Communication Research Project Assignment

Daniel Quintana

November 26, 2018

COMM 101C

Communication Research Project:

School Gun Violence and Uncertainty Reduction Theory

The Problem

Gun control is one of the longest debated issues in American history, and gun violence

had been a growing concern for individuals and their families. Acts of gun violence are regularly

reported on the news; and consequently, fear of school shootings have become an expected

concern for students and their parents. While there are many facets to gun control, I chose to

concentrate my communication research on school gun violence. The goal of this project is not to

argue either sides of the gun control debate; however, the goal is to propose possible

communication strategies to help students develop their ability to address concerns for school

safety. Issues surrounding gun violence creates stress and fear in young people’s lives. Through

communication, I believe young people can address these issues and feel both safe at school and

prepared to identify and respond to potential threats.

The Cornerstones

Of San Jose State University’s Communication Studies department, this project primarily

intersects with three of the four department cornerstones: Democracy, Diversity and Technology.

(Dept. of COMM Studies) Through my communication research, I found that students can

promote democracy by engaging in dialogue and debate on gun control. Students can learn from

each other’s different perspectives and develop their own values, preparing them to engage in

policy surrounding gun control. They can encourage diversity through communicating

compassionate with each other. They can utilize technology through online training videos and

online peer communication. And, they can create a compassionate community and reduce the

change of isolated and angered students acting out in aggression or violence.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

I chose to address school shootings through the lens of the Uncertainty Reduction Theory

(URT). In Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application, Richard L. West and

Lynn H. Turner describe the theory,

“When strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the

situation because uncertainty is uncomfortable. People can be uncertain on two different

levels: behavioral and cognitive. They may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other

person will behave), and they may also be unsure of what they think of the other person

and what the other person thinks of them. High levels of uncertainty are related to a

variety of verbal and nonverbal behaviors.” (West & Turner, pg. 137)

Student of different backgrounds and upbringings experience uncertainty when meeting new

peers at school. Though relationships develop, students can also develop uncertainty related

stress in regard to unfamiliar peers. Social differences and fear can prevent students from

reducing these uncertainty stressors. Some students respond to these uncertainties in a variety of

ways; ranging from bullying and isolation, to acts of anger and violence. By developing the

necessary communication skills in high school, students can reduce uncertainties in their peer

relationships. By reducing levels of uncertainty, students can reduce harmful thinking and

behavior related to uncertainty induced stress. Exploring solutions to reduce uncertainty in

relation to school gun violence, I found four peer-reviewed academic articles from four

communication journals: Western Journal of Communication, Kentucky Journal of

Communication, Communication Studies, and Communication Monographs. These articles

discuss communication responses to school shootings, or potential school shootings, that I find

particularly useful in reducing uncertainty related stress that can lead to harassment and violence

in schools.

The Research

For Western Journal of Communication, Justin Eckstein and Sarah T. Partlow Lefevre

analyze the public gun control debate that took place between President Barack Obama and

National Rifle Association Executive Vice President Wayne LaPierre following the 2012 Sandy

Hook school shooting. (Eckstein & Partlow Lefevre) Obama proposed legislation to regulate

guns, “included background checks, an assault rifle ban, magazine limits, mental health

resources, and research funds,” (pg. 226) and, LaPierre “advocated putting ‘armed police officers

in every single school in this nation’ to thwart another mass shooting.” (pg. 226) Eckstein and

Partlow Lefever distinguish that Obama argued that guns exponentially increase the potential for

violence and LaPierre argued that “agency resides exclusively in people.” (pg. 228) Eckstein and

Partlow Lefevre conclude that the debate did not result in any significant change because neither

Obama nor LaPierre accepted their opposition’s starting point, which makes it difficult for

argumentation to advance to a resolution. (pg. 228) They also suggest cross arguing strategies,

where Obama could take on the opposing view that people kill people and LaPierre could adopt

the view that guns kill people. Eckstein and Partlow Lefever claim that considering the opposing

standpoint would be a reasonable way to advance their arguments and reach a potential solution.

