. (2001). On writing well: The classic guide to writing nonfiction. NY: HarperCollins.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and

administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!

Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Professional Paper

Teaching Non-traditional Learners

“To obtain a complete picture of overall reading development, it is important to observe the way that the child integrates all sources of information about words in text, and this can only

be estimated by carefully observing children as they read connected passages.” ~ Joseph K Torgesen, 1998, p. 39

Catch Them Before They Fall. American Educator, 22(1,2), pp. 32-39

TTOODDAAYY’’SS CCHHAALLLLEENNGGEE A major emphasis in education today is ensuring that all students become successful readers. With the diverse learning needs in classrooms, teachers are faced with many challenges as they plan and deliver reading instruction to meet the learning goals of their students. One of the challenges is providing appropriate reading instruction for students identified with specific learning disabilities that focus on their individual needs. According to the United States Department of Education (2002), the majority of students identified with specific learning disabilities receive instruction in the general education classroom. The number of students with specific learning disabilities continues to grow at a steady rate, rising 28.5% since 1991- 1992 (USDOE, 2002). In 2001, the United States Department of Education reported that 2,887,217 students with specific learning disabilities were being served under IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). With this steady increase, it is critical that all teachers develop an understanding of learning specific to those identified with learning disabilities and become knowledgeable about providing effective instructional practices to ensure their students become successful readers and meet the accountability standards set in place today. NNOONN--TTRRAADDIITTIIOONNAALL LLEEAARRNNEERRSS IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) defines a specific learning disability as a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,

spell, or do mathematical calculations. The President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002) reported that 80% of students identified with a specific learning disability are there because they have not learned to read. A student’s disability can impact reading in different ways depending on the specific processing system involved. Catts and Hogan (2003) describe a classification system useful in planning intervention efforts for students identified with reading disabilities. This model classifies students with reading disabilities (low-progress readers) into three subgroups: dyslexia, language learning disabilities, and hyperlexia (Catts & Hogan, 2003).

1. Dyslexia – Students with dyslexia have needs in phonological processing resulting in difficulties with word recognition. Students with dyslexia have adequate language abilities. Specific areas of needs for readers with dyslexia may include (a) difficulties learning sound-letter correspondence, (b) difficulties segmenting and blending sounds in words, (c) making very little progress in acquiring reading skills, (d) difficulties reading unknown words and lacking strategies to find the word, (e) difficulties with high frequency words, (f) laborious, non-fluent reading, and (g) oral reading filled with substitutions, omissions, and mispronunciations (Shaywitz, 2003).

2. Language-Learning Disability – Students with

language-learning disabilities have language impairments and difficulties with word recognition and comprehension. The primary need involves all aspects of language, including both the sounds and the meanings of

words (Shaywitz, 2003). These readers may have deficits in semantics (vocabulary/ meaning), syntax (structure of language), and morphology. These language needs can impact word decoding, word recognition, and understanding. “A small vocabulary can limit the number of words available for recognition, while other language needs can reduce the contextual knowledge a reader may use to identify a low frequency word” (Nation & Snowling, 1998).

3. Hyperlexia – Students with hyperlexia have

adequate to exceptional word recognition, but have difficulties with comprehending text and vocabulary. Shaywitz (2003) reported that students with hyperlexia might exhibit needs in reasoning and abstract problem solving. It is possible for students to enter school with strong phonological skills and significant needs in comprehension and vocabulary, but this type of learner is rare (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001).

Catts and Hogan (2003) noted that the categorization does not lead to homogeneous subgroups with clear demarcations between them. Students with reading disabilities may exhibit different degrees and a combination of characteristics stated above. IIMMPPOORRTTAANNTT CCHHAARRAACCTTEERRIISSTTIICCSS OOFF RREEAADDIINNGG IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN FFOORR SSTTUUDDEENNTTSS IIDDEENNTTIIFFIIEEDD WWIITTHH RREEAADDIINNGG DDIISSAABBIILLIITTIIEESS According to the Report of the National Reading Panel, effective reading instruction for all students includes explicit, systematic instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Based on NICHD research, the most useful interventions for those identified with reading disabilities include a combination of explicit and direct instruction in phonemic awareness, sound-symbol relationships (phonics), contextual reading, and reading comprehension skills (Lyon et al, 1997). Students with these learning challenges benefit from the same effective reading instruction as all readers do. However, the delivery of instruction may differ. Foorman and Torgesen (2001) state that instruction for children who have difficulties learning to read must be more

explicit and comprehensive, more intensive, and more supportive than the instruction required by the majority of children. • Explicit and Comprehensive – Reading

instruction for students with reading disabilities must be more explicit and comprehensive than the typical instruction provided for grade level readers. As good readers read, they notice useful generalizations. However, students with reading disabilities may have difficulties generalizing and transferring newly learned skills and knowledge. These students need a comprehensive approach that is explicit in modeling and instruction that makes connections for the students among the various components of the literacy process (Houck-Ray & Olliff, 2004).

• Intensive – To intensify instruction for

students with reading disabilities, Foorman and Torgesen (2001) suggest two guidelines: (1) increase time for reading instruction and (2) provide reading instruction individually or in small groups. They further suggest that the most practical way for increasing instructional intensity for students with reading disabilities is to provide small group instruction. Children with reading disabilities will learn more rapidly under conditions of greater instructional intensity than they learn in typical classroom settings (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001).

