PSY
Maria Castro 
CogNotes1.pptxIntroduction
Langston, PSY 4040
Cognitive Psychology
Notes 1
1
What is Cognitive Psychology?
Section 1
Cognitive Psychology
“Cognition involves how we acquire, store, retrieve, and use knowledge” (Matlin, 1983).
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Cognitive Psychology
Comair 5191, Lexington, KY.
The pilots tried to take off on the wrong runway.
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Cognitive Psychology
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August 27, 2006 1 injured, 49 dead
Cognitive Psychology
“Cognition involves how we acquire, store, retrieve, and use knowledge” (Matlin, 1983).
A bit of history: Model.
The model organizes material into nice sections.
The model helps us with the foundation.
It doesn’t drive the bus in modern cognition.
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Cognitive Psychology
Basic sequence:
Input information from the environment.
Filter and select some of that information for further processing.
Do something with that information.
Possibly store some of it for later use.
Possibly pull some information in from storage.
Make some response.
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Architecture
See the box model.
Sensory
Store
LTM
STM
Filter
Pattern
Recognition
Selection
Input
(Environment)
Response
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Perception—Question
I watched It. Now I see clowns in all of the sewer grates.
Why?
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Perception—Answer
Mitchell, Ropar, Ackroyd, and Rajendran (2005):
Some visual illusions driven by perceptual processes, some driven by knowledge.
Two versions of the Shepard illusion:
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Perception—Answer
Mitchell et al. (2005):
A. Perceptual processes.
B. Since they look like tables, top down knowledge of perspective is also used, the illusion has a larger magnitude.
Mitchell et al. (2005, p. 997)
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Perception—Answer
It's not a stretch to go from that to being pre-loaded by a movie to see things that aren't there:
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Perception—Answer
Ditto:
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Perception—Answer
Perception—Is it cognitive?
Do you see faces in these pictures (Riekki, Lindeman, Aleneff, Halme, & Nuortimo, 2012)?
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Perception—Is it cognitive?
Reikki et al. (2012) asked the question: Does belief matter?
The answer was “yes.”
Believers in the paranormal were more likely to see faces than non-believers.
What is the relationship between belief and perception?
Perception—Is it cognitive?
How do emotions factor into perception? For example, if you’re scared, do you see more things than if you aren’t?
Perception—Is it cognitive?
Becker (2009):
Becker (2009, p. 436)
Perception—Is it cognitive?
Becker (2009, p. 436)
Attention—Question
I was turning right. I looked left, saw nothing, looked right, saw nothing, started to go, and then saw a bicycle coming towards me from the right that was right there.
Why didn't I see it the first time I looked?
How can we avoid these kinds of problems?
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Attention—Answer
There are a lot of parts to the answer to this question, we'll look at just one piece.
Summala, Pasanen, Räsänen, Sievänen (1996): Drivers are less likely to look where they don't anticipate a threat, and are more likely to overlook (look-but-not-see) things in that direction.
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Attention—Answer
Summala et al. (1996):
Summala et al. (1996, p. 148)
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Attention—Answer
Summala et al. (1996):
Summala et al. (1996, p. 150)
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Attention—Is it cognitive?
Does motivation make a difference? For example, if I really don’t want to run over someone with my car, does that help?
(This is going to come up in baggage screening—if I really don’t want to load a bomb on a plane…)
Short Term Memory—Question
I have an iTunes gift card with the following number on it:
XXTG2QYBKF4289QJ
I need to type that number into iTunes to redeem my credit.
How do I do it?
What processes are involved?
Can I make that process more efficient and less error prone?
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Short Term Memory—Answer
Miller (1956): The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
The capacity for hearing/seeing and repeating back accurately most kinds of information is 7 ± 2.
The iTunes code is letters mixed with digits, what do the data say?
