CRR Week 5: Evaluating Source Materials

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Chapter 16 •

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

16.1 Formulate a research question instead of a topic.

16.2 Think rhetorically about kinds of sources.

16.3 Find sources through field, library, or Web research.

16.4 Use rhetorical awareness to select and evaluate your sources and take purposeful notes.

Although the research paper is a common writing assignment in college, students are often baffled by their professor's expectations. The problem is that students often think of research writing as presenting information rather than creating an argument. One of our business-school colleagues calls these sorts of research papers "data dumps."

But a research paper shouldn't be a data dump. Like any other argument, it should use information to support a contestable claim. In academic settings (as opposed to arguments in many business or civic settings), a distinguishing feature of a researched argument is its formal documentation. By documentation, we mean the in-text citations and accompanying list of references that allow readers to identify and locate the researcher's sources for themselves while also establish- ing the writer's professionalism and ethos.

Fortunately, writing an argument as a formal research paper draws on the same argumentation skills you have already been using the ability to pose a question at issue within a community, to formulate a contestable claim, and to support your claim with audience-based reasons and evidence. This chapter shows you how to find and evaluate sources. Chapter 17 then shows you how to incorporate your sources skillfully into your own prose using the academic con- ventions for ethical research. (Knowing and using these conventions will free you from any fears of plagiarism.) Finally, in Chapter 18 we explain the nitty-gritty details of in-text citations and end-of-paper lists of sources.

Finding and Evaluating Sources 343

Formulating a Research ~ uestion Instead of a Topic 16.1 Formulate a research question instead of a topic.

The best way to use your research time efficiently is to pose a question rather than a topic. To appreciate this difference, suppose a friend asks you what your research paper is about. Consider the differences in the following responses:

Topic focus: I'm doing a paper on gender-specific children's toys.

Question focus: I'm researching the effects of gender-specific toys on children's intellectual development. Do boys' toys develop intellectual skills more than girls' toys do?

Topic focus: I'm doing a paper on eating disorders.

Question focus: I'm trying to sort out what the experts say is the best way to treat severe anorexia nervosa. Is inpatient treatment or outpatient treatment more effective?

As these scenarios suggest, a topic focus invites you to collect information without a clear point or purpose an open road toward data dumping. In con- trast, a question focus requires you to make an argument in which you support a claim with reasons and evidence. Your goal as a researcher is to pose an issue question about which reasonable persons may disagree. In many cases, you might not know where you stand yourself. Your research thus becomes a process of inquiry and clarification.

Thinking etorically About Kinds of Sources 16.2 Think rhetorically about kinds of sources.

To be an effective researcher, you need to think rhetorically about the different kinds of sources.

Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question At the beginning of your research process, think rhetorically about the conversa- tion you will be joining and about the kinds of evidence you might use to support an argument. The brainstorming questions at the end of Chapter 4 on kinds of evidence (ranging from personal experience to library sources) can help you think of possible sources for your argument and help you discover different points of view on your question.

Approaching Sources Rhetorically Whether you interview someone, listen to a speaker, or read a text, you need to analyze this source rhetorically, asking questions about the writer's or speaker's purpose, audience, genre, and angle of vision (explained in detail in Chapter 7

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on an alyzing argumen ts rhetorically). As a researcher, you often need to ascertain a text's genre even before you d ecide to select that text as a potential source for your paper. Your payoff for having a basic understanding of source typ es will b e an increased ability to read sources rhetorically and to u se them purposefully in your research writing.

To help you appreciate how rhetorical analysis can increase your skills as a researcher, p eruse Table 16.1. The following explanations will help you under- stand the table's explanations of each source's d egree of editorial review, stability, adv ocacy, and authority.

Table 16.1 A Rhetorical Overview of Sources

ARTICLES IN SCHOLARLY JOURNALS Examples: articles in Journal of Abnor- mal Psychology or American Journal of Botany

SCHOLARLY BOOKS Example: Shakespearean Negotia- tions: The Circulation of Social Identity in Renaissance England by Stephen Greenblatt

SCHOLARLY WEBSITES Example: http:/ /seasia.museum. upenn .edu (Southeast Asian Archeol- ogy Scholarly website)

REFERENCE WORKS Example: The Farmer's Almanac; New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy

NEWSPAPERS AND NEWS MAGAZINES Examples: Time, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times

ARTICLES IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS PERIODICALS Examples: Harper's, Commonweal, National Review

Peer-Reviewed Scholarly Sources

Author: Professors, industry research- ers, independent scholars Angle of vision: Scholarly advance- ment of knowledge; presentation of research findings; development of new theories and applications

Author: Professors, industry researchers, independent scholars Angle of vision: Scholarly advance- ment of knowledge; presentation of research findings; development of new theories and applications

Author: Professors or institute scholars Angle of vision: Dissemination of research findings; informative access to

• pnmary sources

Author: Commissioned scholars Angle of vision: Balanced, factual

• overv1ew

Public Affairs Sources

Author: Staff writers and journalists; occasional freelance journalists Angle of vision: News reports aimed at balance and objectivity; editorial pages reflect perspective of edi- tors; op-ed pieces reflect different perspectives

Author: Staff writers, freelancers, scholars Angle of vision: Aims to deepen general public 's understanding of issues; magazines often have political bias

• Not sold on magazine racks • No commercial advertising • Academ ic style with documentation and

bibliography • Cover often lists table of contents • Found through licensed online databases

• University press or other academic publisher on title page

• Academ ic style with documentation and bibliography

• Found in academic libraries; may be available as e-book

• Usually have a .edu web address or address of professional scholarly organization

• Clearly identified with an academic institution

• Material is usually peer reviewed, but may include reports on work-in-progress or links to primary sources

• Titles containing words such as encyclo- pedia, dictionary, atlas, and so forth

• Found in library reference section or online

• Readi ly familiar by name, distinctive cover style

• Widely available on newsstands, by subscription, and on the web

• Ads aimed at broad, general audience

• Long, well-researched articles reviewed by editors

• Ads aimed at upscale professionals • Often have reviews of books, theater,

film, and the arts • Often can be found in on line databases

or on the web

ORGANIZATIONAL WHITE PAPERS Examples : "Congressional White Paper on a National Policy for the Environ- ment" (on web) or "Reform Sugges- tions for Core Curriculum" (in-house document at a university)

BLOGS Examples: dailykos.com (liberal blog site); michellemalkin.com (conservative blog site); theladysportswriter. blogspot. com (sports commentary)

NONFICTION BOOKS OF GENERAL INTEREST Example: Cheap: The High Cost of Discount Culture by Ellen Ruppel! Shell (a journalism professor)

DOCUMENTARY FILMS Examples: Michael Moore, Sicko; Louie Psihoyos, The Cove

NEWSPAPER EDITORIALS, COMMEN- TARY, AND LEI I ERS TO THE EDITOR Examples: editorial page, letters to the editor, and op-ed pages of Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Wall Street Journal, and some magazines

EDITORIAL CARTOONS Examples: see www.cagle. com/politicalcartoons/

ADVOCACY ORGANIZA- TION WEBSITES, BLOGS, AND ADVERTISEMENTS Examples: NRA.org (National Rifle Association); csgv.org (Coalition to Stop Gun Violence)

GOVERNMENT AGENCY WEBSITES Example: www.energy.gov (website of the U.S. Dept. of Energy)

Author: Organizational stakeholders; problem-solvers for a client Angle of vision: Informative document for client or argumentative paper for influencing policy or improving operations

Author: Anyone; some bloggers are practicing journalists Angle of vision: Varies from personal diaries to in-depth commentary on a subject or issues; wide range of views from conservative to liberal

Author: Journalists, freelancers, scholars aiming at popular audience Angle of vision: Varies from informative to persuasive; often well researched and respected, but sometimes shoddy and aimed for quick sale

Writer/Director: Filmmakers, screenwriters trained in nonfiction documentaries Angle of vision: Varies from informa- tive science documentaries to strong advocacy

Advocacy Sources

Author: Editorial writers; citizens writi ng letters to the editor; syndicated or guest colu mnists Angle of vision: Advocacy for certain positions or public policies

Cartoonist: Usually syndicated artists who specialize in cartoons Angle of vision: Varies from conservative to liberal

Author/Site Sponsor: Advocacy organizations; staff writers/researchers; web developers; guest writers; often, it is difficult to identify individual writers Angle of vision: Strong advocacy for the site's viewpoint; often encourage donations through site

Government Sources

Author: Development teams employed by agency; sponsoring agency is usu- ally the author (corporate authorship); may include material by individual authors Angle of vision: Varies-informational sites publish data and objective docu- ments; agency sites also advocate for agency's agenda

Finding and Evaluating Sources 345

• Desktop-published, internal documents aimed at problem solving ; may also be written for clients

• Internal documents generally not made available to the public

• Sometimes posted to web or published in print

• Usually published on time-stamped blog sites; most sites post responses from readers

• Bloggers sometimes use pseudonyms • Often combines text with images or

linked videos

• Published by commercial presses for profit • Popular style; covers designed for

marketing appeal • Usually documented in an informal rather

than an academic style • May be available as an e-book

• Specifically identified as "documentary" or "nonfiction"

• Combines interviews and voice-overs with subject -matter footage

• Located in the editorial/op-ed sections of a newspaper

• Editorials are often unsigned-they advocate positions held by owners or publishers of the newspaper

• Letters and op-ed pieces are signed

• Usually located in the op-ed section of newspapers

• Occasionally political cartoonists are treated as comic strips (Doonesbury)

• .org in URL-denotes advocacy or nonprofit status

• Sometimes doesn't announce advocacy clearly on home page

• Facts/data selected and filtered by site's angle of vision

• Often uses visuals for emotional appeals • Site often includes blogs (or links to

blogs) that promote same angle of vision

• .gov or .mil in URL- denotes government or mil itary sites

• Are often layered and complex with hundreds of links to other sites

(continued)

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LEGAL AND COURT DOCUMENTS Author: Lawyers, judges, persons deposed for trials, trial testimony Angle of vision: Trial lawyers take strong advocacy positions; testifiers vow to tell the whole truth; judges defend decisions

• Legal briefs have distinctive formats • Court records can be accessed through

www.pacer.gov (public access to court electronic records-requires user to establish an account)

POLITICAL AND LEGISLATIVE SPEECHES

Author: Politicians, political candi- dates, researchers, and aides Angle of vision: Reflects politics of speaker

• Widely available throug h newspapers, websites, You Tube videos, congressional records

Commercial Sources

TRADE MAGAZINES • Title indicating trade or profession Examples: Advertising Age, Automotive Rebuilder, Farm Journal

Author: Staff writers, industry specialists Angle of vision: Informative articles for practitioners; advocacy for the pro- fession or trade

• Articles on practical industry concerns • Ads geared toward a particular trade or

profession

POPULAR NICHE MAGAZINES Examples: Seventeen, People, Car and Driver, Golf Digest

COMM ERCIAL WEBSITES AN D ADVERTISEMENTS

PERSONAL WEBSITES, SLOGS, OR CORRESPONDENCE

Author: Staff or freelance writers Angle of vision: Varies-focuses on interests of targeted audience; in some cases content and point of view are dictated by advertisers or the pub- lisher's politics

Author: Development teams, in-house writers, contracted developers; adver- tising agencies Angle of vision: Varies from informa- tion to advocacy; promotes the view- point of the business

Author: Anyone can create a personal website or blog or write personal letters/e-mails Angle of vision: Varies from person to person

DEGREE OF EDITORIAL REVIEW

• Glossy paper, extensive ads, lots of visuals

• Popular; often distinctive style • Short, undocumented articles • Credentials of writer often not mentioned

• .com or .biz in URL-denotes "commer- cial" or "business"

• Advertisements or websites often promote corporate image as well as products

• Freq uent use of visuals as well as text

• Researcher using these sources is responsible for citing credentials of source or revealing bias of source

• N ote that Table 16.1 begins w ith " p eer-reviewed sch olarly sou rces," w hich are p ublish ed by n onprofit acad emic presses and w ritten for sp ecialized audien ces. Peer review is a highly prized con cept in acad em ia. It refers to the rigorou s and competitive selection process b y w h ich sch olarly manu- scripts get ch osen for publication. When manuscripts are submitted to an academ ic publisher, the editor rem oves the names of the authors and sends the m anuscripts to exp erien ced scholars w h o judge the rigor and accuracy of the research and the significance and valu e of the argument. In contrast, the other typ es of sou rces listed in Table 16.1 many of w hich are publish ed for profit are n ot p eer review ed and m ay h ave little or n o editorial review from the publish er. H owever, reputable publishers of b ooks, m agazines, and n ew sp ap ers u sually employ rigorou s editors who oversee the p roduction of books and freelance or commissioned magazine articles. Fortunately, it can be profitable for p opular presses to publish superbly researched and argu ed intellectual material w ritten for the gen eral reader rather than for highly sp e- cialized scholars. These can be excellent sources for undergraduate research, but you n eed to separate the trash from the treasure.

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DEGREE OF STABILITY

• Print sources (books, scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers), which can be stored in archives and retrieved many years later, are more stable than web-only material, which may change hourly. What complicates the distinc- tion between "print" and "web only" is that many documents retrievable on the Web are also stable either because they were originally print sources and have been made available online in pdf or html formats, or because they are produced by a reputable company as e-books, e-journals, or online news- papers that will be archived digitally. As a quick example of a stable versus nonstable source, suppose you wrote a letter to the editor that was published in a major newspaper. Your letter will be archived permanently, and it will be retrievable, just as you wrote it, long into the future. But if instead you posted a comment on a blog site, that comment (and the whole blog site) might disappear at any time.

For Writing and Discussion Identifying Types of Sources Your instructor w ill bring to c lass a variety of print sources-different kinds of books, scholarly journals, magazines, and so forth-and may also show you various kinds of sources retrieved onl ine. Working indi- vidually or in small groups, decide to which category in Table 16.1 each piece belongs. Be prepared to justify your decisions based on the c lues you used.

