World Religion Assignment

Christianity

Medieval Christianity and the Protestant Reformation

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Introduction

As the sixth century, the 500s, dawned, the Western Roman Empire was only a memory. It had been replaced by Germanic successor states. Constant fighting and invasions by Vikings and others made it difficult to control large areas. Even the rule of kings would not really stretch much farther than a few dozen miles, no matter what the map said. In this chaotic environment, one of the few institutions that survived and even thrived was the Church. By the early 11th century, the Pope was the acknowledged leader of Christendom. The Church had a court system that rivaled those of the political units, and it handled areas such as inheritance that were vitally important and today are under state control. Power often corrupts, and that occurred as well. Medieval Christianity made many compromises with paganism, and many pagan customs and even gods were redressed in Christian clothes—for example, Christmas trees were a German pagan custom repurposed, and many a Mother Goddess became Mary. By the early 1500s, the Church dominated Europe. In a few short years, the Church became irrevocably split.

To the right: The ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain 2

Europe 500 CE The Western Empire is gone, replaced by

Germanic successor states Clovis—Leader of the Franks. He killed his rivals, but unlike

many Germans, he was Trinitarian, not Arian, so he received church support.

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The Papacy

By the year 600, one bishop, the Bishop of Rome, whose flock often called him il Papa, or in English, the Pope, claimed that as the successor to Saint Peter, the first Bishop of Rome, he held the keys to the Kingdom, and therefore was the leader of the Church. This would eventually lead to the split between Western and Eastern Christianity. In the East, the church was dominated if not controlled by the state—the Byzantine Empire. In the West, the Church was independent. There was separation of church and state. Sometimes the Church worked with the king. Sometimes they were rivals.

To the right, Pope Gregory I, a leading proponent of the Popes' right to rule.

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Eastern Christendom While the Western Empire collapsed, the Eastern Roman Empire—usually called the Byzantine Empire-- remained, with its capital at Constantinople. The Papacy tried to assert its control over all Christendom, but the Eastern Church resisted. The Eastern Church used Greek, not Latin, in its services and writings, and developed a more mystical variety of Christianity, and put great emphasis on religious paintings called icons. The Eastern Church eventually rejected the control of Rome, splitting in the First Great Schism of 1054. Above: The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. After the Muslim conquest in 1453, it became a mosque and the 4 minarets were added. It is now a museum. 5

Pagan customs and Christianity

The Christianity of the time was often mixed with old pagan customs. Christmas trees and Yule logs are repurposed pagan traditions. Many pagan gods were redressed as saints and adored—not worshipped, but it was often hard to tell the difference. Bridget the Irish warrior-goddess became Saint Bridget, and many a Mother- Goddess became Mary. The people would pray to the statues or paintings (mainly in the East) to intercede with God to heal them, give them a child, etc. The statues and icons were merely representations, prayer aids, if you will, but many worried that the ordinary people wouldn’t be able to tell the difference.

To the right—While Brigid has a biography, some believe she is actually a Christianization of the pagan Irish god.

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Monks

Bishops exercised both spiritual and temporal—that is, earthly, power. Many cities, such as Rome, were controlled by their bishops. Towns became important centers of pilgrimage, and people would travel to see the ancient relics of saints, which were reputed to heal illness. Monasteries often had large landed estates attached, and acted as places which preserved and copied the great works of the past. While much ancient writing was lost, much was preserved by these monks. In the third century, many people had become solitary hermits to worship God—some even sat atop pillars. Eventually, more communal monastic life began. St Benedict in the early sixth century set out a “rule” for monasteries. Each day was filled with prayer, devotional reading, and work. Often, work consisted of copying manuscripts. Activities were closely regulated, and vows of poverty and chastity were taken. All this would lead to a closer relationship with God, it was believed.

While the monks had taken vows of poverty, the monasteries were often wealthy and major powers. Later orders would try to keep their orders poor, as well as the individuals. Many orders developed during the Middle Ages—one of the most important was the Franciscans, who led simple lives and vowed poverty. The Middle Ages was an age of Faith. 7

Papal States As the Popes gained respect, they gained greater temporal [earthly] power and claimed to rule over secular rulers. They selected which family would rule France in the 700s, and formed a Holy Roman Empire in what is now Germany. In return for selecting the Carolingians to rule France, they were given much of central Italy as the “Papal States”.

