Assignment 6

Self-efficacy during COVID-19: The Rise in Use of Media and its Effects on Gen Z

Sherita Washington

Department of Communications, Old Dominion University

Communications 604: Lifespan Research Methods

Dr. Thomas J. Socha

April 30, 2022

I. Introduction

Generation Z, also known as GenZ, refers to the generation of individuals born between

1997-2012. Following millennials, this ethnically diverse generation focuses on prioritizing

media technology. Having grown up on the internet from birth and exposed to the

radical potential of social media, Gen Z are shaped both by their use of media and its effects on

society.

Individuals identifying as Gen Z are living in unprecedented times, exposed to huge

amounts of media associated with adverse physiological and psychological effects of too much

screen time. Understandably, along with those of Gen Z itself, many individuals of older

generations such as Baby Boomer Generation (1946-1964), Generation X (1965-1980, and

Generation Y (1981-1996) is concerned about the overall personal health, including physical,

emotional, social, spiritual, and intellectual health of Gen Z. In addition, prolonged and

inescapable exposure to media can potentially affect the totality of a person's mental, emotional

and physical well-being. This exposure can significantly and adversely affect the societal well-

being of Gen Z; the sustainment and development of meaningful relationships with others.

To navigate a pervasive media world, Gen Z must possess adequate levels of

self-efficacy. Therefore, examining the effects of media on self-efficacy is necessary to assess

the well-being of Gen Z. The following research proposes a study to examine the effects of

media on the self-efficacy of Gen Z during COVID-19. First, an examination of existing

literature will be conducted, followed by laying out a potential method to carry out the the proposed research, and lastly, a discussion of the tenets of this study along with an

examination of implications for further research.

II. Abbreviated Literature Review

The following literature review assesses existing scholarship regarding the topic. It

examines existing research assessing media usage and levels of self-efficacy among Gen Z both

during and apart from the COVID-19 pandemic. It also identifies research gaps to create a

framework from which the proposed research will operate. Suggestions for closing existing

research gaps will also be addressed.

As an important indicator of well-being, self-efficacy contributes to and can predict

well-being. Artino (2012) describes self-efficacy as "a personal belief in one's capability to

organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances (p.

76). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Generation Z faces an uncertain future (Deckman et al,

2020). However, there are gender gaps in specific concerns related to the pandemic (Deckman et

al, 2020). A national survey was conducted among Gen Z amid the COVID-19 pandemic to

assess their feelings about shutdowns, job security, personal health, and society at large

(Deckman et al, 2020). Women were found to have greater concern about emotional health and

economic security. Gen Z women overall had significantly greater concern for their health safety

in regard to COVID-19 (Deckman et al, 2020).

There are positive associations between self-efficacy and media. Research has

demonstrated that problem solving abilities are affected by an individual's level of self-efficacy.

A 2009 study found that self-efficacy was a significant mediator between multimedia and

achievement (Zheng et al). Further illustrating the positive effects of media on student

self-efficacy, Cauble & Thurston (2000) found that technology positively influenced students'

confidence. Specifically, use of technology allowed them to explore their own interests and

develop competence along with a sense of confidence in their own abilities (Cauble & Thurston,

2000).

However, research has demonstrated negative effects of media use on self-efficacy

among Gen Z as a result of the pandemic. Specifically, social media associated information

overload led to a decrease in the psychological well-being of Gen Z individuals. Furthermore,

social media information overload heightened both social media fatigue and fear of the

pandemic. However, this fatigue and fear was buffered by the fear of missing out, or FOMO,

associated with social media Discontinuance. (Liu et al, 2021). Social media fatigue was

mitigated by Gen Z individuals experiencing connectivity through social media (Liu et al, 2021).

This heightened use of digital platforms has also led to a rise in engagement in issues of

social justice. Individuals have been more connected and thus more involved with issues of

social justice (Sun et al, 2021). Evidence of this heightened engagement in social justice issues

can be seen in the BLM related protests that took place throughout 2020 (Sun et al, 2021).

However, this increased media usage must come with adequate self-efficacy training.

Navigating an unprecedented amount of information online requires that Gen Z students

possess the necessary tools to efficiently cipher through vast amounts of information. It is

imperative that Gen Z students are equipped with critical media skills, or digital media

self-efficacy, allowing them to successfully navigate online platforms and conversations (Sun et

al, 2021). It is imperative that the media's effects on self-efficacy are thoroughly examined and

that Gen Z students are given the tools necessary to increase their level of self-efficacy. Overall,

significant research connecting self-efficacy to media usage among Gen Z individuals is not

expansive. The following study proposes research to examine the self-efficacy of Gen Z as

affected by media.