DEGREE OF ADVOCACY

• In Chapter 1 we explained how arguments combine truth seeking and per- suasion. To illustrate these concepts, we charted a continuum from explor- atory essays at one end of the continuum to outright propaganda at the other end (see Figure 1.5). To read a source rhetorically, you should try to determine where on this continuum your source resides. In Table 16.1, we identify as advocacy sources those sources that clearly announce their persuasive inten- tions. But other kinds of sources, such as an article in a public affairs maga- zine, a popular book, a legal brief, a documentary film, or a political speech, can have a strong advocacy stance.

DEGREE OF AUTHORITY

• Sometimes you turn to a specific genre because you just want the facts. Reputable newspapers are good sources for day-to-day reporting on "what happened." Other kinds of excellent fact-checking sources include encyclo- pedias, statistical abstracts, and other reference works that provide distilled background or overview information on many topics. For most sources, however, you need to be wary about the author's authority in a field and read rhetorically for angle of vision, accuracy of data, and cherry picking of sources. Be aware too that Wikipedia is not a reliable academic source. Although it is a fascinating cultural product that provides rapid access to overview information, it is often accused of inaccurate information,

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editorial bias, and shifting content because of constant revisions by its col- laborative writers. Most instructors will not accept Wikipedia as a fac tual or informative source.

Finding Sources 16.3 Find sources through field, library, or Web research.

In the previous section, we explained d ifferences among the kinds of sources you may uncover in a research project. In this section, we explain how to find these sources through field research (such as interviews and questionnaires), through using your campus's library resources (books, reference materials, and online databases for finding articles), and through web searches.

Conducting Interviews Conducting interviews is a useful way not only to gather expert testimony and important data for use in your argument but also to learn about alternative views. To make interviews as productive as possible, we offer these suggestions.

• Determine your purpose. Consider why you are interviewing the person and what information he or she is uniquely able to provide.

• Do background reading. Find out as much as possible about the interviewee before the interview. Your knowledge of his or her background will help establish your credibility and build a bridge between you and your source. Also, equip yourself with a good foundational understanding of the issue so that you will sound informed and truly interested in the issue.

• Formulate well-thought-out questions, but also be flexible. Write out beforehand the questions you intend to ask, making sure that every question is related to the purpose of your interview. However, be prepared to move in unexpected directions if the interview opens up new territory. Sometimes unplanned topics can end up being the most illuminating and useful.

• Arrive well prepared for the interview. As part of your professional demeanor, be sure to have all the necessary supplies (notepaper, pens, pencils, perhaps a recording device if your interviewee is w illing) with you.

• Be prompt and courteous. It is important to be punctual and respectful of your interviewee's time. In most cases, it is best to present yourself as a listener seeking clarity on an issue rather than an advocate of a particular position or an opponent. During the interview, p lay the believing role. Save the doubting role for later, when you are looking over your notes.

• Take brief but clear notes. Record the main ideas and be accurate w ith quota- tions. Ask for clarification of any points you don't understand.

• Transcribe your notes soon after the interview. Immediately after the interview, while your memory is still fresh, rewrite your notes more fully and completely.

When you use interview data in your writing, put quotation marks around any direct quotations. In most cases, you should also identify your source by name and indicate his or her title or credentials w h atever will convince the reader that this person's remarks are to be taken serious! y.

Gather-ing Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires

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A well-constructed survey or questionnaire can provide lively, current data that give your audience a sense of the currency and importance of your views. To be effective and responsible, however, a survey or questionnaire needs to be carefully prepared and administered, as we suggest in the following guidelines.

• Include both closed-response questions and open-response questions. To gain useful information and avoid charges of bias, you will want to include a range of questions. Closed-response questions ask participants to check a box or number on a scale, and they yield quantitative data that you can report statistically, perhaps in tables or graphs. Open-response questions elicit varied responses and often short narratives in which participants offer their own input. These may contribute new insights to your perspective on the issue.

• Make your survey or questionnaire clear and easy to complete. Consider the num- ber, order, wording, and layout of the questions in your questionnaire. Your questions should be clear and easy to answer. Neatness and an overall formal appearance of the questionnaire will also invite serious responses from your participants.

• Explain the purpose of the questionnaire. Respondents are usually more willing to participate if they know how the information gained from the question- naire will benefit others. Therefore, it is a good idea to state at the beginning of the questionnaire how it will be used.

• Seek a random sample of respondents in your distribution of the questionnaire. Think out where and how you will distribute and collect your questionnaire to ensure a random sampling of respondents. For example, if a questionnaire about the university library went only to dorm residents, then you wouldn't learn how commuting students felt.

• Convert questionnaires into usable data by tallying and summarizing responses. Tallying the results and formulating summary statements of the information you gathered will yield material that might be used as evidence.

Finding Books and Reference Sources To find the specialized resources provided by your campus library, your best initial research tool is your campus library's home page. This portal will lead you to two important resources: (1) the library's online catalog for its own hold- ings of books, periodicals, films, multimedia materials, reference works, and other resources, and (2) direct links to the many digital databases leased by the library. (We discuss these databases in the next section.) When searching for books related to your research question, particularly look for recent books that might have helpful indexes and bibliographies. Also be aware of your library's reference materials such as statistical abstracts, biographies, dictionaries, and encyclopedias.

In addition to checking your library's home page, make a personal visit to your library to learn its features and to meet your library's reference librarians, who are a researcher's best friends.

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Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines, and News Sources For many research projects, the most useful sources are articles that may be immediately available in your library's periodical collection or online through databases. In either case, you discover the existence of these articles by searching licensed databases leased by your library.

WHAT IS A LICENSED DATABASE? Electronic databases of periodical sources are produced by for-profit companies that index the articles appearing in thou- sands of periodicals. You can search the database by author, title, subject, key- word, date, genre, and other characteristics. In most cases, the database contains an abstract of each article, and in many cases it contains the full text of the article, which you can download and print. These databases are referred to by several different generic names: licensed databases (our preferred term), periodical databases, or subscription services. Because access to these databases is restricted to fee-pay- ing customers, they can't be searched through web search engines like Google. Most university libraries allow students to access these databases from a remote computer by using a password. You can therefore use the Internet to connect your computer to licensed databases as well as to the World Wide Web.

Although the methods of accessing licensed databases vary from institution to institution, we can offer some widely applicable guidelines. Most likely your library has access to one or more of the following databases:

• Academic Search Complete (Ebsco): Indexes nearly 8,000 periodicals, including full text of nearly 7,000 peer-reviewed journals. It features a mix of interdis- ciplinary scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers, and books.

• Research Library Complete (ProQuest): Similar to Academic Search Complete except that it includes trade publications and more business and industry materials.

• LexisNexis Academic Universe: Primarily a full-text database covering current events, business, and financial news; includes company profiles and legal, medical, and reference information.

• JSTOR: Offers full text of scholarly journal articles across many disciplines; you can limit searches to specific disciplines.

Generally, one of these databases is the default database chosen by your library for most article searches. Your reference librarian will be able to direct you to the most useful licensed database for your purpose.

Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web Another valuable resource is the World Wide Web, but when using the web you need to be extra careful to evaluate your sources rhetorically. Web search engines search only the free-access, ever-changing portions of the Internet known as the World Wide Web. When you type keywords into a web search engine, it searches for matches in material made available on the web by all the users of the world's network of computers government agencies, corporations, advocacy groups, information services, individuals with their own websites, and many others.

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Because different web search engines search the web in different ways, your ref- erence librarian can give you good advice on what works well for particular kinds of searches. On the web, an additional resource is NoodleTools.com, which offers lots of good advice for choosing the best search engine.

• The following example will quickly show you the difference between a licensed database search and a web search. When student Ivan Snook (see his proposal argument in Chapter 15) typed "women in combat roles" into Google, he received 5,800,000 hits. When he entered the same keywords into the licensed database Academic Search Complete, he received forty-four hits. When he limited the database search to full-text articles appearing in peer-reviewed journals, he received twenty hits. Clearly, the search tools are searching different fields. Google picks up, in addition to all the articles that someone may have posted on the web, all references to material appear- ing on advocacy websites, government publications, newspapers, b logs, chat rooms, student papers posted on the web, and so forth. In contrast, Academic Search Complete searches for articles primarily in scholarly journals and magazines.

Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources and Taking Purposeful Notes 16.4 Use rhetorical awareness to select and evaluate your sources

and take purposeful notes.

So far, we have explained the importance of posing a good research question; understanding the different kinds of sources; and using purposeful strategies for conducting interviews, for designing questionnaires, and for searching libraries, licensed databases, and the web. In this final section, we explain how to read with rhetorical awareness, how to select and evaluate sources, and how to take pur- poseful notes. We also provide some additional advice for evaluating web sources.

Reading with Rhetorical Awareness How you read a source may depend on where you are in the research process. Early in the process, when you are in the thesis-seeking, exploratory stage, your goal is to achieve a basic understanding about your research problem. You need to become aware of different points of view, learn what is unknown or controversial about your research question, see what values or assumptions are in conflict, and build up your store of background knowledge.

Given these goals, at the early stages of research you should select overview kinds of sources to get you into the conversation. In some cases, even an ency- clopedia or specialized reference work can be a good start for getting general background information.

As you get deeper into your research, your questions become more focused, and the sources you read become more specialized. Once you formulate a thesis and p lan a structure for your paper, you can determine more clearly the sources you need and read them with purpose and direction.

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Table 16.2 Questions Asked by Rhetorical Readers

What was the source author's purpose in writing this piece?

• Who is t his author? What are his or her credentials and affiliations?

• What audience is th is person add ressing? • What is the genre of this piece? (If you downloaded t he

piece from the World Wid e Web , did it originally appear in print?)

• If this p iece appeared in print, w hat is the reputation and bias of the journal, magazine, or press? Was the piece peer reviewed?

• If this p iece appeared only on the web , who or what organization sponsors the website (check the home page)? What is the reputation and bias of the sponsor?

• What is the author's t hesis or pu rpose? • How d oes this author try to change his or her aud ience's

view? • What is this w riter's ang le of vision or bias? • What is omitted or censored from this text? • How reliable and credible is t his author? • What facts, data, and ot her evidence d oes this author use,

and what are the sources of these data? • What are this author's underlying values , assumptions,

and bel iefs?

What might be my purpose in using this piece in my own argument?

• How has t his p iece influenced o r compl icated my own thinking?

• How does this piece relate to my research q uestion? • How w ill my own intended aud ience react to th is author? • How might I use t his p iece in my own argument? • Is it an opposing view that I m ight summarize? • Is it an alternative point of view that I might compare to

other points of view? • Does it have facts and data that I m ight use? • Would a summary of all or part of this argument su pport or

oppose one or more of my own poi nts? • Could I use this author for testimony? (If so, how shou ld I

ind icate t his author's credentials?) • If I use this source, w ill I need to acknowledge the author's

bias and angle of vision?

To read your sources rhetorically, you should keep two basic questions in mind:

1. What was the source author's purpose in writing this piece?

2. What might be my purpose in using this piece?

Table 16.2, which lists the questions that rhetorical readers typically ask, rein- forces a point we've made throughout this text: All writing is produced from an angle of vision that privileges some ways of seeing and filters out other ways. You should guard against reading your sources as if they present hard, undisputed facts or universal truths. For example, if one of your sources says that "Saint John's wort [an herb] has been shown to be an effective treatment for depression," some of your readers might accept that statement as fact but many wouldn't. Skeptical readers might ask whether the author is relying on published research, and if so, whether the studies have been peer-reviewed in reputable, scholarly journals. They would also want to know whether a trade association for herbal supplements sponsored the research and whether the author or the researchers had financial connections to companies that produce herbal remedies. Rather than settling the question about Saint John's wort as a treatment for depression, this author's assertion may open up a heated controversy about medical research.

Reading rhetorically is thus a way of thinking critically about your sources. It influences the way you evaluate sources, take notes, and shape your argument.

Evaluating Sources When you read sources for your research project, you need to evaluate them as you go along. As you read each potential source, ask yourself questions about the author's reliability, credibility, angle of vision, political stance, and degree of advocacy.

Finding and Evaluating Sources 353

RELIABILITY Reliability refers to the accuracy of factual data in a source. If you check a writer's "facts" against other sources, do you find that the facts are cor- rect? Does the writer distort facts, take them out of context, or otherwise use them unreasonably? In some controversies, key data are highly disputed for example, the frequency of date rape or the risk factors for many diseases. A reli- able writer acknowledges these controversies and doesn't treat disputed data as fact. Furthermore, if you check out the sources used by a reliable writer, they'll reveal accurate and careful research respected primary sources rather than hear- say or secondhand reports. Journalists of reputable newspapers (not tabloids) pride themselves on meticulously checking out their facts, as do editors of serious popular magazines. However, editing is often minimal for web sources, which can be notoriously unreliable. As you gain knowledge about your research question, you'll develop a good ear for writers who play fast and loose with data.

CREDIBILITY Credibility is similar to reliability but is based on internal rather than external factors. It refers to the reader's trust in the writer's honesty, goodwill, and trustworthiness and is apparent in the writer's tone, reasonableness, fairness in summarizing opposing views, and respect for different perspectives. (Authors who earn your trust have successfully appealed to ethos.) Audiences differ in how much credibility they will grant to certain authors. Nevertheless, a writer can achieve a reputation for credibility, even among bitter political opponents, by applying to issues a sense of moral courage, integrity, and consistency of principle.

ANGLE OF VISION By angle of vision, we mean the way that a piece of writing is shaped by its author's underlying values, assumptions, and beliefs, resulting in a text that reflects a certain perspective, world view, or belief system. Of paramount importance are the underlying values or beliefs that the writer assumes his or her readers will share. You can get useful clues about a writer's angle of vision and intended audience by doing some quick research into the politics and reputation of the author on the Internet or by analyzing the genre, market niche, and political reputation of the publication in which the material appears.

POLITICAL STANCE Your awareness of angle of vision and political stance is especially important if you are doing research on contemporary cultural or politi- cal issues. In Table 16.3, we have categorized some well-known political commen- tators, publications, policy research institutes (commonly known as think tanks), and blogs across the political spectrum from left/liberal to right/ conservative.