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Eastern and Western Mysticism The East emphasized the absolute otherness of God—but at the

same time, He was near. Eastern monks sought hesychia, an inner quietude that would bring an experience of God as divine light.

Western mystics emphasized the power of divine love. Christ was compared to a bridegroom. Saint Theresa had many visions, including one where an angel

impaled her with an arrow. Joan of Arc had many “auditory visions” as well.

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The Great Schism of 1054 The Western Church used Latin, and the Eastern church used Greek. The Eastern Church Patriarchs governed jointly with the Byzantine emperors. They hoped for harmony, or symphonia, between the two based on their shared vision of a holy empire on earth reflecting the glory of the celestial society of heaven. This usually worked, but there was one major clash, over icons, or religious paintings. The Eastern church converted many Slavs, including the Russians (but not the Poles) to Christianity. But there were many differences between East and West. Baptisms were a little different, and priests were celibate in the West but could marry in the East. And the East rejected Papal control. Finally, the West added “and from the Son” or filioque, to the Nicene Creed (in reference to the Holy Spirit). The East disagreed, and also thought an ecumenical council should have been held over this. In 1054, the Eastern and Western Churches finally separated into the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches.

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The Struggle between the Papacy and the Empire: Henry IV begs forgiveness from the Pope

By the 11th century, the papacy was strong. The Pope insisted on supremacy, and by 1054 the Western and Eastern churches split. The Pope also asserted temporal—earthly--power, and in many countries, many important matters such as inheritance were under the control of church courts. Thus, bishops exercised both great spiritual and temporal power. The Pope and many kings struggled over who could appoint local bishops. Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, asserted his authority to appoint his own bishops. Pope Gregory VII excommunicated him. That meant Henry could not take communion, and be at rights with God—that meant he was going to Hell. Many refused to serve an excommunicated King, and threatened to elect a new Emperor. Henry in 1077 crossed the Alps, and met the Pope barefoot, kneeling in the snow to beg forgiveness. Gregory forgave him and lifted the excommunication. Eventually, the kings and Emperor and Pope reconciled, making the bishops church appointments, but giving the monarch a say in disputes, and the right to bestow symbols of territorial and administrative jurisdiction. This gave monarchs a real say, but the Pope retained his power.

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Henry II and Thomas Becket

In 1162, King Henry II of England tried to bring the church under royal control by making his good friend, Thomas Becket, into Archbishop of Canturbury. Becket then became a fervent defender of the Church and its rule. Henry attempted to prohibit appeals of court cases to Rome without royal permission. He thought priests who committed crimes were let off easy in church courts. The battle between the two ex-friends ended when Henry II mused out loud that things would be ok, if only Becket died. Four barons believed the king was ordering them to kill Becket, and headed to the church where they murdered Becket (it is disputed as to whether the king ordered them or not). Becket became a martyr, entombed in Canturbury where he was killed, and canonized. Henry had to back down from his anti-church rules, but managed to gain much practical control.

“And so from every shire’s ende/ of Engelond, to Canterbury they wende/ the holy blissful martyr for to seeke/ For hem that holpen, whan that they are sicke….” Canterbury Tales  by Chaucer.

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Romanesque An early church style in Western Europe.

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Gothic Common style from about the year 1000.

Flying Buttresses Notre Dame

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Stained glass windows I Very distinctive art form of Middle Ages and beyond. Besides their beauty, they often acted as the equivalent of Power Point slides

to illustrate the Bible stories being referenced by the priests. The congregations were often illiterate, or could not read Latin.

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Stained Glass II

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The Inquisition In the Twelfth Century, the Inquisition began. Its purpose was to eradicate false teachings

they believed would endanger the salvation of those who accepted them. It was also used to target Jews and Muslims. Its final stage was the Spanish Inquisition, launched about 1492

after Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the last remaining Muslim kingdom in Spain. It is rather famous for the torture methods it often employed.