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Short Term Memory—Answer
Miller (1956):
Hayes (1952, as cited in Miller 1956, p. 92)
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Short Term Memory—Answer
Miller (1956):
Hayes (1952, as cited in Miller 1956, p. 92)
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Short Term Memory—Answer
Miller (1956):
To improve performance, we could recode it into chunks, but this code doesn't really support that:
XXTG2QYBKF4289QJ
This one might:
ABCD1234EFGH5678
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STM—Is it cognitive?
Meta-knowledge (knowledge about knowledge) may have an effect.
(Class theme connection.)
Working Memory—Question
I want to take these authors…
And turn it into this…
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Working Memory—Question
How do you go through the grocery store thinking about a recipe that you want to make and remembering which items you have and which ones you still need?
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Working Memory—Answer
Morrison & Chein (2011)
These are classic working memory tasks. You have to both maintain information and process that information in a flexible way. Performance on these kinds of tasks is related to a variety of important cognitive things.
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Working Memory—Answer
Morrison & Chein (2011)
Note that the capacity of working memory is much smaller than what was measured by short term memory tasks.
Can you train it? That is a controversial question. Most training is generalizable only to similar situations, it might not be possible to make broad improvements.
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Working Memory—Is it cognitive?
Working memory is related to math performance (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007):
Ashcraft & Krause (2007, p. 246)
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Working Memory—Is it cognitive?
Why does anxiety influence the relationship between working memory and math?
Ashcraft & Krause (2007, p. 245)
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Memory—Question
I go into the kitchen to get something. When I get there, I can't remember why I came to the kitchen. I try to figure it out, do what I think it must have been, then get back to my original location and realize why I went to the kitchen in the first place.
What's happening there?
Can we avoid these kinds of problems?
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Memory—Answer
This is a cue problem. The appropriate recall cue is not in the kitchen, it's in the room I came from. So, what I need to be able to remember is not where I am (the kitchen), it is where I came from, that's why I know it when I go back.
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Memory—Question
Why is study so frequently ineffective, but then some random thing will happen and you remember it forever?
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Memory—Answer
Again, there are a number of parts to this one.
One possibility is processing. What you do with the material when you learn it will have a big impact on how well you can get access to it later (Craik & Tulving, 1975).
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Memory—Answer
Craik & Tulving (1975):
Craik & Tulving (1975, p. 274)
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Memory—Answer
Craik & Tulving (1975):
Things that are important to you are processed differently, more deeply, and could be remembered better because of that.
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Memory—Answer
How does this relate to study skills and performance in classes?
How does this relate to long-term learning?
General Note on Answers
Keep in mind that there is more to the answer for each of these questions. That's why we're here…
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Is this cognitive?
Part of the goal of defining cognitive is to talk about what it is and also what it isn’t.
For example, how other variables relate to cognitive is an open question…
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
Does meaning threat affect cognitive variables (Proulx & Heine, 2009)?
Read The Country Dentist by Kafka. Should create a meaning threat.
A meaning threat should cause you to find patterns (to reassert meaning).
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
But this only for a moment, since, as if the boy’s farmyard had opened out just before my courtyard gate, I was already there, the horses had come quietly to a standstill, the blizzard had stopped, moonlight all around, the boy’s parents hurried out of the house, his sister behind them, I was almost lifted out of the carriage, from their confused speech I gathered not a word, in their house the air was almost unbreathable, a neglected stove was smoking, I wanted to push open a window but first I had to look at the boy.
The youngster heaved himself up from under the feather bedding, threw his arms around my neck, and whispered in my ear, "Pull my tooth." I glanced around the room. No one had heard it. The parents were leaning forward in silence
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
waiting for my verdict. The sister had set a chair for my handbag. I opened the bag and hunted among my instruments. The boy kept clutching at me from his bed to remind me of his entreaty. I picked up a pair of pliers, examined them in the candlelight, and laid them down again.