(pg. 228) Eckstein and Partlow Lefever argue the importance of considering the opposing

standpoint in promoting a democratic society. They state,

“If guns are the problem, then regulation would prevent another tragedy. But, if violence

stems from bad people, more guns may make sense. However, since neither side is

willing to engage the other’s starting point, debate has broken down and argumentation is

stripped of its important role in democratic society.” (pg. 238)

By considering the opposing standpoint, both parties can uphold their fundamental values,

respect different values, and reach a reasonable solution to issues of gun rights and gun safety in

schools. Though this debate does not provide an example of argument resolution, Eckstein and

Partlow Lefever offer strategies that encourage people to consider the values and beliefs that

differ from their own. This is particularly useful in teaching argumentation skills as it pertains to

democratic involvement and school safety. By implementing reasonable argumentation skills,

students can reduce uncertainty regarding guns in schools by debating on issues of school

shootings and gun laws. They can also reduce uncertainties by considering the views of peers

who’s values and beliefs are different from theirs.

For Kentucky Journal of Communication, Fred E. Fitch analyzes the case study of a

university instructor who effectively responded to students who were concerned about a fellow

student’s comments that suggested gun violence on the homeless. (Fitch) This comment came

seven months after the Virginia Tech massacre, and concerned students told the instructor that

they wanted to report the offending student. (pg. 69) The instructor utilized appropriate resources

by seeking guidance from the course director. The course director consulted with a psychologist

friend to learn the rules in assessing a threat. The psychologist then suggested the instructor

collaborate with the campus counseling center. The instructor and the counseling center executed

an intervention with the offending student who accepted responsibility for their comments and

offered to apologize to the concerned students. By utilizing these resources, the instructor was

able to protect the concerned students while protecting the offending student dignity and right to

free speech. (pg. 70) From this case study, Fitch says, “course directors and instructors can gain

both information and insight that can help in maintaining the balance between free expression

and equality—especially when questions of security come into play.” (pg. 70) I believe that

students can too gain insight and information from this case study. When someone makes a

comment of violence towards another person or group of people, students can learn how to seek

support from available resources in order to assess a potential threat while taking the rights of the

offending person into consideration. By utilizing available resources and considering the rights

of both sides of the conflict, the instructor was able to assess a potential threat and ease tensions

in the classroom. Though the responsibility of handle concerns for threats of violence should not

fall solely on the instructors or students, this case study can provide students with the

communication skills to effectively and democratically voice concern. Threats of violence can

create stress and uncertainty pertaining to student intention and student safety. Providing

students with the skills to identify and report concerning communication will help reduce

uncertainty; and, these skills will help students to identify and prevent legitimate threats.

For Communication Studies, Jessica L. Ford and Seth S. Frei study the efficacy of the

message medium and message framing in influencing students to complete a five-minute active

shooter response training video titled Run, Hide, Fight; created by the U.S. Department of

Homeland Security. (Ford & Frei) Ford and Frei first objective was to determine which media (e-

mail, text, or Twitter) and which message frame (fear based or direct information) were more

effective in getting college students to complete the training video. Their second objective was to

understand the impact of the training video on students’ “safety knowledge,” “safety self-

efficacy” and “personal campus safety salience.” (pg. 439) Ford and Frei discovered, “The main

effect for message frame was not significant” and “The main effect for message medium was

significant.” (pg. 448) Additionally, “Post hoc analysis revealed that those receiving the email

were more likely to complete the video than those in the text-message condition.” (pg. 448) And,

“…an e-mail with a fear-based frame was more likely to lead to video completion than a Tweet

with a fear-based message” (pg. 448) In other words, Ford and Frei showed that the students in

their study were not significantly influenced by neither rhetoric nor prose in completing the five-

minute training video. However, they did find that students who received an email notification

for the training were more likely to complete the training than those who saw it through text or

tweet. Ford and Frei also found that completion of the training video significantly increased

students’ campus safety salience, students’ safety knowledge and students’ safety self-efficacy.