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The Crusades By the late eleventh century, the Papacy was fairly strong, and moral leader of Western Christendom. In Byzantium, Seljuk Turks from the East had conquered Persia, become Muslims, conquered much of the Mideast, and nearly destroyed the Byzantine Empire. They also allegedly attacked Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. The Byzantine Emperor appealed to the West for help. Urban preached a crusade to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land. God wills it—Deus vult. Three things combined in the Crusades—Piety, pugnacity, and Greed. Many Christians sincerely wanted the Holy Land back. Private warfare was exported outward. And many hoped for wealth and new lands to rule. The First Crusade, beginning in 1095, succeeded in taking the Holy Land. Jews in Europe were slaughtered as the Crusaders headed east, and the Muslims of Jerusalem were slaughtered. Crusader Kingdoms were created. Byzantium had just wanted Asia Minor back. To the Crusaders, they were returning the Holy Land to Christian land—the West was finally strong enough after 400 years. It was a counterattack. To Muslims, this was an invasion without any real provocation. In 1099, the Crusaders slaughtered Muslims and Jews in Jerusalem.

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Crusaders The term “crusader” has generally had positive associations in the West. Many teams are called “Crusaders”, people crusade for justice, against drugs or prejudice, Crusader Rabbit was an early television cartoon, and of course, Batman and Robin were the Caped Crusaders.

In the Muslim world, the term is viewed much less positively. 19

End of the Crusades

Unlike Spain, at the edge of Muslim control, the Crusader kingdoms were right near the heart of the Muslim world. The Crusader kingdoms began to fall, and new Crusades were launched to defeat the Muslims. A great Muslim leader named Saladin occupied Jerusalem in 1187. A Fourth Crusade was launched in 1201, but it got misdirected into an attack on Constantinople. Constantinople was sacked and pillaged in 1204. For 60 years, a so- called Latin Empire ruled until Greeks kicked them out. Constantinople would never recover from the sack, falling in 1453 to Ottoman Turks. A more positive result of the sack was the recovery of many Greek works of literature and science for the West. Crusades were also fought in Spain, against pagans in East Europe, and heretics in the South of France.

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St. Thomas Aquinas

Aquinas and others brought Aristotelian logic to many questions. The general consensus on the question of revelation and reason was that they were distinct but did not contradict.

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Transubstantiation Theologians discussed many issues, and began to argue the doctrine of transubstantiation—under which the bread and wine consecrated by a priest actually become the Body and Blood of Jesus, though they still look and taste like bread and wine.

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Babylonian Captivity 1305-1378: the Papacy moved to territory it controlled in southern France.

Avignon—a beautiful but luxurious town Surrounded by France, many believed the Church was controlled by France

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Second Great Schism

In 1305, there was great political unrest in Rome. The Popes moved out of Rome and the Papal states of Italy entirely to a small town in southern France they controlled, called Avignon. Many assumed that they were now under French control, and the Popes were French. This period became known as the Babylonian Captivity, and lasted until 1378. Avignon was a very luxurious town. Having lost control over revenues from Italian lands, some of the popes took kickbacks for appointments to church offices, accepted bribes for judicial decisions, and sold indulgences. In addition to this corruption, its presumed Frenchness destroyed the Papacy’s ability to rise above the petty squabbles of Europe. In 1378, Pope Urban VI decided to return to Rome. A group of French cardinals elected their own Pope. For almost 40 years, the church was split between adherents of the French and Roman popes. Supporters of France in the Hundred Years War, tended to go with the French pope, enemies with the Roman. But if you picked the wrong pope, technically you were an enemy of God. A failed attempt to solve this problem resulted in 3 popes for a while. All of this undermined respect for the Church. Several councils were held, and finally, the Papacy was unified under one Pope in 1417.

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Wycliffe and Hus Wycliffe in the early 1400s rejected the authority of the popes and asserted authority of the Bible, and translated it. His English followers were suppressed and called Lollards.

Jan Hus preached the ideas of Wycliffe in Bohemia, and also attacked the practice of indulgences. He was burned at the stake. This early attempt to reform the Church failed.