Although the terms liberal and conservative or left and right often have fuzzy meanings, they provide convenient shorthand for signaling a person's over- all views about the proper role of government in relation to the economy and social values. Liberals, tending to sympathize with those potentially harmed by unfettered free markets (workers, consumers, p laintiffs, endangered species), are typically comfortable with government regulation of economic matters. Conser- vatives, who tend to sympathize with business interests, typically assert faith in free markets and favor a limited regulatory role for government. On social issues, conservatives tend to espouse traditional family values and advocate laws that would maintain these values (for example, promoting a constitutional amend- ment that would forbid abortions). Liberals, on the other hand, tend to espouse individual choice on many social matters. Some persons identify themselves as economic conservatives but social liberals; others side with workers' interests on economic issues but are conservative on social issues.

354 Chapter 16

Table 16.3 Ang les of Vision in U.S. Media and Think Tan ks: A Sampling Across the Political Spectrum

Barbara Ehrenreich Naomi Klein Michael Moore (film-maker) Paul Krugman Thom Hartman (radio) Rachel Maddow (television)

The American Prospect Harper's Los Angeles Times Mother Jones The Nation New York Times New Yorker Salon Sojourners

americablog .com crooksandliars.com dailykos.com digbysblog. blogspot. com firedoglake.com huffingtonpost.com med iamatters. com talkingpointsmemo.com wonkette.com

Center for American Progress

E. J. Dionne Leonard Pitts Gail Collins Nicholas Kristof Maureen Dowd Mark Shields Frank Bruni Charles M. Blow Froma Harrop

Center for Media and Democracy (sponsors Disinfopedia. org) Institute for Policy Studies Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) Progressive Policy Institute Urban Institute

David Ignatius Thomas Friedman Kathleen Hall Jamieson Kevin Phillips David Broder

David Brooks Peggy Noonan Jonah Goldberg And rew Sullivan George Wi ll

Charles Krauthammer Michelle Malki n Glenn Beck (radio/TV) Rush Limbaugh (radio/TV) Bill O'Reilly (radio/TV) Kathleen Parker Will iam Saletan

Mary Sanchez Ruben Navarrette, Jr. Ross Douthat Thomas Sowell

Atlantic Monthly Business Week Commentary Commonweal Foreign Affairs New Republic Slate Washington Post

don klephant. com

Paul Gigot

newmoderate. blogspot. com politics-central. blogspot . com rantingbald hippie.com stevesilver. net themoderatevoice. com washingtonindependent. com watchi ngwashington . blogspot.com

The Brookings Institution Carnegie Endowment for Interna- tional Peace Council on Foreign Relations Jamestown Foundation National Bureau of Economic Research

Avik Roy

American Spectator Fortune National Review Reader's Digest Reason Wall Street Journal Washington Times Weekly Standard Breitbart News (far right)

fi rsti nthenation . us instapundit. com littlegreenfootballs.com michellemalkin .com polipundit. com powerlineblog .com sistertoldjah. com red state. com townhall.com

American Enterprise Institute Cato Institute (Libertarian) Center for Strategic and International Studies Heritage Foundation (sponsors Townhall.com) Project for the New American Century

* For further information about the political leanings of publications or think tanks, ask your librarian about the Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Med ia or NIRA World Directory of Think Tanks.*

* Newspapers are categorized according to positions they take on their editorial page; any reputable newspaper strives for objectivity in news reporting and includes a variety of views on its op-ed pages. Magazines do not claim and are not expected to present similar breadth and objectivity.

Finding and Evaluating Sources 355

Finally, many persons regard themselves as "centrists." In Table 16.3, the column labeled "Center" includes commentators who seek out common ground between the left and the right and who often believe that the best civic decisions are compromises between opposing views. Likewise, centrist publications and institutes often approach issues from multiple points of view, looking for the most workable solutions.

DEGREE OF ADVOCACY By degree of advocacy, we mean the extent to which an author unabashedly takes a persuasive stance on a contested position as opposed to adopting a more neutral, objective, or exploratory stance. For example, publica- tions affiliated with advocacy organizations (the Sierra Club, the National Rifle Association) will have a clear editorial bias. When a writer takes a strong stance on an issue, you need to weigh carefully the writer's selection of evidence, interpreta- tion of data, and fairness to opposing views. Although no one can be completely neutral, it is always useful to seek out authors who offer a balanced assessment of the evidence. Evidence from a more detached and neutral writer may be more trusted by your readers than the arguments of a committed advocate.

Criteria for Evaluating a Web Source When you evaluate a web source, we suggest that you ask five different kinds of questions about the site in which the source appeared, as listed in Table 16.4. These questions, developed by scholars and librarians as points to consider when you are evaluating websites, will help you determine the usefulness of a site or source for your own purposes.

Table 16.4 Criteria for Evaluating Websites

1 . Authority

2. Objectivity or Clear Disclosure of Advocacy

3 . Coverage

4 . Accuracy

5 . Cu rrency

• Is t he document author o r site sponsor clearly identified? • Does the site identify t he occupation, position , ed ucation, experience, o r other credentials of the author? • Does the home page or a clear li nk from the home page reveal t he author's or sponsor's motivation for

establish ing the site? • Does the site provide contact information for t he author or sponsor, such as an e-mail or organization

add ress?

• Is t he site's pu rpose clear (for example, to inform, entertain, or persuade)? • Is t he site explicit about declaring its point of view? • Does the site ind icate whether the author is affiliated with a specific organization, institution , or

association? • Does the site ind icate whether it is directed toward a specific audience?

• A re the topics covered by the site c lear? • Does the site exhibit a suitable depth and comprehensiveness for its purpose? • Is sufficient evidence provided to support the ideas and opinions presented?

• A re the sources of information stated ? • Do the facts appear to be accurate? • Can you verify th is information by comparing this source wit h other sources in t he field?

• A re d ates included in the website? • Do the d ates apply to the material itself, to its placement on the web , or to the time the site was last

revised and updated? • Is t he information cu rrent, or at least sti ll relevant, for the site's p urpose? For you r pu rpose?

356 Chapter 16

As a researcher, the first question you should ask about a potentially use- ful web source should be, "Who placed this piece on the web and why?" You can begin answering this question by analyzing the site's home page, where you will often find navigational buttons linking to "Mission," "About Us," or other identifying information about the site's sponsors. You can also get hints about the site's purpose by asking, "What kind of website is it?" Different kinds of web sites have different purposes, often revealed by the domain identifier following the site name:

• com, .co., and .biz sites: These are commercial sites designed to promote a business's image, attract customers, market products and services, and pro- vide customer service. Their angle of vision is to promote the view of the corporation or business. Often, material has no identified author. (The spon- soring company is often cited as the author.)

• org sites: These are sites for nonprofit organizations or advocacy groups. Some sites provide accurate, balanced information related to the organiza- tion's mission work (Red Cross, World Vision), while others promote politi- cal views (Heritage Foundation) or advocate a cause (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals).

• edu sites: These sites are associated with a college or university. Home pages aim to attract prospective students and donors and provide a portal into the site. Numerous subsites are devoted to research, pedagogy, libraries, and so forth. The angle of vision can vary from strong advocacy on issues (a student paper, an on-campus advocacy group) to the objective and scholarly (a uni- versity research site).

For Writing and Discussion Analyzing the Rhetorical Elements of Two Websites

Individual task: Using a web search engine, find a site opposing gun control (such as the National Rifle Association or Women Against Gun Control) and a site supporting gun control (such as National Gun Victims Action Coun- cil or the Brady Campaign). Peruse each of your chosen sites. Then write out your answers to the following questions:

1. What is the angle of vision and degree of advocacy of each of the sites? How does the selection of images, links to articles, and use of "facts" and "fact sheets" indicate an angle of vision?

2. Look for images of women on each of your sites. How do they construct women differently and imply differences in women's concerns about guns?

3. What range of underlying values does each of the sites appeal to? How do words and images create viewer awareness of these underlying values?

4. How does each of the sites use logos, ethos, and pathos to sway readers toward its point of view?

Group task: Compare your answers to these questions with those of others in your class. How do you r rhetorical observations intersect? Where do they differ?

Finding and Evaluating Sources 357

• gov or .mil sites: These sites are sponsored by a government agency or mili- tary units. They can provide a range of basic data about government policy, bills in Congress, economic forecasts, census data, and so forth. Their angle of vision varies from objective (informational sites) to subjective (sites that promote the agency's agenda).

• .net sites: These sites were originally intended for networking businesses that provided Internet service or hosted Internet infrastructure. Recently the .net domain has expanded to include a wide range of commercial businesses and seems interchangeable with .com and .biz.

Because of a new rule by the agency that controls domain identifiers, people and organizations will be able to buy their own unique domain identifiers. Sites with unique identifiers are likely to be commercial sites because the identifiers cost thousands of dollars each.

Taking Purposeful Notes By reading rhetorically and evaluating your sources as you proceed, you will make purposeful choices about the sources you will use in your researched argu- ment. In this concluding section we offer advice on how to take notes about each of your sources. Many beginning researchers opt not to take notes a serious mis- take, in our view. Instead, they simply photocopy or print articles, perhaps using a highlighter to mark passages. This practice, which experienced researchers almost never use, reduces your ability to engage the ideas in a source and to find your own voice in a conversation. When you begin drafting your paper, you'll have no notes to refer to, no record of your thinking-in-progress. Your only recourse is to revisit all your sources, thumbing through them one at a time a practice that leads to passive cutting and pasting (and possible p lagiarism).

Good note taking includes recording bibliographic information for each source, recording information and ideas from each source, and responding to each source with your own ideas and exploratory writing.

RECORDING BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION To take good research notes, begin by making a bibliographic entry for each source, following the documenta- tion format assigned by your instructor. Although you will be tempted to put off doing this mechanical task, there are two reasons to do it immediately:

• Doing it now, while the source is in front of you, will save you time in the long run. Otherwise, you'll have to try to retrieve the source, in a late-night panic, just before the paper is due.

• Doing it now will make you look at the source rhetorically. Is it a peer-reviewed journal article? A magazine article? An op-ed piece? A blog? Having to make the bibliographic entry forces you to identify the source's genre. Chapter 18 explains in detail how to make bibliographic entries for both the MLA format (called "Works Cited") and the APA format (called "References").

RECORDING IDEAS AND INFORMATION AND RESPONDING TO EACH SOURCE To take good research notes, follow the reading habits of summary and exploration discussed in Chapter 8, weaving back and forth between walk- ing in the shoes of the source author and then standing back to believe and doubt

358 Chapter 16

what the source says. Think in terms of two categories of notes: informational and exploratory.

• Your informational notes on each source: Using the skills of summary writing explained in Chapter 8, summarize each source's argument and record use- ful information. To avoid the risk of plagiarism later, make sure that you put quotation marks around any passages that you copy word for word (be sure to copy exactly). When you summarize or paraphrase passages, be sure to put the ideas entirely into your own words. (For more on quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing sources, see Chapter 17.)

• Your own exploratory notes as you think of ideas: Write down your own ideas as they occur to you. Speak back to the source. Record your thinking-in-progress as you mull over ways the source sparked your own thinking.

An approach that encourages both modes of writing is to keep a dialectic or double-entry journal. Divide a page in half; enter your informational notes on one side and your exploratory writing on the other. If you use a computer, you can put your informational notes in one font and your own exploratory writing in another.

Taking effective notes is different from the mechanical process of copying out passages or simply listing facts and information. Rather, make your notes pur- poseful by imagining how you might use a given source in your research paper. Table 16.5 shows the different functions that research sources might play in your argument and highlights appropriate note-taking strategies for each function.

Table 16.5 Strategies for Taking Notes Accord ing to Purpose

Provides background about your problem or issue

Gives an alternative view that you will mention briefly

Provides an alternative or opposing view t hat you might summarize fully and respond to

Provides information or testimony that you might use as evidence

Mentions information or testimony that counters your position or raises doubts about your arg ument

Provides a theory or method that influences you r approach to the issue

• Summarize t he information. • Record specific facts and fig ures

useful for background .

• Summarize the sou rce's argument in a couple of sentences; note its bias and perspective.

• Identify brief q uotations that sum up t he source's perspective.

• Summarize the article fully and fairly (see Chapter 8 on summary writi ng) .

• Note t he kinds of evidence used .

• Record the data or information. • If using authorities for testimony,

quote short passages. • Note t he credentials of the writer

or person quoted.

• Note counterevidence. • Note authorities who disagree

with you.

• Note credentials of the author. • Note passages that sparked ideas.

• Speculate on how much background your readers will need.

• Jot d own ideas on how and why d ifferent sources disagree.

• Begin making an idea map of alternative views.

• Speculate about why you disagree w ith the source and whether you can refute t he argument, concede to it , or compromise with it.

• Explore what research you 'll need to support your own argument.

• Record new ideas as they occur to you.

• Continue to t hink purposefully about additional research you ' ll need .

• Speculate how you might respond to counterevidence.

• Freewrite about how the source influences your method or approach.

Finding and Evaluating Sources 359

Conclusion This chapter has explained the need to establish a good research question; to understand the key differences among different kinds of sources; to use purposeful strategies for searching libraries, databases, and websites; and to use your rhetori- cal knowledge when you read and evaluate sources and take p urposeful notes. It has also d iscussed briefly the sp ecial problems of evaluating a website. In the next chapter we focus on how to integrate research sources into your own prose.

360

Chapter 17

•

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

17.1 Use your sources for your own purposes.

17.2 Summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source.

17.3 Punctuate quotations correctly.

17.4 Signal your use of sources through rhetorically effective attributive tags.

17.5 Avoid plagiarism.

Previous chapters taught you to pose a good research question, use online data- bases, search the web wisely, and evaluate your sources by reading them rhetori- cally. This chapter teaches you how to incorporate sources smoothly into your own argument.

Using Sources for Your Own Purposes 17.1 Use your sources for your own purposes.

To illustrate the purposeful use of sources, we will use the following short argument from the website of the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH) an organization of doctors and scientists devoted to providing scientific information on health issues and to exposing health fads and myths. Please read the argument carefully in preparation for the discussions that follow.

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 361

Is Vegetarianism Healthier than Nonvegetarianism?