• Support – Students with reading disabilities or

students who are at-risk will benefit from emotional and cognitive support (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001). Emotional support refers to providing feedback and reinforcement throughout instruction. Cognitive support or scaffolded instruction involves finely tuned interactions between the teacher and student that support the learner in accomplishing a task that he or she could not do without the teacher’s help (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; Stone, 1989). Foorman & Torgesen (2001) describe two types of scaffolding: careful sequencing and teacher-student dialogue. Careful sequencing involves systematic instruction, gradually building skills in a sequential manner. Teacher-student dialogue

refers to the explicit interactions between the student and teacher focusing on the thinking involved during the reading process.

PPRRIINNCCIIPPLLEESS FFOORR EEFFFFEECCTTIIVVEE RREEAADDIINNGG IINNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN Low-progress non-traditional learners may experience difficulties acquiring, generalizing, and retaining newly learned knowledge and skills. The National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators at the University of Oregon has identified six principles for effective instruction. These principles are key to designing reading and content reading instruction to meet the instructional needs of diverse learners who are in need of intensive and systematic reading instruction (Simmons & Kameenui, 1998). The six principles include big ideas, conspicuous strategies, mediated scaffolding, strategic integration, judicious review, and primed background knowledge. • Big Ideas – Big ideas refer to focusing reading

instruction on important, key information. This important information can serve as building blocks to future learning. Big ideas make it possible for students to learn the most as efficiently as possible and serve as anchoring concepts by which “small” ideas can often be misunderstood (Simmons & Kameenui, 1998).

• Conspicuous Strategies – Students with

reading disabilities often lack a repertoire of reading strategies and need explicit instruction in learning and internalizing effective strategies for reading. Strategies that are generalizable and conspicuous facilitate the most efficient learning for students with specific learning disabilities (Simmons & Kameenui, 1998). For example, when teaching phoneme manipulation, a teacher may explicitly manipulate the individual sounds through concrete representations, such as Elkonin boxes and tiles, colored blocks, or magnetic letters and apply the skill to a more authentic task.

• Mediated Scaffolding – Mediated scaffolding

involves teachers providing a continuum of support to learners as they learn a new skill or encounter a difficult skill. The goal of

scaffolding is to assist the learner appropriately, gradually reducing the assistance to ensure independence. Students with reading disabilities may need scaffolding to assist their learning as they acquire new knowledge and skills. Scaffolds can be physical, visible, and auditory and are often integrated. Examples of scaffolds may include visible prompts, such as Elkonin boxes and tokens, teacher generated lines, and visual organizers. Scaffolds can be auditory, such as verbally prompting a reader when he or she encounters an unknown word. Teachers may need to physically prompt a student by guiding a student’s finger below an Elkonin box as he practices hearing sounds in words.

• Strategic Integration – Students with reading

disabilities may struggle with making connections among concepts or ideas. Explicitness is the key to integrating and linking concepts and skills. Simmons and Kameenui (1998) refer to this principle as strategic integration. They stress the importance of being strategic and explicit as the teacher assists students in understanding how key concepts relate to other concepts to avoid confusion. For example, when connecting letter-sound correspondence to phonemic awareness, the teacher can introduce the physical representation of a phoneme or sound to demonstrate their relationship.

• Judicious Review – Students with reading

disabilities will often need many opportunities to practice what they have learned in order to be successful. Purposeful practice and review will assist students in retaining what they have learned and applying the new skill in different contexts. Guided practice provides students with a continuum of support as they practice the newly learned skill. Daily review provides opportunities to build background knowledge and develop fluency and automaticity.

• Primed Background Knowledge – Successful

acquisition of new information depends largely on the knowledge that the learner brings to a task, the accuracy of that information, and the degree to which the

learner accesses and uses that information (Simmons & Kameenui, 1998). For students with reading disabilities, it is important to elicit their background knowledge through explicit conversation and reminders before introducing the new information.

CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN For non-traditional learners or students with reading disabilities to become successful readers, reading instruction should focus on the strengths and needs of the individual student. Students with reading disabilities will benefit from comprehensive reading instruction focusing on phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. However, delivery of instruction will need to be more explicit, intensive, and supportive in order for successful reading to be achieved.

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS Catts, H. W., & Hogan, T. P. (2003). Language basis of reading disabilities and implications for early

identification and remediation. Reading Psychology, 24, 223-246. Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote

reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16(4), 203-212. Houck-Ray, L., & Olliff, C. (2004). Beyond balance: A connected literacy learning approach for students with

learning disabilities. The Florida Reading Quarterly, 40(4), 14-17. Kameenui, E. J., & Simmons, D. C. (1998). What reading research tells us about children with diverse learning

needs: Bases and basics. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lyons, G. R., Alexander, D., & Yaffe, S. (1997). Progress and promise in research in learning disabilities.

Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(1), 1-6. Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (1998). Individual differences in contextual facilitation: Evidence from dyslexia

and poor reading comprehension. Child Development, 69(4), 996-1001. President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education. (2002). A new era: Revitalizing special education

for children and their families. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at

any level. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Stone, A. (1989). Improving the effectiveness of strategy training for learning disabled students: The role of

communication dynamics. Remedial and Special Education, 10, 35-41. United States Department of Education. (2002). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children

with disabilities. Twenty-fourth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, D.C.

FLaRE Center Teaching Academy – Suite 403 University of Central Florida

4000 Central Florida Blvd Orlando, FL 32816-1250

Phone: 407-823-4785 FAX: 407-823-4682 http://flare.ucf.edu

FLaRE is a Project of the University of Central Florida College of Education and administered under a grant from the Florida Department of Education and Just Read, Florida!