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THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

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Causes of the Reformation

• 1. Search for Spiritual freedom and meaning

• 2. Resentment against fiscal and political domination of Church

• 3. The influence of print

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Search for Spiritual Freedom and

Meaning

The church lost much of its spiritual force and reputation through the Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism in the fourteenth and 15th centuries. People turned to new forms of worship. For example, a popular book was the Imitation of Christ, which showed a path to spiritual renewal, a closeness to God, for laymen, similar to that used by monks and nuns. Many people yearned for a closeness to God, a more direct relationship— one without interceders like priests or saints. Many worried about their souls—with the moral authority of the Pope and church in question because of their corruption and concern with temporal matters, how could an individual be assured of salvation?

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Church Corruption Some bishops and priests had several dioceses, and neglected at least one of them.

Some priests sold sacraments and violated their vows of chastity—only a few, but the stories were multiplied. The Church controlled many areas the kings coveted, such as inheritance law. They had their own court system, and priests could appeal to the Pope judgments against them.

The Pope began to be seen— particularly in Germany—as just another Italian prince, a thieving foreigner who extorted money from their communities, often spending it on nice buildings and art in Rome, rather than in the communities.

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Printing About 1450, printing was invented, creating an explosion in knowledge and a rapid way of spreading ideas and information. Many credit the relative success of the Protestant Reformation compared to Wycliffe and Hus’ s to the existence of printing. Gutenberg Bible—the first printed book.

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Martin Luther The son of a German miner, he became a monk after a near death experience. He

believed the Wrath of God was against him. He engaged in charity, prayer, and other good works to “justify” himself with God, but he believed none of these were enough to

justify himself.

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Grace

“The just shall live by faith”- Rom. 1:17

Luther came to the conclusion this line meant that salvation was a gift of God, not from performing good works. This gift was God’s grace— It is completely unmerited. It is granted to one and received by faith alone—indeed, the ability to have faith in Christ was a sign one had received grace. People could not achieve salvation thru their own free will or actions, people needed God’s help— those granted with God’s grace would naturally do good work. Church sacraments such as penance would only work if the person had received God’s grace.

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Indulgences

In addition to his difference on good works, Luther also disagreed with the Church on the question of indulgences. An indulgence was basically a “Get out of Purgatory” card. Catholics believed in not only Heaven and Hell, but Purgatory. Here, those who had sinned and not been able to fully atone would suffer years of punishment. Most people were not wicked enough to go to Hell, or good enough to go straight to Heaven, so most people would spend many years in Purgatory before being allowed to go to Heaven. An indulgence could shorten the time one spent in Purgatory. An indulgence was a good work performed on Earth, such as charity or a pilgrimage or the merit of a saint in his sacred relics. The Church could grant an indulgence, and truly believed that it would affect what happened after you died—they were the intercessor, the conduit between humans and God. Priests were believed to have the power to forgive sins. Since the fourteenth century, the Church had sold indulgences to help finance itself. In the 1500s, the Church decided to build a new St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome—the most important Church in Christendom, where the Pope often presided. They sold an indulgence—some call it a super- indulgence-- that forgave all sins, and shortened time for those already dead. They sold these like a carnival barker, and one German “indulgence hawker”, John Tetzel, allegedly ended his sales pitch—I mean sermons—with :

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Tetzel’s Promise

“As soon as gold in the basin rings Right then the soul to heaven springs.”

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95 Theses When Luther was asked about this, he prepared “95 Theses”, which he sent to the Archbishop of Mainz on All Hallows Eve, Oct 31, 1517— Reformationtag. He also apparently nailed them to the door of the church in Wittenberg, traditionally on that same day, though possibly a few weeks later. He proposed a disputation or debate be held on the theses. This was a common academic practice. His basic argument was that salvation could not be bought and sold. The theses were printed and distributed widely. Suddenly everyone in Germany was talking about Luther and his theses. He was attacked for his criticism of indulgences and the implicit criticism of the Pope. John Tetzel argued he should be burned at the stake. A large following of “evangelicals” gathered around him in Wittenberg, and in 1519 he finally debated the theses with another university professor, Johann Eck.

Luther claimed at this debate that the Bible was the sole guide to human conscience, thus questioning the authority of the Pope and Church —people had been burned to death for this.