"Yes," I thought blasphemously, "in cases like this the gods are helpful, send the missing horse, add to it a second because of the urgency, and to crown everything bestow even a groom—" And only now did I remember Rose again; what was I to do, how could I get to her, how could I pull her away from under that groom at ten miles' distance, with a team of horses I couldn't control?
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
These horses, now, they had somehow slipped their reins, pushed the windows open from the outside; I did not know how. Each of them had stuck a head in at a window and, quite unmoved by the startled cries of the family, stood eyeing the boy.
The mother stood by the boy’s bed and cajoled me toward it; I yielded, and, while one of the horses whinnied loudly to the ceiling, leaned my head to the boy's face, which shivered under my wet beard. I confirmed what I already knew; the boy had no teeth.
Well, this should be the end of my visit, I had once more been called out needlessly, I was used to that, the whole district made my life a torment with my night bell, but that I should have to lose Rose this time as well…
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
Copy letter strings produced by an artificial grammar and then try to classify new strings as to whether or not they fit the grammar.
“X M X R T V T M V T T T T V M” (Proulx & Heine, 2009, p. 1128).
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
Proulx & Heine (2009, p. 1128)
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
Proulx & Heine (2009, p. 1128)
Meaning threat—Is this cognitive?
The artificial grammar task is cognitive. But, what is meaning threat?
Intergenerational effects—Is this cognitive?
Can a parent’s math anxiety be transmitted to their child?
Parents’ math anxiety predicts children’s math anxiety and math performance (Maloney, Ramirez, Gunderson, Levine, & Beilock, 2015)
Intergenerational effects—Is this cognitive?
Cognitive explanation? Is the question even allowed by the definition?
Maloney, Ramirez, Gunderson, Levine, & Beilock (2015, p. 1484)
Motivation—Is this cognitive?
Why would someone complete a boring task when they could stop with complete payment?
Persistence motives (Halkjelsvik & Rise, 2015).
Decision making (should I stop?) is cognitive; does motivation fit the definition?
Motivation—Is this cognitive?
Press “v” when asked…
Halkjelsvik & Rise (2015, p. 93)
Motivation—Is this cognitive?
Halkjelsvik & Rise (2015, p. 94)
Halkjelsvik & Rise (2015, p. 94)
Motivation—Is this cognitive?
A cognitive task (making a decision) is affected by a non-cognitive variable. How will we work that in?
What good is cognitive psychology?
Misinformation can be dangerous:
Vaccines cause autism.
Global warming is a hoax.
HIV does not cause AIDS.
Smoking does not cause cancer.
What good is cognitive psychology?
Why is misinformation so “sticky?”
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13, 106-131. http://psi.sagepub.com/content/13/3/106.full.pdf+html?ijkey=FNCpLYuivUOHE&keytype=ref&siteid=sppsi
What good is cognitive psychology?
Why is misinformation so “sticky?”
This is a cognitive problem about memory and learning.
(We’ll see more of this later in the class.)
What good is cognitive psychology?
Literacy can be important:
“Researchers at University of College London asked almost 8,000 adults over 52 to take part in a test of how well they could read and understand a basic medicines label, for a mocked-up aspirin product.”
“It comprised of four simple comprehension-style questions, such as 'What is the maximum number of days you may take this medicine?’”
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9146916/Misreading-medicine-labels-puts-elderly-at-risk-of-dying.html
What good is cognitive psychology?
“The academics then followed the health of the volunteers for five years, all of whom were part of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing project. Over that period 621 died.”
“Specifically, 16 per cent of those who got two or more answers wrong died, nine per cent of those who got one wrong died, while only six per cent of those who answered all questions correctly did so.”
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9146916/Misreading-medicine-labels-puts-elderly-at-risk-of-dying.html
What good is cognitive psychology?
Are there cognitive factors that affect literacy?
(We’ll see more of this later in the class.)
What good is cognitive psychology?