(pg. 449) Ford and Frei show that completion of the active shooter response training video got

more students thinking about the importance of campus safety; and, students felt more confident

in their abilities to respond appropriately in the event of a school shooting. This case study is

limited in that it only reflects a specific school population in a specific region of the country. The

findings may not apply to different student populations across the country. Therefore, it

shouldn’t be assumed that all students would best by motivated by an e-mail above any other

medium; and this does not mean that the prose or rhetoric of a message frame should not be

considered when creating persuasive messages for students. What this research does give us is an

approach to determining the effectiveness of messages to specific groups of students. By testing

the message frame and message medium, educators and administrators can use communication

technology to determine the best way to encourage training that will reduce students’

uncertainties with potential gun violence in school.

For Communication Monographs, Sarah J. Tracy and Timothy P. Huffman analyze the

911 recording of the communication between school bookkeeper Antoinette Tuff and Michael

Hill. Hill entered McNair Discovery Learning Academy in DeKalb, Georgie, armed with an

AK47 assault rifle and almost 500 bullets and the intention to kill himself and others. Tuff used a

variety of compassionate communication techniques which successfully encouraged Hill to

surrender to authorities, resulting in zero injuries or fatalities. (Tracy & Huffman) Tracy and

Huffman identify the three components of compassion: recognizing, relating and acting/reacting.

(pg. 31) Through their analysis, Tracy and Huffman identify the ways in which Tuff was able to

recognize Hill’s suffering, relate to his pain, and was able to act/react with Hill to reach a

rational and safe solution. In order to “set the groundwork for communicating compassion to an

unreceptive target,” Tracy and Huffman propose,

“Sufferers are more likely to accept compassionate action and perceive compassion when

the potential compassion provider engages in a) deferential face-enhancing

conversational actions, b) communication convergence/mimicking conversational

actions, and c) conversational actions that will buy time and allow people to cool down

from an amygdala hijacked state (or a neurological state that makes people respond

quickly in threatening situations, however, this state also makes the person receive and

process information irrationally)” (pg. 44)

By saving face, or showing Hill respect and validation, Tuff followed Hill’s instructions

immediately. She also showed deference by asking Hill how he would like her to act and called

him “sir” several times in the beginning of the interaction. (pg. 42) Tuff mirrored Hill’s verbal

and nonverbal communication almost exactly. With philosophical and scientific research, Tracy

and Huffman concluded that, “through mirroring, [Tuff] was better able to recognize and

empathize with [Hill’s] suffering; [and] through mirroring, [Tuff] became more likeable to and

better able to gain the compliance of [Hill].” (pg. 43) Through deferential face-saving and

mirroring communication techniques, Tuff was able to reduce tensions enough to make Hill

accept her compassionate action. In order to “co-create hope,” Tracy and Huffman propose,

“Sufferers are more likely to accept compassionate action and perceive compassion when

the potential compassion provider(s) co-create(s) a hopeful vision for the future. Hope

can be communicatively co-created in the context of compassion through a) listening for

cynicism and resignation and following up on more hopeful futures, b) minimizing the

negativity or severity of the situation, c) employing positive intensity in language, and d)

using terms of endearment that frame the sufferer as respectable and lovable.” (pg. 46)

Tuff listened to a conversation Hill had with a family member on the phone. Hill mentioned that

he stopped taking his medication and should have checked into the hospital. Tuff downplayed

the negative aspects of Hill’s lack of self-care and emphasized the fact that he hadn’t hurt anyone

yet. By using calm, positive and optimistic verbal and nonverbal communications, Tuff was able

to get Hill to adopt a problem-solving perspective. Tuff told Hill that he is loved by the family

member on the phone and called him “baby” and “sweetie,” which framed Hill as a sufferer who

deserves love and not as a villain. (pg. 45) By engaging in these compassionate communication

techniques, Tuff was able to establish a hopeful alternative option than the one Hill entered the

school with. In order to “generate trust through vulnerable self-disclosure,” Tracy and Huffman

propose,

“Sufferers are more likely to accept compassionate action and perceive compassion when

the potential compassion provider engages in self-disclosure that creates a mutually

relatable problem or vulnerability. This increases identification and the ability to

compassionately relate, [and] this increases the probability of a mutual emergence of

compassion.” (pg. 47)