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The Diet of Worms Having argued that the Bible, not the Pope, was the sole guide to human conscience, Luther realized that he had broken with the Church. Luther then wrote several inflammatory pamphlets. In 1520, he proclaimed the priesthood of all believers. He urged German princes to reform the Church and defend Germany from exploitation by the Italians who ran Rome. He burned a papal decree demanding a retraction. He refused to recant at the Diet of Worms— the parliament of the Holy Roman Empire. He was placed into protective custody by the Elector of Saxony to prevent his arrest or killing. He spent much of the next few years translating the Bible into German. The Reformation spread rapidly, as many German and Scandinavian princes broke with Rome.

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Spread of the Reformation

The Reformation spread rapidly among the educated urban classes, and many cities and princes became Protestant—a major reason for this was dislike of losing revenue to the church. Many peasants liked it because it gave them local control of the church and of its teachers and minister. Ministers were not priests, but merely more well- read, more learned, in the Bible than most people.

Some peasants interpreted freedom in social terms, and began to attack the princes and seize land—Luther took the side of established order.

Throughout Germany and soon Scandinavia, cities, principalities, and kingdoms rejected the rule of Rome and became Protestant—this usually meant the Churches were under control of the rulers, who would pay salaries for the ministers.

To the right: Wartburg Castle, where Luther translated the New Testament into German.

Picture courtesy of: CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2158182 37

16th century Protestantism and Catholicism Compared

• Protestants Catholics • • Justification (salvation) through faith Good works mainly • Reading, interpreting the Bible yourself Interpretation through priests • Translation of Bible to make it easier to read Bible in Latin • Everyone should learn to read to read Bible Leave Bible reading to the priests • Bible the source of authority Pope (Vicar of Christ) the source of authority • Local controlControl centralized in Rome • Priesthood of all believers Priesthood with certain powers like penance •Ministers Priests •Married ministers Celibate priests • Direct relation with GodIntercession through priests, saints, angels • No cults of saints Cults of saints • Services heavy on scripture reading and sermons Services heavy on ritual • Less elaborate minister’s clothes, art and architecture Elaborate priests clothes, art, architecture • Art a distraction to worship of God Art an aid to worship—glorifies God • CrossCrucifix • Heaven and Hell only Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory

• Communion:Communion:

• Jesus is spiritually or substantially present in Bread and wine are the body and blood of Christ. • the bread and wine of the Lord’s supper, or the • ceremony is symbolic • Everyone receives both bread and wine. Wine reserved to priests only (later changed)

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The Importance of the Bible • The Bible was the main source of authority, not the Pope. • As such, all Protestants should be able to read it. • Therefore, it should be translated into the vernacular, the languages

of the countries, not remain in Latin. • Since all Protestants should read the Bible, they should therefore be

taught to read. • Therefore, schools should be built. • Since mothers were important in teaching children, women should

learn to read. • It was believed that all Protestants would read the Bible and come

to basically the same conclusions. • This belief was wrong.

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Differing Views on Art Protestant Church

Protestants tended to believe art was a distraction to the worship of God, and from the minister’s sermon. Their churches tended to be plain, with minimum decoration,

though some groups over the centuries have permitted more decoration.

Catholic Church Catholics tend to believe art could glorify God, and their churches had much more art, decoration, and often music than Protestant churches.

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The Eucharist— Communion or the Lord’s

Supper Catholics—The bread and wine is the body and blood of Christ

Luther—A spiritual presence – “You will receive as much as you believe you perceive.”

Similar to heating a bar of metal—its still a bar of metal, but now its different- it is full of heat. The Bread has a spiritual presence in the Eucharist.

Zwingli and others—Symbolic

Symbol of Christ’s sacrifice, or Last Supper.

1529 Conference tried to hammer out a consistent Protestant position, but could not.

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Protestant Divisions

1. Southern Baptist Convention: 16.2 million members 2. The United Methodist Church: 7.8 million members 3. The Church of God in Christ: 5.5 million members 4. National Baptist Convention: 5.0 million members 5. Evangelical Lutheran Church, U.S.A.: 4.5 million members 6. National Baptist Convention of America: 3.5 million members 7. Assemblies of God: 2.9 million members 8. Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.): 2.8 million members 9. African Methodist Episcopal Church: 2.5 million members 10. National Missionary Baptist Convention of America: 2.5 million members 11. The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (LCMS): 2.3 million members 12. The Episcopal Church: 2.0 million members 13. Churches of Christ: 1.6 million members 14. Pentecostal Assemblies of the World: 1.5 million members 15. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church: 1.4 million members

Despite the expectations of Luther, many interpreted Bible passages differently.