Education matters:
“’In mathematics, 29 nations and other jurisdictions outperformed the United States by a statistically significant margin, up from 23 three years ago,’ reports Education Week. ‘In science, 22 education systems scored above the U.S. average, up from 18 in 2009.’”
“In reading, 19 other locales scored higher than U.S. students — a jump from nine in 2009, when the last assessment was performed.”
http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/12/03/248329823/u-s-high-school-students-slide-in-math-reading-science
What good is cognitive psychology?
http://www.intellectualtakeout.org/sites/www.intellectualtakeout.org/files/PISA%20rankings-HigherQuality_0.png
What good is cognitive psychology?
Can cognitive psychology help us improve educational outcomes?
(We’ll see more of this later in the class.)
What good is cognitive psychology?
Our goal in the class is to lay out the foundational knowledge that might be applied meaningfully to “real-world” problems.
The Information Processing Paradigm
Section 2
Transition to a definition
How can we define cognitive psychology?
We’re going to lay out the cognitive paradigm (Lachman, Lachman, & Butterfield, 1979).
Paradigm
“The central premise of this book is that the character of a science is shaped as much by paradigmatic judgments as by the canons of scientific method. Consequently, understanding the paradigm is as much a part of learning the field as studying the experiments themselves.” (Lachman, Lachman, & Butterfield, 1979, p. 19)
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Paradigm
“The central premise of this book is that the character of a science is shaped as much by paradigmatic judgments as by the canons of scientific method. Consequently, understanding the paradigm is as much a part of learning the field as studying the experiments themselves.” (Lachman, Lachman, & Butterfield, 1979, p. 19)
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Paradigm
Intellectual antecedents:
A lot of what we do now is shaped by what came before.
Pretheoretical ideas:
“…guide research, motivate scientists, and sometimes constrain their efforts.” (L, L, & B, p. 29)
“…conception of the reality underlying his subject matter.” (p. 30)
Suggest what to study, how to study it, what it means, etc. “slant”
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Paradigm
Subject matter:
The paradigm influences what to study. For example (p. 31) personality people might be more interested in individual differences than cognitive people.
Analogies:
Borrow ideas from more well-established areas to make sense of new research (e.g., Freud and hydraulics, p. 32).
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Paradigm
Concepts and language:
“…the terms that scientists use reflect their beliefs about the basic properties of the system they are studying.” (p. 32)
Research methods:
Particular independent and dependent variables, apparatus, methods, etc. go with a paradigm.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Continuity comes from:
Methodological preferences. As new ideas arise, a lot of the same practices are still used.
People: As people shift, their interests stay similar, just new way of thinking about them.
Facts: The data don't change, just the interpretation of the data.
Discontinuity comes from:
“…anomalies, absurdities, omissions, and perceived stagnation…” (p. 38)
Other fields.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Early experimental psychology (e.g., structuralism):
Incorporated through their influence on behaviorism.
Questions about “…the relationship of mind and body…the fundamental nature of sensation and thought processes” (p. 40)
Primary method was introspection (“systematic reporting of internal mental states”, p. 40).
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Intellectual Antecedents
Early experimental psychology (e.g., structuralism):
Introspection was a problem. It wasn't productive and scientific.
Arbitrary.
Introspecting changes what you're introspecting about.
Behaviorists rejected this method, but also rejected as unscientific the questions as well.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01090.x)
Introspection frowned upon because:
Can't be “consensually validated” because we can't see other people's consciousness.
Narrow use to refer to sensory qualities only.
Freud's emphasis on the unconscious and the inability to know your own mind.
Behaviorists' environmental determinism (mind has no role in action).
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009)
Introspection frowned upon because:
Don't have methods or training.
Pretheoretical ideas suggest that it isn't possible.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009)
But: We accept data from self report measures that are basically introspection.
Personality:
1. I'm always trying to figure myself out.
2. I'm concerned about my style of doing things.
3. Generally, I'm not very aware of myself.
4. It takes me time to overcome my shyness in new situations.
Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076760
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009)
But: We accept data from self report measures that are basically introspection.