Many people become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetari- anism is uniquely conducive to good health. The findings of several large epi- demiologic studies indeed suggest that the death and chronic-disease rates of vegetarians primarily vegetarians who consume dairy products or both dairy products and eggs are lower than those of meat eaters ....

The health of vegetarians may be better than that of non vegetarians partly because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok- ing. Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors into account in their analyses, it is possible that they did not adequately control their studies for nondietary effects.

People who are vegetarians by choice may differ from the general popula- tion in other ways relevant to health. For example, in Western countries most vegetarians are more affluent than non vegetarians and thus have better living conditions and more access to medical care.

An authoritative review of vegetarianism and chronic diseases classified the evidence for various alleged health benefits of vegetarianism:

• The evidence is "strong" that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming a lcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing lung cancer.

• The evidence is "good" that vegetarians have a lower risk of develop- ing adult-onset diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, hyperten- sion, and gallstones.

• The evidence is "fair to poor" that vegetarianism decreases risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diverticular disease, kidney-stone forma- tion, osteoporosis, and tooth decay.

For some of the diseases mentioned above, the practice of vegetarianism itself probably is the main protective factor. For example, the low incidence of con- stipation among vegetarians is almost certainly due to their high intakes of fiber-rich foods. For other conditions, nondietary factors may be more impor- tant than d iet. For example, the low incidence of lung cancer among vegetar- ians is attributable primarily to their extremely low rate of cigarette smoking. Diet is but one of many risk factors for most chronic d iseases.

How you might use this article in your own writing would depend on your research question and purpose. To illustrate, we'll show you three different hypo- thetical examples of writers who have reason to cite this article.

Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism Writer 1 argues that vegetarianism may be an effective way to resist alcoholism. She uses just one statement from the ACSH article for her own purpose and then moves on to other sources.

Another approach to fighting alcoholism is through naturopathy, holistic Writer's claim

medicine, and vegetarianism. Vegetarians generally have better health than the

362 Chapter 17

Identification of source

Quotation from ACSH

Writer's claim

Identification of source

Summary of ACSH material

Writer's claim

Identification of source

Paraphrased points from ACSH

rest of the population and particularly have, according to the American Council

on Science and Health, "a lower risk of becoming alcoholic." This lower risk has

been borne out by other studies showing that the benefits of the holistic health

movement are particularly strong for persons with addictive tendencies .... [goes

on to other arguments and sources]

Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism Writer 2 proposes that people should become vegetarians. Parts of his argument focus on the environmental costs and ethics of eating meat, but he also devotes one paragraph to the health benefits of vegetarianism. As support for this point he summarizes the ACSH article's material on health benefits.

Not only will a vegetarian diet help stop cruelty to animals, but it is also good

for your health. According to the American Council on Science and Health,

vegetarians have longer life expectancy than nonvegetarians and suffer from

fewer chronic diseases. The Council cites "strong" evidence from the scientific

literature showing that vegetarians have reduced risk of lung cancer, obesity,

constipation, and alcoholism. The Council also cites "good" evidence that

vegetarians have a reduced risk of adult-onset diabetes, high blood pressure,

gallstones, and hardening of the arteries. Although the evidence isn't nearly as

strong, vegetarianism may also lower the risk of certain cancers, kidney stones,

loss of bone density, and tooth decay.

Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism Here, Writer 3 uses portions of the same article to make an opposite case from that of Writer 2. She focuses on those parts of the article that Writer 2 consciously excluded.

The link between vegetarianism and death rates is a classic instance of correlation

rather than causation. While it is true that vegetarians have a longer life expec-

tancy than nonvegetarians and suffer from fewer chronic diseases, the American

Council on Science and Health has shown that the causes can mostly be explained

by factors other than diet. As the Council suggests, vegetarians are apt to be more

health conscious than non vegetarians and thus get more exercise, stay slender, and

avoid smoking. The Council points out that vegetarians also tend to be wealthier

than non vegetarians and see their doctors more regularly. In short, they live longer

because they take better care of themselves, not because they avoid meat.

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 363

For Writing And Discussion Using a Source for Different Purposes Each of the hypothetical writers uses the short ACSH argument in different ways for different purposes. Working individually or in small groups, respond to the fo llowing questions. Be prepared to elaborate on and defend your answers.

1. How does each writer use the orig inal article differently and why? 2. If you were the author of the article from the American Council on Science and Health, would you think

that your article is used fa irly and responsibly in each instance? 3 . Suppose you r goal were simply to summarize the argument from the American Council on Science and

Health. Write a brief summary of the argument and then explain how you r summary is d ifferent from t he partial summaries by Writers 2 and 3.

Using Summary, Paraphrase, and uotation 17.2 Summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source.

As a research writer, you need to incorporate sources gracefully into your own prose. Depending on your purpose, you m ight (1) summarize all or part of a source author's argument, (2) paraphrase a relevant portion of a source, or (3) quote small passages from the source directly. To avoid plagiarism, you'll need to reference the source with an in-text citation, put quotation marks around quoted passages, and convert paraphrases and summaries entirely into your own words. Table 17.1 gives you an overview of summary, paraphrase, and quotation as ways of incorporating sources into your own prose. With practice, you'll be able to use all these strategies smoothly and effectively.

Sum.m.arizing Detailed instructions on how to write a summary of an article and incorporate it into your own prose are provided in Chapter 8. Summaries can be as short as a single sentence or as long as a paragraph. Make the summary as concise as possible so that you don't d istract the reader from your own argument. In many cases, writers summarize only parts of a source, depending on what is relevant to their own argument. Writer 3' s summary of the article by the American Council on Science and Health is a good example of a partial summary.

Paraphrasing Unlike a summary, which is a condensation of a source's whole argument, a paraphrase translates a short passage from a source's words into the writer's own words. Writers often choose to paraphrase when the details of a source pas- sage are particularly important or when the source is overly technical and needs to be simplified for the intended audience. When you paraphrase, be careful to

364 Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Prose

Summarize the source.

Paraphrase the source.

Quote short passages from the source using quotation marks.

Quote long passages from the source using the block method. (Use this method sparingly.)

Condense a source writer 's argument by keeping main ideas and omitting details (see Chapter 8).

Reproduce an idea from a source writer but translate the idea entirely into your own words; a paraphrase should be approximately the same length as the original.

Work brief quotations from the source smoothly into the grammar of your own sentences (see details in this chapter).

Use noticeably lengthy block quotations.

• When the source writer's whole argument is relevant to your purpose

• When the source writer presents an alternative or opposing view that you want to push against

• When the source writer's argument can be used in support of your own argument

• When you want to incorporate factual information from a source or to use one specific idea from a source

• When the source passage is overly complex or technical for your targeted audience

• When you want to incorporate a source's point in your own voice without interrupting the flow of your argument

• When you need testimony from an authority (state the authority's credentials in an attributive tag, as explained in this chapter)

• In summaries, when you want to reproduce a source 's voice, particularly if the language is striking or memorable

• In lieu of paraphrase when the source language is memorable

• When you intend to analyze or critique the quotation- the quotation is followed by your detailed analysis of its ideas or rhetorical features

• When the flavor and language of testimonial evidence are important

avoid reproducing the original writer's grammatical structure and syntax. If you mirror the original sentence structure while replacing occasional words with syn- onyms or small structural changes, you will be doing what composition special- ists call patchwriting that is, patching some of your language onto someone else's writing.* Patchwriting is a form of academic dishonesty because you aren't fully composing your own sentences and are thus misrepresenting both your own work and that of the source writer. An acceptable paraphrase needs to be entirely in your own words. To understand patchwriting more fully, track the differences between unacceptable patchwriting and acceptable paraphrase in the following examples.

Original

• The evidence is "strong" that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing 1 ung cancer.

• The evidence is "good" that vegetarians have a lower risk of develop- ing adult-onset diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, hyperten- sion, and gallstones.

* We are indebted to the work of Rebecca Moore Howard and others who have led com- position researchers to reexamine the use of sources and plagiarism from a cultural and rhetorical perspective. See especially Rebecca Moore Howard, Standing in the Shadow of Giants: Plagiarists, Authors, Collaborators (Stamford, CT: Ablex Pub., 1999).

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 365

Unacceptable Patchwriting

According to the American Council on Science and Health, there is strong evi-

dence that vegetarians have a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, constipated,

or obese. The evidence is also strong that they have a lower risk of lung cancer.

The evidence is good that vegetarians are less apt to develop adult-onset dia-

betes, coronary artery disease, hypertension, or gallstones.

Acceptable Paraphrase

The Council summarizes "strong" evidence from the scientific literature show-

ing that vegetarians have reduced risk of lung cancer, obesity, constipation,

and alcoholism. The Council also cites "good" evidence that vegetarians have

a reduced risk of adult-onset diabetes, high blood pressure, gallstones, or hard-

ening of the arteries.

Both the patchwriting example and the acceptable paraphrase reproduce the same ideas as the original in approximately the same number of words. But the writer of the acceptable paraphrase has been more careful to change the sentence structure substantially and not copy exact phrases. In contrast, the patchwritten version contains longer strings of borrowed language without quotation marks.

Among novice writers, the ease of copying web sources can lead to patchwrit- ing. You may be tempted to copy and paste a web-based passage into your own draft and then revise it slightly by changing some of the words. Such patch writing won't occur if you write in your own voice that is, if you convert information from a source into your own words in order to make your own argument.

When you first practice paraphrasing, try paraphrasing a passage twice to avoid patchwriting:

• The first time, read the passage carefully and put it into your own words, looking at the source as little as possible.

• The second time, paraphrase your own paraphrase. Then recheck your fina l version against the original to make sure you have eliminated similar sen- tence structures or word-for-word strings.

We'll return to the problem of patchwriting in our discussion of p lagiarism later in this chapter.

Quoting Besides summary and paraphrase, writers often choose to quote directly in order to give the reader the flavor and style of the source author's prose or to make a memorable point in the source author's own voice. Be careful not to quote a pas- sage that you don't fully understand. (Sometimes novice writers quote a passage because it sounds impressive.) When you quote, you must reproduce the source author's original words exactly without change, unless you indicate changes with ellipses or brackets. Also be careful to represent the author's intention and mean- ing fairly; don't change the author's meaning by taking quotations out of context.

Identification of source

Note that phrases are taken word for word from the original

Identification of source

Doesn't follow original sentence structure

Quotes "strong" and "good" to indicate dis- tinction made in original

366 Chapter 17

Attributive tag

Quotation introduced with comma Quotation is a complete sentence, so it starts with a capita/letter

Page number comes from the source; the period comes after J?.arentheses

Final quotation mark goes before parentheses

-

Punctuating~ uotations Correctly 17.3 Punctuate quotations correctly.

Because the mechanics of quoting offers its own challenges, we devote the follow- ing sections to it. These sections answer the nuts-and-bolts questions about how to punctuate quotations correctly. Additional explanations covering variations and specific cases can be found in any good handbook.

Quoting a Co111plete Sentence In some cases, you will want to quote a complete sentence from your source. Typi- cally, you will include an attributive tag that tells the reader who is being quoted. At the end of the quotation, you usually indicate its page number in parentheses. (For more information, see Chapter 18 on in-text citations.)

Original Passage

Many people become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetarianism is uniquely conducive to good health. [found on page 359 of source]*

Writer's Quotation of This Passage

~JI According to the American Council on Science and Health, "Many people

become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetarianism is

uniquely conducive to good health" 392 · I•~

• Quoting Words and Phrases Instead of quoting a complete sentence, you often want to quote only a few words or phrases from your source and insert them into your own sentence. In these cases, make sure that the grammatical structure of the quotation fits smoothly into the grammar of your own sentence.

Original Passage

The health of vegetarians may be better than that of nonvegetarians partly because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok- ing. [found on page 392]

*The cited page is from this text in its printed version. When quoting from print sources or other sources with stable page numbers, you indicate the page number as part of your citation. To illustrate how to punctuate page citations, we'll assume throughout this section that you found the American Council on Science and Health article in this textbook rather than on the web, in which case it would not be possible to cite page numbers.

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 367

Quoted Phrase Inserted into Writer's Own Sentence

The American Council on Science and Health argues that the cause of Quotation marks show where quotation starts

~------~~~~------------------- and ends

vegetarians' longer life may be "nondietary factors." The Council claims No comma or capital letter: Punctuation and

that vegetarians are more "health-conscious" than meat eaters and that they capitalization deter- ~--=---=-----------------------------------------------------~-- mmedbygrnmmarof

"exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from your own sentence , If Period comes after

smoking" (392). parentheses containing ~ag_e number

Modifying a Quotation Occasionally you may need to alter a quotation to make it fit your own context. Sometimes the grammar of a desired quotation doesn't match the grammar of your own sentence. At other times, the meaning of a quoted word is unclear when it is removed from its original context. In these cases, use brackets to modify the quotation's grammar or to add a clarifying explanation. Place your changes or additions in brackets to indicate that the bracketed material is not part of the original wording. You should also use brackets to show a change in capitalization.

Original Passage

Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smoking. [found on page 359]

Quotations Modified with Brackets

The American Council on Science and Health hypothesizes that vegetarians .._------.,-------------------..--,--------.--r----------- Brackets show change

maintain better health by "exercis[ing regularly, maintain[ing] a desirable

body weight, and abstain[ing] from smoking" 392). ~

According to the American Council ot Science and Health, "They [vegetarians] ;f !s.

exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from

smoking" (392).

Om.itting Som.ething from. a Quoted Passage Another way that writers modify quotations is to leave words out of the quoted passage. To indicate an omission, use three spaced periods called an ellipsis ( ... ). Placement of the ellipsis depends on where the omitted material occurs. In the mid- d le of a sentence, each of the periods should be preceded and followed by a space. When your ellipsis comes at the boundary between sentences, use an additional period to mark the end of the first sentence. When a parenthetical page number must follow the ellipsis, insert it before the final (fourth) period in the sequence.

in quotation to fit gram- mar of writer's sentence

Page number from source

Attributive tag

Brackets show that writer has added a word to explain what "they" stands for

368 Chapter 17

Three spaced periods mark omitted words in middle of sentence; note the spaces between each period

Three periods form the ellipsis. (Omitted mate- rial comes before the end of the sentence)

This period ends the sentence

Original Passage

People who are vegetarians by choice may differ from the general popula- tion in other ways relevant to health. For example, in Western countries most vegetarians are more affluent than non vegetarians and thus have better living conditions and more access to medical care. [found on pages 359-360]

Quotations with Omitted Material Marked by Ellipses

According to the American Council on Science and Health, "people who are

vegetarians by ch oice may differ . 't . in other ways relevant to health. For

example, in Western countries most vegetarians are more affluent than non-

vegetarians . f . " 392 .

Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation Occasionally a passage that you wish to quote will already contain quotation marks. If you insert the passage within your own quotation marks, change the original double marks(") into single marks(') to indicate the quotation within the quota- tion. The same procedure works whether the quotation marks are used for quoted words or for a title. Make sure that your attributive tag signals who is being quoted.

Original Passage

The evidence is "strong" that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing lung cancer. [found on page 392]

Use of Single Quotation Marks to Identify a Quotation within a Quotation

Single quotation marks According to the American Council on Science and Health, "The evidence is replace the double

1

quotation marks in the :--+--------.::-1~.------------r?~ original source 'strong; that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, consti- Double quotation marks y enclose the material pated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing lung cancer" (392). quoted from the source

Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage If you quote a long source passage that will take more than four lines in your own paper, use the block indentation method rather than quotation marks. Block quo- tations are generally introduced with an attributive tag followed by a colon. The indented block of text, rather than quotation marks, signals that the material is a direct quotation. Block quotations occur rarely in scholarly writing and are used primarily in cases where the writer intends to analyze the text being quoted. If you overuse block quotations, you simply produce a collage of other writers' voices.

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 369

Original Passage

The health of vegetarians may be better than that of nonvegetarians partly because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok- ing. Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors into account in their analyses, it is possible that they did not adequately control their studies for nondietary effects. [found on page 359]

Block Quotation

The American Council on Science and Health suggests that vegetarians may be healthier than non vegetarians not because of their diet but because of their more healthy lifestyle:

Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly,

maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smoking.

Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors

into account in their analyses, it is possible that th d. d t d ey 1 no a

quately control their studies for nondietary effects.

Creating etorically Effective Attributive Tags 17.4 Signal your use of sources through rhetorically effective

attributive tags.

392 ) ~

e-

Throughout the previous examples we've been using attributive tags to indi- cate words or ideas taken from a source. Attributive tags are phrases such as "according to the American Council on Science and Health ... ," "Smith claims that ... ,"or "the author continues .... "Such phrases signal to the reader that the material immediately following the tag is from the cited source. In this sec- tion we'll show you why attributive tags are often clearer and more powerful than other ways of signaling a source, such as a parenthetical citation. Par- ticularly, attributive tags can also be used rhetorically to shape your reader's response to a source.

Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations Instead of attributive tags, writers sometimes indicate a source only by citing it in parentheses at the end of the borrowed material a common practice in the social sciences and some other kinds of academic writing. However, the preferred practice when writing for nonspecialized audiences is to use attributive tags.

Block quotation introduced with a colon

No quotation marks

Block indented 112 inch on left

Page number appears in parentheses. (Note that parentheses come after the closing period ~receded by_ a s~ace)

370 Chapter 17

Less Preferred: Indicating Source through Parenthetical Citation

Vegetarians are apt to be more health-conscious than non vegetarians (American Council on Science and Health).*

More Preferred: Indicating Source through Attributive Tag

According to the American Council on Science and Health, vegetarians are apt to be more health-conscious than nonvegetarians.

A disadvantage of the parenthetical method is that it requires readers to wait until the end of the source material before the source is identified. Attributive tags, in contrast, identify the source the moment it is first used, thus marking more clearly the beginning of borrowed material. Another disadvantage of the parenthetical method is that it tends to treat the borrowed material as "fact" rather than as the view of the source author. In contrast, attributive tags call attention to the source's angle of vision. An attributive tag reminds the reader to put on the glasses of the source author to see the borrowed material as shaped by the source author's biases and perspectives.

Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response Attributive tags can be used not only to identify a source but also to shape your readers' attitudes toward the source. For example, if you wanted your readers to respect the expertise of a source, you might say," According to noted chemist Marjorie Casper .... " If you wanted your readers to discount Casper's views, you might say," According to Marjorie Casper, an industrial chemist on the payroll of a major corporate polluter .... "

When you compose an initial tag, you can add to it any combination of the kinds of information in Table 17.2, depending on your purpose, your audience' s values, and your sense of what the audience already knows about the source. Our

Table 17.2 Modifying Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response

Author's credentials or relevant specialty (enhances credibility)

Author's lack of credentials (decreases credibility)

Author's political or social views

Civil engineer David Rockwood, a noted authority on stream flow in rivers

City Council member Dilbert Weasel, a local politician with no expertise in international affairs

Left-wing columnist Alexander Cockburn [has negative feeling] ; Alexander Cockburn, a longtime champion of labor [has positive feeling]

*This parenthetical citation is in MLA form, and it assumes that the source was found on the web. If this had been a print source rather than a web source, a page number would also have been given as follows : (American Council on Science and Health 43). APA form also indicates the date of the source: (American Council on Science and Health, 2002, p. 43). We explain MLA and APA styles for citing and documenting sources in Chapter 18.

Table 17.2 Continued

Title of source if it provides context

Publisher of source if it adds prest ige or ot herwise shapes audience response

Historical or cultural information about a source t hat provides context or background

Indication of source 's purpose or angle of • •

VISIOn

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 371

In her book Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa, Joan Jacobs Brumberg shows that [establishes credentials for comments on eating disorders]

Dr. Carl Patrona, in an article published in the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine

In his 1960s book popularizing the hippie movement, Charles Reich claims that

Feminist author Naomi Wolfe, w riting a blistering attack on the beauty industry, argues that

point here is that you can use attributive tags rhetorically to help your readers understand the significance and context of a source when you first introduce it and to guide your readers' attitudes toward the source.

Avoiding Plagiarism 17.5 Avoid plagiarism.

In Chapter 18, we proceed to the nuts and bolts of citing and documenting sources a skill that will enhance your ethos as a skilled researcher and as a person of integrity. Unethical use of sources called plagiarism is a major concern not only for writing teachers but for teachers in all disciplines. To combat plagiarism, many instructors across the curriculum use plagiarism-detection software like turnitin.com. Their purpose, of course, is to discourage students from cheating. But sometimes students who have no intention of cheating can fall into producing papers that look like cheating. That is, they produce papers that might be accused of plagiarism even though the students had no intention of deceiving their read- ers.* Our goal in this section is to explain the concept of plagiarism more fully and to sum up the strategies for avoiding it.

Why Some Kinds of Plagiarisn1 May Occur Unwittingly To understand how unwitting plagiarism might occur, consider Table 17.3, where the middle column "Misuse of Sources" shows common mistakes of novice writers. Everyone agrees that the behaviors in the "Fraud" column con- stitute deliberate cheating and deserve appropriate punishment. Everyone also agrees that good scholarly work meets the criteria in the "Ethical Use of Sources" column. Novice researchers, however, may find themselves unwittingly in the middle column until they learn the academic conventions for using research sources.

*See Rebecca Moore Howard, Standing in the Shadow of Giants: Plagiarists, Authors, Collabora- tors (Stamford, CT: Ablex Pub., 1999).

372 Chapter 17

Table 17.3 Plagiarism and the Eth ical Use of Sources

The w riter

• buys a paper from a paper mill

• submits someone else's work as his own

• copies ch unks of text from sources w ith obvious inten- tion of not being detected

• fabricates data or makes up evidence

• intends to deceive

The writer

• copies passages d irectly from a source and references t he source with an in-text c itation , but fails to use quotat ion marks o r block indentation

• in attempt ing to paraphrase a sou rce, makes some changes, but follows too closely the wording of t he original (pat chwriting)

• fails to ind icate the sources of some ideas o r data (often is unsure what needs to be c ited or has lost track of sources t hrough poor note taking)

• in general, misunderstands the conventions for using sources in academic writing

The writer

• writes paper ent irely in her own words and uses exact q uotations from sources

• indicates all q uota- t ions with q uota- t ion marks or block indentat ion

• indicates her use of all sources through attribution , in-text citation , and an end- of -paper list of works cited or references

You might appreciate these conventions more fully if you recognize how they have evolved from Western notions of intellectual property and patent law associ- ated with the rise of modern science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. A person not only could own a house or a horse, but also could own an idea and the words used to express that idea. You can see these cultural conventions at work in the form of laws or professional codes of ethics whenever a book author is disgraced for lifting words or ideas from another author or whenever an artist or entrepreneur is sued for stealing song lyrics, publishing another person's photographs without permission, or infringing on some inventor's patent.

This understanding of plagiarism may seem odd in some non-Western cultures where collectivism is valued more than individualism. In these cultures, words written or spoken by ancestors, elders, or other authority figures may be regarded with reverence and shared with others without attribution. In these cultures, it might also be disrespectful to paraphrase certain passages or to document them in a way that would suggest the audience didn't recognize the ancient wisdom.

However, such collectivist conventions won't work in research communities committed to building new knowledge. In the academic world, the conventions separating ethical from unethical use of sources are essential if research findings are to win the community's confidence. Effective research can occur only within ethical and responsible research communities, where people do not fabricate data and where current researchers respect and acknowledge the work of those who have gone before them.

Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarislll Table 17.4 will help you review the strategies for using source material ethically and avoiding plagiarism.

Incorporating Sources into Your Own Arg ument 373

Table 17.4 Avoiding Plag iarism or the Appearance of Plagiari sm

At the beginning

Read your college's pol icy on plagiarism; listen to your teachers' statements regarding plagiarism in class or read about them on course syllabi.

Understanding policies on plagiarism and academic integrity wi ll help you research and write ethically.

Pose a research question rather t han a topic Your thesis statement is your contestable answer area. to your t hesis question. Arg uing your own thesis

gives you a voice, establishes your ethos, and urges you to write ethically.

At the note-taking stage

Create a bibliographic entry for each sou rce .

When you copy a passage into your notes, copy it word for word and enclose it within quotation marks.

When you enter summaries or paraphrases into your notes, avoid patchwriting.

Distinguish your informational notes from your personal exploratory notes.

This action makes it easy to create an end-of- paper bibliography and encourages rhetorical reading .

It is important to distinguish a source's words from your own words .

If your notes contain any strings of a source's original wording, you might later assume that these words are your own .

Keeping these kinds of notes separate will help you identify borrowed ideas when it's time to incorporate the source material into your paper.

When writing your draft

Except for exact q uotat ions, w rite the paper entirely in your own words.

Indicate all q uotations with quotation marks or block indentation . Use ell ipses or brackets to make changes to fit your own grammar.

Never cut and paste a web passage d irectly into your draft. Paste it into a separate note file and put q uotation marks around it.

Inside your text, use attributive tags or paren- thetical citat ions to identify all sources . List all sources alphabetically in a concluding Works C ited or References list.

Cite with attributive tags or parenthetical citations al l q uotat ions, paraphrases, summaries, and any other references to specific sources.

Use in-text citations to indicate sources for al l visuals and media such as graphs, maps, photographs, films, vid eos, broadcasts, and recordings.

Use in-text citations for all ideas and facts that are not common knowledge.

This strategy keeps you from patchwriting w hen you summarize or paraphrase.

Be careful to represent the author fairly; don 't change meaning by taking quotations out of context.

Pasted passages are direct invitations to patchwrite.

This strategy makes it easy for readers to know w hen you are using a source and where to find it.

These are the most common in-text citations in a research paper.

The rules for citing words and ideas apply equally to visuals and media cited in your paper.

Although you don't need to cite w idely accepted and noncontroversial facts and information, it is better to cite them if you are unsure.

37 4 Chapter 17

For Writing and Discussion Avoiding Plagiarism

Individual task: Reread the original article from the American Council on Science and Health (at the start of this chapter) and Writer 3 's use of this source in her paragraph about how nond ietary habits may explain why vegetarians are healthier than nonvegetarians. Then read the paragraph below by Writer 4, who makes the same argu- ment as Writer 3 but crosses the line from ethical to nonethical use of sources. Imagine that Writer 4 says in dismay, "How can this be plagiarism? I c ited my source." Write a message to Writer 4 explaining how this passage falls into the category of plagiarism.

Writer 4's Argument (Example of Plagiarism)

According to the American Council on Science and Health, the health of vegetarians may be better than that of nonvegetarians partly because of nondietary factors. People who eat only vegetables tend to be very conscious of their health. They exercise regularly, avoid getting fat, and don't smoke. Scientists who examined the data may not have adequately controlled for these nondietary effects. A lso, in Western countries, most vegetarians are more affluent than nonvegetarians and thus have better living conditions and more access to medical care.

Group task: Working in small groups or as a c lass, respond to the following questions.

1. Share with one another your messages to Writer 4. 2. Explore the possib le causes of Writer 4's difficulty. Psychological ly or cogn itively, what may have

caused Writer 4 to misuse the source? How might this writer's note-taking process or composing pro- cess have d iffered from that of Writer 3? In other words, what happened to get this writer into trouble?

Conclusion This chapter has shown you how to use sources for your own purposes; how to summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source; how to signal your use of sources through rhetorically effective attributive tags; and how to punctuate quotations correctly. It has also explained how to use sources ethically to avoid plagiarism and create a professional ethos. In the next chapter we will provide guidelines and formats for citing and documenting your sources.

Chapter 18

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

18.1 Understand the correspondence between in-text citations and the end-of-paper list of cited works.

18.2 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the Modern Language Association (MLA).

18.3 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the American Psychological Association (APA).

The previous chapter showed you how to use sources ethically, incorporating them into your own prose so as to further your argument as well as to avoid plagiarism.

The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited orks 18.1 Understand the correspondence between in-text citations and the

end-of-paper list of cited works.

The most common forms of documentation use what are called in-text citations that match an end-of-paper list of cited works (as opposed to footnotes or end- notes). An in-text citation identifies a source in the body of the paper at the point where it is summarized, paraphrased, quoted, inserted, or otherwise referred to.