Those who differed on an interpretation tended to form new denominations.

Unlike the unity of Catholicism, Protestantism had a tendency to split –this is either a good or bad thing, depending on your point of view.

The fact is, by a quarter century after the nailing of the theses, Protestantism would split into several branches as people read their Bibles, newly translated into their tongues, and interpreted them differently. Some of the new Churches were governmentally sanctioned, while some were radical and even persecuted. In Switzerland, Ulrich Zwingli led a reform movement. Paintings and statues were removed from churches to prevent them being a distraction. Zwingli started his reforms in 1520 but was independent of Luther’s Reformation. To the right: A list of the 15 largest Protestant denominations in the United States. There are over 40000 denominations—not individual churches, but denominations—in the world today.

Sources, Christian Post, churchrelevance.com

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CALVINISM

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Calvin Calvin was a French Protestant who became the leader of the then-independent city of Geneva. He developed the Reformed theology to such an extent that Lutherans began to call it Calvinism. Calvinism would be greatly influential in the history of several countries, including Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Its most distinctive feature is the doctrine of predestination.

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Predestina tion Calvin took Luther one step further, and emphasized the Kingship, or sovereignty of God, the Majesty of God. All else followed from this principle. Luther argued that salvation could not be earned through good works and that faith came only from God’s grace. Calvin believed that God was all-knowing, all-powerful, and knew everything in advance and caused all to happen. Thus, one’s salvation was predestined. Nothing you could do could affect it— whether you went to Heaven or Hell was predetermined, predestined, before you were even born in some Calvinist interpretations. God was above any influence of humanity. You could not bribe Him with good works to let you into Heaven

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The Elect • Calvin saw that in a service, only a few really paid attention, others

could not understand or were unwilling. • Only the Elect could truly follow God’s word. • The Elect had been given God’s grace and were saved. • However, one should feel an assurance of salvation—especially if one

had a conversion experience. • Everyone had a “calling” from God to perform His will on earth, and act

morally. • Many believed God wanted us to work hard on Earth, and earthly wealth

was seen as a sign one was of the Elect. (The sociologist Max Weber would call this, centuries later, the Protestant work ethic.)

• Calvinists performed good works on earth—that was a sign they were of the elect.

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Good Works Good works did not get you into Heaven, but doing good

works was a sign that you were in the Elect.

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ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM

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Henry the VIII Henry’s desire for a male heir, and the refusal of the Pope to annul his marriage, led to his separating the Church of England from the Catholic Church. This was basically a localized schism; the Anglican Church at first was basically Catholicism without the Pope.

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The Six Wives of Henry VIII

Henry’s new wife, Anne Boleyn, produced only a daughter, Elizabeth, and was soon executed on trumped up charges of adultery. Jane Seymour produced a male heir and died after an excruciatingly long birth. Anne of Cleves was a political marriage – but Henry was not attracted to her and divorced her. Katherine Howard did commit adultery and was executed. Katherine Parr survived him.

CAJAKK Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Ann of Cleves, Katherine Howard, Katherine Parr

Their fates: Divorced, executed, died, divorced, executed, survived.

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Edward VI and Jane Grey Edward VI, son of Henry and Jane Seymour, became king at the age of 5 and died when he was 15. His guardians were Protestants and began to move the Anglican Church in a more Protestant direction.

On his death, he tried to pass the throne to his Protestant cousin Jane Grey. She ruled for nine days, and was

overthrown by Edward’s older sister Mary—a Catholic.

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Bloody Mary Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, tried to swing

the church back toward Catholicism. She died after a five year reign.

Mary executed about 300 Protestants, and many more fled England. In John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, she is called

“Bloody Mary”.

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Elizabeth I Daughter of Anne Boleyn, she is the true founder of the Anglican Church. The church she created had a Calvinist creed, but many Catholic trappings, such as

its organization, elaborate ceremonies and churches and vestments.