Behavior:
Please tell us which of the following television programs you have viewed. If you answer "yes" to a program, please enter the number of times that you have viewed that program.
Paranormal Home Inspectors AKA Ghosts in My House (Investigation Discovery)
The Haunting of… (Biography)
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009)
But: We accept data from self report measures that are basically introspection.
Belief:
Rate from 1-5:
The soul continues to exist though the body may die
The abominable snowman of Tibet exists
Dreams can provide information about the future
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on introspection: (Locke, 2009)
Problems from not thinking about introspection:
Don't understand accuracy of introspective reports, how to improve it, or how it affects data.
Limits understanding.
Discourages thinking about psychology and using the products of that thinking.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
Response to the problems of early psychology.
Change to more empirical, lab-based methods.
Focus on observables (behavior).
Reject mentalism (and with it things like thoughts, images, ideas). Note the implication for us.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
The idea can be captured in this example:
You don't drink for a while.
You see water and take a drink. Why?
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
The idea can be captured in this example:
You don't drink for a while.
You see water and take a drink. Why?
“I was thirsty” is not an acceptable answer.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
Why do you need a path through an unobservable concept like thirst?
No water
Thirst
Drink
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
This relationship is more direct and observable.
No water
Thirst
Drink
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
2 methods:
Classical conditioning:
| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) | Unconditioned Response (UCR) | Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | Conditioned Response (CR) | |
| Pre-existing | Food | Salivate | ||
| Training (1-N trials) | Food | Salivate | Bell | |
| Test | Bell | Salivate |
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
2 methods:
Classical conditioning: Psychology example
| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) | Unconditioned Response (UCR) | Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | Conditioned Response (CR) | |
| Pre-existing | Slap hand | Pull hand back | ||
| Training (1-N trials) | Slap hand | Pull hand back | “No!” | |
| Test | “No!” | Pull hand back |
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
2 methods:
Operant conditioning: S-R Psychology
Responses that are reinforced tend to be repeated.
Responses that are not reinforced tend to extinguish.
Stimulus
Response
Outcome
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Intellectual Antecedents
Neobehaviorists:
From them we keep:
Nomothetic explanation: Explain people in general rather than individuals.
Empiricism.
Laboratory research.
We reject:
Animal experimentation.
Learning as the problem.
Environmental determinism.
Anti-mentalism.
Philosophical underpinnings.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on idiographic research (Barlow & Nock, 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01088.x)
Can nomothetic results generalize to individuals?
Ignoring the individual may be a mistake, and it may make the research enterprise take longer.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Desirable outcome
Undesirable outcome
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Intellectual Antecedents
Aside on idiographic research (Barlow & Nock, 2009)
If I average, I get something that reflects a lot of different kinds of performance. We might consider that as we go forward.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Note that individual differences are related to some fundamental cognitive phenomena.
Do people differ in how fast they acquire new information? Does that affect retention? (Zerr, Berg, Nelson, Fishell, Savalia, & McDermott, 2018)
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Intellectual Antecedents
Faster learners also remember more.
There are individual differences, they do matter.
Zerr, Berg, Nelson, Fishell, Savalia, & McDermott (2018, p. 1440)
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Intellectual Antecedents
Verbal learners:
Grew out of neobehaviorists.
Language-like materials.
Less theoretical commitment, many became early cognitive psychologists.
From them we keep:
Memory as a problem.
Laboratory techniques.
Some data.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Human engineering:
World War II highlighted the problem of a psychology devoted to running rats in mazes and teaching people nonsense syllables (p. 56).
Why do people crash planes, shoot at their own forces, make poor decisions, miss important targets on radar screens? How do we help people do these tasks better?
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Intellectual Antecedents
Human engineering:
Classic example: Pilots retract landing gear when landing instead of applying brake.
Behaviorist: Don't reinforce that, reinforce successful performance. But, the pilots are already highly motivated not to kill themselves.