III. Research Questions/Hypotheses/Purposes

Hypothesis: How has media technology impacted the self-efficacy of Gen Z during COVID-19?

An examination of the effects of media on self-efficacy is necessary to assess the

well-being of Gen Z during COVID-19. First, a thorough understanding of the definition and

measures of evaluation of self-efficacy are necessary to examine its impact and appreciate its

importance. Artino (2012) described self-efficacy theory and posited that individuals evaluate

their own efficacy in four categories: "enactive mastery experiences (actual performances)",

verbal and nonverbal forms of persuasion, "vicarious experiences", and "physiological and

affective states from which people partly judge their capableness, strength, and vulnerability to

dysfunction” (p.9). Further research suggests that enactive mastery experiences are the most

influential source from which individuals derive efficacy information. This is because enactive

mastery experiences provide precise evidence for gathering personal resources that are necessary

for achievement and success (Artino, 2012).

In summary, the four sources of self-efficacy beliefs: performance accomplishments,

vicarious learnings and experience, social persuasion based on verbal encouragement and

physiological and emotional stress can be related to Gen Z interactions with social

media. Understanding the rise in widespread increase in media usage among Gen Z due to

COVID-19, the goal of this research is to examine the interactions between self-efficacy and

media use. Specifically, this research will be examining the positive and negative effects of

technological communication on self-efficacy and daily coping during COVID-19.

ResearchGate

Components of Self-Efficacy (Source's: Bandura, 1997)

IV. Method

Sample

The sample for this study will include young people belonging to Generation Z.

Generation Z includes those born from 1997-2012. The proposed study will include 400

participants of equaling varying gender identities. Participants will be sampled across college

campuses, schools, and other academic institutions via email, text message and other social

media platforms.

Protected Rights

In any research, it is imperative that the rights of participants are adequately protected.

The Investigation Review Board (IRB) requires it. The proposed research will adhere to all

guidelines and follow all principles put forth by the IRB. The researchers will make every effort

to follow and will be accountable for the three principles of the IRB, informed consent,

beneficence, and justice. Upon recruitment, each participant will be read their rights as research

participants and receive a thorough explanation of the entire study. They will then sign the

accompanying informed consent form (see Appendix B) to ensure their protection.

Data Collection

Data will be collected using a series of surveys over a period of time. Upon recruitment,

participants will complete questionnaires assessing current levels of self-efficacy and

approximate daily media usage. The study will last two weeks. Over the course of this two

weeks, participants' media usage and levels of self-efficacy will be monitored using shorter

surveys that will be administered at multiple points throughout the day.

Data Analysis

Data will be analyzed using the surveys mentioned above. Composite scores for media

use and self-efficacy will be assessed and compared. Participants will be asked to report their

level of self-efficacy utilizing the General Self Efficacy Scale (GSE) (Schwarzer & Jerusalem,

1995) on a scale of 1 to 4 (1 being not at all true and 4 being exactly true). Higher scores for

media usage surveys will indicate higher media usage and higher scores on self-efficacy scales

will indicate higher levels of self-efficacy. (See Appendix A.)

Proposed Outcome

Given that research is limited regarding self-efficacy of Gen Z and media use during and

because of COVID-19, the outcome of this study is difficult to discern. Scholarship is also

limited concerning media use and self-efficacy. Previously, research addressed self-efficacy as a

mediator (Zheng et al, 2009) or only measured self-efficacy as it related to student performance

in specific areas (Cauble & Thurston, 2000). Regarding the effects of the conditions of

COVID-19, scholarship is still in development. The limited scholarship on this topic makes this

research extremely necessary but difficult to predict the results.

Potentially, this study could illustrate the necessity of ensuring the enhancement of

self-efficacy among Gen Z as they navigate media platforms in a post pandemic world. It could

provide invaluable insight on how technology will affect Gen Z levels of self-efficacy in

COVID-19 affected learning environments. This research can also serve as inspiration for further

investigation of Gen Z media use habits and how to enhance self-efficacy.