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Puritans

Many of the Marian refugees fled to Holland, where they became Calvinists. When they returned to England, they were pleased that the Church was Protestant, but felt that there were too many Catholic remnants. They wanted the Church purified of these Catholic elements, and hence became known as Puritans. About 10000 left England between 1630 and 1640 to settle in New England, and much of American culture is based on Puritanism. During the English Civil War, Puritans succeeded in ruling England for a few years. After the King was restored, they became known as Dissenters and were prohibited from office until the 1820s.

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Separatists Separatists were Calvinists who thought the Church of England was so corrupt that they

needed to separate themselves from it entirely. The Pilgrims were Separatists.

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Presbyterian vs Catholic organization

Presbyterian: Bottom up

N a ti o

na l

sy n o ds

Regional synods

Local congregations

Catholic: Top down

Po pe

Archbishops and bishops

Parish Priests

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RADICAL BRANCHES

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Anabaptists and Baptists Anabaptists (Amish)

Anabaptists arose in the 1530s, and believed in adult baptism, separation of Church and State, and minimal obedience to government.

Baptists Baptists arose about 1600. Also believing in baptism as a sign of

faith, they arose mainly out of Calvinism

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Quakers

The Society of Friends arose in the 1650s. Because their leader George Fox told them to “tremble” before the Lord, they became known as Quakers. The Quakers were Spiritualists, and believed that the Holy Spirit—who they called “the Inner Fire”—could descend upon anyone and write on their soul. What it wrote could even supersede the Bible.

By anyone, they meant anyone—black or white, male or female.

They became involved in later centuries in abolitionism and the Women’s Rights movement. Lucretia Mott, an early Women’s Rights pioneer, was a Quaker.

Many Quakers lived in Pennsylvania, founded by a Quaker. New Jersey, Long Island, and Rhode Island also had large Quaker populations.

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Antitrinitarians Antitrinitarians believed in a rational, ethical, and tolerant religion. Many of them

questioned or rejected the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. They became the spiritual ancestors of Unitarianism, an 18th century phenomenon, and opposed Calvinism.

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Main Branches of Protestantism

• Lutheran • Calvinist • Anglican • • Radical branches: Anabaptists , also Spiritualists and

later Unitarians • Puritanism and Separatism are varieties of Calvinism.

Congregationalism and Presbyterianism are varieties of Puritanism, differing mainly in how they organize their churches

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Main Divisions of Christianity

• Catholicism • Eastern Orthodox • Protestant • • Some would add Mormonism as a fourth

branch. •

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COUNTER-REFORMATION

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Counter-Reformation

Catholics finally reacted to Protestantism in what is known as the Catholic or Counter-Reformation (some historians distinguish them, but others give them the same name).

New orders were created, and while indulgences were deemphasized, they were not rejected.

In fact, virtually everything Luther had complained of remained, and there was a renewal of religious enthusiasm as they fought the Protestants. The most famous of the new orders were the Jesuits, who were intensely loyal to the Pope and established colleges and travelled overseas to convert people. In 1545, at Trent on the border of Italy and Germany, the Council of Trent defined Catholicism for the next 400 years. New rules for marriage were promulgated, bishops were required to live in their regions, and every diocese should have a seminary. Communion in both kinds was ordered. Great works of art expressing Catholic doctrine were created. The reading of many books was forbidden (the Index), and a Roman Inquisition searched out heresy, as had the earlier Spanish Inquisition, which mainly sought hidden Muslims and Jews out.

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Jesuits

Many new orders were created, as the Church tried to revitalize itself against the Protestant “threat.” The most famous new order was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Here, the Jesuit St. Francis Xavier is shown preaching to non-Europeans from around the world.

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Counter/Catholic Reformation Art Many great works of art illustrating Catholic doctrine were created, including The Last Judgment, by Michelangelo, shown above

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The Peace of Augsburg 1555

The term “Protestant” was first used to refer to a group of princes who protested against an anti-reformer papal edict. Fighting occurred between Catholics and Protestants. Peace was achieved between Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League, a group of Protestant princes, in 1555. They agreed to the principle of

“Cuius regio, eius religio”

—The religion of the ruler is the religion of those he ruled.