Consider this: You accidentally leave your headlights on.
The real problem: The levers were close together and similar.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Human engineering:
A number of wartime problems, plus working with scientists from other disciplines, changed the ways psychologists were thinking.
From them we keep:
Person as decision maker and information processor.
Information processing limits.
Concepts.
Problems (e.g., attention).
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Intellectual Antecedents
Information processing:
Efforts to quantify information and improve information transmission borrowed by psychologists.
A channel is a conduit for information (e.g., astronomer looking through a telescope, the telescope is the channel).
People can be communication channels: If you're taking notes, you are gathering information from the environment, passing it through you, and outputting it into your notes.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Information processing:
Efforts to quantify information...
Coding is the translation of information from one medium to another.
Channel capacity reflects how much information you can pass through a channel (e.g., read one book at a time).
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Intellectual Antecedents
Information processing:
Efforts to quantify information…
We can measure channel capacities and information thusly:
N messages will require log2N bits of information to encode. So, if I have 16 messages, I need 4 bits to transmit them.
N bits can transmit 2N messages. So, if I have 10 bits I can do 1,024 messages.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Information processing:
From them we keep:
Communication channels.
Limited capacity.
Coding.
Information.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Mental chronometry: How we measure the time it takes to perform cognitive work:
Subtractive logic (Donders):
Identify stages that differ by one process.
Subtract times for various stages to get times for each process.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Mental chronometry:
Simple RT (Type A reaction): See something, respond. (Detect stimulus and execute response.)
Go-no go RT (Type C reaction): Respond to some subset of stimuli, not to other stimuli. (Identify stimulus.)
Choice RT (Type B reaction): Respond one way to some, another way to others. (Select response.)
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Intellectual Antecedents
Mental chronometry:
To compute RT for components:
Identify stimulus = Go-no go RT - simple RT.
Select response = Choice RT - go-no go RT.
Problem: This only works for stages that aren't interactive. Each stage has to include all of the others plus an independent amount more.
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Intellectual Antecedents
Linguistics
The study of language presented problems for behaviorists and helped usher in the notion of representation and the cognitive revolution.
Synthesis
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Pretheoretical Ideas
Symbol manipulation
Representation
Innateness
Processing takes time
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Subject Matter
Table of contents
Perception
Attention
Memory processes
Short term memory
Memory schemas and errors
Imagery
Language
Concepts and knowledge
Problem solving
Reasoning and decision making
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Analogies
Information processing devices.
Computer metaphor.
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Concepts and Language
In a minute…
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Methodology
Convergent techniques.
Computer simulation.
Reaction time.
Stroop.
“John pounded in the nail.”
Naming
Lexical decision
Item recognition
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Methodology Example
Double dissociation:
| Task 1 | Task 2 | |
| Secondary Task 1 | Interference | No interference |
| Secondary Task 2 | No interference | Interference |
Methodology Example
Question: Are mental simulations of language specific to the kinds of perceptual hardware that would be used to perceive those things?
Task 1: Representation of static location (e.g., cowboy-hat).
Task 2: Representation of movement (e.g., The smoke rose).
Methodology Example
Secondary task 1: Letter location (a letter appears top or bottom, you say where).
Secondary task 2: Letter movement (a letter moves up or down you say direction).
Methodology Example
Double dissociation:
| Word (hat) | Sentence (smoke rose) | |
| Letter appears | Interference | No interference |
| Letter moves | No interference | Interference |
Architecture
See the box model.
Sensory
Store
LTM
STM
Filter
Pattern
Recognition
Selection
Input
(Environment)
Response
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Architecture
Three stages:
Input
Processing
Output
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The Middle Part
Representation
Physical symbol system
Storage
Propositions
Images
Processes
Working memory
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The Middle Part
Process
Goal satisfaction
Image manipulation
Automatization
Interpretation
Memory
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End of Introduction Show
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