V. Conclusion

Adequate levels of self-efficacy are necessary for psychological well-being. "Individuals

who feel efficacious are hypothesized to expend more effort and persist longer in the face of

difficulties than those who are unsure of their capabilities" (Artino, 2012, p. 9) Self efficacy is

also an important indicator of learning and cognitive ability (Zheng et al, 2009). Because of this,

substantial levels of self-efficacy are necessary for problem solving (Cauble & Thurston, 2000)

and sustaining psychological well-being (Artino, 2012). While the importance of self-efficacy

has been demonstrated, the effects of media usage on self-efficacy have not. In depth

examination of the interactions between media and self-efficacy is necessary to assess the

psychological well-being of Gen Z during COVID-19 and beyond.

References

Artino A. R., Jr (2012). Academic self-efficacy: from educational theory to instructional

practice. Perspectives on medical education, 1(2), 76–85.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-012-0012-5

Cauble, A., & Thurston, L. (2000). Effects of interactive multimedia training on knowledge,

attitudes, and self-efficacy of social work students. Research on Social Work Practice,

10(4), 428-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973150001000404

Deckman, M., McDonald, J., Rouse, S., & Kromer, M. (2020). Gen Z, Gender, and

COVID-19. Politics & Gender, 16(4), 1019-1027.: 10.1017/S1743923X200000434

Liu, H., Liu, W., Yoganathan, V., & Osburg, V. (2021). COVID-19 information overload and

generation Z's social media discontinuance intention during the pandemic lockdown.

Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 166, 1-12. DOI:

10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120600

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S.

Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user's portfolio. Causal and

control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON

Sun, W., Powell, A., Jenkins, K., & Gulledge, B. (2021). Teaching Social Justice and

Engaging Gen Z Students in Digital Classrooms During COVID-19. The Journal of

Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 21(4), 56-68. DOI: 10.14434/josotl. v21i4.32708

Zheng, R., McAlack, M., Wilmes, B., Kohler-Evans, P., & Williamson, J. (2009). Effects of

multimedia on cognitive load, self-efficacy, and multiple rule-based problem solving.

British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(5), 790-803.

https://doi-org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00859.x

Appendix A

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) Reference: Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S.

Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user's portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON

About: This scale is a self-report measure of self-efficacy. Items: 10 Reliability: Internal reliability for GSE = Cronbach’s alphas between .76 and .90 Validity: The General Self-Efficacy Scale is correlated to emotion, optimism, work satisfaction. Negative coefficients were found for depression, stress, health complaints, burnout, and anxiety.

Scoring:

Not at all true Hardly true Moderately true Exactly true

Questions 1 2 3 4

The total score is calculated by finding the sum of all items. For the GSE, the total score ranges between 10 and 40, with a higher score indicating more self-efficacy.

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

Not at all true Hardly true Moderately true Exactly true

I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough

If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I want.

It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals

I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.

Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.

I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.

I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.

When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions

If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution

I can usually handle whatever comes my way

Appendix B

Informed Consent Concise Summary

This is a research study to find out the impact of media usage has on the self-efficacy of Gen Z individuals during COVID-19. Participation in this study is completely voluntary.

Participants will complete a series of surveys assessing self-efficacy and measuring media usage (approximately 60 minutes total) for initial assessment. Following these initial surveys, participants will complete self-efficacy questionnaires and report media usage at random intervals throughout their day for 2 weeks. Total study duration is two weeks.

The greatest risks of this study include possible fatigue from completion of these surveys. It is possible that participants will benefit from this study by providing valuable data for research to potentially benefit them and their generational contemporaries.

If you are interested in learning more about this study, please continue to read below.

Study Title: Self-efficacy during COVID-19: The Rise in Use of social media and its Effects on Gen Z

Name of Principal Investigator: Sherita Washington

Department: Communication Studies

Position: Graduate Research Assistant

Contact Name and Phone for Questions/Problems: Sherita Washington, 757-675-8240

This is a communication research study. This research study includes only voluntary participants. Please take your time to make your decision.

Why is this study being done?

I am conducting this research to examine the impact that media use has on self-efficacy. Self - efficacy is often an indicator of ability to cope and adapt to stressful situations. As a communication researcher particularly interested in Gen Z, I am interested in the media habits of Gen Z and the impacts on their self-efficacy during COVID-19.

How many people will take part in the study?

About 150 people will take part in this study.

What is involved in the study?

If you agree to participate, you will complete an initial 1-hour long survey. For the following two weeks you will download an app and complete surveys at random intervals throughout the day.

How long will I be in the study? 2 weeks

This study is 100 percent voluntary, so you can stop participating at any time.