375

376 Chapter 18

At the end of your paper you include a list alphabetized by author (or by title if there is no named author) of all the works you cited. Both the Modern Language Association (MLA) system, used primarily in the humanities, and the American Psychological Association (APA) system, used primarily in the social sciences, follow this procedure. In MLA, your end-of-paper list is titled Works Cited. In APA it is titled References.

Whenever you place an in-text citation in the body of your paper, your reader knows to turn to the Works Cited or References list at the end of the paper to get the full bibliographic information. The key to the system's logic is this:

• Every source in Works Cited or References must be mentioned in the body of the paper.

• Conversely, every source mentioned in the body of the paper must be included in the end-of-paper list.

• The first word in each entry of the Works Cited or References list (usually an author's last name) must also appear in the in-text citation. In other words, there must be a one-to-one correspondence between the first word in each entry in the end-of-paper list and the name used to identify the source in the body of the paper.

Suppose a reader sees this phrase in your paper: "According to Debra Gold- stein .... " The reader should be able to turn to your Works Cited list and find an alphabetized entry beginning with "Goldstein, Debra." Similarly, suppose that in looking over your Works Cited list, your reader sees an article by "Guillen, Manuel." This means that the name "Guillen" has to appear in your paper in one of two ways:

• As an attributive tag: Economics professor Manuel Guillen argues that ....

• As a parenthetical citation, often following a quotation:" ... changes in fiscal policy" (Guillen 49).

Because this one-to-one correspondence is so important, let's illustrate it with some complete examples using the MLA formatting style:

If the body of your paper has this: Then the Works Cited list must have this:

According to linguist Deborah Tannen, ... •~-•• Tannen, Deborah . The Argument Culture: Moving political debate in America leaves out from Debate to Dialogue. Random House, 1998. the complex middle ground where most solutions must be developed.

In the 1980s, cigarette advertising revealed a noticeable pattern of racial stereotyping (Pol lay et al. ).

On its website, the Children's Movement of California offers advice to parents on how to talk with children about alcohol and drugs ("Talking").

Pollay, Richard W., et al. "Separate, but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising ." Journal of Advertising, vol. 2 1, no. 1, 1992, pp. 45-57.

"Talking with Kids about Drugs and Alco- hol ." Children's Movement of California, www .childrennow.org/parenting-resources/drugs- alcohol. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.

How to format an MLA in-text citation and a Works Cited list entry is the subject of the next section. The APA system is similar except that it emphasizes the date of publication in both the in-text citation and the References entry. APA formatting is discussed in the final section of this chapter.

Citing and Documenting Sources 377

MLAStyle 18.2 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the

Modern Language Association.

An in-text citation and its corresponding Works Cited entry are linked in a chicken-and-egg system: You can't cite a source in the text without first knowing how the source's entry will be alphabetized in the Works Cited list. However, because most Works Cited entries are alphabetized by the first author's last name, for convenience we start with in-text citations.

In-Text Citations in MLA Style A typical in-text citation contains two elements: (1) the last name of the author and (2) the page number of the quoted or paraphrased passage. However, in some cases a work is identified by something other than an author's last name, and sometimes no page number is required. Let's begin with the most common cases.

Typically, an in-text citation uses one of these two methods:

• Parenthetical method. Place the author's last name and the page number in parentheses immediately after the material being cited.

The Spanish tried to reduce the status of Filipina women, who had been

able to do business, get divorced, and sometimes become village chiefs

( Karnow 41 ).

• Attributive tag method. Place the author's name in an attributive tag at the beginning of the source material and the page number in parentheses at the end.

According to Karnow, the Spanish tried to reduce the status of Filipina

women, who had been able to do business, get divorced, and sometimes

become village chiefs ( 41 ).

Once you have cited an author and it is clear that the same author's material is being used, you need cite only the page numbers in parentheses in subse- quent citations. A reader who wishes to look up the source will find the biblio- graphic information in the Works Cited section by looking for the entry under "Karnow."

Let's now turn to the variations. Table 18.1 identifies the typical variations and shows again the one-to-one connection between the in-text citation and the Works Cited list.

When to Use Page Numbers in In-Text Citations When the materials you are cit- ing are available in print or in PDF format, you can provide accurate page num- bers for parenthetical citations. If you are working with web sources or HTML files, however, do not use the page numbers obtained from a printout because they will not be consistent from printer to printer. If the item has numbered para- graphs, cite them with the abbreviation par. or pars. for example, "(Jones, pars. 22-24)." In the absence of reliable page numbers for the original material, MLA

378 Chapter 18

Table 18.1 In-Text Citations in MLA Style

Type of Source

One author

Two authors

More than two authors

Author has more than

one work in Works Cited

list

Corporate author

No named author (Work is therefore alphabetized by title.)

Indirect citation of a source that you found in another source Suppose you want to use a quotation from Peter Singer that you found in a book by Daniel Dombrowski. Include Dombrowski but not Singer in Works Cited.

Works Cited Entry at End of Paper (Construct the entry while taking notes on each source.)

Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma: A

Natural History of Four Meals . Penguin, 2006.

Lewis, Robin, and Michael Dart. The New Rules

of Retail: Competing in the World's Tough-

est Marketplace. Macmillan, 2010.

Pollay, Richard W., et al. "Separate, but Not

Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette

Advertising ." Journal of Advertising, vol . 21,

no. 1, 1992, pp. ~5-57 .

Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts: The

Argument from Marginal Cases. U of Illinois

P, 1997.

---. The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. U of

Massachusetts P, 1984.

Note that the second Dombrowski entry uses three hyphens in place of the author's name.

American Red Cross. Standard First Aid.

Mosby Lifeline, 1993.

"Body Piercing. Ouch!" Menstuff, www.menstuff

. org/issues/byissue/bodypiercing. html.

Accessed 12 Apr. 2018 .

Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts : The

Argument from Marginal Cases. U of Illinois

P, 1997.

In-Text Citation in Body of Paper (Use the first word of the Works Cited entry in parentheses or an attributive tag; add page number at end of quoted or paraphrased passage. )

.. . (Pollan 256) . OR

According to Pollan, . .. (256) .

. . . retail" (Lewis and Dart 62). OR Lewis and Dart have argued that "advertisers . . . retail" (52).

For the in- text citation, cite the specific page number rather than the whole range of pages given in the Works Cited entry .

. . . race" (Pollay et al. 52)

OR

Pollay et al. have argued that

"advertisers . .. race" (52).

For the in- text citation, cite the specific page number rather than the whole range of pages given in the Works Cited entry .

. . . (Dombrowski, Babies 207).

.. . (Dombrowski, Philosophy 328) . OR

According to Dombrowski, . . . (Babies 207l

Dombrowski claims that .. . (Philosophy :328).

Because author has more than one work in Works Cited, include a short version of the title to distinguish between entries.

. . . (American Red Cross 1 02~ . OR Snake bite

instructions from the American Red Cross show

that . .. @ 2).

.. . ("Body"). OR According to the National Men's Resource Center, . . . ("Body") .

• Add "Body" in parentheses to show that work is alphabetized under "Body," not "National."

• No page numbers are shown because website pages aren't stable. The website does not provide a date on which "Body Piercing. Ouch!" was posted. When a web- site does not provide a date of posting or publication, add the access date as the last item in the Works Cited entry.

Animal rights activist Peter Singer argues

that . .. (qtd . in Dombrowski 429).

• Singer is used for the attributive tag, but the in-text citation is to Dombrowski.

• "qtd. in" stands for "quoted in."

Citing and Documenting Sources 379

says to omit page references from the parenthetical citation. Table 18.1 summa- rizes the use of page numbers in in-text citations.

Include a page number in the in-text citation:

If the source has stable page numbers (print source or PDF version of print source):

• If you q uote something • If you paraphrase a specific passage • If you refer to d ata o r details from a specific

page or range of pages in the sou rce

Do not include a page number:

• If you are referring to t he arg ument of t he whole source instead of a specific page or passage

• If t he source does not have stable page numbers (articles on websites, HTML text, and so forth)

Works Cited List in MLA Style In the MLAsystem, you place a complete Works Cited list at the end of the paper. The list includes all the sources that you mention in your paper. However, it does not include works you read but did not use. Entries in the Works Cited list follow these general guidelines:

• Entries are arranged alphabetically by author's last name, or by title if there is no author.

• If there is more than one entry per author, the works are arranged alphabeti- cally by title. For the second and all additional entries, type three hyphens and a period in place of the author's name.

Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts: The Argument from Marginal Cases. U of Illinois P, 1997.

-. The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. U of Massachusetts P, 1984.

You can see a complete, properly formatted Works Cited list on the last pages of Ivan Snook's paper (see Chapter 15).

The remaining pages in this section show examples of MLA citation for- mats for different kinds of sources and provide explanations and illustrations as needed.

MLA Works Cited Citation Models The MLA Handbook provides a set of guidelines to help you format your Works Cited list correctly. You can also visit the MLA's help center online at https:/ I style.mla.org.

The following templates will help you compile the information you need for your MLA Works Cited list and format your entries correctly. Take note of the punctuation following each element, and use the same punctuation in your entries.

• Author can contain other identifying information, such as "editor," "transla- tor," "actor," or "director."

• Title of source requires you to use italics and quotation marks correctly. Itali- cize the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, journals, websites, films, albums/CDs, and TV series. Use quotation marks for titles that are part of larger works. Specifically, place article titles, essay titles, episode titles, song

380 Chapter 18

titles, and titles of web posts in quotation marks. When a source is untitled, provide a generic description of it, neither italicized nor in quotation marks. When you document an e-mail, use its subject line as the title.

• Container is a generic term that is intended to capture any type of print or d igital medium. A container may be a book, magazine, scholarly journal, TV series, website, comic book, any type of social media (Twitter, Facebook), and so on. One container can be nested in a larger container. For example, one blog may be part of a network of b logs. A scholarly journal (the first con- tainer) may be retrieved from a larger container for example, an academic database such as Academic Search Complete (the second container). When a container is nested in a larger container, both containers should be docu- mented, w ith a period separating the two containers.

• Other contributors are people who have played a role in the creation of the source. Other contributions include "adapted by," "directed by," "illustrated by," "performance by," and "introduction by."

• Version is the version you are citing (for example, the second edition of a work).

• Number refers to identifying numbers when a publication is too long to be printed in one book (for example, "vol. 2"). With periodicals, the number is the volume number and the issue number, separated by a comma.

• Publication date should be as specific as possible. Provide month, date, and year whenever possible. For books, usually the year alone is sufficient.

• Location usually refers to page numbers in a print work and to a URL or DOl in an online source. Whenever possible, DO Is are preferred to URLs because DO Is are more stable. Note that "http: I I" and "https: I I" are not included in URLs. If a publication date is not provided for a URL, complete the Works Cited entry by listing the date you accessed the URL.

Print Source Author.

Title of source.

Title of container,

Pther contributors,

' tversion,

Number,

blication date

Location.

Online Source Author.

Title of source.

Title of container,

Pther contributors,

Herrera-Sobek, Maria.

"Border Aesthetics: The Politics of Mexican Immigration in Film and Art."

Western Humanities Review,

vol. 60, no. 2,

2006,

pp. 60-7 1.

Gourlay, Alexander S.

"An Emergency Online Glossary of Terms, Names, and Concepts in Blake."

The William Blake Archive,

Citing and Documenting Sources 381

Version,

Number,

blication date

Location. www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/g lossary.xq?chunk. id=glossary&toc.depth=1 &toc. id=O. Accessed 14 Apr. 2018 .

Print Articles in Scholarly Journals All scholarly journal entries include both volume number and issue number, regardless of how the journal is paginated.

One author

Herrera-Sobek, Maria. "Border Aesthetics: The Politics of Mexican Immigration in Film

and Art." Western Humanities Review, vol. 60, no. 2, 006 tpp. 60- 71.

Two authors

Kwon, Ohbyung, and Yixing Wen. "An Empirical Study of the Factors Affecting Social

Network Service Use." Com12.uters in Human Behavior, vol. 26, no. 2, . 2010

P..E. 254- 63.

Three or more authors List the first author, and use "et al." (meaning "and others") to replace all but the first author. Your Works Cited entry and the parenthetical citation should match. Do not italicize et al. in your Works Cited entry or in-text citation.

Pollay, Richard W., et al. "Separate, but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette

Advertising." Journal of Advertising, vol. 21, no. 1, 992 pp. 45- 57.

Print Articles in Magazines and Newspapers If no author is identified, begin the entry with the title or headline. Distinguish between news stories and editorials by putting the word "Editorial" after the title of an editorial and "Letter to the editor" when appropriate. If a magazine comes out weekly or biweekly, include the complete date ("27 Sept. 2013"). If it comes out monthly, then state the month only ("Sept. 2013"). Indicate reviews by clearly indicating the key identifying information of the work being reviewed.

Note: If the article begins on one page but continues in another part of the magazine or newspaper, add"+" to the number of the first page to indicate the nonsequential pages: pp. 45+.

Magazine article with named author

Snyder, Rachel L. "A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers: Loung Ung's Journey. " Ms.,

382 Chapter 18

Magazine article without named author

"Sacred Geese." The Economist, ~ une 20131 ER· 24- 25.

Review of book, film, or performance

Schwarz, Benjamin. "A Bit of Bunting: A New History of the British Empire Elevates

Expediency to Principle." Review of Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their

Empire, by David Cannadine. The Atlantic, ov. 2001 pp. 126-35.

Kaufman, Stanley. "Polishing a Gem." Review of The Blue Angel, directed by Josef von

Sternberg. New Republic, ....___.....___ __ --=-

Lahr, John. "Nobody' s Darling: Fascism and the Drama of Human Connection in Ashes

to Ashes." Review of Ashes to Ashes, by Harold Pinter, The Roundabout Theater

Co. Gramercy Theater, New York. The New Yorker, f"." Feb. 1999 PF· 182-83.

Newspaper article Page numbers in newspapers are typically indicated by a section letter or number as well as a page number. The "+" indicates that the article continues on one or more pages later in the newspaper.