Tuff disclosed to Hill that she was recently divorces, had a son with special needs, and

previously considered suicide. (pg. 46) By communicating self-disclosure, Tuff was able to

obtain empathy from Hill, showing him that his struggles can have a better outcome. This

showed Hill that he is not alone, and it allowed him to trust Tuff, allowing Hill to accept Tuff as

a decision-making partner in this ordeal. And finally, to address the “tole of physical presence

for compassion,” Tracy and Huffman propose, “Potential compassion providers to sufferers who

are initially resistant to compassion are more likely to recognize suffering, compassionately

relate, and provide compassionate action when they are physically proximal to the sufferer.” (pg.

48) Tuff had an opportunity to escape the situation, which could have led to deadly results for

others. Staying present with Hill and offering to stay to surrender with him allowed Hill to accept

Tuff’s compassionate actions. Proxemics nonverbal communication is crucial in communicating

compassion. This case study provides the most important aspect of my research project.

Teaching compassionate communication in schools has the most potential in supporting those

suffering mentally and emotionally. By creating a compassionate school environment, troubled

youths are more likely to receive the support they need for their specific issues, that if untreated,

could lead to plans for school shootings. The responsibility of hostage negotiations should not be

placed on the students. When faced with an active shooter, students should be encouraged to

prioritize their own safety. However, this case study shows the power of compassionate

communication. By teaching compassionate communication, we can alleviate bullying and

isolation of troubled youths. If students can effectively communicate compassion, they may be

able to identify potential threats before they happen and together with faculty support, can help

troubled peers get the love and support that is crucial in preventing future school shootings.

Application of Research

I chose these articles because they study the communication of individuals surrounding

issues of gun violence in schools. What I want to do with this research is to create a space for

students to develop communication skills that will help reduce uncertainties with issues of gun

violence, as well as the skills to reduce uncertainties in their interpersonal relationships. I would

like to incorporate communication studies curriculum for high school students that will help

students to develop these communication skills.

Regarding the Western Journal of Communication article that analyses the gun control

debate between Barack Obama and Wayne LaPierre, I propose curriculum that focuses on

understanding opposing views. The curriculum should unbiasedly focus on the opposing views

of the debate. Students will develop their own opinion of gun control though what they’re taught

at home and through their own experiences. Instructors can emphasize the importance of

understanding views that differ from their own. By using gun control as the context for this

discussion, students can reduce uncertainties surrounding the great unresolved debate of gun

control. By engaging in study and discussion of debate, students can learn how to reduce

uncertainty with peers who have opposing views in a healthy and productive way. They will be

more skilled in reducing other peer uncertainties and more prepared to engage in civil discussion,

inspiring them to engage in discussing legislation that concerns them. This will prepare them for

democratic engagement in addition to uncertainty reduction.

Regarding the Kentucky Journal of Communication which analyzes the actions of a

professor’s response to verbal threat of violence in the classroom, I propose curriculum that

addresses threats of violence, the social impact of those threats, and how students and staff can

utilize available resources to address concerns for violence. Students can analyze threatening

messages of violence. They can learn about the available school and community resources that

are most effective in reporting threatening language. By studying the right to free speech and

identifying actual threats of violence, students can better identify actual threats. This will help

students reduce uncertainties with students who use violent language. They will be

knowledgeable about how to and with whom to communicate concerns. By practicing

hypothetical situations, students can feel more secure in their abilities to reduce uncertainties in

the classroom when faced with communicated messages that create uncertainty related stress.

This will help students promote diversity through the responsibilities of free speech and

community engagement.

Regarding the Communication Studies article that studied the effectiveness of message

medium and message framing in persuading students to complete an online active shooter

training video, and how completion of the training video can positively influence students’

knowledge, self-efficacy and salience surrounding campus safety, I propose a solution for both

students and administrators. Administrators can use similar communication research techniques

to determine which communication technology would be most effective in reaching their

students, and which types of message frame will be most persuasive to their students. And, by

engaging in online trainings and incorporating digital communications methods, students can use

technology to reduce uncertainties regarding school safety. This will be a way to incorporate

technology with the in-class curriculum proposals previously mentioned.