This principle would later be extended to include Calvinists.

The peace would not last.

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RELIGIOUS WARS

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Michael Servetus When the Antitrinitarian Michael Servetus was killed on Calvin’s orders, the Protestant theologian Sebastian Castellio observed: “To kill a man is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a man.” 1562

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Huguenots

The French Protestants were called Huguenots, perhaps after Besançon Hugues, who had led the revolt of Geneva against the House of Savoy in the 1520s. The name was originally derisive, but adopted by the French Protestants. The first crackdown on French Protestants came early , in 1525.

A decade later, the plastering of anti-Catholic posters in Paris resulted in the arrest of suspected Protestants. This drove Calvin into exile in Geneva. By 1540, Protestants were subject to the Inquisition.

The Huguenots were concentrated in Southern France. While only about 1/15 of the population, many of them were powerful aristocrats. They sought to have a similar system to the Peace of Augsburg in France. For some, political decentralized power may have been as important as religious belief. To the right: Huguenot Cross

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St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

The Catholics and Protestants hated each other. The Protestants believed the Pope was the anti-Christ, and the Catholics thought the Protestants were heretics. Not surprisingly, war between the groups broke out in several places. In France, Catherine de Medici was the de facto ruler during the Wars of Religion. In order to keep a balance of power, she sometimes supported the Protestants, sometimes the Catholics. In 1572, she agreed to the massacre of many Huguenot leaders, which greatly crippled the movement. On hearing of this massacre, the Pope struck a medal, had frescoes painted, and celebrated a mass—to celebrate their deaths.

The two sides hated each other.

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Henry of Navarre

“Paris is worth a Mass.”

Henry of Navarre, the French Protestant leader, became the king. The prevailing opinion was that a Protestant could not rule an overwhelmingly Catholic land, or vice versa. In 1593, he is said to have said : “Paris is worth a Mass” and converted to Catholicism. He issued the Edict of Nantes giving Huguenots many freedoms in 1598.

Many ask the question: Wise politique statesman—or cynical opportunist?

(Politiques were those in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else, including religion.)

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The Netherlands

As part of a reorganization of Hapsburg lands, the Netherlands became part of Spain. These areas were the richest area in Europe, with merchants and trade and much manufacturing (mainly of cloth). The area had a tradition of self-rule, and Calvinism. Spain tried to destroy this self-rule—and reimpose Catholicism.

Two “Dutch” princes , the Count of Egmont and William the Silent, revolted. William the Silent (or William of Orange) was a politique. He wanted autonomy for the Netherlands, not caring that much what religion ruled. The aristocrats who began to oppose Spanish rule were aided by Calvinists, who rioted against Spain and signed solemn Covenants to resist the Council of Trent and the Inquisition. Frankly the aristocrats found them too extreme. We have here a mainly political revolt—a dispute over how much (if any) power the Spanish should have in the Netherlands—mixing with a religious dispute. This was a feature of the Wars of Religion—political questions and religion combined in the disputes. But the religious beliefs were sincerely, if not fanatically, held, and this often contributed to making the wars much nastier than they might have been otherwise.

To the right: William of Orange

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Thirty Years War 1618-1648

• Bohemian Phase 1618-25 • Danish Phase 1625-9 • Swedish Phase 1630-35 • Swedish-French 1635-48

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Thirty Years War

An attempt by the Holy Roman Emperor to impose Catholicism in the Empire provoked a Protestant revolt. Catholic envoys to Protestant Prague were thrown out a window—they survived. This became known as the Defenestration of Prague.

Despite this victory, the Protestants soon began to lose the war. Protestant Denmark entered to save the Protestants—and was defeated. Protestant Sweden soon joined, and eventually France joined on Sweden’s side.

By its end, the war was more over territory than religion, as Catholic and Protestant states allied to seize territory.

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The Devastation of Germany The war devastated Germany. Starting as a religious war, it became political. At the end, the principle of cuius regio, euius religio

was adopted and the Calvinists were included.

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Religious Divisions of Europe @ 1648 While there were large Protestant minorities in France and Poland, the

countries were mainly Catholic. England, while mainly Anglican, also had a substantial Calvinist minority.

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