Dougherty, Conor. "The Latest Urban Trend: Less Elbow Room." The Wall Street

Journal, une 2013 pp. A 1 +.

Newspaper editorial

"Dr. Frankenstein on the Hill." Editorial. The New York Times, 8 Ma 2002 12: A22.

Letter to the editor of a magazine or newspaper

Tomsovic, Kevin. Letter to the editor. The New Yorker, 3 Jul 1998 p. 7.

Print Books

One author

Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals.

Two authors

Dombrowski, Daniel A., and Robert J. Deltete. A Brief, Liberal, Catholic Defense of Abor-

tion.

Lewis, Robin, and Michael Dart. The New Rules of Retail: Competing in the World's Toughest

Marketplace. 010

Citing and Documenting Sources 383

Three or more authors List the first author, and use "et al." (meaning "and others") to replace all but the first author. Your Works Cited entry and the parenthetical citation should match. Do not italicize et al.

Belenky, Mary, et al. Women's Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind.

986.

Second, later, or revised edition

Montagu, Ashley. Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin. Brd ed., 986

In place of "3rd ed.," you can include abbreviations for other kinds of editions: "Rev. ed." (for "revised edition") or "Abr. ed." (for "abridged edition").

Republished book (for example, a paperback published after the original hardback edition or a modern edition of an older work)

Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English

991

Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, with Strictures on Political

and Moral Subjects. 792

The date immediately following the title is the original publication date of the work.

Multivolume work

Speaking Peoples, vol. 4, 956-58 4 vols.

Use the first method when you cite the whole work; use the second method when you cite one individually titled volume of the work.

Article in familiar reference work

"Mau Mau." The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. 15th ed., 008 p. 808.

Article in less familiar reference work

Hirsch, E. D., et al. "Kyoto Protocol." The New Dictionary_ of Cultural Literacy,

002 [pp. 256-57.

Translation

961.

384 Chapter 18

Illustrated book

Jacques, Brian. The Great Redwall Feast. lllustrated by Christopher Denise~

996

Graphic novel

Miyazaki, Hayao. Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind. 995-97 4 vols.

Corporate author (a commission, committee, or other group)

American Red Cross. Standard First Aid. 993

No author listed

The Complete Cartoons ofThe New Yorker.

Whole anthology

O'Connell, David F., and Charles N. Alexander, editors. Self Recovery: Treating Addie-

tions Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda. 994

Anthology article

Royer, Ann. "The Role of the Transcendental Meditation Technique in Promoting

Smoking Cessation: A Longitudinal Study." Self Recovery: Treating Addictions

Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda, dited b David F

O'Connell and Charles N. Alexander 994 lPP· 221- 39.

Articles or Books from an Online Database

Article from online database

Matsbuba, Kyle. "Searching for Self and Relationships Online." CyberPyschology

and Behavior, vol. 9, no. 3, une 2006. Academic Search Complete, doi:10.1089 I

cr b.2006.9 .275.

To see where each element in this citation was found, see Figure 18.1, which shows the online database screen from which the Matsuba article was accessed. For articles in databases, you will need to use two containers. The first container is the scholarly journal and its identifying information. The second container is the academic database and its DOl or URL.

Article from a scholarly e-journal

Welch, John R., and Ramon Riley. "Reclaiming Land and Spirit in the Western Apache

Homeland." American Indian Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, 001 lPP· 5- 14. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org / stable/ 1185999?seq=1#.

Citing and Documenting Sources 385

Figure 18.1 Artic le downloaded from an on line database, w ith elements identified for an M LA-style citation

Research ..:.,:...:::;;;:;..;;;:...:..~ D otobose s.

Sign ln 1 GJ Folder 1 Preferences 1 New Features! 1 Help licensed by S•arrle Unl,•ersit)"

A.A. l.cmleon l.lbr.H ·

4 1 of 3 I> Result list I Refine Search § Print A E-mail liill Save rJ!J Elcpon [d Add IB 'folder View:~Citation ~PDF Full Text (10DKI

Title: S.a rch ing f o r Se lf an d Relationships On lin e.

Authors: Matsuba. M. Kyle 1 mafsu [email protected]

Source: c:;yoorPaychology & Beha~~~ or; Jun2006, Vol. 9 Issue 3, p275-284 , 10p, 4 charts, 1 gr.~ ph

Document Type : Miele

Subject Terms: ' COLLEGE students ' IPENTITY (psvc hoi oovl

ons ' INTERNET 'INTERPERSONAL relatj 'lONELINESS ' RESEARCH ' SOCIAL psvcboloqy

NAICSIIndusJN Codes: 518111 Internet Service P rcMders

find More Like Ibis

twas to study how lnlemel use relates to psychological well-being. relarions hips. the self and identity. University studenls Abstract The purpose of thi s projec <( N = 203) completed a b relationship quality, 'elf-<:

altery of questionnaires including measures oftime spent online. " pathological" Internet use. Internet mot ivati Bn. lonelfness. oncept clarity, and ego identity . Results showed J>OS~ive relationships between measures oflntemet use and l oneliness. lioMhips were r.~ted higlter on both positive and negative quality dimensions relative to online relations hips. Finally, As well, face-t O·fac~ rei a

Internet use was negati\-e may be an impcJrtant aid

ly correlated with self<oncept clarity, and associated with moratorium identity status. These results suggest that the lrtlemet for young adults as they searched for an adult identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CopyrighlofCybe~ pooled to a lisl:~en- wilhou Th1s abstract may oo ·itbn material for the run absiract

ogy & Behavior is the properly of Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. and its content may not be copied a 9171ai1ed to multiple sites a I the copyright holder's e.xp~e:~s written permi~on. Hor.ever, u:~er.s may print. download. or email articles lor individual u:re. dged. No warranty rs gwen about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the ongmal published ver;sion of the

. (Copyright .applies tB all Abstracts)

A.utltor Affil iat iOn$: 1Psychology Department , Univershy of Northern Briti sh Columbia, Prine~ George, Britislt Columbia, Canada

ISSN: 1094-9313

001: 10.1 089/cpb.2006.9.275

Accession Number: 21217065

Persistent li nk to this recor d: http:f/proxy.seattleu .edu : 204811ogin?url~http://search.ebseohost.comllogin.aspll?direct"':rue&dtFa9h&MF21217065&site~ehost~ive

Database: Academic Search Complete

View.!iiJ Citation ~PDF Full Text 1100KI

Matsuba, M. Kyle. ~~searching for Self and Relationships Online." CyberPsychology and

J3

:o

:-

~

Database company

Title of the article

Author

Volu •

me and numbers ISSUe

Date

Nam •

eofthe dical peno

doi

Database name

Behavior, vol. 9, no. 3, ~006, pp. 275-84. Academic Search Complete, doi: 10.1089 j cpb.2006.9.275.

Broadcast-transcript from website

Conan, Neal. "Arab Media. " NPR Tal k of the Nation , ....,_u_e_st_a::_:_e_a_ra_n_c_e_b~J--S_h_ib__.

~ey Telhami, 002 ttR:/ /www.nEr.org/ rograms/ totn / transcri ts/ 2004 /

rna I 040504.conan.html. Transcript.

"Transcript" at the end of the entry indicates a text (not audio) ver sion.

E-book from online database

Hanley, Wayne. The Genesis of N apoleonic Propaganda, 1796-1799. 002

Gutenberg-e, ww.gutenberg-e.org/hawOl. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.

Paine, Thomas. Rights of Man . ....____.

frameset.html. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.

w.bibliomania.com / 2/ 1 / 327/ 2414/

Information about the original print v ersion, including a translator if relevant and available, should b e provided. Access date should b e provide d for any sources that are not date d.

386 Chapter 18

E-book on Kindle, iPad, or other e-reader According to MLA, a book is a book whether you read it in print or on an e-reader (such as a Kindle, Nook, or iPad).

Boyle, T. C. When the Killing's Done. 011

Other Internet Sources

Article on website

Saucedo, Robert." A Bad Idea for a Movie." theeagle.com, ~3 Mar. 2012 www.theeagle

.com/ entertainment/ a-bad-idea-for-a-movie/ article_00454e59-7d77-5bc3-9e56

-8eec8ca488ee.html.

Date of access is not required because the article is dated (13 Mar. 2012). Break URLs onto a new line only after a piece of punctuation, such as a hyphen, slash, or period.

Entire website

Agatho. Mysterious Matters , ...___ __

Apr. 2018.

Documents wi-thin a website

Gourlay, Alexander S. "An Emergency Online Glossary of Terms, Names, and Concepts

in Blake." The William Blake Archive, www.blakearchive.org/ exist/blake/ archive/

glossary.xq?chunk.id=glossary&toc.depth=1&toc.id=O. Accessed 14 Apr. 2018.

"Body Piercing. Ouch!" Menstuff, www.menstuff.org/issues/byissue/bodypiercing

.html. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.

Article from a-newspaper or newswire site

Brennan, Charlie. "Boulder Scientists over the Moon at Chance to Work on Lunar

Dust." Daily Camera Boulder News, ~Oct. 2015 ww.dail camera.com/news~

boulder I ci_28913824/boulder-scientists-over-moon-at-chance-work-lunar.

"Great Lakes: Rwanda Backed Dissident Troops in DRC-UN Panel." IRIN, 1 ul

....-:::.: .. , www.irinnews.org/ report/ 50763 I great-lakes-rwanda-backed-dissident

-troops-drc-un-panel.

Broadcast transcript from a website

Woodruff, Judy, et al. "Experts Analyze Supreme Court Free Speech Rulings."

PBS NewsHour, une 2007 www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law-jan-june07

-freespeech_06-25. Transcript.

"Transcript" at the end of the entry indicates a text (not audio) version.

Citing and Documenting Sources 387

Blog posting

Dyer, Bob, and Ella Barnes. "The 'Greening' of the Arctic." Greenversations: The Official

Blog of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ~ Oct. 2008} ~log.epa.gov I

blogl2008 I 10 I 07 I the-greening-of-the-artie.

To see where each element of this citation comes from, refer to Figure 18.2.

Tweet Identify a short untitled message, such as a tweet, by reproducing its full text, without changes, in place of a title. Enclose the text in quotation marks, and include not only date but also time.

@persiankiwi. "We have report of large street battles in east & west of Tehran now

- #Iranelection." Twitter, ~3 une 2009, 11:15 a.m.J twitter.comiEersiankiwil

status 12298106072.

Figure 18.2 An item published on the web, w ith elements identified for an MLA-style citation

(5 Greenversations The " Greening '' of the Arctic - Windows Internet Explorer L;']LQ)cg) ~ ... ~~ http:l/blog.epa .gov/blog/2008/ 10/07/the-greening-of-the-arc v I +-t- X LIL_Ive_ s_e_ar_ch _______ ---'1 P •

1:1 .!$1 ~ Greenversations The "GreeningN of the Arctic • §j • • Q} Page • ( Tools •

THE OFFICIAL BLOG OF THE U . S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

--

« New Climate for Action : Getting to School

The "Greening" of the Arctic Posted on October 7th. 2008-10:30 Af.1

Biodiversity and

Human Disease -

How EPA is Studying

the Connections »

About the authors: Bob Dyer and Ella Barnes, Office of

International Affairs, have managed work on the reduction of toxic

and hazardous wastes in the Arctic under both the multilateral

Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) and the Arctic Military

Environmental Cooperation (AMEC) Program for over 10 years. Bob

Dyer chaired the ACAP Working Group under the Arctic Council

from 2004 to 2008, and Ella Barnes is the u.s. Representative to the ACAP Working Group.

I f you stood with me at the northernmost point of the Chukotka Peninsu la in Russia, on t he shores of the frigid Arctic Ocean, what

would we see? A star-filled sky, the Aurora Borealis, whales,

walruses, perhaps a lost polar bear ... But there is something that t-ho o\lo r~nnnt- coo • hinh rnnront-r~t-innc nf rnnt-~l"'nin~nt-c frnl"'n

•

.___ __ ___,I [ Search J

ABOUT I EPA HOME

COMMENT POLICY Comments submitted after hours or on weekends w;ll be posted as early as possible the next business day.

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holiday shopping list can be eco-

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Internet ~ 100% .. .: •

Dyer, Bob, and Ella Barnes. #The ~Greening' of the Arctic." Greenversations: The Offici a I

Blog of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ~ Oct. 2008, blog.epa.gov II

blog/2008/ I 0/07 /the-greening-of-the-artie.

URL

Site sponsor

Nameofblog

Title of posting

I Date of posting

Blog author

388 Chapter 18

Podcast

"The Long and Winding Road: DNA Evidence for Human Migration." Scientific Ameri-

can Science Talk, ul 2008 www.scientificamerican.com/ odcast/ episode /

fe 166e6b-f88f-3538-2702d 97555f62442.

Web video

"Immigration, World Poverty, and Gumballs." YouTube,

.com/ watch?v=LPjzfGChGlE.

Note that the date is the date on which the video was uploaded to YouTube.

Home page

Center for Africana Studies. Home page.

lkrieger.jhu.edu / africana. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.

E-mail Start with the sender's name. The title is the subject line.

Rubino, Susanna. "Reasons for Unemployment." Received by Matthew Rollins, e:!:l

.2018

Miscellaneous Sources

Episode of television or radio program

"Lie Like a Rug." NYPD Blue, ~irected by Steven Bochco and David Milch,

ov.2001

Ashbrook, Tom. "Turf Wars and the American Lawn." On Point,

ul 2008 onpoint.wbur.org/ 2008 / 07 / 22/ turf-wars-and-american-lawns.

Film or video recording Use the first format to cite a film on DVD. Use the second format (which uses a sec- ond container) if you watched the film via a rental service such as Netflix or Hulu.

Shakespeare in Love. irected b ohn Madden, erformances b ose h Fiennes an

eth Paltrow screen la b Marc Norman and Tom Sto...,....,.

998.

Shakespeare in Love. irected by ohn Madden, erformances b ose h Fiennes an

G eth Paltrow, screen la b Marc Norman and Tom Sto ard.