And finally, regarding the Communication Monographs article analyzing the 911

recording of a school faculty member who used compassionate communication techniques to

prevent a would-be school shooting, this proposal could be the most impactful in reducing

uncertainties. I propose implementing school curriculum that focuses on techniques for

communicating compassion. I believe this will be the most valuable communication studies

curriculum that will help students reduce uncertainties in their interpersonal peer relationships.

By studying and practicing techniques to communicate passion to peers, students can reduce

uncertainties by incorporating expressions of compassion in their peer relationships. By

communicating compassion, students can become more familiar with students they perceive as

different from themselves. This will help reduce uncertainties for all students, making students

feel familiar and safe with their peers, and potentially prevent at-risk students from utilizing

violence as an unnecessary means of dealing with uncertainty related stress. This will help to

promote both democracy and diversity to student communities, and in effect, influence more

democracy and diversity to their greater communities.

What May Come

By incorporating communication studies in high school curriculum that are geared towards

reducing uncertainties, students will be able to effectively engage in interpersonal

communication with their peers, reduce the stresses related to uncertainties, and promote

democracy, diversity, and utilization of technology. I realize that incorporating these proposals in

all schools across America would be a significantly uphill battle. With budget cuts within public

schools and a lack of funding from the government, it may be reasonably impossible to make this

happen with the current Trump administration. But with the current political climate – the

political and racial division in this country – the need for reducing uncertainties among our

student population is crucial for encouraging a democratic and equitable future. For now, to

incorporate these proposals, we must rely on the innovation and resourcefulness of dedicated

parents and teachers to incorporate these proposals. The best way to promote these proposals, is

to promote this research project to parents and educators. By utilizing digital communications

and promotional efforts to reach these parents and teachers, we would be using technology to

promote a diverse and democratic world.

What’s Next?

I chose to start with gun control as a starting point for my research as gun violence is far too

common in America. In addition to school gun violence, I was also interested in police brutality

hate crime gun violence. Due to the broadness of the gun control issue in this country, I chose to

focus on K-12 students as they are often politically voiceless, and they have the potential to bring

diversity and democracy to the future of our country. By utilizing the Uncertainty Reduction

Theory to my research approach, I discovered that reducing uncertainties in schools will help

prevent school shootings and will produce more effective and compassionate communicators in

this world. Moving forward, I would like to shift my focus away from gun control specifically

and more towards mental health and communication skills of youths. I would like to explore the

effects of bullying and ways to prevent it. Though gun control is an important issue, I believe the

source of them are often a due to untreated mental health issues and their relation to

communication. Next, I would like to explore how communication theories can improve mental

health issues through communication studies.

References

Department of Communication Studies. (n.d.). San Jose State University. Retrieved November

26, 2018, from http://www.sjsu.edu/comm/about/

Eckstein, J., & Partlow Lefevre, S. T. (2017). Since sandy hook: Strategic maneuvering in the

gun control debate. Western Journal of Communication, 81(2), 225-242.

doi:10.1080/10570314.2016.1244703

Fitch, F. E. (2008). Freedom of speech vs. student safety: A case study on teaching

communication in the post-virginia-tech-world. Kentucky Journal of Communication,

27(1), 67-74. Retrieved from

http://libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true

&db=ufh&AN=98060919&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Ford, J. L., & Frei, S. S. (2016). Training for the unthinkable: Examining message characteristics

on motivations to engage in an active-shooter response video. Communication Studies,

67(4), 438-454. doi:10.1080/10510974.2016.1196381

Tracy, S. J., & Huffman, T. P. (2017). Compassion in the face of terror: A case study of

recognizing suffering, co-creating hope, and developing trust in a would-be school

shooting. Communication Monographs, 84(1), 30-53.

doi:10.1080/03637751.2016.1218642

West, R. L., & Turner, L. H. (2018). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and

Application (Sixth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.