998 Netflix, ~Mar. 2010

Song on a CD

Dylan, Bob. "Rainy Day Women #12." Blonde on Blonde, 966

The song title is "Rainy Day Women #12." The CD title is Blonde on Blonde. If you are citing the CD, use the following:

Dylan, Bob. Blonde on Blonde, 966

Citing and Documenting Sources 389

Cartoon or advertisement (print)

Trudeau, Garry. "Doonesbury." Seattle Times, ~9 Nov. 2001 p . B4.

Cartoon (online)

Sipress, David. "Anger Management Therapy." The New Yorker, ~4 Mar. 2016~ www

.newyorker.com/ cartoons I daily-cartoon/ monday-march-14th-anger-management.

Interview

Castellucci, Marion. Personal interview,~ Oct. 2018

Lecture, speech, or conference presentation

Sharples, Mike. "Authors of the Future." Conference of European Teachers of Aca-

demic Writing, 0 une 2001 niversity of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.

Government publications When a work's publisher and author are separate organizations, give both names, starting the entry with the author.

When an organization or institution is both publisher and author, begin the entry with the title.

When an entry starts with a government agency as the author, begin with the name of the largest entity, followed by a comma, followed by smaller organiza- tional units within the agency, arranged from largest to smallest and separated by commas.

New York State, Committee on State Prisons. Investigation of the New York State Prisons.

974

Foreign Direct Investment, the Service Sector, and International Banking.

987

Great Britain, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food. Our Countryside, the Future:

A Fair Deal for Rural England.

MLA-Style Research Paper As an illustration of a student research paper written in MLA style, see Ivan Snook's argument about women in combat roles in Chapter 15.

APAStyle 18.3 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the

American Psychological Association.

In many respects, the APA style and the MLA style are similar, and their basic logic is the same. In the APA system, the list where readers can find full biblio- graphic information is titled "References"; as in MLA format, it includes only the

390 Chapter 18

sources cited in the body of the paper. The distinguishing features of APA citation style are summarized in Table 18.2 and highlighted in the following sections.

In-Text Citations in APA Style A typical APA-style in-text citation contains three elements: (1) the last name of the author, (2) the date of the publication, and (3) the page number of the quoted or paraphrased passage. Table 18.2 identifies some typical variations and shows again the one-to-one connection between the in-text citation and the References list.

References List in APA Style The APA References list at the end of a paper presents entries alphabetically by author 's last name. If you cite more than one item for an author, repeat the author's name each time and arrange the items in chronological order, beginning with the earliest. In cases where two works by an author appeared in the same year, arrange

Table 18.2 In-Text Citations in APA Style

One author

Two authors

Three to seven authors

Author has more than one work in References list

Indirect citation of a source that you found in another source You use a quotation from Peter Singer from a book by Dombrowski. Include Dombrowski, not Singer, in References.

Pollan, M. (2006). The omnivore's dilemma: A ... (Pollan, 2006, p. 256). OR

natural history of four meals . New York, NY: According to Pollan (200~ ... (p. 256). Penguin.

Kwon, 0 ., & Wen, Y. (201 0). An empirical study ... (Kwon & Wen, 2010, p. 262) . OR

of the factors affecting social network ser- Kwon and Wen (201 0) claim that .. . (.--p .- 2-6--.2).

vice use. Computers in Human Behavior, 26,

254-263. doi :1 0.1 016 /j.ch b.2009.04.0 11

Pollay, R. W., Lee, J. S., & Carter-Whitney, D.

(1 99~ Separate, but not equal : Racial seg- mentation in cigarette advertising. Journal of

Advertising, 21 (1 ), zt5-57 .

Dombrowski, D. A. (1 984) . The philosophy of

vegetarianism . Am herst: University of Mas-

sachusetts Press.

Dombrowski, D. A. (1 997). Babies and beasts:

The argument from marginal cases . Urbana:

University of Illinois Press .

Dombrowski, D. A. (1 997) . Babies and beasts:

The argument from marginal cases . Urbana:

University of Illinois Press .

... race" (Pol lay, Lee, & Carter-Whitney, 1992,

~52) . OR Pollay, Lee, and Carter-Whitney have argued

that "advertisers ... race" ~1 992, p. 52) . For subsequent citations, use Pol lay et al. For a quotation, use the specific page number, not the whole range of pages .

. . . (Dombrowski, 1984, p. 207~ .

... (Dombrowski, 1997, p. 328) .

OR

Dombrowski (1 984) claims that ... ~p . 207). According to Dombrowski (1 997), .. . ~p . 328).

Animal rights activist Peter Singer argues

that . .. (as cited in Dombrowski, 1997, p . 429).

Singer is used for the attributive tag, but the in- text citation is to Dombrowski.

Citing and Documenting Sources 391

them in the list alphabetically by title, and then add a lowercase "a" or "b" (etc.) after the date so that you can distinguish between them in the in-text citations:

Smith, R. (1999a). Body image in non-Western cultures, 1750-present. London, England: Bonanza Press.

Smith, R. (1999b ). Eating disorders reconsidered. Journal of Appetite Studies, 45,295-300.

A formatted References list appears with the student paper in Chapter 13.

APA References Citation Models Print Articles in Scholarly Journals

General Format for Print Article in Scholarly Journal

Author. (Year of Publication). Article title. Journal Title, volume number(issue number),

rage numbers. doi:xx.xxxx/ x.xxxx.xx

If there is one, include the DOl (digital object identifier), a code that is uniquely assigned to many journal articles in numeric or URL form. Note the style for capitalizing article titles and for italicizing the volume number.

One author

Herrera-Sobek, M. (2006). Border aesthetics: The politics of Mexican immigration in

film and art. Western Humanities Review, 60, 60-71. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.011

Two to seven authors

McElroy, B. W., & Lubich, B. H. (2013). Predictors of course outcomes: Early indicators

of delay in online classrooms. Distance Education, 34(1). http: / I dx.doi.org/ 10.1

080 I 01587919.2013.770433

When a source has more than seven authors, list the first six and the last one by name, separated by an ellipsis ( ... ) to indicate the authors whose names have been omitted.

Scholarly journal that restarts page numbering with each issue

Pollay, R. W., Lee, J. S., & Carter-Whitney, D. (1992). Separate, but not equal: Racial segmentation in cigarette advertising. Journal of Advertising, 21(1), 45-57.

Note that the issue number and the parentheses are not italicized, but the volume number is.

Print Articles in Magazines and Newspapers

General Format for Print Article in Magazine or Newspaper

Author. (Year, Month Day). Article title. Periodical Title, volume number, page

numbers.

If page numbers are discontinuous, identify every page, separating numbers with a comma.

392 Chapter 18

Magazine article with named author

Hall, S. S. (2001, March 11). Prescription for profit. The New York Times Magazine, 40-45,

59, 91-92, 100.

Magazine article without named author

Sacred geese. (2013, June 1). The Economist, 24-25.

Review of book or film

Schwarz, B. (2001, November). A bit of bunting: A new history of the British empire

elevates expediency to principle [Review of the book Ornamentalism: How the

British saw their empire, by D. Cannadine]. Atlantic Monthly, 288, 126-135.

Kaufman, S. (2001, July 30). Polishing a gem [Review of the motion picture The blue

angel]. New Republic, 225, 28-29.

Newspaper article

Dougherty, C. (2013, June 4). The latest urban trend: Less elbow room. The Wall Street

Journal, pp. A1, A12.

Newspaper editorial

Nearing a climate legacy [Editorial]. (2014, June 3). The New York Times, p. A22.

Letter to the e-ditor of a magazine or newspaper

Harvey, J. (2014, April 21). The lives of Paul de Man [Letter to the editor]. The New

Yorker, 7.

Print Books

General Format for Print Books

Author. (Year of ublication). Book title: Subtitle. City, State [abbreviated]: Name

of Publisher.

Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls. New York,

NY: Vintage.

If the publisher's name indicates the state in which it is located, list the city but omit the state.

Reid, H., & Taylor, B. (2010). Recovering the commons: Democracy, place, and global justice.

Champaign: University of Illinois Press.

Second, later, or revised edition

Montagu, A. (1986). Touching: The human significance of the skin (3rd ed.). New York,

NY: Perennial Press.

Citing and Documenting Sources 393

Republished book (for example, a p-aperback published after the original hardback edition or a modern edition of an older work)

Wollstonecraft, M. (1995). A vindication of the rights of woman, with strictures on political

and moral subjects. Rutland, VT: Tuttle. (Original work published 1792)

The in-text citation should read: (Wollstonecraft, 1792/1995).

Multivolume work

Churchill, W. S. (1956-1958). A history of the English-speaking peoples (Vols. 1-4). New

York, NY: Dodd, Mead.

This is the citation for all the volumes together. The in-text citation should read: (Churchill, 1956-1958).

Churchill, W. S. (1957). A history of the English-speaking peoples: Vol. 4. The great democracies.

New York, NY: Dodd, Mead.

This is the citation for a specific volume. The in-text citation should read: (Churchill, 1957).

Article in reference work

Hirsch, E. D., Kett, J. F., & Trefil, J. (2002). Kyoto Protocol. In The new dictionary of cul- tural literacy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Translation

De Beauvoir, S. (1961). The second sex (H. M. Parshley, Trans.). New York, NY: Bantam

Books. (Original work published 1949) The in-text citation should read: (De Beauvoir, 1949 /1961).

Corporate author (a commission, committee, or other group)

American Red Cross. (1993). Standard first aid. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Lifeline.

Anonymou-s author

Complete cartoons of The New Yorker. (2004). New York, NY: Penguin Books.

The in-text citation is (Complete Cartoons, 2004).

Whole anthology

O'Connell, D. F., & Alexander, C. N. (Eds.). (1994). Self recovery: Treating addictions using

transcendental meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda. New York, NY: Haworth Press.

Anthology article

Royer, A. (1994). The role of the transcendental meditation technique in promoting

smoking cessation: A longitudinal study. In D. F. O 'Connell & C. N. Alexander

(Eds.), Self recovery: Treating addictions using transcendental meditation and Maha -

rishi Ayur-Veda (pp. 221-239). New York, NY: Haworth Press.

394 Chapter 18

Articles or Books from an Online Database

Article from d-atabase with digital object identifier (DOl)

Scharrer, E., Daniel, K. D., Lin, K.-M., & Liu, Z. (2006). Working hard or hardly

working? Gender, humor, and the performance of domestic chores in televi-

sion commercials. Mass Communication and Society, 9(2), 215-238. doi:10.1207 I

s15327825mcs0902_5

Omit the database name. If an article or other document has been assigned a digital object identifier (DOl), include the DOl at the end. Do not put a period after the DOL

Article from database without DOl

Highland, R. A., & Dabney, D. A. (2009). Using Adlerian theory to shed light on drug

dealer motivations. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 5(2), 109-138. Retrieved

from http:/ /www.a_pg.org

Omit the database name. Instead, use a search engine to locate the publica- tion's home page, and cite that URL. If you need to break a URL at the end of a line, do not use a hyphen. Instead, break it before a punctuation mark or after http:/ I.

Other Internet Sources

General Format for Web Documents

Author, editor, director, narrator, performer, compiler, or producer of the work, if avail-

able. Year, Month Day of posting). Title of web document, italicized as indicated below.

Retrieved from Name of website if different from author or title: URL of home page

Barrett, J. (2007, January 17). My Space is a natural monopoly. Retrieved from ECommerce

Times website: http:/ /www.ecommercetimes.com

Marks, J. (n.d.). "Overview: Letter from the president." Retrieved June 3, 2014, from

the Search for Common Ground website: http: I I www.sfcg.org

Entire website

BlogPulse. (n.d.). Retrieved September 3, 2014, from the Intelliseek website: http:/ I

www.intelliseek.com

Article from a-newspaper site

Bounds, A. (2007, June 26). Thinking like scientists. Daily Camera [Boulder]. Retrieved

from http:/ /www.dailycamera.com

Article from a scholarly e-journal

Welch, J. R., & Riley, R. (2001). Reclaiming land and spirit in the western Apache home-

land. American Indian Quarterly, 25,5-14. Retrieved from http:/ /muse.jhu.edu/

journals I american_indian_quarter 1 y

Citing and Documenting Sources 395

Reference material

Cicada. (2004). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http:/ /www.britannica.com

E-book

Hoffman, F. W. (1981). The literature of rock: 1954-1978. Retrieved from http://www

.netlibrary.com

E-mail, interviews, and personal correspondence Cite personal correspondence in the body of your text, but not in the References list: "Daffinrud (personal communication, December 12, 2018) claims that. ... "

Blog posting

Goddard, A. L. (2014, May 31). Maya Angelou's words were a comfort to abducted aid

worker [Blog post]. Retrieved from annegoddard.tumblr.com

Social media posting

Storm King Art Center. (2013, May 30). Rattlesnake figure (aluminum) by Thomas

Houseago [Facebook update]. Retrieved from http:/ /www.facebook.com/

StormKingArtCenter

Web video

Beck, R. (2006, November 2). Immigration gumballs [Video file]. Retrieved from http:/ I

www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7WJeqxuOfQ

Note that the date is the day on which the video was uploaded.

Podcast

Funke, E. (Host). (2007, June 26). ArtScene [Audio podcast]. National Public Radio.

Retrieved from http: I I www.npr.org

Miscellaneous Sources

Television program

Bochco, S., & Milch, D. (Directors). (2001, November 6). Lie like a rug [Television series

episode]. In NYPD blue. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.

Film

Madden, J. (Director). (1998). Shakespeare in love [Motion picture]. United States: Uni-

versal Miramax.

Sound recording

Dylan, B. (1966). Rainy day women #12. On Blonde on blonde [Record]. New York, NY:

Columbia.

396 Chapter 18

Government publications

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Preventing tobacco use among

youth and young adults: A report of the Surgeon General. Retrieved from http:/ I

www.surgeongeneral.gov /library I reports I preventing-youth-tobacco-use I

index.html#Full Report

APA-Style Research Paper An example of a paper in APA style is shown at the end of Chapter 13.

Conclusion This chapter has shown you the nuts and bolts of citing and documenting sources in both the MLA and APA styles. It has explained the logic of parenthetical citation systems, showing you how to match sources cited in your text with those in your concluding bibliography. It has also shown you the documentation formats for a wide range of sources in both MLA and APA styles.